title: Compressive strength

text: If the ratio of the length to the effective radius of the material loaded in compression (Slenderness ratio) is too high, it is likely that the material will fail under buckling. Otherwise, if the material is ductile yielding usually occurs which displaying the barreling effect discussed above. A brittle material in compression typically will fail by axial splitting, shear fracture, or ductile failure depending on the level of constraint in the direction perpendicular to the direction of loading. If there is no constraint (also called confining pressure), the brittle material is likely to fail by axial spitting. Moderate confining pressure often results in shear fracture, while high confining pressure often leads to ductile failure, even in brittle materials.


title: Compressive strength

text: Axial Splitting relieves elastic energy in brittle material by releasing strain energy in the directions perpendicular to the applied compressive stress. As defined by a materials Poisson ratio a material compressed elastically in one direction will strain in the other two directions. During axial splitting a crack may release that tensile strain by forming a new surface parallel to the applied load. The material then proceeds to separate in two or more pieces. Hence the axial splitting occurs most often when there is no confining pressure, i.e. a lesser compressive load on axis perpendicular to the main applied load. The material now split into micro columns will feel different frictional forces either due to inhomogeneity of interfaces on the free end or stress shielding. In the case of stress shielding, inhomogeneity in the materials can lead to different Young's modulus. This will in turn cause the stress to be disproportionately distributed, leading to a difference in frictional forces. In either case this will cause the material sections to begin bending and lead to ultimate failure.


title: Compressive strength

text: Microcracks are a leading cause of failure under compression for brittle and quasi-brittle materials. Sliding along crack tips leads to tensile forces along the tip of the crack. Microcracks tend to form around any pre-existing crack tips. In all cases it is the overall global compressive stress interacting with local microstructural anomalies to create local areas of tension.  Microcracks can stem from a few factors.


title: Compressive strength

text: It is important to emphasize that the growth of microcracks is not the growth of the original crack/imperfection. The cracks that nucleate do so perpendicular to the original crack and are known as secondary cracks. The figure below emphasizes this point for wingtip cracks.


title: Compressive strength

text: These secondary cracks can grow to as long as 10-15 times the length of the original cracks in simple (uniaxial) compression. However, if a transverse compressive load is applied. The growth is limited to a few integer multiples of the original crack's length.


title: Compressive strength

text: If the sample size is large enough such that the worse defect's secondary cracks cannot grow large enough to break the sample, other defects within the sample will begin to grow secondary cracks as well. This will occur homogeneously over the entire sample. These micro-cracks form an echelon that can form an “intrinsic” fracture behavior, the nucleus of a shear fault instability. Shown right:


title: Compressive strength

text: Eventually this leads the material deforming non-homogeneously. That is the strain caused by the material will no longer vary linearly with the load. Creating localized shear bands on which the material will fail according to deformation theory. “The onset of localized banding does not necessarily constitute final failure of a material element, but it presumably is at least the beginning of the primary failure process under compressive loading.”


title: Compressive strength

text: For designers, compressive strength is one of the most important engineering properties of concrete. It is standard industrial practice that the compressive strength of a given concrete mix is classified by grade. Cubic or cylindrical samples of concrete are tested under a compression testing machine to measure this value. Test requirements vary by country based on their differing design codes. Use of a Compressometer is common. As per Indian codes, compressive strength of concrete is defined as:


title: Compressive strength

text: "The "compressive strength of concrete" is given in terms of the "characteristic compressive strength" of 150 mm size cubes tested after 28 days (fck). In field, compressive strength tests are also conducted at interim duration i.e. after 7 days to verify the anticipated compressive strength expected after 28 days. The same is done to be forewarned of an event of failure and take necessary precautions. The characteristic strength is defined as the strength of the concrete below which not more than 5% of the test results are expected to fall."


title: Compressive strength

text: For design purposes, this compressive strength value is restricted by dividing with a factor of safety, whose value depends on the design philosophy used.


title: Compressive strength

text: The construction industry is often involved in a wide array of testing. In addition to simple compression testing, testing standards such as ASTM C39, ASTM C109, ASTM C469, ASTM C1609 are among the test methods that can be followed to measure the mechanical properties of concrete. When measuring the compressive strength and other material properties of concrete, testing equipment that can be manually controlled or servo-controlled may be selected depending on the procedure followed. Certain test methods specify or limit the loading rate to a certain value or a range, whereas other methods request data based on test procedures run at very low rates.


title: Delta-sigma modulation

text: Delta-sigma (ΔΣ; or sigma-delta, ΣΔ) modulation is a method for encoding analog signals into digital signals as found in an analog-to-digital converter (ADC). It is also used to convert high bit-count, low-frequency digital signals into lower bit-count, higher-frequency digital signals as part of the process to convert digital signals into analog as part of a digital-to-analog converter (DAC).


title: Delta-sigma modulation

text: In a conventional ADC, an analog signal is sampled with a sampling frequency and subsequently quantized in a multi-level quantizer into a digital signal. This process introduces quantization error noise. The first step in a delta-sigma modulation is delta modulation. In delta modulation the change in the signal (its delta) is encoded, rather than the absolute value. The result is a stream of pulses, as opposed to a stream of numbers as is the case with pulse-code modulation (PCM). In delta-sigma modulation, accuracy of the modulation is improved by passing the digital output through a 1-bit DAC and adding (sigma) the resulting analog signal to the input signal (the signal before delta modulation), thereby reducing the error introduced by the delta modulation.


title: Delta-sigma modulation

text: Both ADCs and DACs can employ delta-sigma modulation. A delta-sigma ADC first encodes an analog signal using high-frequency delta-sigma modulation, and then applies a digital filter to form a higher-resolution but lower sample-frequency digital output. A delta-sigma DAC encodes a high-resolution digital input signal into a lower-resolution but higher sample-frequency signal that is mapped to voltages, and then smoothed with an analog filter. In both cases, the temporary use of a lower-resolution signal simplifies circuit design and improves efficiency.


title: Delta-sigma modulation

text: Primarily because of its cost efficiency and reduced circuit complexity, this technique has found increasing use in modern electronic components such as DACs, ADCs, frequency synthesizers, switched-mode power supplies and motor controllers. The coarsely-quantized output of a delta-sigma modulator is occasionally used directly in signal processing or as a representation for signal storage. For example, the Super Audio CD (SACD) stores the output of a delta-sigma modulator directly on a disk.


title: Delta-sigma modulation

text: Delta-sigma modulation converts an analog voltage signal into a pulse frequency, or pulse density, which can be understood as pulse-density modulation (PDM). A sequence of positive and negative pulses, representing bits at a known fixed rate, is very easy to generate, transmit, and accurately regenerate at the receiver, given only that the timing and sign of the pulses can be recovered. Given such a sequence of pulses from a delta-sigma modulator, the original waveform can be reconstructed with adequate precision. In contrast, without conversion to a pulse stream but simply transmitting the analog signal directly, all noise in the system would be added to the analog signal, reducing its quality. The use of PDM as a signal representation is an alternative to pulse-code modulation (PCM), sampling and quantizing to a multi-bit code at the Nyquist rate.


title: Delta-sigma modulation

text: A delta-sigma or other pulse-density or pulse-frequency modulator generates a pulse stream in which the frequency, , of pulses in the stream is proportional to the analog voltage input, , so that , where is a constant for the particular implementation. A feedback loop monitors the integral of and when that integral has incremented by , which is indicated by the integral waveform crossing a threshold, , it subtracts from the integral of so that the combined waveform sawtooths between and . At each step a pulse is added to the pulse stream.


title: Delta-sigma modulation

text: A counter sums the number of pulses that occur in a predetermined period, formula_1, so that the sum, formula_2, is formula_3. In a given implementation, formula_4 is chosen so that a digital display of the count, formula_2, is a display of formula_6 with a predetermined scaling factor. Because formula_1 may take any designed value, it may be made large enough to give any desired resolution or accuracy.


title: Delta-sigma modulation

text: For the purpose of introduction, Figure 1 illustrates the concept of voltage-to-frequency conversion, in an unclocked form that resembles delta-sigma modulation, and is called "asynchronous modulation", "asynchronous delta-sigma modulation", or "free-running modulators".


title: Delta-sigma modulation

text: Shown below that are waveforms at points designated by numbers 1 to 5 for an input of 0.2 volts in the left column and 0.4 volts in the right column. The stream of delta impulses generated at each threshold crossing is shown at (2) and the difference between (1) and (2) is shown at (3). This difference is integrated to produce the waveform (4). The threshold detector generates a pulse (5) which starts as the waveform (4) crosses the threshold and is sustained until the waveform (4) falls below the threshold. The threshold (5) triggers the impulse generator to produce a fixed-strength impulse.


title: Delta-sigma modulation

text: The integral (4) crosses the threshold in half the time in the right column than in the left column. Thus the frequency of impulses is doubled. Hence the count increments at twice the speed on the right to that on the left; this pulse rate doubling is consistent with the input voltage being doubled.


title: Delta-sigma modulation

text: Construction of the waveforms illustrated at (4) is aided by concepts associated with the Dirac delta function in that, by definition, all impulses of the same strength produce the same step when integrated. Then (4) is constructed using an intermediate step (6), a hypothetical waveform not in the circuit but in which each integrated ideal delta function impulse is integrated to a step. The effect of the finite duration of the actual pulse is constructed in (4) by drawing a line from the base of the impulse step at zero volts to intersect the decay line from (6) at the full duration of the pulse.


title: Delta-sigma modulation

text: In the circuit outside the loop, the summing interval is a predetermined fixed time, and at its expiry the count is stored, and the buffer and the counter are reset. The buffer then presents a sequence of digital values corresponding to quantizations of the analog signal levels during the summing intervals. Using a summing interval is a way (not necessarily the ideal way) to quantize the asynchronous pulse stream to a code; it will have less quantization error if the interval start is synchronized to a pulse.


