title: Biophilia (album)

text: "Crystalline" was released as the lead single from the album. The single release was preceded by two video teasers; the first, entitled "Road to Crystalline", featured Björk driving on her van through a road in Iceland while playing an excerpt of an en early version of the song, and was released on 27 May 2011. The second one, released on 13 June 2011, showed the gameleste, the celesta-gamelan hybrid created for the "Biophilia" project. The single version of the song, namely the Serban Ghenea mix, leaked onto the Internet on 25 June 2011. The single was officially released on 28 June 2011. The music video, directed by French director Michel Gondry, was released on YouTube on 26 July 2011. After "Crystalline", three songs on were released on iTunes as singles beside the expansion app. The second single-app released was "Cosmogony" on 19 July. On the same day, the "mother app" and the application for "Crystalline" were released. The next singles were "Virus", released on 9 August, and finally "Moon", on 6 September, after being leaked on 22 August. Both accompanying apps were released on the same day. A music video for "Moon", directed by Björk alongside M/M Paris, Inez & Vinoodh and James Merry, recorded during the photo sessions for "Biophilia", was released on 23 September.


title: Biophilia (album)

text: Even though it wasn't released as a single, a live performance of "Thunderbolt" from the Manchester International Festival was released as a music video on YouTube on 2 November 2011. On 6 March 2012, a promotional music video was released for "Hollow", directed by biomedical animator Drew Berry. The video, previously used in the "Hollow" app, features a three-dimensional exploration of Björk's molecules and also a molecular complex based on Björk's headscan, influenced by the works of Italian painter Giuseppe Arcimboldo. A music video for "Mutual Core" was commissioned by the Museum of Contemporary Art in Los Angeles and was directed by Andrew Thomas Huang. The video was released on 13 November 2012 on the museum's YouTube channel.


title: Biophilia (album)

text: Leading up to the album release, Björk issued a series of remixes of "Crystalline" and "Cosmogony", titled "The Crystalline Series". The remixes were released on digital download, LP and in a limited CD edition. The first part, which contained the two single versions of the songs by Serban Ghenea, was released on 19 July 2011, coinciding with the digital release of "Cosmogony". The second part included two remixes of "Crystalline" and "Thunderbolt" by Syrian musician Omar Souleyman, alongside an original song by the musician, called "Mawal", was released on 26 July. This release was anticipated by a video teaser, which showed Souleyman during the recording sessions for the remix of "Crystalline". The third and fourth parts, containing remixes of the two tracks by British electronic musician and producer Matthew Herbert, were released on 2 August 2011.


title: Biophilia (album)

text: On 6 March 2012, One Little Indian announced the upcoming release of another eight-part series of remixes. Billed as the "Biophilia Remix Series", each part was announced to come out starting on 16 April 2012, each every two weeks after the other, on digital download, CD and LP. The deluxe edition of each release consisted in a limited edition package with micro textured blue minerals papers and embossed foil lettering, designed by M/M Paris. The first entry featured remixes of "Crystalline" and "Solstice" by Current Value. The second part, released on 30 April 2012, included remixes of "Thunderbolt" and "Sacrifice" by experimental hip hop band Death Grips. On the third part of the series, Hudson Mohawke remixed "Virus" and El Guincho reworked "Cosmogony"; this entry came out on 14 May 2012. The fourth part once again featured remixes by Current Value, who this time remixed "Thunderbolt" and "Hollow", and was released on 28 May 2012. The fifth entry was released on 11 June 2012, including a King Cannibal remix of "Thunderbolt" and a remodel of "Dark Matter" produced by Alva Noto. Matthew Herbert remixed "Virus", "Mutual Core" and "Sacrifice", and his remixes were included in the sixth entry, released on 25 June 2012, while the seventh part consisted of two remixes of "Mutual Core" and "Hollow" by 16bit. The eight and last part of the series was delayed for unspecified reasons. It was ultimately released on 13 November 2012, and included a remix of "Moon" by The Slips, and a remix of "Mutual Core" by These New Puritans.


title: Biophilia (album)

text: On 8 October 2012, Björk announced "Bastards", a collection of remixes of "Biophilia" tracks which were previously included in the two series. Every remix was remastered by Mandy Parnell. The compilation was released on 19 November 2012.


title: Biophilia (album)

text: "Biophilia" received positive reviews from music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album received an average score of 79, based on 37 reviews, which indicates "generally favorable reviews". Critical acclaim came from BBC Music's Mike Diver, who described the album as "mesmerizing" and "an amazing, inventive and wholly unique eighth album from an artist without peer", praising both her voice as a "controlled presence" and her composition work: "Björk has crafted sounds which are entirely hers alone". Möhammad Choudhery of "Consequence of Sound" praised the "asteroid-bass volley" of "Mutual Core" and "apocalyptical breakbeat coda" of "Crystalline" and stated that "they blend archaic instrumentation with blistering electronica" and even if he labelled "Biophilia" as "hardly easy listening", he found that "it'll stand as one of the more rewarding albums of her storied career". "Biophilia" was named "CD of the week" by "The Daily Telegraph", whose writer Helen Brown described the album as "wilfully weird" yet "surprisingly accessible, hypnotic and beautiful if you give it time and concentration: the audio equivalent of looking through a microscope at crystals growing". According to "NME"s Luke Turner, "[looking] past the techno wizardry, the grand designs and the brainy philosophy", "Biophilia" is "intimate, playful and beautiful" and "a wonderful distillation of ideas, playful and serious, intimate yet the most fantastic journey. [...] A record so particular to Björk's own artistry that no-one could ever hope to replicate it." "Now" magazine's Kevin Ritchie praised the album as "one of Björk's best and most challenging records" and that "[i]ts accompanying iPad suite [...] isn't required to enjoy the album, which has a satisfyingly messy and unhinged quality, much like the natural wonders that inspired it". Similarly, Gareth James of "Clash" felt that the album "sounds beautifully warm and compellingly human", and stated that "while much of the fuss around the album has centred on its innovative and hugely interactive app release, this music really doesn't need any window dressing because it's as good a collection of songs as she has put her name to in ten years".


title: Biophilia (album)

text: Kyle Andersen of "Entertainment Weekly" stated that "Biophilia" is "an ingenious marriage of faerie and machine. But [her] greatest strength remains the glistening natural resource flowing from her throat". For Heather Phares of AllMusic, ""Biophilia" is easily her most ambitious project as a whole", whose "boldest innovations are in its presentation rather than in the actual music" and "sometimes feels like a soundtrack", but further adds that "just because the music is only one part of the "Biophilia" experience doesn't mean it's unsatisfying". Phares eventually gave the album 4 out of 5 stars, also citing its "blend of education and emotion." Daniel Paton of musicOMH viewed "Biophilia" as a "synthesis of Björk's work thus far", yet "it sees her continue to pursue her own radical and individual path with unshakeable conviction." He also complimented her language, "English [...] always sounds so enticing and odd when delivered in her syntax." "Rolling Stone"s David Fricke compared the album to Nico's work, "[with its] organ, squishy electronics and the high sighs of a women's choir in stark fields of echo, ["Biophilia" is] like a haunted digital sister of Nico's 1969 album, "The Marble Index"". Alexis Petridis of "The Guardian" wrote that ""Biophilia" never feels like hard work, however much the accompanying bumf tries to convince you it is." Despite his skepticism over interactive music and apps, he stated the quality of the music is "far less questionable". PopMatters music editor Arnold Pan complimented Björk as being "innovative by nature and eager to take risks" and praised "Biophilia"s songs, despite claiming "there are some moments on "Biophilia" that are too atmospheric and subtle [...] especially the low profile 'Dark Matter' and the overly abstract 'Hollow', with its cold modern classical stylings". A more mixed review came from "Pitchfork"s Mark Pytlik, which felt that she "prioritized the superficial aspects of "Biophilia"s presentation over, well, the music", further adding that "she combats the lack of any real structure or melody by over-singing, or lapsing into one of her familiar and increasingly lazy-sounding house vocal runs." He also wrote that "[a]s an innovator, she's as vibrant as ever, but as a songwriter, she sounds tired". Andy Gill of "The Independent" gave the album a negative review, dubbing it as "hard to love" and added that "at times, it's hard not to conclude that the music and lyrics were devised totally separately, and then forced together in forms it's difficult to acknowledge as songs".


title: Biophilia (album)

text: Björk and "Biophilia" received numerous nominations after the announcement of the project. She was nominated at the 2011 Q Awards for Greatest Act of the Last 25 Years, losing to U2. At the 2011 O Music Awards she was awarded the Digital Genius honour, while at the AIM Independent Music Awards she was honoured for her Outstanding Contribution to Music. She also received a Lifetime Achievement at the 2011 Lovie Awards. At the 2011 Antville Music Awards, the "Crystalline" music video was nominated for Best Art Direction. Apple picked the "Biophilia" app as one of the top 5 music apps of 2011.


title: Biophilia (album)

text: M/M Paris were awarded a Tokyo Type Directors Club Award for their work on "Biophilia" artwork, manual and app. "Biophilia" was one of the twelve albums nominated for the 2011 Nordic Music Prize. At the 2012 BRIT Awards, Björk received a nomination for International Female Solo Artist. Björk received five nominations at the 2011 Icelandic Music Awards, being nominated for Pop, Rock, Jazz or Blues Performer of the Year and Pop, Rock, Jazz or Blues Female Singer of the Year, winning the former. "Biophilia" was nominated for Pop/Rock Album of the Year and "Crystalline" received a nomination in the Pop/Rock Song of the Year. The Biophilia Tour live at Harpa won the Musical Event of the Year award. At the 2012 NME Awards "Biophilia" received a nomination in the Best Album Artwork category. Björk appeared at the 2012 Webby Awards to receive the Webby Artist of the Year from the hands of Scott Snibbe, where she stated "A E I O U" in fashion of the five words-limited speeches of the ceremony. "Crystalline" was nominated for Best Female Video at the 2012 MTV Video Music Awards Japan.


title: Biophilia (album)

text: The Biophilia Tour show at the Cumbre Tajín festival was nominated for the Alternative Performance award at the 2012 Lunas del Auditorio. Björk received another two nominations at the 2012 Antville Music Awards, where the "Mutual Core" video was nominated for Best Art Direction and Best Visual Effects, winning the latter.


