title: Grand strategy

text: John Ikenberry of Princeton University and Stephen Brooks and William Wohlforth, both of Dartmouth College, push back on Posen's selective engagement thesis, arguing that American engagement is not as bad as Posen makes it out to be. Advocates of selective engagement, they argue, overstate the costs of current U.S. grand strategy and understate the benefits. "The benefits of deep engagement...are legion. U.S. security commitments reduce competition in key regions and act as a check against potential rivals. They help maintain an open world economy and give Washington leverage in economic negotiations. And they make it easier for the United States to secure cooperation for combating a wide range of global threats."


title: Grand strategy

text: Ikenberry, Brooks, and Wohlforth are not convinced that the current U.S. grand strategy generates subsequent counterbalancing. Unlike the prior hegemons, the United States is geographically isolated and faces no contiguous great power rivals interested in balancing it. This means the United States is far less threatening to great powers that are situated oceans away, the authors claim. Moreover, any competitor would have a hard time matching U.S. military might. "Not only is the United States so far ahead militarily in both quantitative and qualitative terms, but its security guarantees also give it the leverage to prevent allies from giving military technology to potential U.S. rivals. Because the United States dominates the high-end defense industry, it can trade access to its defense market for allies' agreement not to transfer key military technologies to its competitors."


title: Grand strategy

text: Finally, when the United States wields its security leverage, the authors argue, it shapes the overall structure of the global economy. "Washington wins when U.S. allies favor [the] status quo, and one reason they are inclined to support the existing system is because they value their military alliances."


title: Grand strategy

text: Ted Carpenter, senior fellow at the Cato Institute, believes that the proponents of primacy suffer from the "light-switch model," in which only two positions exist: on and off. "Many, seemingly most, proponents of U.S. preeminence do not recognize the existence of options between current policy of promiscuous global interventionism and isolationism." Adherence to the light switch model, Carpenter argues, reflects intellectual rigidity or an effort to stifle discussion about a range of alternatives to the status quo. Selective engagement is a strategy that sits in between primacy and isolationism and, given growing multipolarity and American fiscal precariousness, should be taken seriously. "Selectivity is not merely an option when it comes to embarking on military interventions. It is imperative for a major power that wishes to preserve its strategic insolvency. Otherwise, overextension and national exhaustion become increasing dangers." Carpenter thinks that off-loading U.S. security responsibility must be assessed on a case-by-case basis. Nevertheless, the United States must refrain from using military might in campaigns that do not directly deal with U.S. interests. "If a sense of moral indignation, instead of a calculating assessment of the national interest, governs U.S. foreign policy, the United States will become involved in even more murky conflicts in which few if any tangible American interests are at stake."


title: Grand strategy

text: Posen has argued that the four schools of U.S. grand strategy that he identified in the 1990s have been replaced by just two: liberal hegemony, which came from a fusion of primacy and cooperative security, and restraint, which came from a fusion of neo-isolationism and selective engagement. Other scholars have proposed a third policy, offshore balancing.


title: Grand strategy

text: Proponents of liberal hegemony favor a world order in which the United States is a hegemon and uses this power advantage to create a liberal international system and at times use force to enforce or spread liberal values (such as individual rights, free trade, and the rule of law). The United States strives to retain overwhelming military power, under a theory that potential competitors will not even try to compete on the global stage. It also retains an extensive network of permanent alliance commitments around the world, using the alliance system both to advance and retain hegemonic power and to solidify emerging liberal political systems. According to Posen, this strategy sees "threats emanating from three major sources: failed states, rogue states, and illiberal peer competitors." Failed states, in this view, are sources of instability; rogue states can sponsor terrorism, acquire weapons of mass destruction, and behave unpredictably; illiberal peer competitors would compete directly with the United States and "would complicate the spread of liberal institutions and the construction of liberal states." Support for liberal hegemonic strategies among major thinkers in both political parties helps explain the broad elite support for the 2003 invasion of Iraq and the 2011 intervention in Libya, even though U.S. military involvement in those conflicts had been initiated by presidents of different parties. The chief difference on foreign policy between Republican and Democratic proponents of liberal hegemony, according to Posen, is on support for international institutions as a means to achieving hegemony.


title: Grand strategy

text: Proponents of a grand strategy of restraint call for the United States to significantly reduce its overseas security commitments and largely avoid involvement in conflicts abroad. America would take advantage of what Posen calls a "remarkably good" strategic position: "[The United States] is rich, distant from other great powers, and defended by a powerful nuclear deterrent. Other great powers are at present weaker than the United States, close to one another, and face the same pressures to defend themselves as does the United States." Proponents of strategic restraint argue, consistent with the realist tradition, that states are self-interested and accordingly will look out for their own interests and balance against aggressors; however, when possible, states prefer to "free ride" or "cheap ride," passing the buck to other states to bear the cost of balancing. Restraint proponents also emphasize the deterrent power of nuclear weapons, which tremendously raise the stakes of confrontations between great powers, breeding caution, rather than rewarding aggression. Restraint advocates see nationalism as a powerful force, one that makes states even more resistant to outside conquest and thus makes the international system more stable. Restraint proponents also argue, drawing on thinkers like the Prussian strategist Carl von Clausewitz, that military force is a blunt, expensive, and unpredictable instrument, and that it accordingly should only be used rarely, for clear goals.


title: Grand strategy

text: Restraint is distinct from isolationism: isolationists favor restricting trade and immigration and tend to believe that events in the outside world have little impact within the United States. As already noted, it is sometimes confused with non-interventionism. Restraint, however, sees economic dynamism as a key source of national power and accordingly tends to argue for a relatively open trade system. Some restrainers call for supporting this trade system via significant naval patrols; others suggest that the international economy is resilient against disruptions and, with rare exceptions, does not require a powerful state to guarantee the security of global trade.


title: Grand strategy

text: In offshore balancing, the United States would refrain from significant involvement in security affairs overseas except to prevent a state from establishing hegemony in what offshore balancers identify as the world's three key strategic regions: western Europe, Northeast Asia, and the Persian Gulf. This strategy advocates a significantly reduced overseas presence compared to liberal hegemony, but argues that intervention is necessary in more circumstances than restraint. Offshore balancing is associated with offensive realist theories of state behavior: it believes that conquest can often enable states to gain power, and thus that a hegemon in regions with large economies, high populations, or critical resources could quickly become a global menace to U.S. national interests.


title: Winslow, Arizona

text: Winslow () is a city in Navajo County, Arizona, United States. According to the 2010 census, the population of the city is 9,655. It is approximately southeast of Flagstaff, west of Albuquerque, New Mexico, and southeast of Las Vegas.


title: Winslow, Arizona

text: Winslow was named for either Edward F. Winslow, president of St. Louis and San Francisco Rail Road, which owned half of the old Atlantic and Pacific Railroad, or Tom Winslow, a prospector who lived in the area.


title: Winslow, Arizona

text: The last Harvey House (La Posada Hotel), designed by Mary Colter, opened in 1930. The hotel closed in 1957 and was used by the Santa Fe Railway for offices. The railroad abandoned La Posada in 1994 and announced plans to tear it down. It was bought and restored by Allan Affeldt and it serves as a hotel.


title: Winslow, Arizona

text: U.S. Route 66 was originally routed through the city. A contract to build Interstate 40 as a bypass north of Winslow was awarded at the end of 1977. I-40 replaced U.S. Route 66 in Arizona in its entirety.


title: Winslow, Arizona

text: Winslow achieved national fame in 1972 in the Eagles / Jackson Browne song “Take It Easy” which has the line “standing on a corner in Winslow, Arizona."


title: Winslow, Arizona

text: Winslow is at (35.028482, −110.700782). According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of , all land. It is approximately southeast of Flagstaff, west of Albuquerque, New Mexico, and southeast of Las Vegas.


title: Winslow, Arizona

text: Winslow experiences a dry, temperate arid climate (Köppen "BWk"), with a wide diurnal temperature variation year-round, averaging 32.7ºF (18.2ºC). Winters are cool and dry, while summers are hot, and bringing the largest portion of the annual precipitation, which is ; snowfall averages per season (July 1 through June 30 of the subsequent year).


title: Winslow, Arizona

text: As of the census of 2000, there were 9,520 people, 2,754 households, and 1,991 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 3,198 housing units at an average density of . The city's racial makeup was 40.8% White, 28.8% Hispanic or Latino of any race, 23.5% Native American, 13.5% from other races, 5.2% Black or African American, 1.0% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander and 4.2% from two or more races.


title: Winslow, Arizona

text: There were 2,754 households, of which 40.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 50.2% were married couples living together, 16.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 27.7% were non-families. 23.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.86 and the average family size was 3.40.


title: Winslow, Arizona

text: In the city, the population was spread out, with 29.8% under the age of 18, 11.0% from 18 to 24, 31.1% from 25 to 44, 18.1% from 45 to 64, and 10.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 31 years. For every 100 females, there were 122.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 134.6 males.


title: Winslow, Arizona

text: The city's median household income was $29,741, and the median family income was $35,825. Males had a median income of $28,365 versus $20,698 for females. The city's per capita income was $12,340. About 17.5% of families and 20.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 26.9% of those under age 18 and 16.3% of those age 65 or over.


title: Winslow, Arizona

text: The city has three public elementary schools: Bonnie Brennan Elementary School, Jefferson Elementary School, and Washington Elementary School. Winslow Junior High School and Winslow High School serve the city. Winslow also hosts the Little Colorado Campus of Northland Pioneer College.


title: Winslow, Arizona

text: The Little Springs Community School, a tribal elementary school affiliated with the Bureau of Indian Education (BIE), has a Winslow postal address but is actually in an unincorporated area southeast of Birdsprings.


title: Winslow, Arizona

text: Winslow is served by Winslow-Lindbergh Regional Airport (IATA: INW, ICAO: KINW). Originally constructed by Transcontinental Air Transport, there is no commercial airline service here. The Winslow airport was designed by Charles Lindbergh, who stayed in Winslow during its construction. When it was built, it was the only all-weather airport between Albuquerque, New Mexico and Los Angeles, California.


