title: BMW 2 Series Active Tourer

text: The BMW 2 Series Active Tourer (F45/U06 model code) is a two-row subcompact executive MPV produced by BMW since August 2014. The closely related BMW 2 Series Gran Tourer (F46 model code) is a longer three-row version which began production in 2015. Marketed as part of the 2 Series range, the F45/F46 are based on the front-wheel-drive UKL2 platform. The design is based on the BMW Concept Active Tourer, and is mechanically related to the MINI Countryman, also built by BMW.


title: BMW 2 Series Active Tourer

text: The F45/F46 are the first front-wheel drive vehicles sold under the BMW marque, designed to compete directly with the Mercedes-Benz B-Class. Sales commenced in November 2014. An all-wheel-drive xDrive system is offered as an option.


title: BMW 2 Series Active Tourer

text: BMW Active Tourer is a plug in hybrid concept vehicle with 1.5 litre turbo three cylinder petrol engine derived from BMW six cylinder engines and a synchronous electric motor, lithium-ion battery, High Reflection Silver body colour, front tilted BMW radiator grille, twin headlines with LED positioning lights (eyebrows) stretching far back into the side panels, multi faceted front apron, integrated door openers, contrasted side sills with rising shadow line, twenty inch wheels.


title: BMW 2 Series Active Tourer

text: It also features rear light clusters running well into the side panel, a panorama sunroof with electronically adjustable brightness, 40:20:40 split rear backrests, centrally located vertical metal track is integrated in the back of the front seats, multifunction instrument display with 10.25 inch integrated screen, multicolour Head Up Display with brightness automatically adapts to the light available, navigation system with an eight-inch display, ECO PRO mode with coasting mode.


title: BMW 2 Series Active Tourer

text: The vehicle was unveiled in the 2012 Paris Motor Show, followed by the 83rd Geneva International Motor Show in 2013, and the Auto Shanghai 2013.


title: BMW 2 Series Active Tourer

text: It is a version of BMW Concept Active Tourer with transversely mounted 1.5 litre petrol engine with front wheel drive, plug in hybrid with electric motor, Gold Race Orange body colour, MoonWhite and MoonRock Grey interior leather upholstery, a carrier system for two bicycles (integrated into the interior).


title: BMW 2 Series Active Tourer

text: The vehicle was unveiled in 2013 OutDoor in Friedrichshafen, followed by the 2013 Frankfurt Auto Show, followed by the 2013 Tokyo Motor Show.


title: BMW 2 Series Active Tourer

text: The vehicle was unveiled in the 84th Geneva International Motor Show 2014, followed by the 2014 Canadian International Auto Show, 13th Beijing International Automotive Exhibition 2014, and 22nd Auto Mobil International Leipzig 2014.


title: BMW 2 Series Active Tourer

text: Early models included 218i, 225i, 218d (150PS). 220d (190PS) was set to arrive in September 2014, followed by 220i (192PS) in November 2014.


title: BMW 2 Series Active Tourer

text: Early models for the United Kingdom included 218i (100 kW), 218d (120 kW). From November 2014, M Sport specification (including 18 inch M Sport alloy wheels, Dakota leather upholstery, High gloss Shadowline exterior trim, Aluminium hexagon interior trim, M Sport aerodynamic styling, M Sport suspension and M Sport interior styling enhancements) becomes available.


title: BMW 2 Series Active Tourer

text: BMW 2 Series Active Tourer M Sport Package includes exclusive Estoril Blue body colour, M Aerodynamics package, M Sport suspension, 17 or 18-inch M light alloy wheels, M leather steering wheel. The 225i Active Tourer with M Sport Package was unveiled in the 2014 Geneva Motor Show.


title: BMW 2 Series Active Tourer

text: Production at the BMW Brilliance plant in Shenyang, China started in Q1 of 2016, with the first sales recorded in March. The Chinese version has different engines: the 216i has a I3 single scroll turbo with , the 218i has the same engine with , both mated to a six-speed automatic gearbox. The 220i has a I4 twin scroll turbo with and an eight speed automatic gearbox.