title: Biophilia (album)

text: At the 2013 Music Producers Guild Awards, Björk received The MPG Innovation Award, which Emma Birkett accepted on her behalf. "Biophilia" received two nominations at the 2013 Grammy Awards, for Best Alternative Album and Best Recording Package, winning the latter. The award went to the art directors, M/M Paris, and not to Björk herself. The "Mutual Core" video was nominated in the Music Video of the Year category at the 2012 Icelandic Music Awards and was nominated at the 2013 Webby Awards in the Online Music & Video — Music category. The video won the People's Voice Webby in that category, as voted by the people on the internet, but lose the Webby bestowed by the International Academy of Digital Arts and Sciences to "Fjögur píanó" by the Sigur Rós. The video received two nominations at the 2013 UK Music Video Awards for Best Visual Effects in a Video and Best Art Direction in a Video, winning none. However, Andrew Thomas Huang was nominated for his work in the video as Best New Director and went on to win the award.


title: Biophilia (album)

text: "Biophilia" debuted at number 27 on the US "Billboard" 200, with first-week sales of 15,000 copies. The album also opened at number one on the Dance/Electronic Albums chart, number two on the Tastemaker Albums chart, number five on the Alternative Albums chart, and number eight on the Rock Albums chart. It debuted at number 21 on the UK Albums Chart, becoming Björk's first album not to reach the top 10. In Japan, the album debuted at number 18 with first-week sales of 6,525 copies. The following week it plunged down to number 23, selling an additional 4,412 units. The limited edition of the album debuted at number 16 on the Gaon International Albums Chart in South Korea, while the standard edition debuted at number 22.


title: Biophilia (album)

text: On 11 June 2014, the Museum of Modern Art in New York City announced that the "Biophilia" app became the first downloadable app in the museum permanent collection. The app inclusion was requested by Senior curator Paola Antonelli, that commented:


title: Biophilia (album)

text: Björk has never ceased to experiment and surprise. The multidimensional nature of her art—in which sound and music are the spine, but never the confines, for multimedia performances that also encompass graphic and digital design, art, cinema, science, illustration, philosophy, fashion, and more—is a testament to her curiosity and desire to learn and team up with diverse experts and creators. It was just a matter of time before she would invade and conquer the territory of design. [...] With "Biophilia" however, Björk truly innovated the way people experience music by letting them participate in performing and making the music and visuals, rather than just listening passively.


title: Lojban

text: Lojban (pronounced ) is a logical, constructed, human language created by the Logical Language Group which aims to be syntactically unambigious. It succeeds the Loglan project.


title: Lojban

text: The Logical Language Group (LLG) began developing Lojban in 1987. The LLG sought to realize Loglan's purposes and further improve the language by making it more usable and freely available (as indicated by its official full English title, "Lojban: A Realization of Loglan"). After a long initial period of debating and testing, the baseline was completed in 1997 and published as "The Complete Lojban Language". In an interview in 2010 with "The New York Times", Arika Okrent, the author of "In the Land of Invented Languages", stated, "The constructed language with the most complete grammar is probably Lojban—a language created to reflect the principles of logic."


title: Lojban

text: Lojban is proposed as a speakable language for communication between people of different language backgrounds, as a potential means of machine translation, and as a tool to explore the intersection between human language and software.


title: Lojban

text: Lojban's predecessor, Loglan, a language invented by James Cooke Brown in 1955 and later developed by The Loglan Institute, was originally conceived as a means to examine the influence of language on the speaker's thought (an assumption known as the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis).


title: Lojban

text: As Brown started to claim his copyright on the language's components, bans were put on the language community's activities to stop changes to aspects of the language. In order to circumvent such control, a group of Loglan users decided to initiate a separate project, departing from the lexical basis of Loglan and reinventing the whole vocabulary, which led to the current lexicon of Lojban. To this effect, they established The Logical Language Group in 1987, based in Washington, D.C. They also won a trial over whether they could call their version of the language Loglan.


title: Lojban

text: The phonetic form of Lojban (root words) was created algorithmically by searching for sound patterns in words with similar meanings in world languages and by multiplying those sound patterns by the number of speakers of those languages. The list of source languages used for the algorithm was limited to the six most widely spoken languages as of 1987—Mandarin, English, Hindi, Spanish, Russian, and Arabic. This resulted in root words being in their phonetic form a relatively equal mixture of English and Mandarin, with lesser influences from the other four.


title: Lojban

text: Following the publication of "The Complete Lojban Language", it was expected that the documented lexicon would be baselined, and the combination of lexicon and reference grammar would be frozen for a minimum of 5 years while language usage grew. As scheduled, this period, which has officially been called the freeze, expired in 2002. The speakers of Lojban are now free to construct new words and idioms, and decide where the language is heading.


title: Lojban

text: While the initial aim of the Loglan project was to investigate linguistic relativity, the active Lojban community recognizes additional applications for the language, including:


title: Lojban

text: Apart from the actual practice of the language, some members of the community and LLG have been endeavoring to create various aids for the learners. "The Complete Lojban Language" ("CLL", also known as "The Red Book" because of its color, and "The Codex Woldemar", after its author), the definitive word on all aspects of Lojban, is one of them, finalized in 1997. Some of the projects in varying stages of completeness are:


title: Lojban

text: Lojban's learning resources on the internet are available mainly to speakers of English, French, Spanish, Russian, Hebrew, and Esperanto, to varying degrees.


title: Lojban

text: Like most languages with few speakers, Lojban lacks much of an associated body of literature and its creative extensions have not been fully realized (the true potential of its attitudinal system, for example, is considered unlikely to be drawn out until and unless children are raised entirely in a multi-cultural Lojban-speaking environment). Also such collective or encyclopedic sources of knowledge like the , which may help expand the language's lexical horizon, are not very well developed.


title: Lojban

text: Presently accessible Lojbanic writings are principally concentrated on Lojban.org, though there exist independent Lojbanic blog/journal sites as well. The Lojban IRC (or its archive) has a gathering of Lojbanic expressions too, but its grammatical correctness is not always guaranteed. These available materials on the internet include both original works and translations of classic pieces in the field of natural languages, ranging from poetry, short story, novel, and academic writing. Examples of works that are already available include:


title: Lojban

text: Lojban has also been used in other media. For example, the videogame "Minecraft" has been partially translated into Lojban.


title: Lojban

text: Lojban is seen by some as an intellectual device for creative writing or as having many potential aspects yet to be discovered or explored.


title: Lojban

text: There have been proposals to use Lojban as an intermediate language in interlingual machine translation and knowledge representation.


title: Lojban

text: Lojban has been shown to be translated in some of its parts into predicate logic. There are also analogies between Lojban and combinatory logic.


title: Lojban

text: Lojban has 6 vowels and 17 consonants. Some of them have, apart from the preferred/standard sounds, permitted variants intended to cover dissimilitude in pronunciation by speakers of different linguistic backgrounds.


title: Lojban

text: There are 16 diphthongs (and no triphthongs). A distinction between diphthongs and monophthongs can be written by inserting a comma in the Latin alphabet. Vowel hiatus is also prevented by inserting an apostrophe, which usually indicates , though there are other valid realizations. For those who have trouble pronouncing certain consonant clusters, there is the option of adding vowels between them (epenthesis), as long as they differ sufficiently from the phonological vowels and are pronounced as short as possible. The resulting additional syllables are not factored in the grammar, including for the purposes of stress determination.


title: Lojban

text: Lojban is written almost entirely with lower-case letters; upper-case letters are used to mark stress in words that do not fit the normal rules of stress assignment, or when whitespace is omitted.


title: Lojban

text: The letters in Lojban and their respective pronunciations are shown in the table below. The IPA symbols in parentheses indicate alternative pronunciations; preferred pronunciations have no parentheses.


title: Lojban

text: In principle, Lojban may be written in any orthographic system as long as it satisfies the required regularities and unambiguities. Some of the reasons for such elasticity would be as follows:


title: Lojban

text: Some Lojbanists extend this principle of cultural neutrality and assert that Lojban should have its own alphabet.


title: Lojban

text: Lojban has three word-classes: predicate words (), structure words (), and name words (). Each of them has uniquely identifying properties, so that one can unambiguously recognize which word is of which part of speech in a string of the language. They may be further divided in sub-classes. There also exists a special fragmental form () assigned to some predicate words and structure words, from which compound predicate words () may be created.


title: Lojban

text: The language's grammatical structures are "defined by a set of rules that have been tested to be unambiguous using computers", which is in effect called the "machine grammar". Hence the characteristics of the standard syntactic (not semantic) constructs in Lojban:


title: Lojban

text: The computer-tested, unambiguous rules also include grammar for incomplete sentences e.g. for narrative, quotational, or mathematical phrases.


title: Lojban

text: Its typology can be said to be basically subject–verb–object and subject–object–verb. However, it can practically have any order:


title: Lojban

text: Such flexibility has to do with the language's intended capability to translate as many expressions of natural languages as possible, based on a unique positional case system. The meaning of the sentence is determined by realizing, with its own predefined place structure, a specific semantic relation between and ; when the positional relation between and changes, the meaning of the sentence changes too. As shown above, Lojban has particular devices to preserve such semantic structure of words while altering their order.


title: Lojban

text: As befits a logical language, there is a large assortment of logical connectives. Such conjunction words take different forms depending on what they connect, another reason why the (standard) Lojbanic expressions are typically precise and clear.


title: Lojban

text: Multiple predicate words may be linked up together so as to narrow the semantic scope of the phrase. In "to quickly dance", the modifying word narrows the sense of the modified word to form a more specific concept (in which case the modifier may resemble English adverbs or adjectives).


title: Lojban

text: Compound words () and borrowed words () are continually increasing as the speakers find demands. The number of root words () and structure words () are basically unchanging, but new inventions are to be accepted as experimental components. In fact, it has been noticed that particular inclination or disproportion exists in the available vocabulary. Cortesi has pointed out the lack of certain terms for mathematics and geometry (although this demand may now be disputed as the current set of Lojban vocabulary does actually allow speakers to express such notions as steradian (), trigonometric tangent (), multiplicative inverse (), matrix transpose () among a number of other kinds of operators or metric units). Other instances which require speakers to construct noncanonical words:


title: Lojban

text: The principal difference between Lojban and Loglan is one of lexicon. The words for Lojban were made by the same principles as those for Loglan; that is, candidate forms were chosen according to how many sounds they had in common with their equivalent in some of the most commonly spoken languages on Earth, which was then multiplied by the number of speakers of the languages with which the words had letters in common. The difference with the Lojban remake of the root words was that the weighting was updated to reflect the actual numbers of speakers for the languages. This resulted in word forms that had fewer sounds taken from English, and more sounds taken from Chinese. For instance, the Loglan word "norma" is equivalent to the Lojban word (cf. Chinese 常, pinyin "cháng"), both meaning "normal".