title: Winslow, Arizona

text: The city is on BNSF Railway's Southern Transcon route which runs between Los Angeles and Chicago, Illinois. It is also a crew change point for BNSF Railway. The city also has twice-daily Amtrak service at Winslow (one train eastbound and one westbound).


title: Winslow, Arizona

text: The nearby Meteor Crater, sometimes known as the Barringer Crater and formerly as the Canyon Diablo crater, is a famous impact crater.


title: Winslow, Arizona

text: Standin' on the Corner Park is a park featuring murals depicting the "Girl my Lord in a flatbed Ford". Winslow also has an annual Standin' On The Corner street festival, traditionally held the last week of September.


title: Winslow, Arizona

text: The Painted Desert and Petrified Forest are about east of Winslow. The Little Painted Desert is north of Winslow.


title: Winslow, Arizona

text: The 9-11 Remembrance Gardens honors those who lost their lives during the September 11 attacks. The memorial was constructed using two beams recovered from the wreckage of the World Trade Center towers in New York City. A large number of citizens donated time and money to the erection of the memorial, which was in place and celebrated on the first anniversary of the event, September 11, 2002.


title: Winslow, Arizona

text: In the era of steam locomotives, Winslow was an important stop on the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway for adding water and fuel to trains. Passengers could disembark and have enough time to have a meal during the extended stop. During the 1920s many celebrities chose to come west to Hollywood and when they stopped in Winslow a parade took place. The local newspaper often documented these special events.


title: Winslow, Arizona

text: Winslow was also home to a roundhouse and maintenance depot for the Santa Fe. When the station at Barstow, California was given the engineering responsibility for newer diesel locomotives, Winslow began its slow decline. Company brass moved out, as did other employees needed for maintenance and repairs.


title: Winslow, Arizona

text: In 1949 when the Shah of Iran came to America and toured some sights, he chose to come to the Grand Canyon. His plane landed at the Winslow airport and the entourage took land transport to get to the canyon.


title: Winslow, Arizona

text: In the 1970s, Winslow was chosen as the site of one of ten Decision Information Distribution System radio stations, designed to alert the public of an enemy attack. The system was never implemented and the station was never built.


title: Slut Pop

text: Slut Pop is the fourth extended play (EP) by German singer Kim Petras. It was released on 11 February 2022 through Republic Records, making it her first project on the label.


title: Slut Pop

text: Kim Petras signed to Republic Records in 2021 and then started to work on new music for her major label debut studio album, as well other musical projects. About the new songs, Petras stated that she explored sexual themes, getting inspired by other artists, citing Britney Spears as an example. The EP process was completed in two months, and the tracklisting was put together when the singer realized that she had enough songs about the same theme to put on a whole project on its own.


title: Slut Pop

text: A dance-pop EP, with influences of tech house and electropop, "Slut Pop" was described as an "X-rated" album about "slutty, sexual fantasies". According to "PopCrush", the EP features "throbbing beats, dirty lyrics and sex-positive anthems inspired by the sex worker community".


title: Slut Pop

text: In the weeks leading up to it, Petras posted videos teasing the songs on social media, as well photos from a new photoshoot, taken for the project. To promote the record Petras did a club crawl branded as the "Slut Tour", wherein she performed at multiple nightclubs in one night.


title: Slut Pop

text: The project received a mixed reception. While some critics praised the EP's sex-positive nature, others criticized Petras' association with producer Dr. Luke, who produced the entirety of the EP.


title: A Taste of Honey (film)

text: A Taste of Honey is a 1961 British film adaptation of the 1958 play of the same name by Shelagh Delaney. Delaney wrote the screenplay with director Tony Richardson, who had directed the play on the stage. It is an exemplar of a gritty genre of British film that has come to be called kitchen sink realism.


title: A Taste of Honey (film)

text: The film starts with girls playing a game of netball in a school playground. Jo and her mother then move across Manchester on a bus.


title: A Taste of Honey (film)

text: The story is set in a run-down, post-industrial area of Salford. Jo (Rita Tushingham) is a 17-year-old schoolgirl with a self-centred, promiscuous, alcoholic mother, Helen (Dora Bryan). The two of them frequently argue, and rarely stay in one home for long, since the mother runs up rent arrears, and is either evicted, or elects to abandon the property without settling any debts.


title: A Taste of Honey (film)

text: As they move into a shabby new flat, a young black sailor called Jimmy (Paul Danquah) sees Jo struggling with her suitcases and gives her some help. Helen brings a new man home after a night in the pub but her love life is curtailed because she has to share a bed with Jo.


title: A Taste of Honey (film)

text: A while later Jo badly grazes her knee in a fall as she is walking home from school. Limping along, she goes past the Manchester Ship Canal, where Jimmy happens to be coming off his ship. He sees Jo and invites her onboard to attend to her knee. They go dancing and on the return to his ship they kiss for the first time. This turns out to be the start of a brief romantic relationship, but Jimmy's ship soon sails and they part. Relations between Jo and her mother become further strained when her mother courts Peter Smith (Robert Stephens). Jo trails after them on a weekend in Blackpool. Peter gives Helen an ultimatum saying she must choose him or Jo and she sends Jo home alone. Helen remarries and moves to a suburban bungalow with Peter and leaves Jo to fend for herself. Jimmy is waiting when she returns to Salford and they spend a night together before he boards his ship in the morning. She watches him sail off.


title: A Taste of Honey (film)

text: Rejected by her mother, Jo leaves school, starts a job in a shoe shop and rents accommodation in an old workshop on her own. She meets a gay textile design student, Geoffrey Ingham (Murray Melvin), and invites him to live with her. Together they make the workshop more liveable. When Jo discovers she is pregnant by Jimmy, Geof is supportive, even offering to marry her, saying "You need somebody to love you while you're looking for somebody to love".


title: A Taste of Honey (film)

text: With Jo heavily pregnant, Geof tracks down Helen and tells her Jo is pregnant. Within minutes of reuniting the two of them have a row - calling each other whores. Helen offers Jo her home but Jo declines. However, after a few weeks her mother reappears - by now her rocky marriage has broken down and, ever needy, she is intent on moving in with Jo and pushing out Geof, with whom she has a shouting match. Geof leaves quietly. Helen says Geof has just popped out.


title: A Taste of Honey (film)

text: Despite her best instincts, Jo is amenable to her mother staying - with the birth imminent she has become frightened and feels a need for female company and know-how. She begrudgingly agrees to her mother moving in, but only on the basis that Geof remains. While Jo sleeps, however, Geof decides he can no longer stay at the workshop, and with Helen looking on approvingly, packs his bags and leaves a goodbye note for Jo. When Jo wakes up, she finds Geof has gone and she goes outside in the hope of catching him but sees only her mother, returning from the off-licence with some bottles of beer. Geof is seen hiding in the shadows beneath the stairs. He is hoping to have a chance to talk to Jo alone, but, seeing Helen returning, he is crestfallen and walks off. The film ends with Jo standing in the street watching a group of children singing "The Big Ship Sails on the Alley Alley Oh", and because it is bonfire night, a small child gives her a sparkler.


title: A Taste of Honey (film)

text: A. H. Weiler of "The New York Times" gave a positive review, stating "In being transported out of the theatre, this "Honey" has been enriched."


title: A Taste of Honey (film)

text: Tushingham said in 2020 "A lot of the reaction was, 'People like that don’t exist' – by which they meant homosexuals, single mothers and people in mixed-race relationships. But they did." The film was banned in several countries.


title: A Taste of Honey (film)

text: The film won four BAFTA awards: Delaney and Richardson won Best British Screenplay, and the film Best British Film. Bryan won Best Actress and Tushingham was named Most Promising Newcomer.


title: A Taste of Honey (film)

text: In spite of dealing with several topics then rarely touched on in Hollywood movies, the film won Tushingham a 1963 Golden Globe for Most Promising Female Newcomer and got Richardson a 1963 Directors Guild of America award nomination. Delaney and Richardson also won a Writers' Guild of Great Britain award.


title: A Taste of Honey (film)

text: The Criterion Collection released a restored 4K digital transfer of the film on Blu-ray and DVD on 23 August 2016.


title: 2021–22 Basketball Champions League

text: The 2021–22 Basketball Champions League was the 6th season of the Basketball Champions League (BCL), the premier European professional basketball competition for clubs launched by FIBA. The season began on 5 October 2021 and ended on 15 May 2022.


title: 2021–22 Basketball Champions League

text: The defending champions, San Pablo Burgos, were eliminated in the play-ins. The winners of the Champions League will qualify for the 2023 FIBA Intercontinental Cup. The Bilbao Arena in Bilbao hosted the Final Four, which marked the first time the arena of a non-participating team is chosen as a host.


title: 2021–22 Basketball Champions League

text: League positions after eventual playoffs of the previous season shown in parentheses (TH: Champions League title holders, WC: Wild card).


title: 2021–22 Basketball Champions League

text: The 24 teams will be divided into six pots based firstly on the competition's club ranking and, for clubs that have not yet participated in the competition, on the country ranking. For the quarterfinals round of qualifications, teams from Pot 6 will be drawn against teams from Pot 3, and teams from Pot 4 will face teams from Pot 5. Clubs from Pot 1 and 2 will be seeded, and will enter directly in the semifinals stage of qualifications and will face the winners from the quarterfinals round. The winners of the semifinals stage will face each other in the finals of qualifications. The four winners of the finals will then qualify for the regular season and join the 28 directly qualified teams in the main draw. The rest of the teams will be demoted, if they apply, to the FIBA Europe Cup.


title: 2021–22 Basketball Champions League

text: The 28 teams that entered in the regular season directly were divided into four pots based firstly on the club ranking and, for clubs that have not yet participated in the competition, on the country ranking. The country protection rule will apply for the stage of the draw. Clubs cannot be drawn in groups with other clubs from the same country.


title: 2021–22 Basketball Champions League

text: The Play-ins took place from January 4 to 19. The teams classified in second and third place in their respective groups of Basketball Champions League, will go on to the Play-ins. Winners will advance to the round of 16. The first legs were played on 4–5 January, the second legs on 11–12 January. Third legs were played on 18–19 January.