title: Delta-sigma modulation

text: Delta-sigma converters further constrain operation of the impulse generator such that the start of the impulse is delayed until the next occurrence of the appropriate clock-pulse boundary. The effect of this delay is illustrated in Figure 1a for a sequence of impulses which occur at a nominal 2.5 clock intervals.


title: Delta-sigma modulation

text: A circuit diagram for a delta-sigma modulator implementation is shown in Figure 1b, with the associated waveforms in Figure 1c. The waveforms shown in Figure 1c are unusually complicated because they are intended to illustrate the loop behaviour under extreme conditions, saturated at full scale of 1.0 V, and saturated at zero. An intermediate state is also indicated, at 0.4V, where it is very similar to the operation of the illustration of Figure 1.


title: Delta-sigma modulation

text: Examination of Figure 1c(g) shows that there are zero pulses in the countstream when the input voltage is zero. This condition can have the effect that high-frequency components of a complex signal are not resolved. This effect is known as intermodulation distortion (IMD). One of the pitfalls of applying linear analysis to a nonlinear system is that IMD, because it can be a consequence of nonlinearity, is not present in the analysis. Purely for illustrative purposes, a method to mitigate this would be to add an 0.5 volt constant bias to the input voltage so the it now can swing +/− 0.5 V about the bias. This now has zero pulses in the countstream when the input is −0.5 V. Then we must limit the input swing to +/− 0.4 V, say, so that the minimum countstream frequency is greater than zero. We can choose the clock frequency so that the minimum countstream frequency at −0.4 V is much greater than the Nyquist rate, so that even the highest input frequency component is resolved. We can increase the clock frequency still higher until a lowpass filter sufficiently removes the pulsations while fully recovering the input signal. In this illustrative discussion the filtered signal will also recover the bias which can be removed by an analog adder, while still retaining the DC component of the input signal.


title: Delta-sigma modulation

text: According to Wooley, the seminal paper combining feedback with oversampling to achieve delta modulation was by F. de Jager in 1952.


title: Delta-sigma modulation

text: The delta-sigma configuration was devised by Inose et al. in 1962 to solve problems in the accurate transmission of analog signals. In that application it was the pulse stream that was transmitted and the original analog signal recovered with a lowpass filter after the received pulses had been reformed. This low pass filter performed the summation function associated with Σ. The highly mathematical treatment of transmission errors was introduced by them and is appropriate when applied to the pulse stream but these errors are lost in the accumulation process associated with Σ.


title: Delta-sigma modulation

text: For the analog to digital conversion application each pulse in the count stream is a sample of the mean of the input voltage equal to the reference voltage divided the interval between pulses, ts. This because it is an integration of the input waveform over interval ts. Frequency domain analysis of the complex waveform in this interval, ts, will represent it by the sum of a constant plus a fundamental and harmonics each of which has an exact integer number of cycles over ts. The integral of a sine wave over one or more full cycles is zero. Therefore, the integral of the incoming waveform over the interval ts reduces to the mean over the interval. The count, N, accumulated during the summing interval represents N samples of the mean and N divided by the count defining the summing interval is thus the mean of means and so subject to little variance.


title: Delta-sigma modulation

text: In general, a DAC converts a digital number, N, representing some analog value into that analog voltage value. To make the conversion the digital number is first loaded into a counter. Then the counter is counted down to zero with a string of pulses equal in number to N. Each pulse of the string is given a known integral, δ. Then the string is integrated to produce N.δ, the sum of the pulses. This is the required analog voltage.


title: Delta-sigma modulation

text: In some applications where an analog signal is represented by a series of digital numbers that require conversion to a frequency modulated stream it may be sufficient to take the stream of pulses (two or three level) resulting from the DAC conversion of each number N in turn and apply that stream through a low pass filter directly to the output. The output before filtering will be a crudely frequency modulated stream with bursts of pulses proportional in length and number to the analog of N separated by blank intervals between bursts.


title: Delta-sigma modulation

text: In order to remove the blank intervals and improve the noise performance the full conversion to analog voltage of each successive N by the DAC described above may be held in a sample and hold circuit then passed to a delta sigma converter to produce a stream of contiguous bursts each of which has its frequency proportional to its generating N.


title: Delta-sigma modulation

text: The conceptually simplest decimation structure is a counter that is reset to zero at the beginning of each integration period, then read out at the end of the integration period.


title: Delta-sigma modulation

text: The multi-stage noise shaping (MASH) structure has a noise shaping property, and is commonly used in digital audio and fractional-N frequency synthesizers. It comprises two or more cascaded overflowing accumulators, each of which is equivalent to a first-order sigma-delta modulator. The carry outputs are combined through summations and delays to produce a binary output, the width of which depends on the number of stages (order) of the MASH. Besides its noise shaping function, it has two more attractive properties:


title: Delta-sigma modulation

text: A very popular decimation structure is the "sinc" filter. For second-order modulators, the "sinc3" filter is close to optimum.


title: Delta-sigma modulation

text: For example, the input stream 10010110 contains 4 1s. The decimation result is 4/8 = 0.5. This result can be represented by the 3-bit binary number 100, which corresponds to half of the largest possible number.


title: Delta-sigma modulation

text: Once decimation is applied, if the n bit codes are transmitted, the signal becomes pulse-code modulation. Decimation is strongly associated with delta sigma modulation but is distinct.


title: Delta-sigma modulation

text: Many ADCs use a second-order 5-level sinc3 sigma-delta structure. Much of what follows uses an arcane shorthand using symbols representing operational functions with analysis given in terms of Laplace transforms, etc. This is the lingua franca of the data transmission industry and it does not communicate to the general public. If a fuller documentation of a particular method is needed look no further than the patents. (Patent examiners generally require full disclosure.) An excellent history is "The Evolution of Oversampling Analog-to-Digital Converters" by Bruce A. Wooley which gives many references to the relevant patents.


title: Delta-sigma modulation

text: The number of integrators, and consequently, the numbers of feedback loops, indicates the "order" of a ΔΣ modulator; a second-order ΔΣ modulator is shown in Figure 4. First-order modulators are unconditionally stable, but stability analysis must be performed for higher-order modulators.


title: Delta-sigma modulation

text: The modulator can also be classified by the number of bits it has in its output, which strictly depends on the output of the quantizer. The quantizer can be realized with a "N-level" comparator, thus the modulator has "logN"-bit output.


title: Delta-sigma modulation

text: A simple comparator has 2 levels and so is 1 bit quantizer; a 3-level quantizer is called a "1.5" bit quantizer; a 4-level quantizer is a 2 bit quantizer; a 5-level quantizer is called a "2.5 bit" quantizer.


title: Delta-sigma modulation

text: Delta-sigma modulation is inspired by delta modulation, as shown in Figure 2. If quantization were homogeneous (e.g., if it were linear), the following would be a sufficient derivation of the equivalence:


title: Delta-sigma modulation

text: Because the quantizer is "not" homogeneous, delta-sigma is "inspired" by delta modulation, but the two are distinct in operation.


title: Delta-sigma modulation

text: From the first block diagram in Figure 2, the integrator in the feedback path can be removed if the feedback is taken directly from the input of the low-pass filter. Hence, for delta modulation of input signal , the low-pass filter sees the signal


title: Delta-sigma modulation

text: In other words, delta-sigma and delta modulation swap the position of the integrator and quantizer. The net effect is a simpler implementation that has the added benefit of shaping the quantization noise away from signals of interest (i.e., signals of interest are low-pass filtered while quantization noise is high-pass filtered). This effect becomes more dramatic with increased oversampling, which allows for quantization noise to be somewhat programmable. On the other hand, delta modulation shapes both noise and signal equally.


title: Delta-sigma modulation

text: Additionally, the quantizer (e.g., comparator) used in delta modulation has a small output representing a small step up and down the quantized approximation of the input while the quantizer used in delta-sigma must take values "outside" of the range of the input signal, as shown in Figure 3.


title: Delta-sigma modulation

text: When a signal is quantized, the resulting signal has approximately the second-order statistics of a signal with independent white noise added. Assuming that the signal value is in the range of one step of the quantized value with an equal distribution, the root mean square value of this quantization noise is


title: Delta-sigma modulation

text: In reality, the quantization noise is, of course, not independent of the signal and this dependence results in limit cycles and is the source of idle tones and pattern noise in sigma-delta converters.


title: Delta-sigma modulation

text: ΔΣ modulation is a technique of oversampling to reduce the noise in the band of interest (green in Figure 5), which avoids the use of high-precision analog circuits for the anti-aliasing filter. The total quantization noise is the same both in a Nyquist converter (in yellow) and in an oversampling converter (in blue), but it is distributed over a different spectrum. In ΔΣ converters, noise is further reduced at low frequencies, which is the band where the signal of interest is, and it is increased at the higher frequencies, where it can be filtered out. This technique is known as noise shaping.


title: Delta-sigma modulation

text: For a first-order delta-sigma modulator, the noise is shaped by a filter with transfer function . Assuming that the sampling frequency is large compared to a signal frequency of interest, , the quantization noise in the desired signal bandwidth can be approximated as:


title: Delta-sigma modulation

text: Similarly for a second-order delta-sigma modulator, the noise is shaped by a filter with transfer function . The in-band quantization noise can be approximated as:


title: Delta-sigma modulation

text: When the sampling frequency is doubled, the signal-to-quantization-noise ratio is improved by  dB for a -order ΔΣ modulator. The higher the oversampling ratio, the higher the signal-to-noise ratio and the higher the resolution in bits.


title: Delta-sigma modulation

text: Another key aspect given by oversampling is the speed/resolution tradeoff. The decimation filter put after the modulator not only filters the whole sampled signal in the band of interest (cutting the noise at higher frequencies), but also reduces the frequency of the signal, increasing its resolution. This is obtained by a sort of "averaging" of the higher-data-rate bitstream.