title: Lojban

text: Loglan and Lojban still have essentially the same grammars, and most of what is said in the Grammar section above holds true for Loglan as well. Most simple, declarative sentences could be translated word by


title: Lojban

text: In the new phonology for Lojban, the consonant "q" and the vowel "w" were removed, and the consonant "h" was replaced by "x". The consonant ' (apostrophe) was added with the value of [h] in the International Phonetic Alphabet, but its distribution is such that it can appear only intervocally, and in discussions of the morphology and phonotactics, it is described not as a proper consonant, but a "voiceless glide". (This phoneme is realized as θ by some speakers.)


title: Lojban

text: is a descendant of Loglan but is tonal, developed by Jim Carter. Instead of structure words there are in six different tones. Predicates have only one syllable instead of two. Some of its characteristics, including tones, phonotactics, expressions for masses vs sets, non-existence of metalinguistic negation, etc., received criticism.


title: Tomáš Masaryk

text: Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk (7 March 185014 September 1937) was a Czechoslovak politician, statesman, sociologist, and philosopher. Until 1914, he advocated restructuring the Austro-Hungarian Empire into a federal state. With the help of the Allied Powers, Masaryk gained independence for a Czechoslovak Republic as World War I ended in 1918. He co-founded Czechoslovakia together with Milan Rastislav Štefánik and Edvard Beneš and served as its first president.


title: Tomáš Masaryk

text: Masaryk was born to a poor, working-class family in the predominantly Catholic city of Hodonín, Margraviate of Moravia, in Moravian Slovakia (in the present-day Czech Republic, then part of the Austrian Empire). The nearby Slovak village of Kopčany, the home of his father Jozef, also claims to be his birthplace. Masaryk grew up in the village of Čejkovice, in South Moravia, before moving to Brno to study.


title: Tomáš Masaryk

text: His father, Jozef Masárik, was born in Kopcsány, Kingdom of Hungary (now Kopčany, Slovakia). Jozef Masárik was a carter and, later, the steward and coachman at the imperial estate in the nearby town Hodonín. Tomáš's mother, Teresie Masaryková (née Kropáčková), was a Moravian of Slavic origin who received a German education. A cook at the estate, she met Masárik and they married on 15 August 1849.


title: Tomáš Masaryk

text: After grammar school in Brno and Vienna from 1865 to 1872, Masaryk attended the University of Vienna and was a student of Franz Brentano. He received his Ph.D. from the university in 1876 and completed his habilitation thesis, "Der Selbstmord als sociale Massenerscheinung der modernen Civilisation" ("Suicide as a Social Mass Phenomenon of Modern Civilization"), there in 1879. From 1876 to 1879, Masaryk studied in Leipzig with Wilhelm Wundt and Edmund Husserl. He married Charlotte Garrigue, whom he had met while a student in Leipzig, on 15 March 1878. They lived in Vienna until 1881, when they moved to Prague.


title: Tomáš Masaryk

text: Masaryk was appointed professor of philosophy at the Czech Charles-Ferdinand University, the Czech-language part of Charles University, in 1882. He founded "Athenaeum", a magazine devoted to Czech culture and science, the following year. "Athenaeum", edited by Jan Otto, was first published on 15 October 1883.


title: Tomáš Masaryk

text: Masaryk challenged the validity of the epic poems "Rukopisy královedvorský a zelenohorský", supposedly dating to the early Middle Ages and presenting a false, nationalistic Czech chauvinism to which he was strongly opposed. He also contested the Jewish blood libel during the 1899 Hilsner trial.


title: Tomáš Masaryk

text: Masaryk was greatly influenced by the 19th century cult of science. The 19th century was an age of tremendous scientific and technological advances, and as such scientists enjoyed an immense prestige. Masaryk believed that social problems and political conflicts were the results of ignorance, and that provided that one undertook a proper "scientific" approach studying the underlining causes it would be possible to devise the correct solutions. As such, Masaryk saw his role as an educator who would enlighten the public from its ignorance and apathy.


title: Tomáš Masaryk

text: Masaryk served in the Reichsrat from 1891 to 1893 with the Young Czech Party and from 1907 to 1914 in the Czech Realist Party, which he had founded in 1900. At that time, he was not yet campaigning for Czech and Slovak independence from Austria-Hungary. Masaryk helped Hinko Hinković defend the Croat-Serb Coalition during their 1909 Vienna political trial; its members were sentenced to a total of over 150 years in prison, with a number of death sentences.


title: Tomáš Masaryk

text: When the World War I broke out in 1914, Masaryk concluded that the best course was to seek independence for Czechs and Slovaks from Austria-Hungary. He went into exile in December 1914 with his daughter, Olga, staying in several places in Western Europe, the Russian Empire, the United States and Japan. Masaryk began organizing Czechs and Slovaks outside Austria-Hungary during his exile, establishing contacts which would be crucial to Czechoslovak independence. He delivered lectures and wrote a number of articles and memoranda supporting the Czechoslovak cause. Masaryk was pivotal in establishing the Czechoslovak Legion in Russia as an effective fighting force on the Allied side during World War I, when he held a Serbian passport. In 1915 he was one of the first staff members of the School of Slavonic and East European Studies (now part of University College London), where the student society and senior common room are named after him. Masaryk became professor of Slavic Research at King's College London, lecturing on the problem of small nations. Supported by Norman Hapgood T. G. Masaryk wrote the first memorandum to president Wilson, concerning to independence of Czechoslovak state, here in January 1917.


title: Tomáš Masaryk

text: During World War I and afterwards, Masaryk supported the unification of Kingdom of Serbia and Kingdom of Montenegro.


title: Tomáš Masaryk

text: On 5 August 1914, the Russian High Command authorized the formation of a battalion recruited from Czechs and Slovaks in Russia. The unit went to the front in October 1914, and was attached to the Russian Third Army.


title: Tomáš Masaryk

text: From its start, Masaryk wanted to develop the legion from a battalion to a formidable military formation. To do so, however, he realized that he would need to recruit Czech and Slovak prisoners of war (POWs) in Russian camps. In late 1914, Russian military authorities permitted the legion to enlist Czech and Slovak POWs from the Austro-Hungarian army; the order was rescinded in a few weeks, however, because of opposition from other areas of the Russian government. Despite continuing efforts to persuade the Russian authorities to change their minds, the Czechs and Slovaks were officially barred from recruiting POWs until the summer of 1917. Under these conditions, the Czechoslovak armed unit in Russia grew slowly from 1914 to 1917. Masaryk preferred to concentrate on elites rather public opinion. On 19 October 1915, Masaryk gave the inaugural address at the newly opened School of Slavonic Studies at King's College London on "The Problem of Small Nations in the European Crisis", arguing that on both moral and practical grounds that the United Kingdom should support the independence efforts of "small" nations such as the Czechs. Shortly afterwards, Masaryk crossed the English Channel to go to Paris, where he delivered a speech in French at the "Institut d'études slaves" of the Sorbonne on ""Les Slaves parmi les nations"" ("The Slavs Among the Nations"), receiving what was described as a "vigorous applause".


title: Tomáš Masaryk

text: During the war, Masaryk's intelligence network of Czech revolutionaries provided critical intelligence to the allies. His European network worked with an American counterespionage network of nearly 80 members, headed by Emanuel Viktor Voska (including G. W. Williams). Voska and his network, who (as Habsburg subjects) were presumed to be German supporters, spied on German and Austrian diplomats. Among other achievements, the intelligence from these networks was critical in uncovering the Hindu–German Conspiracy in San Francisco. Masaryk began teaching at London University in October 1915. He published "Racial Problems in Hungary", with ideas about Czechoslovak independence. In 1916, Masaryk went to France to convince the French government of the necessity of dismantling Austria-Hungary. He consulted with his friend professor Pavel Miliukov, a leading Russian historian and one of the leaders of the Kadet Party, to introduce to various members of Russian high society.


title: Tomáš Masaryk

text: In early 1916, the Czechs and Slovaks in Russian service was reorganized as the First Czecho-Slovak Rifle Regiment. In a rare attempt to influence public opinion, Masaryk opened up an office on Piccadilly Circus in London whose exterior was covered with pro-Czechoslovak slogans and maps with the intention of attracting the interest of those walking by. One of Masaryk's most important British friends was the journalist Wickham Steed who wrote articles in the newspapers urging British support for Czechoslovakia. Another important British contract for Masaryk was the historian Robert Seton-Watson, who also wrote widely in the British press urging British support for the "submerged" nations of the Austrian empire. After the 1917 February Revolution he proceeded to Russia to help organize the Czechoslovak Legion, a group dedicated to Slavic resistance to the Austrians. Miliukov became the new Russian foreign minister in the Provisional government, and proved very sympathatic towards the idea of creating Czechoslovakia. After the Czechoslovak troops' performance in July 1917 at the Battle of Zborov (when they overran Austrian trenches), the Russian provisional government granted Masaryk and the Czechoslovak National Council permission to recruit and mobilize Czech and Slovak volunteers from the POW camps. Later that summer a fourth regiment was added to the brigade, which was renamed the First Division of the Czechoslovak Corps in Russia (Československý sbor na Rusi, also known as the Czechoslovak Legion – Československá legie). A second division of four regiments was added to the legion in October 1917, raising its strength to about 40,000 by 1918.


title: Tomáš Masaryk

text: Masaryk formed a good connection with Russian supreme commanders, Mikhail Alekseyev, Aleksei Brusilov, Nikolay Dukhonin and Mikhail Diterikhs, in Mogilev, from May 1917.


title: Tomáš Masaryk

text: Masaryk traveled to the United States in 1918, where he convinced President Woodrow Wilson of the righteousness of his cause. On 5 May 1918, over 150,000 Chicagoans filled the streets to welcome him; Chicago was the center of Czechoslovak immigration to the United States, and the city's reception echoed his earlier visits to the city and his visiting professorship at the University of Chicago in 1902 (Masaryk had lectured at the university in 1902 and 1907). He also had strong links to the United States, with his marriage to an American citizen and his friendship with Chicago industrialist Charles R. Crane, who had Masaryk invited to the University of Chicago and introduced to the highest political circles (including Wilson). Except of the president Wilson and the secretary of the state Robert Lansing this was Ray Stannard Baker , W. Phillips, Polk, Long, Lane, D. F. Houston, William Wiseman, Harry Pratt Judson and the French ambassador Jean Jules Jusserand. And Bernard Baruch, Vance McCormick, Edward N. Hurley, Samuel M. Vauclain, Colonel House too. On Chicago meeting on 8 October 1918 Chicago industrialist Samuel Insull introduced him as the president of future Czechoslovak Republic de facto and mentioned his legions. On 18 October 1918 he submitted to president Thomas Woodrow Wilson "Washington Declaration" (Czechoslovak declaration of independence) created with the help of Masaryk American friends (Louis Brandeis, Ira Bennett, Gutzon Borglum, Franklin K. Lane, Edward House, Herbert Adolphus Miller, Charles W. Nichols, Robert M. Calfee, Frank E. J. Warrick, George W. Stearn and Czech Jaroslav Císař) as the basic document for the foundation of a new independent Czechoslovak state. Speaking on 26 October 1918 as head of the Mid-European Union in Philadelphia, Masaryk called for the independence of Czechoslovaks and the other oppressed peoples of central Europe.