title: 2021–22 Basketball Champions League

text: The Round of 16 took place from January 25 until March 23, 2022. The groups were formed by the winners of each Regular Season Group and by eight Play-Ins winners. The 16 teams were divided in 4 groups, 4 teams each. The first two of each groups advanced to the quarter-finals.


title: Operation Paget

text: Operation Paget was the British Metropolitan Police inquiry established in 2004 to investigate the conspiracy theories about the death of Diana, Princess of Wales in a car crash in Paris in 1997. The inquiry's first report with the findings of the criminal investigation was published in 2006. The inquiry was wound up following the conclusion of the British inquest in 2008, in which a jury delivered its verdict of an "unlawful killing" due to the "gross negligence" of both the driver of the car in which Diana was a passenger and the pursuing paparazzi.


title: Operation Paget

text: The criminal investigation in the United Kingdom was initiated on 6 January 2004 when the coroner of the Queen's Household, Michael Burgess, asked the then Metropolitan Police commissioner, Sir John Stevens, to conduct enquiries into allegations of a cover-up and conspiracy: that MI6, under the orders of the royal family, deliberately caused the fatal car crash in Paris that killed Diana and Dodi Fayed.


title: Operation Paget

text: The investigation was legally necessary; once the inquest into the deaths got under way in the United Kingdom, it became apparent to the coroner that allegations were being made that a crime had taken place on UK soil: namely, conspiracy to murder. Coroners are legally obliged to refer to the police any information or evidence that comes before them concerning a suspected or actual crime. The basis of the investigation was public statements made mainly by Dodi Fayed's father, Mohamed Al-Fayed.


title: Operation Paget

text: The investigation initially was confined to the general premise of the alleged conspiracy, but was eventually broadened to cover every associated allegation made through the media, in legal submissions, and in formal correspondence since the crash. The level of detail of the investigation is reflected in the report's length at 832 pages which took a team of fourteen experienced police officers nearly three years to compile. Accident Investigation experts from TRL assisted the police enquiry.


title: Operation Paget

text: The British police also carried out investigations in Paris. Because of public interest in Diana, the Metropolitan Police decided to publish the report on the internet, although it had been drafted as an internal police document. The criminal investigation was expected to cost at least 2 million pounds. The cost of the inquiry eventually exceeded £12.5 million, with the coroner's inquest at £4.5 million, and a further £8 million spent on the Metropolitan Police investigation.


title: Operation Paget

text: Each chapter of the report concluded that all allegations made since the crash of conspiracy were without foundation and all the evidence obtained point to the deaths of Diana and Fayed as being the result of a tragic accident. The script for the 2007 television docudrama "" borrowed heavily from testimony in the Paget report.


title: Operation Paget

text: Angela Gallop's analysis of Diana's stomach content proved to Operation Paget that Diana was not pregnant when she died.


title: Operation Paget

text: On 3 April 2007, the deputy coroner of the Queen's Household, Baroness Butler-Sloss, decided to grant access to the evidence collected by the criminal investigation to lawyers for Mohammed Al-Fayed to assist them in putting together their case in support of the conspiracy allegation for the inquest to begin in October 2007. On 15 May 2007, it was revealed by Baroness Butler-Sloss that the underlying material collected by the criminal investigation team ran to more than 11,000 pages when printed out and also consisted of more than 1,400 photographs, several DVDs, large-sized plans and other data. The material was substantially disclosed to the interested persons and legal teams.


title: Operation Paget

text: The coroner's inquest opened on 2 October 2007, headed by Lord Justice Scott Baker. The opening statement was largely made up of evidence and findings in the criminal investigation report. On 7 April 2008, the jury came to the verdict that Diana and Fayed were unlawfully killed as a result of "gross negligence" of the driver Henri Paul and the paparazzi. Contributing factors cited included "the impairment of the judgment of the driver of the Mercedes Henri Paul through alcohol" and that none of those who died were wearing a seatbelt.


title: Territory of Alaska

text: The Territory of Alaska or Alaska Territory was an organized incorporated territory of the United States from August 24, 1912, until Alaska was granted statehood on January 3, 1959. The territory was previously Russian America, 1784–1867; the Department of Alaska, 1867–1884; and the District of Alaska, 1884–1912.


title: Territory of Alaska

text: Passage of the 1899 Criminal Code which, among other things, included a tax on liquor, led to increased calls for Alaskan representation in Congress, and the debate finally ended on August 24, 1912, when the Alaska District became an organized, incorporated territory of the United States.


title: Territory of Alaska

text: The "Second Organic Act" of 1912 renamed the District the Territory of Alaska. By 1916, its population was about 58,000. James Wickersham, a Delegate to Congress, introduced Alaska's first statehood bill, but it failed for lack of interest from Alaskans. Even President Warren G. Harding's unprecedented visit in 1923 (just days before his death) could not create widespread interest in statehood. Under the conditions of the Second Organic Act, Alaska had been split into four divisions. The most populous of the divisions, whose capital was Juneau, wondered if it could become a separate state from the other three. Government control was a primary concern, with the territory having 52 federal agencies governing it.


title: Territory of Alaska

text: In 1920, the Jones Act required U.S.-flagged vessels to be built in the United States, owned by U.S. citizens and documented under the laws of the United States. All goods entering or leaving Alaska had to be transported by American carriers and shipped to Seattle prior to further shipment, making Alaska a "de facto" dependent of the commerce on the state of Washington. The U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the provision of the Constitution saying one state should not hold sway over another's commerce did not apply because Alaska was only a territory. The prices Seattle's shipping businesses charged began to rise to take advantage of the situation.


title: Territory of Alaska

text: The Great Depression caused prices of fish and copper, which were vital to Alaska's economy at the time, to decline. Wages were dropped and the workforce decreased by more than half. In 1935, President Franklin D. Roosevelt thought Americans from agricultural areas could be transferred to Alaska's Matanuska-Susitna Valley for a fresh chance at agricultural self-sustainment. Colonists were largely from northern states in the Upper Midwest, such as Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota under the belief that only those who grew up with climates similar to that of Alaska's could handle settler life there. The United Congo Improvement Association asked the president to settle 400 African-American farmers in Alaska, saying that the territory would offer full political rights, but racial prejudice and the belief that only those from northern states would make suitable colonists caused the proposal to fail.


title: Territory of Alaska

text: The exploration and settlement of Alaska would not have been possible without the development of aircraft, which allowed for the influx of settlers into the state's interior, and rapid transportation of people and supplies throughout. However, owing to unfavorable weather conditions and the high ratio of pilots to population, over 1,700 aircraft wreck sites are scattered throughout Alaska. Numerous wrecks also trace their origins to the military build-up of the state during both World War II and the Cold War.


title: Territory of Alaska

text: Alaska's strategic importance to the United States became more apparent during World War II. In April 1942, over 200 people of Japanese origin in the territory were forcibly removed and sent to internment camps inland as a result of Executive Order 9066, which authorized the government to evict and intern any person of Japanese descent from the Pacific Coast. From June 1942 until August 1943 the Japanese invaded the U.S. by way of the Aleutian Islands chain, in the Battle of the Aleutian Islands. This marked the first time since the War of 1812 that American soil was occupied by a foreign enemy. The Japanese were eventually repelled from the Aleutian Islands by a force of 34,000 American troops.


title: Territory of Alaska

text: In the spring and summer of 1945, Cold Bay on the Alaska Peninsula was the site of the largest and most ambitious transfer program of World War II, Project Hula, in which the United States transferred 149 ships and craft to the Soviet Union and trained 12,000 Soviet personnel in their operation in anticipation of the Soviet Union entering the war against Japan. At any given time, about 1,500 American personnel were at Cold Bay and Fort Randall during Project Hula.


title: Territory of Alaska

text: On January 3, 1959, Alaska became the 49th state. There was some delay because of concern by members of the national Republican Party that Alaska would elect Democratic Party members to Congress, in contrast to Hawaii, which was also a contender for statehood at the same time and thought to have Republican Party support. In recent years these predictions have turned out to be just the opposite for both states.


title: Territory of Alaska

text: Alaska's territorial capitol had been in Sitka until 1906, when it was moved north to Juneau. Construction of the Alaska Governor's Mansion began that same year.


title: Territory of Alaska

text: Prior to the formation of a dedicated territorial law enforcement agency, law enforcement in Alaska was handled by a various federal agencies for decades including the US Army, Navy, and the Revenue Cutter Service. With the establishment of a civilian government in 1884, the United States Marshals Service also deployed deputy US marshals across the territory. Federal marshals, police departments chartered by cities, and other federal law enforcement officers would serve as the primary means of territorial law enforcement until 1941, when the territorial legislature created the Alaska Highway Patrol. Highway patrolmen only patrolled the main highways of Alaska, and did not visit remote areas or regions. They were commissioned to only enforce traffic laws. They were eventually deputized as special deputy US marshals to fill this void in jurisdiction. The legislature refused to make them police officers until the agency name was changed to Alaska Territorial Police and additional personnel were hired from among the US marshals' ranks. The agency became the Alaska Territorial Police in 1953, and again changed its title to Alaska State Troopers in 1967.


title: Territory of Alaska

text: Under the Tennessee Plan, Alaska had unrecognized Senators & an at-large representative, also being the only shadow congressmen elected by their state, after the passage of the 17th Amendment.


title: The Yin-Yang Master: Dream of Eternity

text: The Yin-Yang Master: Dream of Eternity () is a 2020 Chinese fantasy film directed by Guo Jingming, starring Mark Chao and Deng Lun. It is adapted from "Onmyōji" written by Baku Yumemakura. It was filmed in year 2019 and was released in China on 25 December 2020. Streaming rights were purchased by Netflix before the film's theatrical release. The film was a box office success as it raked in a record of ¥452 million, 10 days after its official theatrical release.


title: The Yin-Yang Master: Dream of Eternity

text: Centuries ago, a malevolent serpent demon was born from the desires of man. Four masters gathered together to trap the snake within the Imperial City, sealed within the body of the Empress, protected by four stone guardians. Since then, whenever the serpent threatens to emerge, four masters have travelled to the Imperial City to awaken the four stone guardians. With the threat of the evil serpent rising once more, four masters come together in the Imperial City: Hongruo, Longye (Jessie Li), Boya (Deng Lun), and Qingming (Mark Chao).