title: Delta-sigma modulation

text: The technique was first presented in the early 1960s by professor Yasuhiko Yasuda while he was a student at the University of Tokyo. The name "delta-sigma" comes directly from the presence of a delta modulator and an integrator, as firstly introduced by Inose et al. in their patent application. That is, the name comes from integrating or "summing" differences, which, in mathematics, are operations usually associated with Greek letters sigma and delta respectively. Both names "sigma-delta" and "delta-sigma" are frequently used.


title: Night soil

text: Night soil is a historically used euphemism for human excreta collected from cesspools, privies, pail closets, pit latrines, privy middens, septic tanks, etc. This material was removed from the immediate area, usually at night, by workers employed in this trade. Sometimes it could be transported out of towns and sold on as a fertilizer.


title: Night soil

text: Another definition is "untreated excreta transported without water (e.g. via containers or buckets)". The term "night soil" is largely an outdated term, used in historical contexts. The modern term is "fecal sludge"; fecal sludge management is an ongoing challenge, particularly in developing countries.


title: Night soil

text: Night soil was produced as a result of a sanitation system in areas without sewer systems or septic tanks. In this system of waste management, the human feces are collected without dilution with water.


title: Night soil

text: Feces were excreted into a container such as a chamber pot, and sometimes collected in the container with urine and other waste ("slops", hence slopping out). The excrement in the pail was often covered with earth (soil), which may have contributed to the term "night soil". Often the deposition or excretion occurred within the residence, such as in a shophouse. This system may still be used in isolated rural areas or in urban slums in developing countries. The material was collected for temporary storage and disposed of depending on local custom.


title: Night soil

text: Disposal has varied through time. In urban areas, a night soil collector arrived regularly, at varying time periods depending on the supply and demand for night soil collection. Usually this occurred during the night, giving the night soil its name.


title: Night soil

text: In isolated rural areas such as in farms, the household usually disposed of the night soil themselves.


title: Night soil

text: Human excreta may be attractive as fertilizer because of the high demand for fertilizer and the relative availability of the material to create night soil. In areas where native soil is of poor quality, the local population may weigh the risk of using night soil.


title: Night soil

text: The use of unprocessed human feces as fertilizer is a risky practice as it may contain disease-causing pathogens. Nevertheless, in some developing nations it is still widespread. Common parasitic worm infections, such as ascariasis, in these countries are linked to night soil use in agriculture, because the helminth eggs are in feces and can thus be transmitted from one infected person to another person (fecal-oral transmission of disease).


title: Night soil

text: These risks are reduced by proper fecal sludge management, e.g. via composting. The safe reduction of human excreta into compost is possible. Some municipalities create compost from the sewage sludge, but then recommend that it only be used on flower beds, not vegetable gardens. Some claim that this is dangerous or inappropriate without the expensive removal of heavy metals.


title: Night soil

text: The use of sewage as fertilizer was common in ancient Attica. The sewage system of ancient Athens collected the sewage of the city in a large reservoir and then channelled it to the Cephissus river valley for use as fertilizer.


title: Night soil

text: The term is known, or even infamous, among the generations that were born in parts of China or Chinatowns (depending on the development of the infrastructure) before 1960. Post-World War II Chinatown, Singapore, before the independence of Singapore, utilized night-soil collection as a primary means of waste disposal, especially as much of the infrastructure was damaged and took a long time to rebuild following the Battle of Singapore and subsequent Japanese Occupation of Singapore. Following the development of the economy and the standard of living after independence, the night soil system in Singapore is now merely a curious anecdote from the time of colonial rule when new systems developed.


title: Night soil

text: The collection method is generally very manual and heavily relies on close human contact with the waste. During the Nationalist era when the Kuomintang ruled mainland China, as well as Chinatown in Singapore, the night soil collector usually arrived with spare and relatively empty honey buckets to exchange for the full honey buckets. The method of transporting the honey buckets from individual households to collection centers was very similar to delivering water supplies by an unskilled laborer, with the exception that the item being transported was not at all potable and it was being delivered "from" the household, rather than "to" the household. The collector would hang full honey buckets onto each end of a pole he carried on his shoulder and then proceeded to carry it through the streets until he reached the collection point.


title: Night soil

text: Chinese has a similar euphemism for night soil collection, "dàoyèxiāng", which literally means "emptying nocturnal fragrance".


title: Night soil

text: The reuse of feces as fertilizer was common in Japan. In the city of Edo, compost merchants gathered feces to sell to farmers. That was good additional income for apartment owners. Human excreta of rich people were sold at higher prices because their diet was better; presumably, more nutrients remained in their excreta. Various historic documents dating from the 9th century detail the disposal procedures for toilet waste.


title: Night soil

text: Selling human waste products as fertilizers became much less common after World War II, both for sanitary reasons and because of the proliferation of chemical fertilizers, and less than 1% is used for night soil fertilization. The presence of the United States occupying force, by whom the use of human waste as fertilizer was seen as unhygienic and suspect, was also a contributing factor: "the Occupationaires condemned the practice, and tried to prevent their compatriots from eating vegetables and fruit from the local markets".


title: Night soil

text: Various Mesoamerican civilizations used human feces to fertilize their crops. The Aztecs, in particular, are well known for their famous chinampas, artificial islands made of mud and human waste used to grow crops that could be harvested up to seven times a year. Current research has placed the origins of chinampas in an Aztec town of Culhuacan in the year 1100 C.E. They were constructed by first fencing an area between 30 m x 2.5 m and 91 m x 9 m, using wattle. Then filled in with mud, sediment, feces and decaying vegetation. To stabilize the chinampas, trees were often planted on the corners, primarily "āhuexōtl" ("Salix bonplandiana") or "āhuēhuētl" ("Taxodium mucronatum"). Chinampas were very common before Spanish conquest and are still found in Mexico today.


title: Night soil

text: A gong farmer was the term used in Tudor England for a person employed to remove human excrement from privies and cesspits. Gong farmers were only allowed to work at night and the waste they collected had to be taken outside the city or town boundaries.


title: Night soil

text: The rapid industrialisation of England during the 19th century led to mass urbanisation, over-crowding, and epidemics. One response was the development of the "Rochdale system", in which the town council arranged for the collection of night soil from outhouses attached to each dwelling or group of dwellings (see pail closet). A later response was the passage of the Public Health Act 1875, which led to the creation of byelaws regarding housing, mandating one outhouse per house. These were "earth closets" (not water closets i.e. WCs) and depended on "night soil men" or "nightmen".


title: Night soil

text: Before reticulated sewerage systems replaced them, major cities in Australia had a nightsoil collection system, with its own special terms. "Nightsoil" was collected from "dunnys" (outhouses/water closets) at the rear of dwellings, often accessed by "dunny lanes" (narrow laneways) by a "dunny man" (a nightsoil collector). Most inner-city areas were connected to the sewer in the early 1900s, but it was not until the 1970s that all suburban areas were sewered. [see Sheppard v Smith [2021] NSWSC 1207 at paragraphs 22 and 29]


title: Night soil

text: People responsible for the disposal of night soil were considered untouchables in India. The practice of untouchability has been banned by law since India gained independence, but the tradition widely persists as the law is difficult to enforce. This "manual scavenging" is now illegal in all Indian states.


title: Night soil

text: The Indian government's Union Ministry for Social Justice and Empowerment stated in 2003 that 676,000 people were employed in the manual collection of human waste in India. Social organizations have estimated that up to 1.3 million Indians collect such waste. Further, workers in the collection of human waste were confined to marriage amongst themselves, thereby leading to a waste-collecting caste, which passes its profession on from generation to generation.


title: Night soil

text: Employment of Manual Scavengers and Creation of Dry Latrines (Prohibition) Act 1993 has made manual scavenging illegal.


title: Night soil

text: Modern Japan still has areas with ongoing night soil collection and disposal. The Japanese name for the "outhouse within the house" style toilet, where night soil is collected for disposal, is "kumitori benjo" (汲み取り便所). The proper disposal or recycling of sewage remains an important research area that is highly political.


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: The Black Legend () or the Spanish Black Legend () is a theorised historiographical tendency which consists of anti-Spanish and anti-Catholic propaganda. Its proponents argue that its roots date back to the 16th century, when it originally was a political and psychological weapon that was used by Spain's European rivals in order to demonize the Spanish Empire, its people, and its culture, minimize Spanish discoveries and achievements, and counter its influence and power in world affairs.


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: The Protestant Revolutionary propaganda which was published during the Hispano-Dutch War and the Anglo-Spanish War against the Catholic monarchs of the 16th century, is said to have fostered an anti-Hispanic bias among subsequent historians. Along with a distorted view of the history of Spain and the history of Latin America, other parts of the world in the Portuguese Empire were also affected as a result of the Iberian Union and the Luso-Dutch Wars. This 17th-century propaganda found its basis in real events which occurred during the Spanish colonization of the Americas, which involved atrocities, but it often employed lurid and exaggerated depictions of violence, and it ignored similar behavior by other powers.


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: Although the existence of a 16th- and 17th-century Spanish black legend is agreed upon by the majority of scholars, aspects of the legend are still debated. Like other black legends, the Spanish black legend combined fabrications, de-contextualization, exaggeration, cherry picking, and double standards with facts. There is disagreement among scholars over whether a biased portrayal of Spanish history continues into the present day.


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: The term "black legend" was first used by Arthur Lévy in reference to biographies of Napoleon, and he primarily used it in the context of two opposing legends, a "golden legend" and a "black legend": two extreme, simplistic, one-dimensional approaches to a character which portrayed him as a god or a demon. "Golden" and "black legends" had been used by Spanish historians and intellectuals with the same meaning in reference to aspects of Spanish history; Antonio Soler used both terms about the portrayal of Castilian and Aragonese monarchs. The use of the term leyenda negra to refer specifically to a biased, anti-Spanish depiction of history gained currency in the first two decades of the 20th century, and is most associated with Julián Juderías. Throughout the 20th and into the 21st century, scholars have offered divergent interpretations of the Black Legend and debated its usefulness as a historical concept.