title: Tomáš Masaryk

text: Masaryk believed that Jews controlled the press and helped the nascent state of Czechoslovakia during its struggle for independence. Czech historian Jan Láníček comments that "The great philosopher and humanist Masaryk was still using the same anti-Semitic trope found at the bottom of all anti-Jewish accusations."


title: Tomáš Masaryk

text: With the fall of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1918, the Allies recognized Masaryk as head of the provisional Czechoslovak government. On 14 November of that year, he was elected president of Czechoslovakia by the National Assembly in Prague while he was in New York. On 22 December, Masaryk publicly denounced the Germans in Czechoslovakia as settlers and colonists.


title: Tomáš Masaryk

text: Masaryk was re-elected three times: in May 1920, 1927, and 1934. Normally, a president was limited to two consecutive terms by the 1920 constitution, but a one-time provision allowed the first president–Masaryk–to run for an unlimited number of terms.


title: Tomáš Masaryk

text: On paper, Masaryk's presidential power was limited; the framers of the constitution intended to create a parliamentary system in which the prime minister and cabinet hold actual power. However, a complex system of proportional representation made it all but impossible for one party to win a majority; no party ever won more than 25 percent of the vote. Usually, ten or more parties received the 2.6 percent of votes needed for seats in the National Assembly. These factors resulted in frequent changes of government; there were ten cabinets, headed by nine statesmen, during Masaryk's tenure. His presence gave Czechoslovakia a large measure of stability. This stability, combined with his domestic and international prestige, gave Masaryk's presidency more power and influence than the framers of the constitution intended.


title: Tomáš Masaryk

text: He used his authority in Czechoslovakia to create the Hrad (the Castle), an extensive, informal political network. Under Masaryk's watch, Czechoslovakia became the strongest democracy in Central Europe. Masaryk's status as a Protestant leading a mainly Catholic nation led to criticism, as did his promotion of the 15th century proto-Protestant Jan Hus as a symbol of Czech nationalism.


title: Tomáš Masaryk

text: There were founded "The Masaryk Academy of Labour", for the scientific study of scientific management too, with the Masaryk's supporting in Prague in 1918 and Masaryk University in Brno.


title: Tomáš Masaryk

text: Masaryk visited France, Belgium, England, Egypt and the Mandate for Palestine in 1923 and 1927. With Herbert Hoover, he sponsored the first Prague International Management Congress, a July 1924 gathering of 120 global labour experts (of which 60 were from the United States), organized with Masaryk Academy of Labour. After the rise of Adolf Hitler, Masaryk was one of the first political figures in Europe to voice concern. He resigned from office on 14 December 1935 because of old age and poor health, and was succeeded by Edvard Beneš.


title: Tomáš Masaryk

text: Masaryk died less than two years after leaving office, at the age of 87, in Lány. He did not live to see the Munich Agreement or the Nazi occupation of his country, and was known as the Grand (Great) Old Man of Europe.


title: Tomáš Masaryk

text: As the founding father of Czechoslovakia, Masaryk is revered as George Washington is in the United States. Czechs and Slovaks regard him as a symbol of democracy.


title: Tomáš Masaryk

text: Masaryk University in Brno, founded in 1919 as Czechoslovakia's second university, was named after him when it was founded; after 30 years as Univerzita Jana Evangelisty Purkyně v Brně, it was renamed for Masaryk in 1990.


title: Tomáš Masaryk

text: Commemorations of Masaryk have been held annually in the Lány cemetery on his birthday and day of death (7 March and 14 September) since 1989.


title: Tomáš Masaryk

text: The Czechoslovak, then Czech Order of Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk, established in 1990, is an honour awarded to individuals who have made outstanding contributions to humanity, democracy and human rights.


title: Tomáš Masaryk

text: He is commemorated by a number of statues, busts and plaques. Although most are in the Czech Republic and Slovakia, Masaryk has a statue on Embassy Row in Washington, D.C., and in the Midway Plaisance park in Chicago and is memorialized in San Francisco's Golden Gate Park rose garden. A plaque with a portrait of Masaryk is on the wall of a hotel in Rachiv, Ukraine, where he reportedly resided from 1917 to 1918, and a bust was erected in 2002 on Druzhba Narodiv Square (Friendship of Nations Square) in Uzhhorod, Ukraine.


title: Tomáš Masaryk

text: Avenida Presidente Masaryk (President Masaryk Avenue) is a main thoroughfare in Mexico City. In 1999 the city of Prague donated a statue of Masaryk to Mexico City, one of the two originals made when the statue for the Prague Castle was being prepared for the 150th anniversary of his birth.


title: Tomáš Masaryk

text: In Israel, Masaryk is considered an important figure and a national friend. A village was named after him - Kibbutz Kfar Masaryk near Haifa, which was largely founded by Jewish immigrants from Czechoslovakia. One of the main squares in Tel Aviv is Masaryk Square (he had visited the city in 1927). In Haifa, one of the junctions in the city was named after him as well.


title: Tomáš Masaryk

text: Many cities in Israel named streets after his name, including Jerusalem, Petach Tikva, Netanya, Nahariya and others. A Masaryk forest was planted in the Western Galilee.


title: Tomáš Masaryk

text: Streets in Zagreb, Belgrade, Dubrovnik, Daruvar, Varaždin, Novi Sad, Smederevo and Split are named Masarykova ulica, and a main thoroughfare in Ljubljana is named after Masaryk. Streets named Thomas Masaryk can be found in Geneva and Bucharest.


title: Tomáš Masaryk

text: A United Nations Expeditionary Force starship in Joe Haldeman's 1974 science-fiction novel, "The Forever War", is named "Masaryk." A photograph of Masaryk leaning out of a train window, waving to and shaking hands with supporters, is the front cover for Faith No More's 1997 album "Album of the Year". Its liner notes include the funeral of an old man, with the words ""pravda vítězí"" ("Truth prevails") adorning the coffin. The statement is the motto of the Czech Republic.


title: Tomáš Masaryk

text: Masaryk's motto was "Do not fear, and do not steal" (). A philosopher and an outspoken rationalist and humanist, he emphasised practical ethics reflecting the influence of Anglo-Saxon philosophers, French philosophy and—in particular—the work of 18th-century German philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder, who is considered the founder of nationalism. Masaryk was critical of German idealism and Marxism.


title: Tomáš Masaryk

text: He wrote several books in Czech, including "The Czech Question" (1895), "The Problems of Small Nations in the European Crisis" (1915), "The New Europe" (1917), and "The World Revolution" ("Svĕtová revoluce"; 1925) translated to English as "The Making of a State" (1927). Karel Čapek wrote a series of articles, "Hovory s T.G.M." ("Conversations with T.G.M."), which were later collected as Masaryk's autobiography.


title: Tomáš Masaryk

text: Masaryk married Charlotte Garrigue in 1878, and took her family name as his middle name. They met in Leipzig, Germany, and became engaged in 1877. Garrigue was born in Brooklyn to a Protestant family with French Huguenots among their ancestors. She became fluent in Czech, and published articles in a Czech magazine. Hardships during the World War I took their toll, and she died in 1923. Their son, Jan, was Czechoslovak ambassador in London, foreign minister in the Czechoslovak government-in-exile (1940–1945) and in the governments from 1945 to 1948. They had four other children: Herbert, Alice, Eleanor, and Olga.


title: Tomáš Masaryk

text: Born a Catholic, Masaryk became a non-practising Protestant. He was influenced by the 1870 declaration of papal infallibility and by Charlotte, who was raised as a Unitarian.


title: Mizo National Front

text: The Mizo National Front ( MNF) is a regional political party in Mizoram, India. MNF emerged from the Mizo National Famine Front, which was formed by Pu Laldenga to protest against the inaction of the Indian central government towards the famine situation in the Mizo areas of the Assam state in 1959. It staged a major uprising in 1966, followed by years of underground activities. In 1986, it signed the Mizoram Accord with the Government of India, renouncing secession and violence. The MNF then began contesting elections and has formed state government in Mizoram three times. It is currently the state's ruling party, with its president, Zoramthanga, as the Chief Minister of Mizoram.


title: Mizo National Front

text: In 1959, the Mizo Hills were devastated by the Mautam, a cyclic phenomenon where the flowering of bamboo plants result in a plague of crop-eating rats, in turn causing a famine.


title: Mizo National Front

text: Earlier in 1955, Mizo Cultural Society was formed, with Laldenga as its secretary. In March 1960, the name of the Mizo Cultural Society was changed to 'Mautam Front'. During the famine of 1959–1960, this society took lead in demanding relief and attracted the attention of all sections of the people. In September 1960, the Society adopted the name Mizo National Famine Front (MNFF). The MNFF gained considerable popularity as a large number of Mizo Youth assisted in transporting rice and other essential commodities to interior villages.


title: Mizo National Front

text: The MNFF, which was originally formed to help ease the immense sufferings of the people during the severe Mautam Famine in Mizoram, was converted into Mizo National Front (MNF) on 22 October 1961. The first OB leaders elected were, President Laldenga, Vice President JF Manliana, General Secy. R. Vanlawma, and Treasurer Rochhinga and the ways in which the Indian authority of the day handled the famine left the people disillusioned. The wave of secessionist and armed insurrection was running high among the Mizos. In 1966, MNF led a major uprising against the government, but failed to gain administrative control of the Mizo district. The secessionist movement held on for about two decades. During that time, they invaded Burma claiming Chin State and Tahan belong to Mizoram since most of the resident in Tahan are Mizo.


title: Mizo National Front

text: This chapter of insurgency finally came to a close with the signing of the Mizoram Accord on 30 June 1986 between the underground government of the Mizo National Front and the Government of India. Under the terms of the peace accord, Mizoram was granted statehood in February 1987.