title: The Yin-Yang Master: Dream of Eternity

text: Qingming and Boya immediately get off on the wrong foot over their opposing view of demons, but are soon forced to cooperate when Master Hongruo is killed in his sleep by a Hair Demon. The Empress orders Princess Changping (Olivia Wang) to investigate Hongruo's death, and instates the palace priest He Shouyue (Wang Duo) as Master Hongruo's replacement. Noticing that He Shouyue bears an uncanny resemblance to his late master, Zhongxing, Qingming confronts him and learns that Shouyue is a Spirit Guardian of Zhongxing, sent to protect the Empress. However, as a result of Zhongxing's death, Shouyue is also slowly dying.


title: The Yin-Yang Master: Dream of Eternity

text: After a failed assassination attempt on the Empress, discord grows. The masters suspect each other and investigate independently. Master Longye is eventually accused, but falls victim to the Hair Demon before she can disclose what she had discovered. With her dying breath, Longye attempts to communicate her discovery to Qingming, who interprets the message as an accusation against the Princess. Unwilling to believe the Princess is the criminal, Boya insists Shouyue must be the culprit. Qingming and Boya decide to confront the Princess and Shouyue separately. Meanwhile, the Princess angrily confronts Shouyue, with whom she is in league, for killing Masters Hongruo and Longye. Shouyue reasons that their deaths were justifiable and that in order to keep their plans a secret, Boya and Qingming must also die.


title: The Yin-Yang Master: Dream of Eternity

text: When Qingming confronts the Princess, she is attacked by the Hair Demon. Qingming hunts the Hair Demon down and learns from the Demon that she had been waiting to avenge her own death on the Princess for sixty years. Realizing that the Princess has not aged a day in the past sixty years, Qingming surmises that the Princess must actually be the real Empress and thus the true vessel of the serpent.


title: The Yin-Yang Master: Dream of Eternity

text: Qingming and Boya confront the Princess and Shouyue together and learn of their true plan: in order to save Shouyue from dying, he must become the new vessel of the serpent, rendering him immortal. In order to do this, the serpent must be allowed to rise. While the Princess gives birth to the serpent, she remembers her first meeting with Qingming's late master, Zhongxing. Years ago, the two had fallen in love and the Princess had revealed her true identity - the centuries-old immortal vessel of the serpent - to Zhongxing as well as her original name, Fangyue. Knowing that desire would strengthen the serpent within her, Zhongxing left the Imperial City to prevent the Princess's feelings from growing. Before leaving, he created the Spirit Guardian He Shouyue in order to protect her, who later took Zhongxing's form to please the Princess.


title: The Yin-Yang Master: Dream of Eternity

text: The Princess and He Shouyue flee on the now giant serpent, with Boya and Qingming in pursuit. After noticing the chaos created by the serpent, the Princess realizes the error of her ways and attempts to commit suicide with Shouyue but both are swallowed by the serpent. Boya notices that only three of the four stone guardians have awakened, as Shouyue did not awaken the guardian appointed to him to allow the serpent to leave the Imperial City. Shouyue, now the new vessel for the serpent, emerges and fights Boya, Qingming and the Spirit Guardians that Qingming conjures: Snow Hound, Killing Stone and Mad Painter. Boya leaves to wake the last of the four stone guardians, the Crimson Bird. During this process, Boya collapses and becomes a Spirit Guardian himself in the form of the Crimson Bird. While the Crimson Bird and He Shouyue battle each other, Qingming teleports himself inside the serpent where he shows the Princess the last memory he has with Zhongxing. Zhongxing confesses he has always loved the Princess and encourages her to do the right thing. Qingming and the Princess teleport outside, and the Princess, no longer immortal as she is no longer the vessel of the serpent, kills herself with the sword Zhongxing named after her, Fangyue. Distracted by this, He Shouyue is impaled by the Crimson Bird. As the serpent collapses, the Crimson Bird sacrifices himself in order to save Qingming. He Shouyue rises from the serpent's ashes and hurls a sword at Boya's unconscious body, but Qingming throws himself in front of the sword and reaches a moment of clarity where he realizes the true meaning of being a Yin-Yang Master. He successfully deflects the sword from Boya and kills He Shouyue.


title: The Yin-Yang Master: Dream of Eternity

text: Boya awakens, and the two friends say their goodbyes, while the entombed Master Longye is shown to still be alive.


title: The Yin-Yang Master: Dream of Eternity

text: On December 28, 2020, Deng Lun's closing credits soundtrack titled "Tomb of Infatuation" for this movie "The Yin-Yang Master: Dream of Eternity" hit No.1 on QQ Music, KuGou Music, and DouYin.


title: The Yin-Yang Master: Dream of Eternity

text: On January 5–6, 2021, Deng Lun's closing credits soundtrack titled "Tomb of Infatuation" for this movie "The Yin-Yang Master: Dream of Eternity" hit No.1 on the Asian New Songs Chart. The ‘Asian New Songs Chart’ is a list of new Asian popular/trending music jointly created by Ali Music, Sina Weibo, Sina Entertainment, and Youku Tudou.


title: The Yin-Yang Master: Dream of Eternity

text: Deng Lun's closing credits soundtrack titled "Tomb of Infatuation" for this movie "The Yin-Yang Master: Dream of Eternity" hit No.1 in Migu Music's first half of 2021 film OST ranking chart.


title: Four square

text: Four square is a team sport played among two teams with two players each on a square court divided into four quadrants: A, B, C, and D (usually numbers 3, 4, 2, and 1, respectively, depending on the court.) The square that a player gets to before anyone else immediately becomes their position in the game. The objective of four square is to eliminate players on the opposing team to achieve the highest rank on the court, and this is done by bouncing the ball back and forth between quadrants. A player on one team may bounce the ball to an opponent team’s player’s square, and tries to bounce the ball in a state that the player on the opposing team can not hit it to another square. The winning team will move up in the ranks, and the team that reaches the highest rank, A (usually number 3 on numbered courts depending on the court), first, wins, with all the losing team’s players being eliminated. A player is eliminated when a ball is bounced in a player's quadrant and the player is unable to bounce the ball into another player's quadrant. It is a popular game at elementary schools with little required equipment, almost no setup, and short rounds of play that can be ended at any time.


title: Four square

text: Four square is played on any hard-surfaced court, such as wood, concrete or asphalt. There is no official court size, but typically courts measure between 10 and 30 feet (3-8 meters) on a side, and divided into four smaller equal-size squares. Each of the four squares has a rank and is occupied by a single player. The ranks may be arranged so that either the highest ranking square is positioned facing the lowest ranking square, or the ranks increase as one moves clockwise (or counterclockwise).


title: Four square

text: The lines on the court are boundaries. The interior lines separating player squares are out of bounds. The ball may not touch any portion of an inside line or the player who hit the ball is in error. The lines marking the outermost edges of the court are typically considered in-bounds. These boundary rules are often described as "inside out, outside in." In recreational play, and even with a judge in tournament play, it is often difficult to determine if the ball hits the line.


title: Four square

text: Four square is played with a rubber playground ball, typically diameter, and inflated to . However, other sizes and types of balls can be used.


title: Four square

text: In classic play, carrying, catching, or holding the ball during play is not allowed, although putting spin on the ball is allowed as long as carrying does not occur. Prolonged contact with the ball can give players unfair control over the play. Hitting the ball must create a perceptible change in the ball's velocity (speed or direction).


title: Four square

text: Players may be eliminated from the court because of errors or fouls they commit. Eliminated players leave the court, the remaining players move up to the next highest square, and a new player joins the court in the lowest square. Eliminated players wait in line for their next turn.


title: Four square

text: Four square is a popular game for children and school playgrounds. It is possible to scale the game's difficulty and supervision appropriately for different age groups and ability levels. Schools, churches, and camps often change the size of the court, the type of ball, or aspects of the rules to create variation in play or to suit the players' abilities.


title: Four square

text: Four square has inspired other similar games. One example is nine square where instead of the grid being two-by-two, it is three-by-three. The king court is in the middle and the ball is served from this position. The rules are similar in how the ball is passed between players by bouncing between squares. Other branches of the game have been popularized in recent years which are played on an aerial grid. It is similar to the original in that four or nine people play in their respective spots, but they must keep the ball off the ground like in volleyball. Rotation and rules are similar to each grounded rendition


title: Four square

text: Four square dates back to at least the 1950s. A game called "four square" is mentioned in newspapers at least as far back as the 1950s, although the rules are not explained.


title: Four square

text: The game is known as "King Out" in Sweden, and many players refer to the person in the server square as the "king."


title: Four square

text: The Four Square World Championships, is a regional competitive adult four square tournament, which takes place in Bridgton, Maine, USA, each winter season. The Lakes Environmental Association hosts this annual winter fundraiser to support their environment in the lakes region of Maine, USA. The competition draws athletes from the US and Canada, and has registered competitors from Israel to Bermuda. , The results of the February 24, 2018, competition are:


title: Four square

text: On August 4–5, 2012, a core group of 17 Needham High School students and alumni — assisted by 50 other Needham residents at various times — broke the previous world record by playing for 34 hours, the previous record being held by 15 Manchester College students who played the game for 30 hours. The world record was previously held by eight Argentinean players for 29 hours in 2008, as recognized by Guinness World Records. The Argentinean record was preceded by a group of teens from Youngstown, OH who also played for 29 hours.


title: Southern Nigeria Protectorate

text: Southern Nigeria was a British protectorate in the coastal areas of modern-day Nigeria formed in 1900 from the union of the Niger Coast Protectorate with territories chartered by the Royal Niger Company below Lokoja on the Niger River.


title: Southern Nigeria Protectorate

text: The Lagos colony was later added in 1906, and the territory was officially renamed the Colony and Protectorate of Southern Nigeria. In 1914, Southern Nigeria was joined with Northern Nigeria Protectorate to form the single colony of Nigeria. The unification was done for economic reasons and the colonial administration sought to use the budget surpluses in Southern Nigeria to offset this deficit.