title: BMW 2 Series Active Tourer

text: The 2 Series Gran Tourer is a long wheelbase, three-row version, which was released in June 2015. It is the first and the only three-row MPV ever produced by BMW. Compared to the Active Tourer, its wheelbase is lengthened by to in order to fit the third-row seating, which folds flat. A two-row version is also offered as the base option for some models. At launch, the vehicle was offered with Advantage, Sport Line, Luxury Line and M Sport trim levels in Europe.


title: BMW 2 Series Active Tourer

text: A of cargo space is available in the standard five-seat variant, which can be expanded to by sliding the rear seats forward. With the third-row seating option, the boot space decreases to with the last row folded down flat to the floor.


title: BMW 2 Series Active Tourer

text: The second-generation BMW 2 Series Active Tourer was unveiled in October 2021. Available with a choice of petrol and diesel engines, there will be a range of PHEV powertrains available from 2022 onwards.


title: Conflagration

text: A conflagration is a large fire. Conflagrations often damage human life, animal life, health, and/or property. A conflagration can begin accidentally, be naturally caused (wildfire), or intentionally created (arson). A very large fire can produce a firestorm, in which the central column of rising heated air induces strong inward winds, which supply oxygen to the fire. Conflagrations can cause casualties including deaths or injuries from burns, trauma due to collapse of structures and attempts to escape, and smoke inhalation.


title: Conflagration

text: Firefighting is the practice of extinguishing a conflagration, protecting life and property and minimizing damage and injury. One of the goals of fire prevention is to avoid conflagrations. When a conflagration is extinguished, there is often a fire investigation to determine the cause of the fire.


title: Conflagration

text: During a conflagration a significant movement of air and combustion products occurs. Hot gaseous products of combustion move upward, causing the influx of more dense cold air to the combustion zone. Sometimes, the influx is so intense that the fire grows into a firestorm.


title: Conflagration

text: Inside a building, the intensity of gas exchange depends on the size and location of openings in walls and floors, the ceiling height, and the amount and characteristics of the combustible materials.


title: Anime Network

text: The network was launched in North America in late 2002 and is marketed to multi system operators (MSOs) as both a free and subscription Video On Demand (VOD) programming service. Anime Network also provides online streaming of its anime for North America via its website with free full-length preview episodes for non-members, more episodes for members, and all online titles available for subscribers.


title: Anime Network

text: In October 2007, Anime Network was launched on DirecTV On Demand, initially on channel 1801 at launch. As of the fall of 2015, it can now be found on channel 1889.


title: Anime Network

text: The Anime Network ceased broadcast of its linear 24/7 network on January 1, 2008; it continues to support a VOD service and online player on its main website. On September 1, 2009, A.D. Vision had sold off the Anime Network to Valkyrie Media Partners LLC as part of the dissolution of the company and the reorganization of its assets.


title: Anime Network

text: In June 2017, Section23 Films announced it would discontinue the Anime Network Online streaming service and focus solely on Anime Network's pay television and subscription VOD services. HIDIVE, LLC, a new company which is not affiliated with Anime Network, Section23, or Sentai Filmworks, acquired Anime Network Online's assets and spun them off into a new streaming service called HIDIVE. On June 20, 2017, Anime Network Inc. announced it acquired the "www.theanimenetwork.com" domain name from Anime Network Online.


title: Anime Network

text: At launch, the Anime Network was only available by Video On Demand to Comcast subscribers in the Philadelphia area with 1.2 million customers with more providers choosing to carry the service later on. The linear service launched on June 30, 2004, to complement the VOD service. Comcast Communications previously carried the channel on video on demand since its launch. On May 29, 2009, Comcast discontinued carriage of the service in both its free package and its pay-per-view digital television package which, however, are periodically included among Comcast Xfinity's Top Picks.