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: At an 18 April 1899 Paris conference, Emilia Pardo Bazán used the term "Black Legend" for the first time to refer to a general view of modern Spanish history:


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: The conference had a great impact in Spain, particularly on Julián Juderías. Juderías, who worked at the Spanish Embassy in Russia, had noticed (and denounced) the spread of anti-Russian propaganda in Germany, France, and the United Kingdom and was interested in its possible long-term consequences. Juderías was the first historian to describe the "black legend" phenomenon, although he did not yet name it as such, in a book regarding the construction of an anti-Russian black legend. His work, initially concerned with the intentional deformation of Russia's image in Europe, led him to identify the same patterns of narration he detected in the construction of anti-Russian discourse in the dominant historical narrative regarding Spain. Juderías investigated the original sources supporting centuries old claims of Spanish atrocities and other misdeeds, tracing the origin or propagation of the majority to rival emerging powers. In is 1914 book, "La leyenda negra y la verdad histórica" ("The Black Legend and Historical Truth"), deconstructs aspects of Spain's image (including those in "Foxe's Book of Martyrs"). According to Juderías, this biased historiography was marked by acceptance of propagandistic and politically motivated historical sources and has consistently presented Spanish history in a negative light, purposefully ignoring Spanish achievements and advances. In "La leyenda Negra", he defines the Spanish black legend as:


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: Later writers supported and developed Juderías's critique. In "Tree of Hate" (1971), historian Philip Wayne Powell argued that the Black Legend was still active in modern history, and plays an active role in shaping USA's relationships and attitudes towards her Latin American neighbors. His book provides examples of what he viewed as divergent treatment of Spain and other powers, and illustrates how this allows for a double narrative that taints Americans' view of Hispanic America as a whole:


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: In his 2002 book "Spain in America: The Origins of Hispanism in the United States", American historian Richard Kagan defined the Spanish black legend:


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: According to Julián Marías, the creation of the Spanish black legend was not an exceptional phenomenon -similar disinformation and fabrication campaigns have affected most global powers of the past, such as Ottoman Turkey or Russia- but its persistence and integration into mainstream historiography is. For Marías the causes of its durability are:


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: Walter Mignolo and Margaret Greer view the Black Legend as a development of Spain's racialisation of Jewishness in the 15th century. The accusations of mixed blood and loose religiosity of the 15th century, first levelled at Jewish and Moorish conversos both inside Spain and abroad, developed into 16th century hispanophobic views of Spaniards as religious fanatics tainted by association with Judaism. The only stable element they see in this hispanophobia is an element of "otherness" marked by interaction with the Eastern and African worlds, of "complete others", cruelty and lack of moral character, in which the same narratives are re-imagined and reshaped.


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: Antonio Espino López suggests that the prominence of the Black Legend in Spanish historiography has meant that the real atrocities and brutal violence of the Spanish conquest of the Americas have not received the attention they deserve within Spain. He believes that some Hispanicists:


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: According to historian Elvira Roca Barea, the formation of a black legend and its assimilation by a nation is a phenomenon observed in all multicultural empires (not just the Spanish Empire). For Roca Barea, a black legend about an empire is the cumulative result of the propaganda attacks launched by different groups: smaller rivals, allies within its political sphere and defeated rivals, and propaganda created by rival factions inside the imperial system; alongside self-criticism by the intellectual elite, and the needs of new powers consolidated during (or after) the empire's existence.


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: In response to Roca Barea, José Luis Villacañas states that the "black legend" was primarily a factor related to the geopolitical situation of the 16th and 17th centuries. He argues that:


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: The conceptual validity of a Spanish black legend is widely but not universally accepted by academics. Benjamin Keen expressed doubt about its usefulness as a historical concept, while Ricardo García Cárcel and Lourdes Mateo Bretos denied its existence in their 1991 book, "The Black Legend":


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: Eighteenth-century philosopher Immanuel Kant wrote, "The Spaniard's bad side is that he does not learn from foreigners; that he does not travel in order to get acquainted with other nations; that he is centuries behind in the sciences. He resists any reform; he is proud of not having to work; he is of a romantic quality of spirit, as the bullfight shows; he is cruel, as the former auto-da-fé shows; and he displays in his taste an origin that is partly non-European." Thus, semiotician Walter Mignolo argues that the Spanish black legend was closely tied to race in using Spain's Moorish history to portray Spaniards as racially tainted and its treatment of Africans and Native Americans during Spanish colonization to symbolize the country's moral character. That notwithstanding, there is general agreement that the wave of anti-Spanish propaganda of the 16th and 17th centuries was linked to undisputed events and phenomena which occurred at the apogee of Spanish power between 1492 and 1648.


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: During the three-century European colonization of the Americas, atrocities and crimes were committed by all European nations according to both contemporary opinion and modern moral standards. Spain's colonization involved massacres, murders, slavery, sexual slavery, torture, rape and other atrocities, especially in the early years, following the arrival of Christopher Columbus in the Caribbean. However, Spain was the first in recorded history to pass laws for the protection of indigenous peoples. As early as 1512, the Laws of Burgos attempted to regulate the behavior of Europeans in the New World forbidding the ill-treatment of indigenous people and limiting the power of "encomenderos"—landowners who received royal grants to indigenous communities and their labor. In return, the laws established a regulated regime of work, provisioning, living quarters, hygiene, and care for the natives. The regulation prohibited the use of any form of punishment by the landowners and required that the huts and cabins of the Indians be built together with those of the Spanish. The laws also ordered that the natives be taught the Christian religion and outlawed bigamy.


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: In July 1513, four more laws were added in what is known as Leyes Complementarias de Valladolid 1513, three related to Indian women and Indian children and another more related to Indian males. In 1542 the New Laws expanded, amended and corrected the previous body of laws in order to ensure their application. These New Laws represented an effort to prevent abuse and de facto enslavement of natives that was not enough to dissuade rebellions, like that of Gonzalo Pizarro in Perú. However, this body of legislation represents one of the earliest examples of humanitarian laws of modern history.


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: Although these laws were not always followed, they reflect the conscience of the 16th century Spanish monarchy about native rights and well-being, and its will to protect the inhabitants of Spain's territories. These laws came about in the early period of colonization, following abuses reported by Spaniards themselves traveling with Columbus. Spanish colonization methods included the forceful conversion of indigenous populations to Christianity. The "Orders to the Twelve" Franciscan friars in 1523, urged that the natives be converted using military force if necessary. On par with this sentiment, Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda argued that the Indian's inferiority justified using war to civilize and Christianize them. He encouraged enslavement and violence in order to end the barbarism of the natives. Bartolomé de las Casas, on the other hand was strictly opposed to this viewpoint—claiming that the natives could be peacefully converted.


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: Such reports of Spanish abuses led to an institutional debate in Spain about the colonization process and the rights and protection of indigenous peoples of the Americas. Dominican friar Bartolomé de las Casas published "Brevísima relación de la destrucción de las Indias" ("A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies"), a 1552 account of the alleged atrocities committed by landowners and officials during the early period of colonization of New Spain (particularly on Hispaniola). De las Casas, son of the merchant Pedro de las Casas (who accompanied Columbus on his second voyage), described Columbus's treatment of the natives in his "History of the Indies". His description of Spanish actions was used as a basis for attacks on Spain, including in Flanders during the Eighty Years' War. The accuracy of de las Casas's descriptions of Spanish colonization is still debated by some scholars due to supposed exaggerations. Although historian Lewis Hanke thought that de las Casas exaggerated atrocities in his accounts, Benjamin Keen found them more or less accurate. Charles Gibson's 1964 monograph "The Aztecs under Spanish Rule" (the first comprehensive study of sources about relations between Indians and Spaniards in New Spain), concludes that the demonization of Spain "builds upon the record of deliberate sadism. It flourishes in an atmosphere of indignation which removes the issue from the category of objective understanding. It is insufficient in its understanding of institutions of colonial history." However this view has been broadly criticised by other scholars such as Keen, who view Gibson's focus on legal codes rather than the copious documentary evidence of Spanish atrocities and abuses as problematic.


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: In 1550, Charles I tried to end this debate by halting forceful conquest. Philip II tried to follow in his footsteps with the Philippine Islands, but previous violent conquest had shaped colonial relations irreversibly. This was one of the lasting consequences that led to the dissemination of the Black legend by Spain's enemies.


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: The treatment of indigenous peoples during Spanish colonization was used in propaganda works of rival European powers in order to foster animosity towards the Spanish Empire. De las Casas' work was first cited in English in the 1583 work "The Spanish Colonie, or Brief Chronicle of the Actes and Gestes of the Spaniards in the West Indies", at a time when England was preparing to join the Dutch Revolt on the side of the anti-Spanish rebels.


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: Historians have noted that the mistreatment and exploitation of indigenous peoples was committed by all European powers which colonized the Americas, and such acts were never exclusive to the Spanish Empire. The revaluation of the Black Legend on contemporary historiography has led to a reassessment of non-Spanish European colonial records in recent years as the historiographical evaluation of the Impact of Western European colonialism and colonisation continues to evolve. According to scholar William B. Maltby, "At least three generations of scholarship have produced a more balanced appreciation of Spanish conduct in both the Old World and the New, while the dismal records of other imperial powers have received a more objective appraisal."


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: Spain's war with the United Provinces and, in particular, the victories and atrocities of the Castilian nobleman Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba, contributed to anti-Spanish sentiment. Sent in August 1567 to counter political unrest in a part of Europe where printing presses encouraged a variety of opinions (especially against the Catholic Church), Alba seized control of the publishing industry; several printers were banished, and at least one was executed. Booksellers and printers were prosecuted and arrested for publishing banned books, many of which were part of the "Index Librorum Prohibitorum".