title: Southern Nigeria Protectorate

text: Sir Frederick Lugard, who took office as governor of both protectorates in 1912, was responsible for overseeing the unification, and he became the first governor of the newly united territory. Lugard established several central institutions to anchor the evolving unified structure. A Central Secretariat was instituted at Lagos, which was the seat of government, and the Nigerian Council (later the Legislative Council), was founded to provide a forum for representatives drawn from the provinces. Certain services were integrated across the Northern and Southern Provinces because of their national significance—military, treasury, audit, posts and telegraphs, railways, survey, medical services, judicial and legal departments—and brought under the control of the Central Secretariat in Lagos.


title: Southern Nigeria Protectorate

text: The process of unification was undermined by the persistence of different regional perspectives on governance between the Northern and Southern Provinces, and by Nigerian nationalists in Lagos. While southern colonial administrators welcomed amalgamation as an opportunity for imperial expansion, their counterparts in the Northern Province believed that it was injurious to the interests of the areas they administered because of their relative backwardness and that it was their duty to resist the advance of southern influences and culture into the north. Southerners, on their part, were not eager to embrace the extension of legislation originally meant for the north to the south.


title: Southern Nigeria Protectorate

text: From its foundation, southern Nigeria was administered by a high commissioner. The first high commissioner was Ralph Moor. When Lagos was amalgamated with the rest of southern Nigeria in 1906, the then high commissioner Walter Egerton was made into Governor of the territory.


title: Southern Nigeria Protectorate

text: When in 1900 the protectorate passed from the Foreign Office to the Colonial Office, Ralph Moor became High Commissioner of Southern Nigeria and laid the foundations of the new administration, his health failing, he retired on pension on 1 October 1903.


title: Southern Nigeria Protectorate

text: Egerton became Governor of Lagos Colony, covering most of the Yoruba lands in the southwest of what is now Nigeria, in 1903. The colonial office wanted to amalgamate the Lagos Colony with the protectorate of Southern Nigeria, and in August 1904 also appointed Egerton as High Commissioner for the Southern Nigeria Protectorate. He held both offices until 28 February 1906. On that date, the two territories were formally united and Egerton was appointed Governor of the new Colony and Protectorate of Southern Nigeria, holding office until 1912. In the new Southern Nigeria, the old Lagos Colony became the Western Province, and the former Southern Nigerian Protectorate was split into a Central Province with capital at Warri and an Eastern Province with capital at Calabar.


title: Southern Nigeria Protectorate

text: When his predecessor in Southern Nigeria, Sir Ralph Denham Rayment Moor, resigned, a large part of the southeast of Nigeria was still outside British control. On taking office, Egerton began a policy of sending out annual pacification patrols, which generally obtained submission through the threat of force without being required to actually use force.


title: Southern Nigeria Protectorate

text: When Egerton became Governor of Lagos he enthusiastically endorsed the extension of the Lagos – Ibadan railway onward to Oshogbo, and the project was approved in November 1904. Construction began in January 1905 and the line reached Oshogbo in April 1907.


title: Southern Nigeria Protectorate

text: He favored rail over river transport, and pushed to have the railway further extended to Kano by way of Zaria.


title: Southern Nigeria Protectorate

text: He also sponsored extensive road construction, building on the legislative foundation laid by his predecessor Moor which enabled use of unpaid local labor.


title: Southern Nigeria Protectorate

text: Egerton shared Moor's views on the damage that was being done to the Cross River trade by the combination of indigenous middlemen and traders based in Calabar. The established traders at first got the Colonial Office to pass rules inhibiting competition from traders willing to set up bases further inland, but with some difficulty, Egerton persuaded the officials to reverse their ruling.


title: Southern Nigeria Protectorate

text: Egerton was a strong advocate of colonial development. He believed in deficit financing at certain periods of a colony's growth, which was reflected in his budgets from 1906 to 1912. He had a constant struggle to obtain approval for these budgets from the colonial office.


title: Southern Nigeria Protectorate

text: As early as 1908, Egerton supported the idea of "a properly organized Agricultural Department with an energetic and experienced head", and the Department of Agriculture came into being in 1910.


title: Southern Nigeria Protectorate

text: Egerton endorsed the development of rubber plantations, a concept familiar to him from his time in Malaya, and arranged for land to be leased for this purpose. This was the foundation of a highly successful industry.


title: Southern Nigeria Protectorate

text: He also thought there could be great potential in the tin fields near Bauchi, and thought that if proven a branch line to the tin fields would be justified.


title: Southern Nigeria Protectorate

text: Egerton came into conflict with the administration of Northern Nigeria on a number of issues. There was debate over whether Ilorin should be incorporated into Southern Nigeria since the people were Yoruba, or remain in Northern Nigeria since the ruler was Muslim and for some time Ilorin had been subject to the Uthmaniyya Caliphate. There was argument about the administration of duties on goods landed on the coast and carried into Northern Nigeria. And there was dispute over whether railway lines from the north should terminate at Lagos or should take alternative routes to the Niger River and the coast.


title: Southern Nigeria Protectorate

text: Egerton had reason on his side in objecting to the proposed line terminating at Baro on the Niger, since navigation southward to the coast was restricted to the high water season, and even then was uncertain.


title: Southern Nigeria Protectorate

text: These included excluding Africans from the West African Medical Service and saying that no European should take orders from an African, which had the effect of ruling out African doctors from serving with the army. Egerton himself did not always approve of these policies, and they were not strictly upheld.


title: Southern Nigeria Protectorate

text: The legal relationship between the Lagos government and the Yoruba states of the Lagos Colony was not clear, and it was not until 1908 that Egerton persuaded the Obas to accept the establishment of the Supreme Court in the main towns. In 1912, Egerton was replaced by Frederick Lugard, who was appointed Governor-General of both Southern and Northern Nigeria with the mandate to unite the two. Egerton was appointed Governor of British Guiana as his next posting, clearly a demotion, which may have been connected to his fights with the Colonial Office officials.


title: Southern Nigeria Protectorate

text: Lugard returned to Nigeria as Governor of the two protectorates. His main mission was to complete the amalgamation into one colony. Although controversial in Lagos, where it was opposed by a large section of the political class and the media, the amalgamation did not arouse passion in the rest of the country. From 1914 to 1919, Lugard was made Governor General of the now combined Colony of Nigeria. Throughout his tenure, Lugard sought strenuously to secure the amelioration of the condition of the native people, among other means by the exclusion, wherever possible, of alcoholic liquors, and by the suppression of slave raiding and slavery. Lugard ran the country with half of each year spent in England, distant from realities in Africa where subordinates had to delay decisions on many matters until he returned, and based his rule on a military system.


title: Southern Nigeria Protectorate

text: The British economic policy for Africa at the time was founded on the belief that if African peoples were brought to embrace European civilisation with its emphasis on law and order their economic resources would be more effectively and thoroughly exploited to the benefit of all. It was optimistically and simplistically believed that the problem of African economic development was largely the problem of law and order; that once the slave trade was suppressed the chaos and anarchy believed to be the bane of life in Africa would disappear and African endeavour would be channeled to the collection of the national produce of the tropical forest for the satisfaction of European needs. The view came to be held that Africans by themselves were incapable of maintaining law and order to the level needed to bring about the much-desired economic revolution and that only European rule could do it.


title: Southern Nigeria Protectorate

text: It was not enough for the colonial power to impose and maintain law and order though. It was also necessary to promote and develop free movement and natural growth and trade. Also it was the generally accepted assumption that the economic efforts and products of a colony should supplement, rather than compete with or undermine, the economic efforts and products of the metropolitan country. This was a survival of the mercantilist system which had come to grief in the last quarter of the eighteenth century.


title: County Roscommon

text: County Roscommon () is a county in Ireland. It is part of the province of Connacht and the Northern and Western Region. It is the 11th largest Irish county by area and 27th most populous. Its county town and largest town is Roscommon. Roscommon County Council is the local authority for the county. The population of the county was 69,995 as of the 2022 census.


title: County Roscommon

text: County Roscommon is named after the county town of Roscommon. Roscommon comes from the Irish "Ros" meaning a wooded, gentle height and "Comán", the first abbot and bishop of Roscommon who founded the first monastery there in 550 AD.


title: County Roscommon

text: County Roscommon has an area of . Lough Key in north Roscommon is noted for having thirty-two islands. The geographical centre of Ireland is located on the western shore of Lough Ree in the south of the county.


title: County Roscommon

text: Roscommon is the third largest of Connacht's five counties by size and the second-smallest in terms of population. It ranks 11th in size of Ireland's 32 counties, but 27th in terms of population, making it the 3rd most sparsely populated county after Leitrim and Mayo. The county borders every other Connacht county: Galway, Mayo, Sligo, and Leitrim, as well as three Leinster counties: Longford, Westmeath, and Offaly. In 2008, a news report said that statistically, people from Roscommon have the longest life expectancy of any county on the island of Ireland.


title: County Roscommon

text: Seltannasaggart, which is located along the northern border with County Leitrim, is the tallest point in County Roscommon, measuring to a height of 428 m (1,404 ft).


title: County Roscommon

text: Rathcroghan (), near Tulsk, a complex of archaeological sites, the home of Queen Medb (, anglicised Maeve), was the seat of Kings of Connacht and then to the High Kings of Ireland. This was the starting point of the "Táin Bó Cúailnge", or Cattle Raid of Cooley, an epic tale in Irish mythology. The county is home to prehistoric ringforts such as Carnagh West Ringfort and Drummin fort.


title: County Roscommon

text: County Roscommon as an administrative division has its roots in the Middle Ages. With the conquest and division of the Kingdom of Connacht, those districts in the east retained by King John as "The King's Cantreds" covered County Roscommon, and parts of East Galway. These districts were leased to the native kings of Connacht and eventually became the county. In 1585 during the Tudor re-establishment of counties under the Composition of Connacht, Roscommon was established with the South-west boundary now alongside the River Suck.