title: Anime Network

text: From June 30, 2004, to January 4, 2008, Anime Network offered a 24/7 channel available to pay television providers. The service was only carried by small cable companies. On January 4, 2008, Anime Network officially announced that the 24/7 service would cease operations. The network will still operate as a VOD provider.


title: Anime Network

text: On June 3, 2007, Anime Network was launched in the United Kingdom as a programming block on the Propeller TV satellite channel, produced by A.D. Vision. It was broadcast as a 2-hour block with 4 different anime series and aired from 8:00pm to 10:00pm, 7 days a week. The block was removed from the schedule on January 1, 2008, which was the same day Anime Network discontinued its North American 24/7 linear service to continue to support its VOD service.


title: Faithe Herman

text: Faithe Herman (born December 27, 2007) is an American actress, best known for her work in "This Is Us" (2016) and "Shazam!" (2019).


title: Faithe Herman

text: After appearing as Annie Pearson in the 2016 television show "This Is Us", Herman landed her first major film role in "Shazam!" (2019) as Darla Dudley, who will also reprise the role in the sequel "Shazam! Fury of the Gods" (2023).


title: Faithe Herman

text: Herman won two Screen Actors Guild Awards in the same category for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series for her work on "This Is Us", in 2018 and 2019.


title: Martin Romualdez

text: Ferdinand Martin Gomez Romualdez (, born November 14, 1963) is a Filipino businessman, lawyer and politician serving as the Speaker of the House of Representatives since July 25, 2022. He is also serving as the Representative for the 1st district of Leyte since 2019 and previously from 2007 to 2016. He formerly served as the House Majority Leader from 2019 to 2022, and unsuccessfully ran for senator in the 2016 elections. He is a first cousin of President Bongbong Marcos


title: Martin Romualdez

text: Romualdez is the owner of newspaper companies "Manila Standard" and the Journal Group of Publications and mass media firm Philippine Collective Media Corporation. He is also the National President of the Lakas-Christian Muslim Democrats political party.


title: Martin Romualdez

text: Ferdinand Martin Gomez Romualdez was born on November 14, 1963, the third child of Benjamin Romualdez and Juliette Gomez-Romualdez. The Romualdezes are an influential and affluent family. His father, Benjamin, served as Governor of Leyte and Ambassador to the United States, and was also one of the richest men in the Philippines.


title: Martin Romualdez

text: Romualdez attended Cornell University in the United States from 1981 to 1985, graduating with a Bachelor of Arts degree in government. In 1988, he earned a Certificate of Special Studies in Administration and Management from Harvard University. He later enrolled at the University of the Philippine College of Law in 1988, where he became a brother of the Upsilon Sigma Phi fraternity. He earned his Bachelor of Laws degree in 1992. He was admitted to the bar in 1993.


title: Martin Romualdez

text: Also in 1992, Romualdez started to serve as concurrent trustee and president of Doña Remedios Trinidad Romualdez Medical and Dr. Vicente Orestes Romualdez Educational Foundation. In 1995, meanwhile, he started work as director and legal counsel for the CARPA Realty Development Corporation, and as trustee for Remedios Trinidad Romualdez Medical Foundation. He still holds both offices. Before his work in his family's foundations, he spent a considerable time in the banking field. He was chairman of the board for Equitable PCI Bank, as well as Director for several companies, among them Philippine Commercial International Bank, Equitable Card Network, EBC Investments, Inc., Equitable Savings Bank, PCI Leasing Corporation, and PCI Capital Corporation.


title: Martin Romualdez

text: As early as April 2014, Romualdez has expressed his interest to run as Senator in the 2016 elections. He filed his certificate of candidacy for Senator on October 13, 2015. He will run under the Lakas–CMD party, of which he is the current national president.