title: Mizo National Front

text: After the 1987 Mizoram Legislative Assembly election, Laldenga became Chief Minister, but soon lost power due to defections in the party. In the resulting election, the Congress won, and the MNF would be in opposition until 1998. In 1990, Laldenga died, and was replaced by his former secretary and Finance Minister, Zoramthanga. In 1998 and 2003 MNF won the state assembly elections, and Zoramthanga was chief minister for 10 years. In the 2003 elections MNF won 21 out of 40 seats in the state assembly, and got 132 505 votes (31.66%). The party was routed by the Congress in the 2008 state election, winning just 3 seats. It contested the 2013 state elections in alliance with the Mizoram People's Conference, and won 5 seats to the Congress's 34. In the 2018 state assembly elections, the MNF won 26 seats and returned to government.


title: Mizo National Front

text: For the 2014 Lok Sabha elections, it formed an alliance called United Democratic Front with seven other parties including BJP, to contest the only seat in Mizoram. The MNF has been part of the National Democratic Alliance since 2014.


title: Diffeomorphism

text: In mathematics, a diffeomorphism is an isomorphism of smooth manifolds. It is an invertible function that maps one differentiable manifold to another such that both the function and its inverse are differentiable.


title: Diffeomorphism

text: Given two manifolds formula_1 and formula_2, a differentiable map formula_3 is called a diffeomorphism if it is a bijection and its inverse formula_4 is differentiable as well. If these functions are formula_5 times continuously differentiable, formula_6 is called a formula_7-diffeomorphism.


title: Diffeomorphism

text: Two manifolds formula_1 and formula_2 are diffeomorphic (usually denoted formula_10) if there is a diffeomorphism formula_6 from formula_1 to formula_2. They are formula_7-diffeomorphic if there is an formula_15 times continuously differentiable bijective map between them whose inverse is also formula_5 times continuously differentiable.


title: Diffeomorphism

text: Given a subset formula_17 of a manifold formula_1 and a subset formula_19 of a manifold formula_2, a function formula_21 is said to be smooth if for all formula_22 in formula_17 there is a neighborhood formula_24 of formula_22 and a smooth function formula_26 such that the restrictions agree: formula_27 (note that formula_28 is an extension of formula_6). The function formula_6 is said to be a diffeomorphism if it is bijective, smooth and its inverse is smooth.


title: Diffeomorphism

text: If formula_31, formula_32 are connected open subsets of formula_33 such that formula_32 is simply connected, a differentiable map formula_35 is a diffeomorphism if it is proper and if the differential formula_36 is bijective (and hence a linear isomorphism) at each point formula_37 in formula_31.


title: Diffeomorphism

text: It is essential for formula_32 to be simply connected for the function formula_6 to be globally invertible (under the sole condition that its derivative be a bijective map at each point). For example, consider the "realification" of the complex square function


title: Diffeomorphism

text: Diffeomorphisms are necessarily between manifolds of the same dimension. Imagine formula_6 going from dimension formula_55 to dimension formula_56. If formula_57 then formula_44 could never be surjective, and if formula_59 then formula_44 could never be injective. In both cases, therefore, formula_44 fails to be a bijection.


title: Diffeomorphism

text: If formula_44 is a bijection at formula_37 then formula_6 is said to be a local diffeomorphism (since, by continuity, formula_65 will also be bijective for all formula_66 sufficiently close to formula_37).


title: Diffeomorphism

text: Given a smooth map from dimension formula_55 to dimension formula_56, if formula_70 (or, locally, formula_44) is surjective, formula_6 is said to be a submersion (or, locally, a "local submersion"); and if formula_70 (or, locally, formula_44) is injective, formula_6 is said to be an immersion (or, locally, a "local immersion").


title: Diffeomorphism

text: A differentiable bijection is "not" necessarily a diffeomorphism. formula_76, for example, is not a diffeomorphism from formula_77 to itself because its derivative vanishes at 0 (and hence its inverse is not differentiable at 0). This is an example of a homeomorphism that is not a diffeomorphism.


title: Diffeomorphism

text: When formula_6 is a map between "differentiable" manifolds, a diffeomorphic formula_6 is a stronger condition than a homeomorphic formula_6. For a diffeomorphism, formula_6 and its inverse need to be differentiable; for a homeomorphism, formula_6 and its inverse need only be continuous. Every diffeomorphism is a homeomorphism, but not every homeomorphism is a diffeomorphism.


title: Diffeomorphism

text: Since any manifold can be locally parametrised, we can consider some explicit maps from formula_96 into formula_96.


title: Diffeomorphism

text: In mechanics, a stress-induced transformation is called a deformation and may be described by a diffeomorphism.


title: Diffeomorphism

text: A diffeomorphism formula_35 between two surfaces formula_31 and formula_32 has a Jacobian matrix formula_70 that is an invertible matrix. In fact, it is required that for formula_22 in formula_31, there is a neighborhood of formula_22 in which the Jacobian formula_70 stays non-singular. Suppose that in a chart of the surface, formula_121


title: Diffeomorphism

text: Then the image formula_123 is a linear transformation, fixing the origin, and expressible as the action of a complex number of a particular type. When ("dx", "dy") is also interpreted as that type of complex number, the action is of complex multiplication in the appropriate complex number plane. As such, there is a type of angle (Euclidean, hyperbolic, or slope) that is preserved in such a multiplication. Due to "Df" being invertible, the type of complex number is uniform over the surface. Consequently, a surface deformation or diffeomorphism of surfaces has the conformal property of preserving (the appropriate type of) angles.


title: Diffeomorphism

text: Let formula_1 be a differentiable manifold that is second-countable and Hausdorff. The diffeomorphism group of formula_1 is the group of all formula_7 diffeomorphisms of formula_1 to itself, denoted by formula_128 or, when formula_5 is understood, formula_130. This is a "large" group, in the sense that—provided formula_1 is not zero-dimensional—it is not locally compact.


title: Diffeomorphism

text: The diffeomorphism group has two natural topologies: "weak" and "strong" . When the manifold is compact, these two topologies agree. The weak topology is always metrizable. When the manifold is not compact, the strong topology captures the behavior of functions "at infinity" and is not metrizable. It is, however, still Baire.


title: Diffeomorphism

text: Fixing a Riemannian metric on formula_1, the weak topology is the topology induced by the family of metrics


title: Diffeomorphism

text: as formula_134 varies over compact subsets of formula_1. Indeed, since formula_1 is formula_137-compact, there is a sequence of compact subsets formula_138 whose union is formula_1. Then:


title: Diffeomorphism

text: The diffeomorphism group equipped with its weak topology is locally homeomorphic to the space of formula_7 vector fields . Over a compact subset of formula_1, this follows by fixing a Riemannian metric on formula_1 and using the exponential map for that metric. If formula_5 is finite and the manifold is compact, the space of vector fields is a Banach space. Moreover, the transition maps from one chart of this atlas to another are smooth, making the diffeomorphism group into a Banach manifold with smooth right translations; left translations and inversion are only continuous. If formula_145, the space of vector fields is a Fréchet space. Moreover, the transition maps are smooth, making the diffeomorphism group into a Fréchet manifold and even into a regular Fréchet Lie group. If the manifold is formula_137-compact and not compact the full diffeomorphism group is not locally contractible for any of the two topologies. One has to restrict the group by controlling the deviation from the identity near infinity to obtain a diffeomorphism group which is a manifold; see .


title: Diffeomorphism

text: The Lie algebra of the diffeomorphism group of formula_1 consists of all vector fields on formula_1 equipped with the Lie bracket of vector fields. Somewhat formally, this is seen by making a small change to the coordinate formula_37 at each point in space:


title: Diffeomorphism

text: For a connected manifold formula_1, the diffeomorphism group acts transitively on formula_1. More generally, the diffeomorphism group acts transitively on the configuration space formula_174. If formula_1 is at least two-dimensional, the diffeomorphism group acts transitively on the configuration space formula_176 and the action on formula_1 is multiply transitive .


title: Diffeomorphism

text: In 1926, Tibor Radó asked whether the harmonic extension of any homeomorphism or diffeomorphism of the unit circle to the unit disc yields a diffeomorphism on the open disc. An elegant proof was provided shortly afterwards by Hellmuth Kneser. In 1945, Gustave Choquet, apparently unaware of this result, produced a completely different proof.


title: Diffeomorphism

text: The (orientation-preserving) diffeomorphism group of the circle is pathwise connected. This can be seen by noting that any such diffeomorphism can be lifted to a diffeomorphism formula_6 of the reals satisfying formula_179; this space is convex and hence path-connected. A smooth, eventually constant path to the identity gives a second more elementary way of extending a diffeomorphism from the circle to the open unit disc (a special case of the Alexander trick). Moreover, the diffeomorphism group of the circle has the homotopy-type of the orthogonal group formula_180.


title: Diffeomorphism

text: The corresponding extension problem for diffeomorphisms of higher-dimensional spheres formula_181 was much studied in the 1950s and 1960s, with notable contributions from René Thom, John Milnor and Stephen Smale. An obstruction to such extensions is given by the finite abelian group formula_182, the "group of twisted spheres", defined as the quotient of the abelian component group of the diffeomorphism group by the subgroup of classes extending to diffeomorphisms of the ball formula_183.


title: Diffeomorphism

text: For manifolds, the diffeomorphism group is usually not connected. Its component group is called the mapping class group. In dimension 2 (i.e. surfaces), the mapping class group is a finitely presented group generated by Dehn twists (Dehn, Lickorish, Hatcher). Max Dehn and Jakob Nielsen showed that it can be identified with the outer automorphism group of the fundamental group of the surface.


title: Diffeomorphism

text: William Thurston refined this analysis by classifying elements of the mapping class group into three types: those equivalent to a periodic diffeomorphism; those equivalent to a diffeomorphism leaving a simple closed curve invariant; and those equivalent to pseudo-Anosov diffeomorphisms. In the case of the torus formula_184, the mapping class group is simply the modular group formula_185 and the classification becomes classical in terms of elliptic, parabolic and hyperbolic matrices. Thurston accomplished his classification by observing that the mapping class group acted naturally on a compactification of Teichmüller space; as this enlarged space was homeomorphic to a closed ball, the Brouwer fixed-point theorem became applicable. Smale conjectured that if formula_1 is an oriented smooth closed manifold, the identity component of the group of orientation-preserving diffeomorphisms is simple. This had first been proved for a product of circles by Michel Herman; it was proved in full generality by Thurston.


title: Diffeomorphism

text: Since every diffeomorphism is a homeomorphism, every diffeomorphic manifolds are homeomorphic, but the converse is not true.