title: County Roscommon

text: A "well defined" and "original" fine metal workshop was active in County Roscommon in the 12th century. The Cross of Cong, the Aghadoe crosier, Shrine of the Book of Dimma and Shrine of Manchan of Mohill' are grouped together as having been created by "Mael Isu Bratain Ui Echach" et al., at the same Roscommon workshop. The workshop has been linked to St. Assicus of Elphin.


title: County Roscommon

text: John O'Donovan (1806–1861), historian and scholar, visited County Roscommon in 1837, while compiling information for the Ordnance Survey. Entering St Peter's parish in Athlone in June 1837, he wrote, "I have now entered upon a region totally different from Longford, and am very much pleased with the intelligence of the people." However, he had major problems with place-names. He later wrote, "I am sick to death's door of lochawns, and it pains me to the very soul to have to make these remarks, but what can I do when I cannot make the usual progress? Here I am stuck in the mud in the middle of Loughs, Turlaghs, Lahaghs and Curraghs, the names of many of which are only known to a few old men in their immediate neighbourhood and I cannot give many of them utterance from the manner in which they are spelled."


title: County Roscommon

text: Roscommon is governed locally by the 18-member Roscommon County Council, a body created under the Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898.


title: County Roscommon

text: The 1898 Act also divided the county into the rural districts of Athlone No. 2, Ballinasloe No. 2, Boyle No. 1, Carrick-on-Shannon No. 2, Castlerea, Roscommon, and Strokestown. The rural districts were abolished in 1925. Boyle and Roscommon were administered locally by town commissioners. Roscommon town commissioners were abolished in 1927. After becoming a town council in 2002, in common with all other town councils in Ireland, Boyle Town Council was abolished under the Local Government Reform Act 2014.


title: County Roscommon

text: For general elections, Roscommon is mostly within the three-seat Dáil constituency of Roscommon–Galway, with a portion of the county in the Sligo–Leitrim constituency. For European elections, the county is part of the Midlands–North-West constituency.


title: County Roscommon

text: There are railway stations located in Boyle (Dublin–Sligo line), Carrick-on-Shannon (Dublin–Sligo line), Roscommon (Dublin–Westport line), Castlerea (Dublin-Westport line), Ballinasloe (Dublin-Galway line) and Athlone (Dublin–Galway and Dublin–Westport lines).


title: County Roscommon

text: Gaelic football is the dominant sport in Roscommon. Roscommon won the All-Ireland Senior Football Championships in 1943 and 1944 and the National Football League Division 1 in 1979, as well as Division 2 in 2015 and 2018. Roscommon have captured the Connacht Senior Football Championship on 23 occasions, the most recent being in 2019.


title: Silverton Siege

text: Silverton Siege is a South African film directed by Mandla Dube. It is based on the real life siege that took place in Silverton, Pretoria in 1980. The film was released internationally on Netflix on 27 April 2022.


title: Silverton Siege

text: The film had officially been in development for two years as of 2019. Upon reading about the real life Silverton Siege of 1980, Dube became inspired and began developing a script with fellow American Film Institute alumnus Sechaba Morojele as editor. Dube said the film would be about 60% factual, and that they would use creative license for the rest, wanting to make it "an entertaining story, not a documentary". Principal photography took place on location in Pretoria. Production received funding from the National Film & Video Foundation.


title: Silverton Siege

text: The cast was announced alongside the release date announcement in March 2022; Thabo Rametsi, Noxolo Dlamini, and Stefan Erasmus would star as the Silverton trio alongside Arnold Vosloo, Tumisho Masha, Michelle Mosalakae, and Elani Dekker.


title: Terrapin Station

text: Terrapin Station is the ninth studio album by the Grateful Dead, released July 27, 1977. It was the first Grateful Dead album on Arista Records and the first studio album after the band returned to live touring, following a nearly two-year hiatus.


title: Terrapin Station

text: The album reached  28 on the "Billboard" Album Chart and achieved gold album status in 1987, after being released for the first time on CD (by Arista Records) following the release of that year's "In the Dark". "Terrapin Station" was remastered and expanded for the "Beyond Description (1973–1989)" box set in October 2004.


title: Terrapin Station

text: With the folding of their own record label and a change in management, the Grateful Dead signed with recently founded Arista Records. Label head Clive Davis had been interested in working with the band since his time at Columbia Records and had previously signed their colleagues New Riders of the Purple Sage. He added the Dead to the label with the agreement that they work under an outside producersomething they had not tried on a studio album since 1968's "Anthem of the Sun" (though 1970's "American Beauty" had been co-produced by engineer Stephen Barncard). Keith Olsen was chosen to produce and the band temporarily moved to Los Angeles, as Olsen preferred to work at Sound City, where he had recently achieved success producing Fleetwood Mac's 1975 comeback album.


title: Terrapin Station

text: Lyricist Robert Hunter wrote the lyrics for the first part of the "Terrapin Station" suite in a single sitting, during a rare Bay Area lightning storm. On the same day, driving across the Richmond–San Rafael Bridge, lead guitarist Jerry Garcia was struck by the idea for a singular melodic line. He turned his car around and hurried home to set it down in notation before it escaped him. Hunter said "When we met the next day, I showed him the words and he said, 'I've got the music.' They dovetailed perfectly and Terrapin edged into this dimension." He based the lyrics for the "Lady with a Fan" section on a traditional English folk song known variously as "The Lady of Carlisle", "The Bold Lieutenant" and "The Lion's Den". The ballad is No. 396 on the Roud Folk Song Index. It is also O 25 on the Laws list, which synopsizes "The lady decides to choose between two brothers who love her by determining which is braver. She tosses her fan into a lion's den and asks them to retrieve it." Hunter, who was also influenced by Sir Walter Scott, had composed "Terrapin Station" in two parts, the second never recorded or performed by the Grateful Dead.


title: Terrapin Station

text: Drummer Bill Kreutzmann ironed out the arrangement, explaining "We sat down and mapped it out. I said, 'This is how the song goes.' I showed [Mickey] all the parts that I felt worked really well, he added a couple, and that's what the song is today. We went back into the studio the next night and got it right. With the drum parts worked out, everything else snapped together like puzzle pieces."


title: Terrapin Station

text: Rhythm guitarist Bob Weir's "Estimated Prophet" was written in septuple time. His lyrics for the song (finished with writing partner John Barlow) examine a character's delusions of grandeur and California's propensity for false prophets. The song also quotes "Ezekiel Saw the Wheel". Drummer Bill Kreutzmann said "It's a great song but when [Weir] brought it to us, something was off. It needed a groove. It was in quick but it didn't swing. Yet. For my homework that night, I combined two fast sevens and played half-time over it. The two sevens brought the time around to an even numberthe phrasing is in two bars of seven, so technically the time signature is in . But that's getting technical. In layman's terms, 'Estimated Prophet' suddenly grooved."


title: Terrapin Station

text: "Dancin' in the Streets" is a cover of Martha & the Vandellas' "Dancing in the Street" from the early days of the band, given a new arrangement that prominently features singer Donna Godchaux. For the studio version, a funk-influenced guitar figure was added to a four-on-the-floor disco beat and polished with a commercial production contemporary to the era. The highly orchestrated "Sunrise" was Donna's first singing-songwriting effort for the Grateful Dead. (She and band pianist Keith Godchaux had written the songs for their duo effort "Keith & Donna" two years prior, on Dead spin-off label Round Records.) The song has been acknowledged as a tribute to the band's recently deceased road manager, Rex Jackson, for whom the Dead's charitable Rex Foundation was later named.


title: Terrapin Station

text: Bassist Phil Lesh's "Passenger" was inspired by Fleetwood Mac's "Station Man". The lyrics were written by ordained Buddhist monk Peter Zimels. However, as Lesh had stopped singing during this period due to vocal cord damage from improper singing technique, Weir and Donna Godchaux sang lead for both the recording and when it was later added to live set lists. Weir's "Samson & Delilah" was a new arrangement of Reverend Gary Davis's traditional song, retelling the story from the Tanakh. Weir had taken several guitar lessons from Davis at his Queens, New York, home prior to his death in 1972.


title: Terrapin Station

text: Olsen had a method for reining in the Dead: "During the cutting of the basic tracks it was pretty hard to get every member of the band in the studio at the same time ... so [Steve] Parish went out to the hardware store and got these giant nails and a great big hammer and as soon as everybody was in, he hammered the door shut from the inside ... we didn't have drifters from the other studios coming in to listen. We didn't have people leaving to go screw around elsewhere. We started getting work done." With Fleetwood Mac, Olsen had a hands-on approach, orchestrating the addition of Lindsey Buckingham and Stevie Nicks and influencing song choice, arrangements and sequencing. He entered the Grateful Dead project with similar expectations, imagining a concept album or song cycle. Olsen said that Davis told him "I need a commercial record out of them." This caused some friction during the sessions as well as with the end results. Kreutzmann said "He'd have us play the same thing over and over again, and we're not really the type of band that can put up with that. ... Our very identity is based on the opposite principle."


title: Terrapin Station

text: The final overdubs were recorded at Automated Sound in New York City while the Dead toured the region. Olsen then added strings, horns and choirs to the tracks at studios in London, unrequested by the band. For "Estimated Prophet", Donna's vocals were multi-tracked and he had Tom Scott add lyricon and saxophone. In a further quest for commercial potential, he ignored other contributions. Kreutzmann commented


title: Terrapin Station

text: Weir likewise felt "All the orchestration and choral stuff was given too much prominence ... so we began this long negotiation, as it were, to put it in a more reasonable perspective. Keith was real stokedhe'd gone over to England and gotten these parts ... I thought it had to be backpedaled considerably. Keith said 'I'm going to bring Tom Scott in' ... I didn't know there was going to be anything added on "Estimated Prophet". Nonetheless, Weir worked with the producer that summer, taking advantage of an offer by Davis to record his second solo album, "Heaven Help the Fool", for Arista.


title: Terrapin Station

text: The cover artwork was produced by Kelley/Mouse Studios, who had created several previous works for the band. Though a terrapin appears in the lyrics only as a place name, dancing terrapins feature prominently in the artwork and afterward became part of the large iconography associated with the Grateful Dead. The front cover image takes the idea of a "terrapin station" literally. The back cover features a stylized, one-eyed skull with a crossed bone, feathers and roses, in keeping with the imagery that had evolved around the Dead.