title: Martin Romualdez

text: In an event commemorating the second anniversary of the Typhoon Haiyan aftermath in Tacloban on November 7, 2015, Romualdez, declared his support for the presidential candidate of the United Nationalist Alliance, Jejomar Binay. Aside from Binay, Davao City Mayor and presidential aspirant Rodrigo Duterte also endorsed the candidacy of Romualdez.


title: Martin Romualdez

text: Romualdez is also the author of the House Bill No. 1039, which was enacted into law by President Benigno Aquino III as Republic Act No. 10754 or an act on expanding the benefits and privileges of people with disabilities.


title: Martin Romualdez

text: On July 10, 2020, Martin and his wife Yedda Romualdez are among the 70 congressman who voted "yes" to reject the franchise renewal of ABS-CBN.


title: Martin Romualdez

text: On late November 2022, Marcos, together with House Speaker Martin Romualdez, plans to file the House Bill 6398, also known as the Maharlika Investment Fund (MIF). The aim is to create a sovereign wealth fund for the Philippines. The bill draws inspiration from South Korea's Korea Investment Corporation.


title: Martin Romualdez

text: On late November 2022, Romualdez, together with Marcos family, plans to file the House Bill 6398, also known as the Maharlika Investments Fund (MIF). The aim is to create a sovereign wealth fund for the Philippines. The bill draws inspiration from South Korea's Korea Investment Corporation. MIF is targeted to be approved by the House of Representatives on December 12, 2022. Economist Michael Batu said the bill can help raise money to help the government's programs and achieve development goals, if managed properly.


title: Martin Romualdez

text: Martin Romualdez is married to Yedda Marie M. Kittilstvedt, a former beauty pageant contestant who competed in Miss International 1996 and won. She is known as a staunch advocate of women's and children's rights issues. They have four children together: Andrew Julian (2000), Ferdinand Martin, Jr. (2001), Mariabella Gabrielle “Minxie” (2007), and Yedda Marie Danielle "Maddey" (2015). The family is currently living in Makati City, Philippines.


title: Harry Markopolos

text: Harry M. Markopolos (born October 22, 1956) is an American former securities industry executive and a forensic accounting and financial fraud investigator.


title: Harry Markopolos

text: From 1999 to 2008, Markopolos uncovered evidence that suggested that Bernie Madoff's wealth management business was a huge Ponzi scheme. In 2000, 2001, and 2005, Markopolos alerted the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) of his views, supplying supporting documents, but each time the SEC ignored him or gave his evidence only a cursory investigation. Madoff was finally revealed to be a fraud in December 2008, when his sons contacted the Federal Bureau of Investigation. After admitting to operating the largest private Ponzi scheme in history, Madoff was sentenced in 2009 to 150 years in prison.


title: Harry Markopolos

text: In 2010, Markopolos's book on uncovering the Madoff fraud, "No One Would Listen: A True Financial Thriller", was published. Markopolos has criticized the SEC for failing to discover the Madoff fraud despite repeated tips, and for failing to investigate properly the larger companies it supervised. Critics of Markopolos have called him obsessive, a self-publicist, and self-righteous, and some questioned whether he was motivated by a financial bounty, which he denied.


title: Harry Markopolos

text: Markopolos attended Roman Catholic schools, graduating from Cathedral Preparatory School in Erie, Pennsylvania, in 1974. He received an undergraduate degree in Business Administration from Loyola College in Maryland in 1981, and a Master of Science in Finance from Boston College in 1997.


title: Harry Markopolos

text: He began his career on Wall Street in 1987 as a broker with Makefield Securities, a small Erie-based brokerage. In 1988, he obtained a job with Darien Capital Management in Darien, Connecticut, as an assistant portfolio manager.


title: Harry Markopolos

text: From 1991 to 2004, he served as a portfolio manager at Boston-based options trading company Rampart Investment Management, ultimately becoming its chief investment officer.