title: Diffeomorphism

text: While it is easy to find homeomorphisms that are non-diffeomorphisms, it is more difficult to find a pair of homeomorphic manifolds that are not diffeomorphic. In dimensions 1, 2 and 3, any pair of homeomorphic smooth manifolds are diffeomorphic. In dimension 4 or greater, examples of homeomorphic but not diffeomorphic pairs have been found. The first such example was constructed by John Milnor in dimension 7. He constructed a smooth 7-dimensional manifold (called now Milnor's sphere) that is homeomorphic to the standard 7-sphere but not diffeomorphic to it. There are, in fact, 28 oriented diffeomorphism classes of manifolds homeomorphic to the 7-sphere (each of them is the total space of a fiber bundle over the 4-sphere with the 3-sphere as the fiber).


title: Diffeomorphism

text: More unusual phenomena occur for 4-manifolds. In the early 1980s, a combination of results due to Simon Donaldson and Michael Freedman led to the discovery of exotic formula_196: there are uncountably many pairwise non-diffeomorphic open subsets of formula_196 each of which is homeomorphic to formula_196, and also there are uncountably many pairwise non-diffeomorphic differentiable manifolds homeomorphic to formula_196 that do not embed smoothly in formula_196.


title: Leo I (emperor)

text: Leo I (; 401 – 18 January 474), also known as "the Thracian" (; ), was Eastern Roman emperor from 457 to 474. He was a native of Dacia Aureliana near historic Thrace. He is sometimes surnamed with the epithet "the Great" (; ), probably to distinguish him from his young grandson and co-"augustus" Leo II ().


title: Leo I (emperor)

text: Ruling the Eastern Empire for nearly 20 years, Leo proved to be a capable ruler. He oversaw many ambitious political and military plans, aimed mostly at aiding the faltering Western Roman Empire and recovering its former territories. He is notable for being the first Eastern Emperor to legislate in Koine Greek rather than Late Latin. He is commemorated as a saint in the Eastern Orthodox Church, with his feast day on 20 January.


title: Leo I (emperor)

text: He was born in Thracia or in Dacia Aureliana province in the year 401 to a Thraco-Roman family. His Dacian origin is mentioned by Candidus Isaurus, while John Malalas believes that he was of Bessian stock. He served in the Roman army, rising to the rank of "comes rei militaris". Leo was the last of a series of emperors placed on the throne by Aspar, the Alan serving as commander-in-chief of the army, who thought Leo would be an easy puppet ruler. Instead, Leo became more and more independent from Aspar, causing tension that would culminate in Aspar's assassination.


title: Leo I (emperor)

text: Leo's coronation as emperor on 7 February 457, was the first to add a Christian element to the traditional Roman procedure, having been performed by the Patriarch of Constantinople, a fact which symbolized the transformation of Roman imperial traditions into medieval and Christian ones. This Christian coronation ritual was later imitated by courts all over Europe.


title: Leo I (emperor)

text: Leo I made an alliance with the Isaurians and was thus able to eliminate Aspar. The price of the alliance was the marriage of Leo's daughter to Tarasicodissa, leader of the Isaurians, who, as Zeno, became emperor in 474. In 469, Aspar attempted to assassinate Zeno and very nearly succeeded. Finally, in 471, Aspar's son Ardabur was implicated in a plot against Leo but was killed by palace eunuchs acting on Leo's orders.


title: Leo I (emperor)

text: Leo sometimes overestimated his abilities and made mistakes that threatened the internal order of the Empire. The Balkans were ravaged by the Ostrogoths, after a disagreement between the Emperor and the young chief Theodoric the Great, who had been raised at Leo's court in Constantinople, where he was steeped in Roman government and military tactics. There were also some raids by the Huns. However, these attackers were unable to take Constantinople thanks to the walls, which had been rebuilt and reinforced in the reign of Theodosius II and against which they possessed no suitable siege engines.


title: Leo I (emperor)

text: Leo's reign was also noteworthy for his influence in the Western Roman Empire, marked by his appointment of Anthemius as Western Roman emperor in 467. He attempted to build on this political achievement with an expedition against the Vandals in 468, which was defeated due to the arrogance of Leo's brother-in-law Basiliscus. This disaster drained the Empire of men and money. Procopius estimated the costs of the expedition to be 130,000 pounds of gold; John the Lydian estimated the costs to be 65,000 pounds of gold and 750,000 pounds of silver. The expedition consisted of 1,113 ships carrying 100,000 men. The resulting battle heavely damaged the imperial treasury, partly of the treachery of Basiliscus, his wife's brother.


title: Leo I (emperor)

text: Leo and Verina had three children. Their eldest daughter Ariadne was born prior to the death of Marcian (reigned 450 – 457). Ariadne had a younger sister, Leontia. Leontia was first betrothed to Patricius, a son of Aspar, but their engagement was probably annulled when Aspar and another of his sons, Ardabur, were assassinated in 471. Leontia then married Marcian, a son of Emperor Anthemius and Marcia Euphemia. The couple led a failed revolt against Zeno in 478–479. They were exiled to Isauria following their defeat.


title: Leo I (emperor)

text: An unknown son was born in 463. He died five months following his birth. The only sources about him are a horoscope by Rhetorius and a hagiography of Daniel the Stylite. The "Georgian Chronicle", a 13th-century compilation drawing from earlier sources, reports a marriage of Vakhtang I of Iberia to Princess Helena of Byzantium, identifying her as a daughter of the predecessor of Zeno. This predecessor was probably Leo I, the tale attributing a third daughter to Leo. Cyril Toumanoff identified two children of this marriage: Mithridates of Iberia; and Leo of Iberia. This younger Leo was father of Guaram I of Iberia. The accuracy of the descent is unknown.


title: Language change

text: Language change is variation over time in a language's features. It is studied in several subfields of linguistics: historical linguistics, sociolinguistics, and evolutionary linguistics. Traditional theories of historical linguistics identify three main types of change: systematic change in the pronunciation of phonemes, or sound change; borrowing, in which features of a language or dialect are altered as a result of influence from another language or dialect; and analogical change, in which the shape or grammatical behavior of a word is altered to more closely resemble that of another word.


title: Language change

text: All living languages are continually undergoing change. Some commentators use derogatory labels such as "corruption" to suggest that language change constitutes a degradation in the quality of a language, especially when the change originates from human error or is a prescriptively discouraged usage. Modern linguistics rejects this concept, since from a scientific point of view such innovations cannot be judged in terms of good or bad. John Lyons notes that "any standard of evaluation applied to language-change must be based upon a recognition of the various functions a language 'is called upon' to fulfil in the society which uses it".


title: Language change

text: According to Guy Deutscher, the tricky question is "Why are changes not brought up short and stopped in their tracks? At first sight, there seem to be all the reasons in the world why society should never let the changes through." He sees the reason for tolerating change in the fact that we already are used to "synchronic variation", to the extent that we are hardly aware of it. For example, when we hear the word "wicked", we automatically interpret it as either "evil" or "wonderful", depending on whether it is uttered by an elderly lady or a teenager. Deutscher speculates that "[i]n a hundred years' time, when the original meaning of 'wicked' has all but been forgotten, people may wonder how it was ever possible for a word meaning 'evil' to change its sense to 'wonderful' so quickly."


title: Language change

text: Sound change—i.e., change in the pronunciation of phonemes—can lead to phonological change (i.e., change in the relationships between phonemes within the structure of a language). For instance, if the pronunciation of one phoneme changes to become identical to that of another phoneme, the two original phonemes can merge into a single phoneme, reducing the total number of phonemes the language contains.


title: Language change

text: Determining the exact course of sound change in historical languages can pose difficulties, inasmuch as the technology of sound recording dates only from the 19th century, and thus sound changes before that time must be inferred from written texts. The orthographical practices of historical writers provide the main (indirect) evidence of how language sounds have changed over the centuries. Poetic devices such as rhyme and rhythm can also provide clues to earlier phonetic and phonological patterns.


title: Language change

text: A principal axiom of historical linguistics, established by the linguists of the Neogrammarian school of thought in the 19th century, is that sound change is said to be "regular"—i.e., a given sound change simultaneously affects all words in which the relevant set of phonemes appears, rather than each word's pronunciation changing independently of each other. The degree to which the Neogrammarian hypothesis is an accurate description of how sound change takes place, rather than a useful approximation, is controversial; but it has proven extremely valuable to historical linguistics as a heuristic, and enabled the development of methodologies of comparative reconstruction and internal reconstruction that allow linguists to extrapolate backward from known languages to the properties of earlier, unattested languages and hypothesize sound changes that may have taken place in them.


title: Language change

text: The ongoing influx of new words into the English language (for example) helps make it a rich field for investigation into language change, despite the difficulty of defining precisely and accurately the vocabulary available to speakers of English. Throughout its history English has not only borrowed words from other languages but has re-combined and recycled them to create new meanings, whilst losing some old words.


title: Language change

text: Dictionary-writers try to keep track of the changes in languages by recording (and, ideally, dating) the appearance in a language of new words, or of new usages for existing words. By the same token, they may tag some words eventually as "archaic" or "obsolete".


title: Language change

text: Standardisation of spelling originated centuries ago. Differences in spelling often catch the eye of a reader of a text from a previous century. The pre-print era had fewer literate people: languages lacked fixed systems of orthography, and the handwritten manuscripts that survive often show words spelled according to regional pronunciation and to personal preference.


title: Language change

text: Semantic changes are shifts in the meanings of existing words. Basic types of semantic change include:


title: Language change

text: After a word enters a language, its meaning can change as through a shift in the valence of its connotations. As an example, when "villain" entered English it meant 'peasant' or 'farmhand', but acquired the connotation 'low-born' or 'scoundrel', and today only the negative use survives. Thus 'villain' has undergone pejoration. Conversely, the word "wicked" is undergoing amelioration in colloquial contexts, shifting from its original sense of 'evil', to the much more positive one of 'brilliant'.


title: Language change

text: Words' meanings may also change in terms of the breadth of their semantic domain. Narrowing a word limits its alternative meanings, whereas broadening associates new meanings with it. For example, "hound" (Old English "hund") once referred to any dog, whereas in modern English it denotes only a particular type of dog. On the other hand, the word "dog" itself has been broadened from its Old English root 'dogge', the name of a particular breed, to become the general term for all domestic canines.


title: Language change

text: Over time, syntactic change is the greatest modifier of a particular language. Massive changes – attributable either to creolization or to relexification – may occur both in syntax and in vocabulary. Syntactic change can also be purely language-internal, whether independent within the syntactic component or the eventual result of phonological or morphological change.