title: Terrapin Station

text: Though the heavy sound production was of its time, it was unusual for a Grateful Dead album and a departure from their earlier, edgier psychedelic albums or their more recent americana or jazz-blues efforts. Garcia said Olsen had "put the Grateful Dead in a dress". Unhappy with the string sections and choirs on the title suite, he complained "It made me mad. He and Paul Buckmaster had an erroneous rhythmic sense; they changed it from a dotted shuffle to a marching time." Lesh said "The orchestral and choral sweeteners added to the title sequence by Olsen and Buckmaster were a classic example of gilding the lily." Reaction to the production from both fans and critics was similar, with a more positive response to the songs themselves.


title: Terrapin Station

text: A vehicular accident involving drummer Mickey Hart prevented a summer tour supporting the release of "Terrapin Station", and while Weir returned to the studio with Olsen, Garcia focused on exhibiting "The Grateful Dead Movie", and the Jerry Garcia Band and "Cats Under the Stars". All of the songs on the album were played live, with "Terrapin Station", "Estimated Prophet" and "Samson and Delilah" staying in concert rotation until the dissolution of the band, usually as part of the second set. After its reappearance, "Dancin' in the Street" was played frequently while Donna Godchaux remained in the band, after which it was performed sporadically until 1987. She also sang "Sunrise" during the rest of her tenure. "Terrapin Station Part 1" was never performed live in full. The first three sections (known live as "Terrapin Station") remained on set lists, with the third generally extended into a climactic focus of the second set. The most complete performance included versions of the "Terrapin Transit", "At a Siding" (without lyrics), and "Terrapin Flyer" sections. It was performed only once (March 18, 1977, at Winterland, San Francisco). Conversely, one performance skipped the "Lady with a Fan" sectionthat of May 22, 1977, at Hollywood Sportatorium in Pembroke Pines (see "Dick's Picks Volume 3").


title: Terrapin Station

text: Two singles were released from the album. Davis selected "Dancin' in the Streets" as the first, in a different mix featuring a horn section that Olsen had wanted to add to the album mix. The second single featured "Passenger". Both singles were backed with "Terrapin Station", an excerpt of the album's "Terrapin Part 1" featuring the second section and part of the third (i.e. "Terrapin Station>Terrapin"). Domestic CD copies substitute the album version of "Dancin' in the Streets" with the single mix.


title: Terrapin Station

text: "Terrapin Station" was first released on CD in 1986. In 2004 it was expanded and remastered for the "Beyond Description" box set. This version was released individually in 2006. Initial releases did not list time lengths for individual sections of "Terrapin Part 1", though the sections were apparent by style and authorship. Various CD releases break the song down into individual track sections, albeit some with nebulous track boundaries.


title: Tree planting

text: Tree-planting is the process of transplanting tree seedlings, generally for forestry, land reclamation, or landscaping purpose. It differs from the transplantation of larger trees in arboriculture, and from the lower cost but slower and less reliable distribution of tree seeds. Trees contribute to their environment over long periods of time by providing oxygen, improving air quality, climate amelioration, conserving water, preserving soil, and supporting wildlife. During the process of photosynthesis, trees take in carbon dioxide and produce the oxygen we breathe.


title: Tree planting

text: In silviculture the activity is known as reforestation, or afforestation, depending on whether the area being planted has or has not recently been forested. It involves planting seedlings over an area of land where the forest has been harvested or damaged by fire, disease or human activity.


title: Tree planting

text: Tree planting is carried out in many different parts of the world, and strategies may differ widely across nations and regions and among individual reforestation companies. Tree planting is grounded in forest science, and if performed properly can result in the successful regeneration of a deforested area. Reforestation is the commercial logging industry's answer to the large-scale destruction of old growth forests, but a planted forest rarely replicates the biodiversity and complexity of a natural forest.


title: Tree planting

text: Because trees remove carbon dioxide from the air as they grow, tree planting can be used as a geoengineering technique to remove from the atmosphere. Desert greening projects are also motivated by improved biodiversity and reclamation of natural water systems, but also improved economic and social welfare due to an increased number of jobs in farming and forestry.


title: Tree planting

text: Australian forests have been heavily affected since European colonisation, and some attempts been made to restore native habitats, both by government and individuals. Greening Australia is a national Non profit set up to run the "National Tree Program" initiated by the Federal Government in 1982. Greening Australia completed the 1 Billion Tree target and has gone on to become one of the major tree planting organisations in the country.


title: Tree planting

text: There is a strong volunteer movement for conservation in Australia through Landcare and other networks. National Tree Day is organised annually by Planet Ark in the last week in July, encouraging the public to plant 1 million native trees per year. Growing trees for Timber industries is a long-term project. It may take many years for a tree to mature to an age and size that is appropriate for the Timber to be used by industry. Some trees are many hundreds of years old.


title: Tree planting

text: Many state governments run their own "Million Tree" programs each year to encourage community involvement.


title: Tree planting

text: Trees for Life (Brooklyn Park) is an excellent example of a community organisation having a sustainable impact.


title: Tree planting

text: 45,000 tree saplings will be planted on rural roads in Bangladesh. Legal agreements will ensure that 60% tree wealth created will belong to the poorest families (45 km.x15=675 families). Local government and PEP each receive 20% tree wealth. 45 poor rural women & 3 local social workers will be employed for 3 years to nurture the young saplings, receiving a monthly salary. With only 8% of the desired 25% land under tree coverage, the project will improve environment.[3]


title: Tree planting

text: Most tree planting in Canada is carried out by private reforestation companies. The reforestation companies compete with one another for contracts which are provided by logging companies. The annual allowable cut for the following year is based upon how much money the logging company invests into reforestation and other silvicultural practices. Planting is carried out in accordance to the client's specifications, and planters are expected to learn the quality standards for each contract that they work on. Planted blocks are spot checked on a regular basis. Although quality concerns vary across contracts, spot checkers are typically looking for such things as: species appropriate site choice, species appropriate spacing, how tight the saplings are in the ground, how straight the saplings are, and whether or not the saplings have been damaged. These concerns vary from region to region, and from contract to contract.


title: Tree planting

text: Tree-planting is typically piece work and tree prices can vary widely depending on the difficulty of the terrain and on the winning contract's bid price. As a result, there is a saying among planters: "There is no bad land, only bad contracts." 4 months of hard work can yield enough to live on for an entire year, but conditions are harsh.


title: Tree planting

text: Tree planting crews often do not permanently reside in the areas where they work, thus much planting is based out of motels or bush camps. Bush camp accommodations usually consist of a mess tent, cook shack, dry goods tent, first aid tent, freshly dug outhouses, and a shower tent or trailer. Planters are responsible for bringing either a tent or car to sleep in. A camp also contains camp cooks and support staff.


title: Tree planting

text: The average British Columbian planter plants 1 600 trees per day, but it is not uncommon for experienced planters to plant up to 4,000 trees per day while working in the interior. These numbers are higher in central and eastern Canada, where the terrain is generally faster, however the price per tree is slightly lower as a result. Average daily totals of 2500 are common, with experienced planters planting upwards of 5000 trees a day. Numbers as high as 7500 a day have been recorded. Planters typically work 8–11 hours per day with an additional 1 to 2 hours of (usually) unpaid traveling time. Work weeks on British Columbian planting contracts are usually 3–4 days long, with 1 day off. In Ontario, work weeks are generally 5–6 days long, with 1 day off.


title: Tree planting

text: Quite often, tree planting contractors will deduct some of the cost associated with the operation of the contract directly from the tree planter's daily earned wages. These imposed fees typically vary from $10 to $30 per day, and are referred to as "camp costs".


title: Tree planting

text: Once inflation is factored in, real tree planter earnings have declined for many years in Canada. This has adversely affected the sector's ability to attract and retain workers. Higher wages and much better working conditions in many other industries, from construction, to oil and gas, and even information technology, has led to fewer Canadian young people wanting to plant trees.


title: Tree planting

text: Based on statistics for British Columbia, the average tree planter: lifts a cumulative weight of over , bends more than 200 times per hour, drives the shovel into the ground more than 200 times per hour and travels over with a heavy load, every day of the entire season. The reforestation industry has an average annual injury rate of approximately 22 claims per 100 workers, per year. It is often difficult and sometimes dangerous.


title: Tree planting

text: Planting in Britain is commonly referred to as "restocking", when it takes place on land that has recently been harvested. When occurring on previously unforested land it is known as "new planting". Under the British system, in order to acquire the necessary permissions to clearcut, the landowner must agree a management plan with the Forestry Commission (the regulatory body for all things forestry) which must include proposals for the re-establishment of tree cover on the land. Planting contractors will be engaged by the landowner/management company, a contract drawn up and work will typically take place from November to April when most of the transplants are dormant.


title: Tree planting

text: Planting is part of the rotational nature of much British plantation forestry. Productive tree crops are planted and subsequently clearcut. Some form of soil cultivation may take place and the ground is then restocked. Where the production of timber is a management priority, a prescribed stocking density must be achieved. For coniferous species this will be a minimum of 2500 stems per hectare at year 5 (from planting). Planting at this density has been shown to favour the development of straighter knot-free logs.


title: Tree planting

text: Planters are normally paid under piece work terms and an experienced worker will plant around 1600 trees a day under most conditions.


title: Tree planting

text: Tree Plantation drives combat many environmental issues like deforestation, erosion of soil, desertification in semi-arid areas, global warming and hence enhancing the beauty and balance of the environment. Trees absorb harmful gases and emit oxygen resulting in an increase in oxygen supply.


title: Tree planting

text: On average, a single tree emits 260 pounds of oxygen annually. Similarly, a fully-grown tree is sufficient for 18 human beings in one acre of land in one year stressing the importance of tree plantation for mankind. Aniruddha’s Academy of Disaster Management (Mumbai, India) carries out numerous projects to plant trees on a huge scale. The foundation trains volunteer on this subject at Govidyapeetham (Cattle Conservation Institute) in the city of Karjat in Maharashtra, India. The trained volunteers then plant saplings, trees in groups on available land. Local government authorities also provide vacant plots, land on highways sides and on the hills for tree plantation.