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: After years of unrest in the Low Countries, the summer of 1567 saw renewed violence in which Dutch Calvinists defaced statues and decorations in Catholic monasteries and churches. The March 1567 Battle of Oosterweel was the first Spanish military response to the unrest, and the beginning of the Eighty Years' War. In 1568 Alba had prominent Dutch nobles executed in Brussels' central square, sparking anti-Spanish sentiment. In October 1572, after Orange forces captured the city of Mechelen, its lieutenant attempted to surrender when he heard that a larger Spanish army was approaching. Despite efforts to placate the troops, Fadrique Álvarez de Toledo (son of the governor of the Netherlands and commander of the duke's troops) allowed his men three days to pillage the city; Alba reported to King Philip II that "not a nail was left in the wall". A year later, magistrates were still attempting to retrieve church artifacts which Spanish soldiers had sold elsewhere.


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: This sack of Mechelen was the first of a series of events known as the Spanish Fury; several others occurred over the next several years. In November and December 1572, with the duke's permission, Fadrique had residents of Zutphen and Naarden locked in churches and burnt to death. In July 1573, after a six-month siege, the city of Haarlem surrendered. The garrison's men (except for the German soldiers) were drowned or had their throats cut by the duke's troops, and eminent citizens were executed. More than 10,000 Haarlemers were killed on the ramparts, nearly 2,000 burned or tortured, and double that number drowned in the river. After numerous complaints to the Spanish court, Philip II decided to change policy and relieve the Duke of Alba. Alba boasted that he had burned or executed 18,600 persons in the Netherlands, in addition to the far greater number he massacred during the war, many of them women and children; 8,000 persons were burned or hanged in one year, and the total number of Alba's Flemish victims can not have fallen short of 50,000.


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: The Dutch Revolt spread to the south in the mid-1570s after the Army of Flanders mutinied for lack of pay and went on the rampage in several cities, most notably Antwerp in 1576. Soldiers rampaged through the city, killing, looting, extorting money from residents and burning the homes of those who did not pay. Christophe Plantin's printing establishment was threatened with destruction three times, but was spared each time with payment of a ransom. Antwerp was economically devastated by the attack; 1,000 buildings were torched, and as many as 17,000 civilians were raped, tortured and murdered. Parents were tortured in their children's presence, infants were slain in their mother's arms, wives were flogged to death before their husbands' eyes. Maastricht was besieged, sacked and destroyed twice by the "Tercios de Flandes" (in 1576 and 1579), and the 1579 siege ended with a Spanish Fury which killed 10,000 men, women and children. Spanish troops who breached the city walls first raped the women, then massacred the population, reputedly tearing people limb from limb. The soldiers drowned hundreds of civilians by throwing them off the bridge over the river Maas in an episode similar to earlier events in Zutphen. Military terror defeated the Flemish movement, and restored Spanish rule in Belgium.


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: The propaganda created by the Dutch Revolt during the struggle against the Spanish Crown can also be seen as part of the Black Legend. The depredations against the Indians that De las Casas had described were compared to the depredations of Alba and his successors in the Netherlands. The "Brevissima relación" was reprinted no less than 33 times between 1578 and 1648 in the Netherlands (more than in all other European countries combined). The "Articles and Resolutions of the Spanish Inquisition to Invade and Impede the Netherlands" accused the Holy Office of a conspiracy to starve the Dutch population and exterminate its leading nobles, "as the Spanish had done in the Indies." Marnix of Sint-Aldegonde, a prominent propagandist for the cause of the rebels, regularly used references to alleged intentions on the part of Spain to "colonize" the Netherlands, for instance in his 1578 address to the German Diet.


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: In recent years, Prof. dr. Maarten Larmuseau of KU Leuven has used genetic testing to examine a prevalent belief regarding the Spanish occupation


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: The memory of the large scale rape of local women by Spanish soldiers lives on to such extent that it is popularly believed that their genetic imprint can be seen today, and that most men and women with dark hair in the area descend from children conceived during those rapes. The study found no greater Iberian genetic component in the areas occupied by the Spanish army than in surrounding areas of northern France, and concluded that the genetic impact of the Spanish occupation, if any, must have been too small to survive until the present era. However, the study makes it clear that the absence of a Spanish genetic imprint in modern populations was not incompatible with the occurrence of mass sexual violence. The frequent murder of Flemish rape victims by Spanish soldiers, the fact rape does not always lead to fertilisation, and the reduced survival possibilities of the illegitimate offspring of rape victims would all militate against significant Iberian genetic contribution to modern populations. Larmuseau considers the persistence of the belief in a Spanish genetic contribution in Flanders to be the fruit of the use of Black Legend tropes in the construction of Dutch and Flemish national identities in the 16th-19th century, giving prominence to the idea of the Spanish armies' cruelty in collective memory.


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: In an interview with a local newspaper, Larmuseau compared the persistence in popular memory of the actions of the Spanish with the lesser attention given to the Austrians, the French and the Germans who also occupied the Low Countries and participated in violence against their inhabitants.


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: Anti-Spanish sentiment appeared in many parts of Europe as the Spanish Empire grew. In the Habsburg realm, Spain was a dominant power in a union encompassing present-day Belgium, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Burgundy and much of Italy. Iberian (principally Castilian) troops marched along the Spanish Road from Italy to Germany to fight on Dutch and German battlefields.


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: During the Eighty Years' War, propaganda depicted Spaniards as bloodthirsty barbarians. During the following centuries, anti-Spanish stereotypes circulated widely (especially in English-, Dutch- and German-speaking parts of Europe). The propaganda depicted exaggerated versions of the evils of Spanish colonial practices and the Spanish Inquisition.


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: Sverker Arnoldsson of the University of Gothenburg supports Juderías' hypothesis of a Spanish black legend in European historiography and identifies its origins in medieval Italy, unlike previous authors (who date it to the 16th century). In his book "The Black Legend: A Study of its Origins", Arnoldsson cites studies by Benedetto Croce and Arturo Farinelli to assert that Italy was hostile to Spain during the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries and texts produced and distributed there were later used as a base by Protestant nations.


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: Arnoldsson's theory on the origins of Spain's black legend has been criticized as conflating the process of black-legend generation with a negative view (or critique) of a foreign power. The following objections have been raised:


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: Edward Peters states in his work "Inquisition":According to William S. Maltby, Italian writings lack a "conducting theme": a common narrative which would form the Spanish black legend in the Netherlands and England. Roca Barea agrees; although she does not deny that Italian writings may have been used by German rivals, the original Italian writings "lack the viciousness and blind deformation of black-legend writings" and are merely reactions to occupation.


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: Arnoldsson offered an alternative to the Italian-origin theory in its polar opposite: the German Renaissance. German humanism, deeply nationalistic, wanted to create a German identity in opposition to that of the Roman invaders. Ulrich of Hutten and Martin Luther, the main authors of the movement, used "Roman" in the broader concept "Latin". The Latin world, which included Spain, Portugal, France, and Italy, was perceived as "foreign, immoral, chaotic and fake, in opposition to the moral, ordered and German."


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: In addition to the identification of Spaniards with Jews, heretics, and "Africans", there was an increase in anti-Spanish propaganda by detractors of Emperor Charles V. The propaganda against Charles was nationalistic, identifying him with Spain and Rome although he was born in Flanders, spoke Dutch but little Spanish and no Italian at the time, and was often at odds with the pope.


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: To further the appeal of their cause, rulers opposed to Charles focused on identifying him with the pope (a view Charles had encouraged to force Spanish troops to accept involvement in his German wars, which they had resisted). The fact that troops and supporters of Charles included German and Protestant princes and soldiers was an extra reason to reject the Spanish elements attached to them. It was necessary to instill fear of Spanish rule, and a certain image had to be created. Among published points most often highlighted were the identification of Spaniards with Moors and Jews (due to the frequency of intermarriage), the number of "conversos" (Jews or Muslims who converted to Christianity) in their society, and the "natural cruelty of those two."


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: England played a role in the spread and use of the Spanish Black Legend during colonial times, but it is also agreed that, no matter how much the English might have added to it, the origin of the narrative was not in England and reached the islands only after war and conflicting interest.


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: Antonio Pérez, the fallen secretary of King Philip, fled to France and then England, where he published attacks on the Spanish monarchy under the title "Relaciones" (1594). The English referred to these books to justify privateering and wars against the Spanish. A violently hispanophobic preacher and pamphleteer, Thomas Scott, would echo this sort of epithet a generation later, in the 1620s, when he urged England to war against "those wolvish Antichristians" instead of accepting the "Spanish Match."


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: According to Philip Wayne Powell, the criticism which was spread by the Jews who were expelled by Spain's Catholic monarchs was an important factor in the spread of anti-Spanish sentiment (particularly religious stereotypes).


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: This origin combines elements of German origin with proof of the anti-Hispanic narrative which existed prior to the 16th century, along with a large number of parallelisms between anti-Spanish and anti-Semitic narratives which existed in modern Europe, and it is one of the narratives which is gathering the largest amount of support. According to this view, the Spanish Black Legend was created by transferring the already created "character" of the "cruel, gold lusty Jew" onto the Spanish nation. Since the narrative was familiar, the stereotype was accepted, and the identification of Spaniards and Jews was already mainstream in Europe due to the long history of coexistence between both communities in Iberia, at a time when the Jews had been expelled from most of Europe, the Black Legend was promptly believed and assimilated in Central Europe.