title: Language change

text: The sociolinguist Jennifer Coates, following William Labov, describes linguistic change as occurring in the context of linguistic heterogeneity. She explains that "[l]inguistic change can be said to have taken place when a new linguistic form, used by some sub-group within a speech community, is adopted by other members of that community and accepted as the norm."


title: Language change

text: The sociolinguist William Labov recorded the change in pronunciation in a relatively short period in the American resort of Martha's Vineyard and showed how this resulted from social tensions and processes.


title: Language change

text: Even in the relatively short time that broadcast media have recorded their work, one can observe the difference between the pronunciation of the newsreaders of the 1940s and the 1950s and the pronunciation of today. The greater acceptance and fashionability of regional accents in media may also reflect a more democratic, less formal society — compare the widespread adoption of language policies.


title: Language change

text: Can and Patton (2010) provide a quantitative analysis of twentieth-century Turkish literature using forty novels of forty authors. Using weighted least squares regression and a sliding window approach, they show that, as time passes, words, in terms of both tokens (in text) and types (in vocabulary), have become longer. They indicate that the increase in word lengths with time can be attributed to the government-initiated language "reform" of the 20th century. This reform aimed at replacing foreign words used in Turkish, especially Arabic- and Persian-based words (since they were in majority when the reform was initiated in early 1930s), with newly coined pure Turkish neologisms created by adding suffixes to Turkish word stems (Lewis, 1999).


title: Language change

text: Can and Patton (2010), based on their observations of the change of a specific word use (more specifically in newer works the preference of "ama" over "fakat", both borrowed from Arabic and meaning "but", and their inverse usage correlation is statistically significant), also speculate that the word length increase can influence the common word choice preferences of authors.


title: Language change

text: Kadochnikov (2016) analyzes the political and economic logic behind the development of the Russian language. Ever since the emergence of the unified Russian state in the 15th and 16th centuries the government played a key role in standardizing the Russian language and developing its prescriptive norms with the fundamental goal of ensuring that it can be efficiently used as a practical tool in all sorts of legal, judicial, administrative and economic affairs throughout the country.


title: Language change

text: Altintas, Can, and Patton (2007) introduce a systematic approach to language change quantification by studying unconsciously used language features in time-separated parallel translations. For this purpose, they use objective style markers such as vocabulary richness and lengths of words, word stems and suffixes, and employ statistical methods to measure their changes over time.


title: Language change

text: Languages perceived to be "higher status" stabilise or spread at the expense of other languages perceived by their own speakers to be "lower-status".


title: Language change

text: Historical examples are the early Welsh and Lutheran Bible translations, leading to the liturgical languages Welsh and High German thriving today, unlike other Celtic or German variants.


title: Language change

text: For prehistory, Forster and Renfrew (2011) argue that in some cases there is a correlation of language change with intrusive male Y chromosomes but not with female mtDNA. They then speculate that technological innovation (transition from hunting-gathering to agriculture, or from stone to metal tools) or military prowess (as in the abduction of British women by Vikings to Iceland) causes immigration of at least some males, and perceived status change. Then, in mixed-language marriages with these males, prehistoric women would often have chosen to transmit the "higher-status" spouse's language to their children, yielding the language/Y-chromosome correlation seen today.


title: Ural (region)

text: Ural () is a geographical region located around the Ural Mountains, between the East European and West Siberian plains. It is considered a part of Eurasian Steppe, extending approximately from the North to the South; from the Arctic Ocean to the end of the Ural River near Orsk city. The border between Europe and Asia runs along the Eastern side of the Ural Mountains. Ural mostly lies within Russia but also includes a small part of Northwestern Kazakhstan. This is a historical, not an official entity, with borders overlapping its Western Volga and Eastern Siberia neighboring regions. At some point in the past, parts of the currently existing Ural region were considered a gateway to Siberia, or even Siberia itself, and were combined with the Volga administrative the divisions. Today, there are two official namesake entities: the Ural Federal District and the Ural economic region. While the latter follows the historical borders, the former is a political product; the District omits Western Ural and includes Western Siberia instead.


title: Ural (region)

text: Perm was an administrative center of the gubernia with the same name by 1797. Most of the territory of historical and modern Ural was included in Perm Gubernia. The administrative center of Urals was moved to Sverdlovsk (nowadays Yekaterinburg) after the Russian Revolution and Civil War. In the present, the Ural economic region does not have an administrative and informal capital, whereas Yekaterinburg is the administrative center of the Ural Federal District.


title: Ural (region)

text: From the 11th century, the region of the Ural Mountains was called "Kamyen"' (Камень, "the Stone") by Russians. In the mid-16th – early 17th century, the southern parts became known as Ural, which later spread to the entire area. The name probably originated from Turkic "aral". This word literally means "island" and was used for any territory different from the surrounding terrain. In Bashkortostan there is a 13th-century legend about a hero named Ural. He sacrificed his life for the sake of his people, and they poured a stone pile over his grave, which later turned into the Ural Mountains. Ur, uras animal in fino-ugor`s languages


title: Ural (region)

text: By topography and other natural features, Ural is divided, from north to south, into the Polar (or Arctic), Near-Polar (or Sub-Arctic), Northern, Central and Southern parts. The Polar Ural has an area of about 25,000 km and a strongly dissected relief. The Near-Polar Ural is wider (up to 150 km) and higher than the Polar Ural. The Northern Ural consists of a series of parallel ridges with the height up to 1,000–1,300 m and longitudinal depressions, which are elongated from north to south. The Central Ural is the lowest part of Urals, with the highest mountain of 994 m (Basegi) and a smooth relief. The relief of Southern Ural is more complex, with numerous valleys and ridges directed south-west and meridionally.


title: Ural (region)

text: Urals contains 48 species of economically valuable ores and minerals. Eastern regions are rich in chalcopyrite, nickel oxide, chromite and magnetite ores, as well as in coal (Chelyabinsk Oblast), bauxite, gold and platinum. Western Ural contains deposits of coal, oil, gas and potassium salts. The speciality of Urals is precious and semi-precious stones, such as emerald, amethyst, aquamarine, jasper, rhodonite, malachite and diamond.


title: Ural (region)

text: The climate of Ural is continental. The ridges of the Ural Mountains are elongated from north to south, they effectively absorb sunlight thereby increasing the temperature. The areas west to the Ural Mountains are 1–2 °C warmer in winter than the eastern regions because the former are warmed by the Atlantic winds whereas the eastern slopes are chilled by the Siberian air masses. The average January temperatures increase in the western areas from –20 °C in the Polar to –15 °C in the Southern Urals and the corresponding temperatures in July are 10 °C and 20 °C. The western areas also received more rainfall than the eastern ones by 150–300 mm per year. The highest precipitation (1000 mm) is in the Northern Ural that causes the average height of snow up to 90 cm. The eastern parts receive from 500 to 600 mm on the north to 300–400 mm on the south.


title: Ural (region)

text: Most Ural rivers belong to the basin of the Arctic Ocean. They include Tobol, Iset, Tura, Pechora, Lozva and Severnaya Sosva Rivers. The southern rivers – Ural, Kama, Belaya and Chusovaya Rivers – belong to the Caspian Sea basin. Western rivers, especially north-western ones, are more affluent. They have high and long (2–3 months) floods in May–June (June–July in the Polar Ural). The south-eastern rivers are much narrower and may dry up in summer. Rivers are fed by melting snow and precipitations. The largest lakes are on the east of the Central and Southern Urals. They include Tawatui, Argazi, Uvildy and Turgoyak. The deepest lake (136 m) is Bolshoe Schuchye. Rivers and lakes are used as a water supply, transport routes and for waterlogging. Some rivers have dams forming the Kama and Votkinsk Reservoirs.


title: Ural (region)

text: The landscapes of Ural change both in the latitudinal and vertical directions and are dominated by steppes and forests. Steppes lie mostly in the southern and especially south-eastern Urals. Meadow steppes have developed in the lower parts of mountain slopes and are covered with various clovers, daisies, filipendula, meadow-grass and foxtail millet, reaching the height of 60–80 cm. Many lands are cultivated. Moving to the south, the meadow steppes become more sparse, dry and low. The steep gravelly slopes of mountains and hills of eastern slopes of the Southern Ural are mostly covered with rocky steppes. Valleys of the rivers contain willow, poplar and caragana shrubs.


title: Ural (region)

text: Forest landscapes of Urals are diverse, especially the southern part. The western areas are dominated by dark coniferous taiga forests which change to mixed and deciduous forests on the south. The eastern mountain slopes have light coniferous taiga forests. Southern Ural is most diverse in the forest composition; here together with coniferous forests also abundant are other tree species such as larch, oak, birch, maple and elm. The Northern Ural is dominated by Siberian species of fir, cedar, spruce and pine. Forests are much more sparse in Polar Ural. Whereas in other Ural Mountains areas they grow up to the heights of 1 km, the forests cease at 250–400 m in the Polar Urals. The polar forests are low and are mixed with swamps, lichens, bogs and shrubs. Abundant are dwarf birch, mosses and berries (blueberry, cloudberry, black crowberry, etc.).


title: Ural (region)

text: Ural forests are inhabited by animals typical of Siberia, such as elk, brown bear, fox, wolf, wolverine, lynx, squirrel and sable (north only). In the Central Ural, one can meet a rare mixture of sable and pine marten named kidus. In the Southern Ural frequent are badger and black polecat. Reptiles and amphibians live mostly in the Southern and Central Ural and are represented by the common viper, lizards and grass snakes. Bird species are represented by capercaillie, black grouse, hazel grouse, spotted nutcracker and cuckoos. In the summer, South and Central Urals are visited by songbirds, such as nightingale and common redstart.


title: Ural (region)

text: Steppes of the Southern Urals are dominated by hares and rodents such as gophers, susliks and jerboa. There are many birds of prey such as lesser kestrel and buzzards. The animals of the Polar Ural are characteristic of the tundra and include fox, lemming and reindeer. The birds of those areas include rough-legged buzzard, snowy owl and rock ptarmigan.


title: Ural (region)

text: At around 9:20 a.m. on Friday, 15 February 2013, an astronomical incident occurred, known as the 2013 Russian meteor event. A fiery meteor, roughly 55 feet wide, weighing at least 10,000 tons and travelling at a speed of 30,000 miles per hour, burst through earth's atmosphere over the Ural Mountains. The news media reported that the meteor's deafening shock wave packed the punch of a 500-kiloton explosion, and was so powerful that it shattered windows and collapsed walls, damaging 4,000 buildings and injuring 1,491 people, the majority of whom were caught in the shards of flying glass. Of the people injured, 311 were children who were at school at the time. Small rocky meteorite fragments were discovered near an eight-metre crater, believed to have been created by the impact, in an ice-covered reservoir near the town of Chebarkul. The overall resulting damage from the shock wave was estimated at $33,000,000.