title: Tree planting

text: Ek Kadam Sansthan (Jaipur, India) involves in many plantation projects including one tree my duty to plant trees on the earth. The Ek Kadam plant trees and hand them over to the individual at the village, who meets beneficiary criteria like they are financially challenged, physically challenged etc. After handing over the process Sansthan pays them 100 INR per tree for watering and safety from grazing cattle. Hence by this process Ek Kadam sansthan want to ensure 100% survivability of planted trees. Many volunteers are added to this campaign. The trained volunteers help Ek Kadam Sansthan to plant saplings, and managing all processes. Ek Kadam Sansthan not taking any support from government agencies. The management committee is regularised and managed by retired bureaucrats to ensure transparency in funds and performance measures.


title: Tree planting

text: Ek Kadam Sansthan's campaign One Tree My Duty is working with technology-enabled tree plantation work.


title: Tree planting

text: Tree-planting is an ancient Jewish tradition. The Talmudic rabbi Yohanan ben Zakai used to say that if a person planting a tree heard that the Messiah had arrived, he should finish planting before going to greet him. Due to massive afforestation efforts, this fact echoed in diverse campaigns. Israeli forests are the product of a major afforestation campaign by the Jewish National Fund (JNF).


title: Tree planting

text: The largest planted forest in Israel is Yatir Forest, located on the southern slopes of Mount Hebron, on the edge of the Negev Desert. It covers an area of 30,000 dunams (30 square kilometers). It is named after the ancient Levite city within its territory, Yatir, as written in the Torah: "And unto the children of Aaron the priest they gave Hebron with its suburbs, the city of refuge for the manslayer, and Libnah with its suburbs, and Jattir with its suburbs, and Eshtemoa with its suburbs" (Book of Joshua 21:13-14). In 2006, the JNF signed a 49-year lease agreement with the State of Israel which gives it control over 30,000 hectares of Negev land for the development of forests. Research on climate change is being carried out in Yatir Forest. Studies of the Weizmann Institute of Science, in collaboration with the Desert Research Institute at Sde Boker, have shown that the trees function as a trap for carbon in the air. Shade provided by trees planted in the desert also reduces evaporation of the sparse rainfall. Yatir Forest is a part of the NASA project FluxNet, a global network of micrometeorological tower sites used to measure the exchanges of carbon dioxide, water vapor, and energy between terrestrial ecosystem and atmosphere. The Arava Institute for Environmental Studies conducts research that focuses on crops such as dates and grapes grown in the vicinity of Yatir forest. The research is part of a project aimed at introducing new crops into arid and saline zones.


title: Tree planting

text: The JNF has been criticized for planting non-native pine trees which are unsuited to the climate, rather than local species such as olive trees. Others say that JNF deserves credit for this decision, and the forests would not have survived otherwise. According to JNF statistics, six out of every 10 saplings planted at a JNF site in Jerusalem do not survive, although the survival rate for planting sites outside Jerusalem is much higher – close to 95 percent.


title: Tree planting

text: Kaingaroa Forest in New Zealand is the second largest planted forest in the southern hemisphere after the Sabie/Graskop area in South Africa. It is one of the many plantation forests planted since European settlement. The Monterey Pine ("Pinus radiata") is commonly used for plantations since a fast-growing cultivar suitable for a wide range of conditions has been developed.


title: Tree planting

text: Government agencies, environmental organisations and private trusts carry out tree planting for conservation and climate change mitigation. While some work is carried out by private enterprise, there are also planting days organised for volunteers. Landcare Research use planted forests for their EBEX21 system for greenhouse gas emissions mitigations.


title: Tree planting

text: South Africa's forests have been a heavily depleted mostly due to agriculture, traditional farming and urbanisation in the coastal regions. Various organizations are working on increasing the forest cover in parts of the country. Currently there is less than 0.5% forest cover in South Africa. Wildlands Conservation Trust and Food & Trees for Africa (FTFA) are some of the oldest NGOs working to plant trees throughout South Africa - both established in the early 1990s. Greenpop is a national Social Enterprise established in 2010 which focusses on tree planting in sustainable urban greening and forest restoration in Sub-Saharan Africa. There is a strong volunteer movement for conservation in South Africa. National Tree Day or Arbor Day is organised annually in September, and has gone on to become national Arbor Month.


title: Tree planting

text: The largest planted forest in the Southern Hemisphere is located in the Sabie/Graskop area in South Africa and covers approximately 6000 km


title: Tree planting

text: Hand planting is the most widely practiced planting method in the United States. Hand planting is possible on most terrain, in most soil conditions, and around obstacles. Equipment for hand planting is inexpensive, but hand planting is labor-intensive resulting in costs that are generally 20% to 50% greater than those of machine planting. Hand planting is an attractive option for landowners and conservation organizations planting small acreages; especially if volunteer labor is available. Seedling survival rates will vary based on planters' experience levels. In the U.S., common hand planting tools include dibbles, mattocks, augers, and hoedads that are paired with a hip or shoulder harness style planting bag.


title: Tree planting

text: Machine planting is another common planting method in the United States. Equipment and transportation costs are such that machine planting is generally used for larger acreages where reduced labor cost and high planting productivity are desired. Machine planting is generally restricted to reasonably level terrain with good soil and limited obstacles. While machine planting is most often associated with plantation silviculture in the Southeast and Upper Midwest, it has been used in ecological restoration. Machine planting was used for forest restoration on Alaska's Kenai Peninsula following a large scale Spruce Bark Beetle outbreak in the 1990s. Common tree planting machines include the C&G Tree Planter, Hoedag Tree Planter, Taylor Tree Planter, Reynolds Tree Planter, and Whitfield Tree Planter.


title: Tree planting

text: Trees for the Future and Plant With Purpose are non-profit organizations based in the U.S. that plant trees in developing countries to improve land management. Other organizations that plant trees in the United States include:


title: Tree planting

text: The development of markets for tradeable pollution permits in recent years have opened up a new source of funding for tree planting projects: carbon offsets. The creation of carbon offsets from tree planting projects hinges on the notion that trees help to mitigate climate change by sequestering carbon dioxide as they grow. However, the science linking trees and climate change is largely unsettled, and trees remain a controversial source of offsets.


title: Tree planting

text: Climate scientists working for the IPCC believe human-induced global deforestation is responsible for 18-25% of global climate change. The United Nations, World Bank and other leading nongovernmental organizations are encouraging tree planting to mitigate the effects of climate change.


title: Tree planting

text: Trees sequester carbon through photosynthesis, converting carbon dioxide and water molecules into molecular dioxygen (O) and plant organic matter, such as carbohydrates (e.g., cellulose). Hence, forests that grow in area or density and thus increase in organic biomass will reduce atmospheric levels. (Carbon is released as if a tree or its lumber burns or decays, but as long as the forest is able to grow back at the same rate as its biomass is lost due to oxidation of organic carbon, the net result is carbon neutral.) In their 2001 assessment, the IPCC estimated the potential of biological mitigation options (mainly tree planting) is on the order of 100 Gigatonnes of carbon (cumulative) by 2050, equivalent to about 10% to 20% of projected fossil fuel emissions during that period.


title: Tree planting

text: However, the global cooling effect of forests from carbon sequestration is not the only factor to be considered. For example, the planting of new forests may initially release some of the area's existing carbon stores into the atmosphere. For example, if one included emissions from the conversion of peat bogs into oil palm plantations in national GHG totals, this would move Indonesia from 21st to third place as the world's largest producer of greenhouse gases.


title: Tree planting

text: To date, most tree planting offsets strategies have taken only the first effect into account. A study published in December 2005 combined all these effects and found that tropical forestation has a large net cooling effect, because of increased cloudiness and because of high tropical growth and carbon sequestration rates.


title: Tree planting

text: Trees grow three times faster in the tropics than in temperate zones; each tree in the rainy tropics removes about 22 kilograms (50 pounds) of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere each year. However, this study found little to no net global cooling from tree planting in temperate climates, where warming due to sunlight absorption by trees counteracts the global cooling effect of carbon sequestration. Furthermore, this study confirmed earlier findings that reforestation of colder regions—where long periods of snow cover, evergreen trees, and slow sequestration rates prevail—probably results in global warming. According to Ken Caldeira, a study co-author from the Carnegie Institution for Science, "To plant forests outside of the tropics to mitigate climate change is a waste of time.".


title: Tree planting

text: His premise that grassland reflects more sun, keeping temperatures lower, is, however, applicable only in arid regions. A well-watered lawn, for example, is as green as a tree, but absorbs far less . Deciduous trees also have the advantage of providing shade in the summer and sunlight in the winter; so these trees, when planted close to houses, can be utilized to help increase energy efficiency of these houses.


title: Tree planting

text: This study remains controversial and criticized for assuming dark colored trees might replace the frozen, white tundra in the upper northern hemisphere. Regular tree planting projects typically take place on lands that are only slightly different in color. The warming impact was also measured over hundreds of years, rather than a 30- to 70-year time horizon most climate experts believe we have to fix climate change.


title: Tree planting

text: Furthermore, the described warming effect (of temperate and boreal latitude forest) is only apparent once the trees have grown to create a dense 'close canopy', and it is at precisely this point that trees grown for offset purposes should be harvested and their absorbed carbon fixed for the long-term as timber.


title: Tree planting

text: While the benefits of tree planting are subject to debate, the costs are low compared to many other mitigation options. The IPCC has concluded that "The mitigation costs through forestry can be quite modest (US$0.1–US$20 / metric ton carbon dioxide) in some tropical developing countries ... The costs of biological mitigation, therefore, are low compared to those of many other alternative measures". The cost-effectiveness of tropical reforestation is due not only to growth rate, but also to farmers from tropical developing countries who voluntarily plant and nurture tree species which can improve the productivity of their lands. As little as US$90 will plant 900 trees, enough to annually remove as much carbon dioxide as is annually generated by the fossil-fuel usage of an average United States resident.