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: According to Elvira Roca Barea, the Spanish Black Legend is a variant of the antisemitic narratives which had already been circulated in medieval-era Northern, Central and Southern European nations since the 13th century. Roca Barea views the hostility towards the Spanish Empire as leading to a Hispanophobic narrative which instrumentalised Spain's historical role as a meeting point of Christianity, Islam and Judaism as a tool of propaganda. In 1555, after the expulsion of the Spanish Jews, Pope Paul IV described Spaniards as "heretics, schismatics, accursed of God, the offspring of Jews and Moors, the very scum of the earth". This climate would facilitate the transfer of antisemitic and anti-Muslim stereotypes to Spaniards. This case has three main sources of proof, the texts of German Renascence Intellectuals, the existence of the black legend narrative in Europe prior to the conquest of America, and the similarity of the stereotypes to other stereotypes which were attributed to Judaism by anti-Semitic Europeans and the stereotypes which the Black Legend attributed to the Spanish.


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: Texts which identify Spaniards with "heretics" and "Jews" were first written in Germany in the 14th century, and various pieces of 15th- and 16th-century anti-Spanish propaganda are almost line by line copies of prior anti-semitic works. For example, the famous account of the mistreated Native Americans killing their oppressors by pouring melted gold onto their heads is an exact rewording of the scene which is described in the anti-semitic poem the Siege of Jerusalem. It also suggests that the deep anti-semitism which is espoused in Luther's works may have served a double function, nationalistic and anti Spanish as well as religious, if the identification of both functions was already in circulation.


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: Martin Luther correlated "the Jew" (who was detested in Germany at the time) with "the Spanish", whose power was increasing in the region. According to Sverker Arnoldsson, Luther:


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: In 1566, Luther's conversations were published. Among many other similar affirmations, he is quoted as saying: References to Spanish as "bad Christians", "Jews", "Moors" or racialized references associating said ancestry with lack of moral or general inferiority can be found uninterruptedly in black legend sources and political propaganda since the Middle Ages until well into the contemporary period.


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: Proponents such as Powell, Mignolo and Roca Barea allege that the Spanish Black Legend prevails in most of Europe, especially Protestant nations and France, and the Americas. There is, however, no significant trace of it in the Muslim world or Turkey despite the almost seven centuries of sustained warfare in which Spain and the Islamic world were engaged. Historian Walter Mignolo has argued that the Black Legend was closely tied to ideologies of race, both in the way that it used the Moorish history of Spain to depict Spaniards as racially tainted, and in the way that the treatment of Africans and Native Americans during Spanish colonial projects came to symbolize their moral character.


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: The first Puritan settlers were deeply hostile to Spain, seeing themselves as the Protestant advance guard that would free the Indians from Spanish oppression and cruelty. Prominent among these Puritan authors was Cotton Mather, who translated the Bible into Spanish for distribution among the Indians of New Spain. After its independence, the United States soon became a territorial rival of Spain in America, both on the border with New Spain, and in Florida, the Mississippi or in New Orleans, a port that the Americans wanted to export their products from. The enlightened and liberal ideas that had entered the United States in the eighteenth century, joined their sympathies for the new republics emerging to the south, increasing anti-Spanish sentiment. This hostility reached its zenith during the Spanish-American War, when the propaganda machine of Hearst and Pulitzer, used by their newspaper empires, had an enormous influence on public opinion in their country. The hispanophobic speeches heard in Congress during the conflict were so insulting that they led to massive protests in Spain.


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: The tensions in Hispanic America between the upper classes of creoles and peninsulares, that is, the Spaniards from the Iberian Peninsula, predate the independence of the Latin American countries. It was a confrontation for the right to control and exploit the riches of the American lands and peoples and that, in general, did not affect the lower classes. Around 1800, the ideas of the Enlightenment, with its anticlericalism, its skepticism to authorities, and its support by Masonic lodges, had been enthusiastically embraced among American intellectuals. According to Powell, these ideas were mixed with the black legend, that is, with the identification of Spain as a "horrible example" of obscurantism and backwardness, as an enemy of modernity. Indeed, he claims that the American wars of independence were to some degree civil wars, with the rebels led by minorities of Creoles.


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: With this background, Powell argues that the rebels were able to use the black legend as a propaganda weapon against the metropolis. Countless manifestos and proclamations were published quoting and praising Las Casas, poems and hymns describing the depraved nature of the "Spaniards", letters and pamphlets designed to advance the patriotic cause. One of the first was the peruvian Juan Pablo Vizcardo y Guzmán in his "Carta dirigida a los españoles americanos por uno de sus compatriotas", accusing the metropolis of the serious exploitation suffered, summarizing the situation as «ingratitude, injustice, servitude and desolation». Another example is one of the great heroes of American independence, Simón Bolívar, an admirer of Las Casas, whose texts he would use profusely, blamed the Spanish for all the sins committed in America (by Creoles and non-Creoles) in the last 200 years, making the Creoles the victims, the "colonized". He would also be one of the first to appeal for the theft of American wealth and claim its return.


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: This anti-Spanish mentality was maintained during the 19th century and part of the 20th among the liberal elites, who considered "de-Hispanization" the solution to national problems. The historian Powell affirms that as a consequence of denigrating Spanish culture, it has been possible to denigrate their own, of which the first is a part, both in their own eyes and in foreign eyes. In addition, the fact would have produced a certain lack of roots among the American peoples, by rejecting part of their own.


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: At the same time, on the beginning of the 19th century, a school of liberal historians appeared in Spain and France who began to speak of the Spanish decline, considering the Inquisition responsible for this economic and cultural decline and for all the ills that afflicted the country. Other European historians would take up the subject later, maintaining this position in some authors until today. The reasoning stated that the expulsion of the Jews and the persecution of the converts would have led to the impoverishment and decline of Spain, in addition to the destruction of the middle class. In 1867 Joaquín Costa had also raised the issue of Spanish decline. Both he and wondered if the fact was due to the Spanish character. He was joined by French and Italian sociologists, anthropologists and criminologists, who spoke more of "degeneration" than decadence, and later other Spaniards such as or Ángel Pulido. blamed Spanish decadence on religious intolerance and Juan Valera on Spanish pride. These ideas passed into literature with the Generation of '98, in texts by Pío Baroja, Azorín and Antonio Machado: «[Castilla...] a piece of the planet crossed by the wandering shadow of Caín»; reaching in some extremes to masochism and the inferiority complex. Joseph Pérez relates this rejection of one part of his own history (the expulsion of the Jews, the Inquisition, the conquest of America) and the idealization of another (Al-Andalus) with similar movements in Portugal and France.


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: Also, after the Unification of Italy, many Italian historians tended to narrate in a negative way the time when part of the Italian peninsula had formed a dynastic union with Spain. In particular, Gabriele Pepe denounced what in his eyes had been the plunder and corruption of southern Italy "under the Spanish". This view only began to change in the last third of the 20th century, thanks to a series of congresses and authors such as Rosario Villari and Elena Fasano Guarini.


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: At first glance, the Filipino physician and writer José Rizal has little in common with Schiller, Manzoni, Verdi, and other proponents of the black legend. However, Rizal had lived in Europe for long periods and was well acquainted with European culture, including Manzoni, Schiller, and Verdi. In 1887 he published a book under the title Noli me tangere, in which he harshly criticized the Spanish administration and especially the Spanish clergy in the Philippines, accusing them of corruption and sexual violations. After the outbreak of the Philippine revolt against Spanish rule, Rizal was arrested and executed for his alleged involvement in an anti-Spanish conspiracy. Thus, he became not only one of the most important heroes of the Philippine independence movement, but his works were also repeatedly published and translated into many languages. Being a book in which the Spanish were negatively described and cited by their enemies to legitimize the American and Japanese conquest of the Philippines.


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: The leading historians of the United States in the 19th century, Francis Parkman, George Bancroft, William H. Prescott, and John Lothrop Motley, would also write History tinged with black legend, texts that remain important in later American historiography.


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: Historians disagree on whether the Black Legend exists as a genuine factor in current discourse around Spain and its history. In recent years a group of historians including Alfredo Alvar, Ricardo García Cárcel and Lourdes Mateo Bretos have argued that the Black Legend does not currently exist beyond Spanish society’s own perception of how the world views Spain’s legacy. According to Carmen Iglesias, the Black Legend consists of negative traits which the Spanish people see in themselves and is shaped by political propaganda.


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: The view of the group around García Cárcel is echoed by Benjamin Keen, writing in 1969. He argues that the concept of the Black Legend cannot be considered valid, given that the negative depiction of Spanish behavior in the Americas was largely accurate. He further claims that whether a concerted campaign of anti-Spanish propaganda based on imperial rivalry ever existed is at least open to question.


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: Henry Kamen argues that the Black Legend existed during the 16th century but has disappeared in contemporary perceptions of Spain. However, other authors, like Elvira Roca Barea, Tony Horowitz and Philip Wayne Powell, have argued that it still affects the manner in which Spain is perceived, and that it is brought up strategically during diplomatic conflicts of interest as well as in popular culture to draw attention away from the negative actions of other nations. Historian John Tate Lanning argued that the most detrimental impact of the Black Legend was to reduce the Spanish colonization of the Americas (and the resulting culture that emerged) to "three centuries of theocracy, obscurantism, and barbarism." In 2006, Tony Horowitz argued in "The New York Times" that the Spanish Black Legend affected current U.S. immigration policy.


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: Venezuelan case has been studied by Gilberto Ramón Quintero Lugo in his book «La Leyenda Negra y su influjo en la historiografía venezolana de la Independencia» (April 2004).


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: In her 2016 book exploring “empire-phobia” as a recurring sociopolitical phenomenon in human history, Elvira Roca Barea argues that the unique persistence of the Spanish Black Legend beyond the end of the Spanish Empire is tied to a continued anti-Spanish and anti-Catholic sentiment in traditionally Protestant European countries:


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: José Luis Villacañas, in his 2019 response to Roca Barea, labels her work as "populist national-Catholic propaganda" and accuses her of minimising Spanish atrocities in the Americas along with those of the Inquisition. He argues that, for all intents and purposes, the Black Legend has no meaning outside the context of 17th century propaganda, although he recognises that certain negative stereotypes of Spain may have persisted during the Franco regime.