title: Ural (region)

text: The first people appeared on the Ural at the end of the Early Paleolithic period (about 75 thousand years ago). Several sites were discovered from the late Paleolithic (35–10 thousand years ago) including the Kapova Cave. In the Neolithic period, tribes have formed which became the basis of the Uralic language community, and mixed (Mongoloid, europoid) anthropological type. Around the same time, farming and animal husbandry develop in the Southern Ural. Manufacture of copper and bronze started in the early 2nd millennium BC and production of iron was developed around the 8th–7th centuries BC.


title: Ural (region)

text: At the beginning of the 2nd millennium, the primitive society of Ural started transforming to feudal relations. Around the 14th century, the feudal state Great Perm was created west to the Northern Ural. Russian started moving to Ural in the 11th century, mostly from the Novgorod areas. They became active around the 14th century when a number of settlements were established in the Northern Ural and attributed to Veliky Novgorod. Their ownership went to the Moscow state in 1471, together with lands around the Kama River. After the defeat of Khanate of Kazan in 1552, the Russian influence expanded to the most parts of Bashkortostan and Udmurtia.


title: Ural (region)

text: In the 17th century, Ural became inhabited by Slavs who brought advanced farming technique and craftsmanship. This changed the lifestyle of the area and quenches the past armed conflicts. Grain-based agriculture, small-scale industries (wood, leather, pottery, blacksmithing, etc.) and a network of markets spread over Ural. The salt industry was developed in Solikamsk. At the same time, the national and social oppression started of the indigenous people of the area, such as Mansi, Khanty and Bashkirs.


title: Ural (region)

text: In the 17th century rich and high-quality mineral deposits were discovered in the Ural region. First iron and copper smelters were founded by the mid-17th century. The area was recognized by the Russian government as a strategic source of raw materials. More than 60 factories were built in the first half of the 18th century and this number doubled in the 1750–60s. The industrial activity declined in the early 19th century due to the crisis of the feudal system in Russia, and the growth slowed in all areas except for the gold mining. The largest industrial and commercial centers were Perm, Yekaterinburg, Orenburg, Ufa, Kungur and Irbit. Irbit hosted the biggest fair of the Urals. In the 1840s, regular commercial navigation started on the Kama River.


title: Ural (region)

text: As a result of the Emancipation reform of 1861, most Ural farmers lost more than half of their personal lands. First joint-stock companies appeared on the Ural in the second half of the 19th century, including those with foreign capital. Many old ironworks were reconstructed and a number of new ones were built. The development accelerated not only in the traditional gold and platinum industries, but also in the coal mining and engineering. Mechanical factories were established in Yekaterinburg, Perm, Izhevsk and others cities, and chemical industry was developed in Berezniki. Nevertheless, Ural lost its status of the main metallurgical area to the South of Russia. The end of 19th century saw a rapid growth of the Ural cities and of the anti-capitalist movements. The long-term exploitation of the factory workers resulted in establishment of Social Democratic committees demanding improvements of working conditions. Those activities peaked around the period of the political collapse of the 1910s in Russia. This brought a severe industrial crisis, fuel shortages, disruption of transport, reduction of agricultural production and the deterioration of the life conditions. The October Revolution brought numerous benefits to the workers, but was followed by the years of Civil Wars (1917–19). The situation improved only after 1920. In 1920–21, the industrial production was at the 12% level of that in 1913, but by 1925–26 it recovered to 93% and in 1937 reached 700%. New giant plants were raised in Magnitogorsk (1932, iron and steel production), Bereznikovskiy (1932, Chemistry), Sverdlovsk (1933, Heavy Machinery), Chelyabinsk (1933, tractors), Solikamsk (1934, potassium), Krasnokamsk (1936, pulp and paper), Novotagilsk (metallurgy) and others. In 1929, oil was discovered in the Kama River basin and its production began in 1932 in Bashkortostan.


title: Ural (region)

text: During World War II (1941–45) Ural became the industrial backbone of Russia as most important industrial enterprises were evacuated there from the western Russia occupied by Germans. From the summer to winter of 1941, 667 factories were moved to Ural and by the end of 1941 Ural accounted for 62% of the Soviet iron production. The Ural's industrial production increased 3 times in 1943 relatively to 1941 and the military production increased 6 times. During the war, Ural accounted for 40% of the Soviet military production. Three Ural's plants gave 66% of Soviet tanks and mobile artillery units. The annual increase of production was about 50%. In 1946, most plants were converted into non-military directions.


title: Ural (region)

text: The Northern Urals is home to Uralic speaking people like Udmurts, Mari, Komi, Mansi and Khanty people. The indigenous population of the Polar Urals consists of the Nenets and Samoyedic peoples who are widespread through the Siberia and have their own languages. Bashkirs form the largest indigenous group of the region. They live in the Southern Ural and speak a language of the Turkic group. Kazakhs are another significant national fraction of the Southern Ural. Many northern tribals still continue their traditional activities, including fishing, hunting and animal husbandry (reindeer). The nomadic people of the south used to breed horses, but are mostly settled now and are involved in agriculture, especially growth of wheat, potato, melons and watermelons. The majority of the Urals population (about 80%) is however Russians, who are mostly concentrated in the cities of the Central and Southern Urals and are involved in the industry.


title: Ural (region)

text: The table (see also maps above) reveals that the Ural Federal District and Ural economical region are rather different entities, which geographically differ from the Urals, even though the Urals is not well defined geographically. In particular, those entities include parts of Volga and Siberia, and do not include areas belonging to Kazakhstan. Meanwhile, the southern part of the Ural Mountains (including Mugodzhar Mountains) does belong to Kazakhstan.


title: Sisu (Raya and the Last Dragon)

text: Sisudatu, also known by her nickname Sisu, is a fictional character who appears in Walt Disney Animation Studios' 59th animated feature "Raya and the Last Dragon" (2021). Created by screenwriter Adele Lim, she is voiced by American actress and rapper Awkwafina.


title: Sisu (Raya and the Last Dragon)

text: Inspired by the Nāga from Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism, she is depicted as the last dragon in the land of Kumandra. To get rid of the Druun, monsters who once threatened Kumandra, Sisu compressed her magic into a gem. Humanity later fought over the gem and broke it, leading to Princess of Heart Raya seeking her help to banish the Druun again. Sisu and Raya travel across Kumandra to find the gem pieces, making new friends along the way, and learning the importance of trust.


title: Sisu (Raya and the Last Dragon)

text: Sisu has received generally positive reviews from critics, who praised her design, sense of forgiveness, self-deprecating comedy, and contribution to the message.


title: Sisu (Raya and the Last Dragon)

text: Awkwafina voices Sisu. During the COVID-19 pandemic, Disney sent her an audio production tent for her home recording acoustics. Shurer explained: "When we met Awkwafina, we knew, first of all, that she's an incredible actress with a wide range, and with a very professional and disciplined approach to acting. But Awkwafina fit the dragon that we were looking for— some combination of wisdom and emotion and humor. She brings all those three things together in some magical potion." Director Carlos López Estrada called her something "amazing" in the film due to her ability to perform both comedy and drama. Director Don Hall stated he could not imagine somebody other than Awkwafina as Sisu. Estrada said she improvised many of the scenes and "brought [Sisu] to life in a way that was very exciting to watch."


title: Sisu (Raya and the Last Dragon)

text: Story artist Luis Logam stated the directors want Sisu to "completely throw Raya off guard and out of her comfort zone" during their first meeting. Logam was encouraged to add a lot of physicality to Sisu's movement. The directors described Sisu as "funny [and] self-deprecating".


title: Sisu (Raya and the Last Dragon)

text: Unlike most dragons from Disney films, Sisu does not have wings and a bulky body. She was inspired by the Southeast Asian dragons known as the Nāga which were tied to the element of water. Similar to depictions of dragons in China, Sisu's body is snake-like and slender. Her form is made up of multiple elements of other animals. Her head is similar to the mane of a lion while her body has dorsal fins and is covered in fish-like scales. Her teeth, feet and claws are similar to that of a tiger which is a trait from Chinese mythology. However, unlike typical Chinese dragons, she lacks long barbels. In the film, Sisu possesses bioluminescence. The directors wanted Sisu to look "breathtakingly beautiful". Her hair was "meant to make her feel light and ethereal, through its almost magically weightless motion, which accentuates her being divine and mystical." Steve Arounsack, a visual anthropologist and consultant on the film, was collaborated with on Sisu's design. Awkwafina stated she saw parts of her teeth and eyes in Sisu.


title: Sisu (Raya and the Last Dragon)

text: Following the release of "Raya and the Last Dragon", Disney released Sisu dolls in both human and dragon form. In a Kumandra figure play set, Sisu was featured. A Sisu plushy was also released.


title: Sisu (Raya and the Last Dragon)

text: "Vulture" called Sisu the "angel on [Raya's] shoulder urging her toward forgiveness". "Common Sense Media" praised her power, courage sweetness, forgiveness, trust and empathy. "Rolling Stone" writer David Fear lauded Sisu's sassiness, furriness, snarkiness and funniness. Ben Travis of "Empire" complimented the effects of her mane. "RogerEbert.com" Brian Tallerico commended the "gorgeous" design of Sisu. Writing for "NPR", Justin Chang said Sisu was "all feel-good vibes". "Vox" described her as being a "fun" magical sidekick: "she's wisecracking but earnest, rambunctious but wise, and her loving nature is a good foil for Raya". "Firstpost" stated she had a "mix of self-deprecating comedy, occasional wisdom and a get-out-of-jail-free card."


title: CBS This Morning

text: CBS This Morning (CTM) is an American morning television program that aired on CBS from November 30, 1987, to October 29, 1999, and again from January 9, 2012, to September 6, 2021. The program was aired from Monday through Saturday. It aired live from 7:00 a.m. to 9:00 a.m. in the Eastern Time Zone. On weekdays, it aired on a tape-delay in the Central and Mountain Time Zones; stations in the Pacific, Alaska and Hawaii Time Zones received an updated feed with a specialized opening and updated live reports. Stations outside the Eastern Time Zone carried the Saturday broadcast at varied times. It was the tenth distinct morning news-features program format that CBS has aired since 1954, having replaced "The Early Show" on January 9, 2012.