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: García Cárcel criticises Roca Barea’s position as adding to a long tradition of Spanish society’s insecurities about how other countries perceive it. On the other hand, he also criticizes Villacañas’s discourse as being heavily ideological in the opposite direction and systematically indulging in presentism. García Cárcel calls for an analysis of Spain’s history that renounces both “narcissism and masochism” in favor of nuanced awareness of its “lights and shadows”.


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: Other proponents of the continuity theory include musicologist Judith Etzion and Roberto Fernandez Retamar, and Samuel Amago who, in his essay "Why Spaniards Make Good Bad Guys" analyzes the persistence of the legend in contemporary European cinema.


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: There is also the implacably tyrannical, hardhearted "hacendado" and the slinky, treacherous Mexican "greaser"; these gringo versions of Spanish depravity have had considerable popularity with Hollywood scenarists and the writers of horse operas. The following description is typical: "She sent for the Mexican at once, and the man came in a few moments, a venomous looking specimen of his race, slinking, yellow-eyed, with nicotine ingrained to his very soul."


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: The label "White Legend" ("Leyenda Blanca") is used to describe a historiographic approach which presents an uncritical or idealized image of Spanish colonial practices. Some authors consider this to be the result of taking attempts to counter the bias of the Black Legend too far, whereas others consider it to have developed independently. Miguel Molina Martinez describes this legend as a characteristic of the Nationalist Spanish historiography which was propagated during the regime of Francisco Franco, a regime which associated itself with the imperial past and couched it in positive terms. Molina Martinez points to the classic text of Spanish Americanists during the Franco period, Rómulo Carbia's "Historia de la leyenda negra hispanoamericana", as a work with a strong ideological motivation which frequently fell into arguments which could be qualified as part of the White Legend, while also giving more current examples of the trope. Some, such as Benjamin Keen, have criticized the works of John Fiske and Lewis Hanke as going too far towards idealizing Spanish history. While recognising the general merit of Hanke's work, Keen suggests that the United States' contemporary imperial ventures in the Caribbean and the Philippines had led him to idealise the Spanish Empire as an analogy for American colonialism. He further argues that the proponents of the White Legend focus on Spanish legal codes protecting the Indigenous population, while ignoring the copious documentary evidence that they were widely ignored.


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: Luis Castellvi Laukamp accuses Elvira Roca Barea of "transforming the Black Legend into the White Legend" in her influential 2016 work, "Imperofobia y Leyenda Negra", in which she claims that Spain confronted the "other" "not with racist theories but with [protective] laws". Castellvi Laukamp points out that not only did the Spanish Laws of the Indies include racism from the beginning, but slavery continued in Spanish colonies in the Americas until 1886. He further takes issue with claims that Spanish colonies' high level of mestizaje (biological and cultural mixing of the European and Indigenous population) demonstrates the absence of racism in the Spanish Empire. Castellvi Laukamp quotes from contemporary sources showing that Indigenous women were treated as spoils of war and subject to racialised sexual slavery and subordination and demonstrates the discriminatory racial stereotypes deployed against black and other non-white women in the colonial period.


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: Dominican Historian Esteban Mira Caballos argues that the Black and White legends form part of a single unity, which he calls a "Great Lie". He goes on to describe the way the Black Legend is instrumentalised to support the White Legend:


title: Black Legend (Spain)

text: The "White Legend" or the "Pink Legend" (Sp: "Leyenda Rosa") may also refer to the propaganda which was circulated within Spain by Philip II and his descendants, propaganda which claimed that his actions in the Netherlands and America were religiously motivated, so his own patrimony would be preserved. This propaganda was intended to foster the image that Spain was ruled by a prudent and pious monarch, and control the unrest that was generated by his aggressive policies and his wars in the Netherlands.


title: Conglomerate (geology)

text: Conglomerate () is a clastic sedimentary rock that is composed of a substantial fraction of rounded to subangular gravel-size clasts. A conglomerate typically contains a matrix of finer-grained sediments, such as sand, silt, or clay, which fills the interstices between the clasts. The clasts and matrix are typically cemented by calcium carbonate, iron oxide, silica, or hardened clay.


title: Conglomerate (geology)

text: Conglomerates form by the consolidation and lithification of gravel. They can be found in sedimentary rock sequences of all ages but probably make up less than 1 percent by weight of all sedimentary rocks. In terms of origin and depositional mechanisms, they are closely related to sandstones and exhibit many of the same types of sedimentary structures, e.g., tabular and trough cross-bedding and graded bedding.


title: Conglomerate (geology)

text: Fanglomerates are poorly sorted, matrix-rich conglomerates that originated as debris flows on alluvial fans and likely contain the largest accumulations of gravel in the geologic record.


title: Conglomerate (geology)

text: A sedimentary rock composed largely of gravel is first named according to the roundness of the gravel. If the gravel clasts that comprise it are largely well-rounded to subrounded, it is a "conglomerate." If the gravel clasts that comprise it are largely angular, it is a breccia. Such breccias can be called sedimentary breccias to differentiate them from other types of breccia, e.g. volcanic and fault breccias. Sedimentary rocks that contain a mixture of rounded and angular gravel clasts are sometimes called breccio-conglomerate.


title: Conglomerate (geology)

text: Conglomerates contain at least 30% of rounded to subangular clasts larger than in diameter, e.g., granules, pebbles, cobbles, and boulders. However, conglomerates are rarely composed entirely of gravel-size clasts. Typically, the space between the gravel-size clasts is filled by a mixture composed of varying amounts of silt, sand, and clay, known as "matrix". If the individual gravel clasts in a conglomerate are separated from each other by an abundance of matrix such that they are not in contact with each other and "float" within the matrix, it is called a paraconglomerate. Paraconglomerates are also often unstratified and can contain more matrix than gravel clasts. If the gravel clasts of a conglomerate are in contact with each other, it is called an orthoconglomerate. Unlike paraconglomerates, orthoconglomerates are typically cross-bedded and often well-cemented and lithified by either calcite, hematite, quartz, or clay.


title: Conglomerate (geology)

text: The differences between paraconglomerates and orthoconglomerates reflect differences in how they are deposited. Paraconglomerates are commonly either glacial tills or debris flow deposits. Orthoconglomerates are typically associated with aqueous currents.


title: Conglomerate (geology)

text: Conglomerates are also classified according to the composition of their clasts. A conglomerate or any clastic sedimentary rock that consists of a single rock or mineral is known as either a monomict, monomictic, oligomict, or oligomictic conglomerate. If the conglomerate consists of two or more different types of rocks, minerals, or combination of both, it is known as either a polymict or polymictic conglomerate. If a polymictic conglomerate contains an assortment of the clasts of metastable and unstable rocks and minerals, it is called either a petromict or petromictic conglomerate.


title: Conglomerate (geology)

text: In addition, conglomerates are classified by source as indicated by the lithology of the gravel-size clasts If these clasts consist of rocks and minerals that are significantly different in lithology from the enclosing matrix and, thus, older and derived from outside the basin of deposition, the conglomerate is known as an extraformational conglomerate. If these clasts consist of rocks and minerals that are identical to or consistent with the lithology of the enclosing matrix and, thus, penecontemporaneous and derived from within the basin of deposition, the conglomerate is known as an intraformational conglomerate.


title: Conglomerate (geology)

text: Two recognized types of intraformational conglomerates are shale-pebble and flat-pebble conglomerates. A shale-pebble conglomerate is a conglomerate that is composed largely of clasts of rounded mud chips and pebbles held together by clay minerals and created by erosion within environments such as within a river channel or along a lake margin. Flat-pebble conglomerates (edgewise conglomerates) are conglomerates that consist of relatively flat clasts of lime mud created by either storms or tsunami eroding a shallow sea bottom or tidal currents eroding tidal flats along a shoreline.


title: Conglomerate (geology)

text: Finally, conglomerates are often differentiated and named according to the dominant clast size comprising them. In this classification, a conglomerate composed largely of granule-size clasts would be called a granule conglomerate; a conglomerate composed largely of pebble-size clasts would be called a pebble conglomerate; and a conglomerate composed largely of cobble-size clasts would be called a cobble conglomerate.


title: Conglomerate (geology)

text: In turbidites, the basal part of a bed is typically coarse-grained and sometimes conglomeratic. In this setting, conglomerates are normally very well sorted, well-rounded and often with a strong A-axis type imbrication of the clasts.


title: Conglomerate (geology)

text: Conglomerates are normally present at the base of sequences laid down during marine transgressions above an unconformity, and are known as basal conglomerates. They represent the position of the shoreline at a particular time and are diachronous.


title: Conglomerate (geology)

text: Conglomerates deposited in fluvial environments are typically well rounded and poorly sorted. Clasts of this size are carried as bedload and only at times of high flow-rate. The maximum clast size decreases as the clasts are transported further due to attrition, so conglomerates are more characteristic of immature river systems. In the sediments deposited by mature rivers, conglomerates are generally confined to the basal part of a channel fill where they are known as "pebble lags". Conglomerates deposited in a fluvial environment often have an AB-plane type imbrication.


title: Conglomerate (geology)

text: Alluvial deposits form in areas of high relief and are typically coarse-grained. At mountain fronts individual alluvial fans merge to form braidplains and these two environments are associated with the thickest deposits of conglomerates. The bulk of conglomerates deposited in this setting are clast-supported with a strong AB-plane imbrication. Matrix-supported conglomerates, as a result of debris-flow deposition, are quite commonly associated with many alluvial fans. When such conglomerates accumulate within an alluvial fan, in rapidly eroding (e.g., desert) environments, the resulting rock unit is often called a "fanglomerate".


title: Conglomerate (geology)

text: Glaciers carry a lot of coarse-grained material and many glacial deposits are conglomeratic. tillites, the sediments deposited directly by a glacier, are typically poorly sorted, matrix-supported conglomerates. The matrix is generally fine-grained, consisting of finely milled rock fragments. Waterlaid deposits associated with glaciers are often conglomeratic, forming structures such as eskers.


title: Conglomerate (geology)

text: An example of conglomerate can be seen at Montserrat, near Barcelona. Here, erosion has created vertical channels that give the characteristic jagged shapes the mountain is named for (Montserrat literally means "jagged mountain"). The rock is strong enough to use as a building material, as in the Santa Maria de Montserrat Abbey.


title: Conglomerate (geology)

text: Another example, the Crestone Conglomerate, occurs in and near the town of Crestone, at the foot of the Sangre de Cristo Range in Colorado's San Luis Valley. The Crestone Conglomerate consists of poorly sorted fanglomerates that accumulated in prehistoric alluvial fans and related fluvial systems. Some of these rocks have hues of red and green.


title: Conglomerate (geology)

text: Conglomerate cliffs are found on the east coast of Scotland from Arbroath northwards along the coastlines of the former counties of Angus and Kincardineshire. Dunnottar Castle sits on a rugged promontory of conglomerate jutting into the North Sea just south of the town of Stonehaven.


title: Conglomerate (geology)

text: Copper Harbor Conglomerate is found both in the Keweenaw Peninsula and Isle Royale National Park in Lake Superior.


title: Conglomerate (geology)

text: Conglomerate may also be seen in the domed hills of Kata Tjuta, in Australia's Northern Territory or in the Buda Hills in Hungary.


title: Conglomerate (geology)

text: In the nineteenth century a thick layer of Pottsville conglomerate was recognized to underlie anthracite coal measures in Pennsylvania.


title: Conglomerate (geology)

text: On Mars, slabs of conglomerate have been found at an outcrop named "Hottah", and have been interpreted by scientists as having formed in an ancient streambed. The gravels, which were discovered by NASA's Mars rover Curiosity, range from the size of sand particles to the size of golf balls. Analysis has shown that the pebbles were deposited by a stream that flowed at walking pace and was ankle- to hip-deep.


title: Coelurosauria

text: Coelurosauria (; from Greek, meaning "hollow tailed lizards") is the clade containing all theropod dinosaurs more closely related to birds than to carnosaurs.


title: Coelurosauria

text: Coelurosauria is a subgroup of theropod dinosaurs that includes compsognathids, tyrannosaurs, ornithomimosaurs, and maniraptorans; Maniraptora includes birds, the only known dinosaur group alive today.


title: Coelurosauria

text: Most feathered dinosaurs discovered so far have been coelurosaurs. Philip J. Currie had considered it likely and probable that all coelurosaurs were feathered. However, several skin impressions found for some members of this group show pebbly, scaly skin, indicating that feathers did not completely replace scales in all taxa. In the past, Coelurosauria was used to refer to all small theropods, but this classification has since been abolished.


title: Coelurosauria

text: The studying of anatomical traits in coelurosaurs indicates that the last common ancestor had evolved the ability to eat and digest plant matter, adapting to an omnivorous diet, an ability that could be a major contributor to the clade's success. Later groups would hold on to the omnivory, while others specialized in various directions, becoming insectivorous (Alvarezsauridae), herbivorous (Therizinosauridae) and carnivorous (Tyrannosauroidea and Dromaeosauridae). The group includes some of the largest ("Tyrannosaurus") and smallest ("Microraptor", "Parvicursor") carnivorous dinosaurs ever discovered. Characteristics that distinguish coelurosaurs include:


title: Coelurosauria

text: Fossil evidence shows that the skin of even the most primitive coelurosaurs was covered primarily in feathers. Fossil traces of feathers, though rare, have been found in members of most major coelurosaurian lineages. Most coelurosaurs also retained scales and scutes on some portion of their bodies, particularly the feet, though some primitive coelurosaurian species are known to have had scales on the upper legs and portions of the tail as well. These include tyrannosauroids, "Juravenator", and "Scansoriopteryx". Fossils of at least some of these animals ("Scansoriopteryx" and possibly "Juravenator") also preserve feathers elsewhere on the body.


title: Coelurosauria

text: Though once thought to be a feature exclusive to coelurosaurs, feathers or feather-like structures are also known in some ornithischian dinosaurs (like "Tianyulong" "and Kulindadromeus"), and in pterosaurs. Though it is unknown whether these are related to true feathers, recent analysis has suggested that the feather-like integument found in ornithischians may have evolved independently of coelurosaurs but this was estimated by assuming that primitive pterosaurs had scales. In 2018, two anurognathid specimens were found to have integumentary structures similar to protofeathers. Based on phylogenetic analysis, protofeathers would have had a common origin with avemetatarsalians.


title: Coelurosauria

text: Although rare, complete casts of theropod endocrania are known from fossils. Theropod endocrania can also be reconstructed from preserved braincases without damaging valuable specimens by using a computed tomography scan and 3D reconstruction software. These finds are of evolutionary significance because they help document the emergence of the neurology of modern birds from that of earlier reptiles. An increase in the proportion of the brain occupied by the cerebrum seems to have occurred with the advent of the Coelurosauria and "continued throughout the evolution of maniraptorans and early birds."


title: Coelurosauria

text: A few fossil traces tentatively associated with the Coelurosauria date back as far as the late Triassic. What has been found between then and the earliest Middle Jurassic is fragmentary. The oldest known unambiguous members of Coelurosauria are the proceratosaurid tyrannosauroids "Proceratosaurus" and "Kileskus" from the late Middle Jurassic. Many nearly complete fossil coelurosaurians are known from the Late Jurassic. "Archaeopteryx" (incl. "Wellnhoferia") is known from Bavaria at 155-150 Ma. "Ornitholestes", the troodontid "Hesperornithoides", "Coelurus fragilis" and "Tanycolagreus topwilsoni" are all known from the Morrison Formation in Wyoming at about 150 Ma. "Epidendrosaurus" and "Pedopenna" are known from the Daohugou Beds in China at about 165-163 Ma. The wide range of fossils in the late Jurassic and morphological evidence shows that coelurosaurian differentiation was virtually complete before the end of the Jurassic.


title: Coelurosauria

text: In the early Cretaceous, a superb range of coelurosaurian fossils (including avians) are known from the Yixian Formation in Liaoning. All known theropod dinosaurs from the Yixian Formation are coelurosaurs. Many of the coelurosaurian lineages survived to the end of the Cretaceous period (about 66 Ma) and fossils of some lineages, such as the Tyrannosauroidea, are best known from the late Cretaceous. A majority of coelurosaur groups became extinct in the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, including the Tyrannosauroidea, Ornithomimosauria, Oviraptorosauria, Deinonychosauria, Enantiornithes, and Hesperornithes. Only the Neornithes, otherwise known as modern birds, survived, and continued to diversify after the extinction of the other dinosaurs into the numerous forms found today.


title: Coelurosauria

text: There is consensus among paleontologists that birds are descended from coelurosaurs. Under modern cladistical definitions, birds are considered the only living lineage of coelurosaurs. Birds are classified by most paleontologists as belonging to the subgroup Maniraptora.


title: Coelurosauria

text: A portion of a tail belonging to a juvenile coelurosaur was found in 2015, inside of a piece of amber.


title: Coelurosauria

text: The phylogeny and taxonomy of Coelurosauria has been subject to intensive research and revision. For many years, Coelurosauria was a 'dumping ground' for all small theropods. In the 1960s several distinctive lineages of coelurosaurs were recognized, and a number of new infraorders were erected, including the Ornithomimosauria, Deinonychosauria, and Oviraptorosauria. During the 1980s and 1990s, paleontologists began to give Coelurosauria a formal definition, usually as all animals closer to birds than to "Allosaurus", or equivalent specifiers. Under this modern definition, many small theropods are not classified as coelurosaurs at all and some large theropods, such as the tyrannosaurids, were actually more advanced than allosaurs and therefore were reclassified as giant coelurosaurs. Even more drastically, the segnosaurs, once not even regarded as theropods, have turned out to be non-carnivorous coelurosaurs related to "Therizinosaurus". Senter (2007) listed 59 different published phylogenies since 1984. Those since 2005 have followed almost the same pattern, and differ significantly from many older phylogenies.


title: Coelurosauria

text: Within Coelurosauria exists a slightly less inclusive clade named Tyrannoraptora. This clade was defined by Sereno (1999) as ""Tyrannosaurus rex", "Passer domesticus" (the house sparrow), their last common ancestor, and all of its descendants". As tyrannosauroids are considered to be the most basal large group within Coelurosauria, this means that the common ancestor of tyrannosauroids and birds was an even more basal coelurosaurian. As a result, almost all coelurosaurians are also tyrannoraptorans, with the only exceptions being particularly basal species such as "Zuolong salleei or Sciurumimus albersdoerferi". Within Tyrannoraptora exists a slightly less inclusive clade named Neocoelurosauria erected by Hendrickx, Mateus, Araújo and Choiniere (2019), defining it as "the clade Compsognathidae + Maniraptoriformes", which can be more or less inclusive than Maniraptoromorpha depending on the topology.


title: Coelurosauria

text: The following family tree illustrates a synthesis of the relationships of the major coelurosaurian groups based on various studies conducted in the 2010s.


title: Coelurosauria

text: "Coelurosaurus" is an informal generic name, attributed to Friedrich von Huene, 1929, that is sometimes seen in lists of dinosaurs. It probably arose as a typographical error; von Huene intended to assign indeterminate remains to Coelurosauria "incertae sedis", but at some point in the process of publication a revision to the text made it appear that he was creating a new generic name "Coelurosaurus" (as described by George Olshevsky in a 1999 post to the Dinosaur Mailing List). The name is undescribed and has not been used seriously, although it has appeared in works of fiction.