title: Harry Markopolos

text: He now works as a forensic accounting analyst for attorneys who sue companies under the False Claims Act and other laws, emphasizing tips that result in continuing investigations into medical billing, Internal Revenue Service, and United States Department of Defense frauds, in which a "whistleblower" would be compensated.


title: Harry Markopolos

text: During 1999, Markopolos learned that one of Rampart's frequent trading partners, Access International Advisors, was dealing with a hedge fund manager who consistently delivered net returns of 1% to 2% a month.


title: Harry Markopolos

text: Frank Casey, one of Rampart's principals, met with Access CEO René-Thierry Magon de La Villehuchet, and learned the manager was Bernie Madoff, who was operating a wealth management business in which his clients essentially gave him "carte blanche" to invest the money as he saw fit, in a set of securities. Casey and Rampart's managing partner, Dave Fraley, asked Markopolos to try to design a product similar to Madoff's split-strike conversion, in hopes of luring away Access from investing in Madoff.


title: Harry Markopolos

text: When Markopolos obtained a copy of Madoff's revenue stream, he spotted problems. The biggest red flag, he believed, was that the return stream rose steadily with only a few downticks – represented graphically by a nearly perfect 45-degree angle. According to Markopolos, anyone who understood the underlying math of the markets would have known that such a return stream "simply doesn't exist in finance," since the markets were too volatile even in the most favorable conditions for this to be possible. Based on this and other factors, Markopolos eventually concluded that Madoff could not mathematically deliver his purported returns using the strategies he claimed to use. As he saw it, there were only two ways to explain the figures: Madoff was either running a Ponzi scheme (by paying established clients with newer clients' money) or front running (buying stock for his own and the hedge fund's accounts, based on insider knowledge about market impacts from about-to-be-executed client orders at his company's unrelated broker-dealer business).


title: Harry Markopolos

text: Markopolos later said that he knew within five minutes that Madoff's numbers didn't add up. He claimed it took him another four hours to uncover enough evidence that he could mathematically prove that they could have been obtained only by fraud.


title: Harry Markopolos

text: Despite this, Markopolos's bosses at Rampart asked Markopolos to deconstruct Madoff's strategy to see if he could replicate it. He could not simulate Madoff's returns, using information he had gathered about Madoff's trades in stocks and options. For instance, he discovered that for Madoff's strategy to work, he would have had to buy more options on the Chicago Board Options Exchange than actually existed.


title: Harry Markopolos

text: His calculations of Madoff's trades revealed that there was almost no correlation between Madoff's stocks and the S&P 100, as Madoff claimed. Markopolos also could find no evidence that the market was responding to any Madoff trades, even though by his estimate Madoff was managing as much as $6 billion, three times more than any known hedge fund at the time. Given that Madoff's supposed trades should have had a substantial ripple effect on broader markets, Markopolos suspected that Madoff wasn't even trading.


title: Harry Markopolos

text: With the help of two of his colleagues at Rampart, Casey and fellow quant Neil Chelo, Markopolos continued to probe the Madoff operation. What they found concerned him enough that he filed a formal complaint with the Boston office of the SEC during the spring of 2000. However, the SEC took no action. Nonetheless, others in the investing world took Markopolos's findings seriously. In 2000, Joel Tillinghast of Fidelity Investments dropped his plans to study Madoff's strategies after a meeting with Markopolos. Tillinghast wrote years later that his discussion with Markopolos convinced him that Madoff was almost certainly engaging in fraud; as he put it, "nothing in Madoff's ostensible strategy made sense."


title: Harry Markopolos

text: Michael Ocrant, editor-in-chief of "MARHedge", joined the effort to publicize Madoff's questionable actions. Casey surprised Ocrant with information that Madoff, whom Ocrant only knew to be one of the largest market makers on NASDAQ and one of the largest brokers on the New York Stock Exchange, actually ran a secretive multi-billion dollar hedge fund, directly managing investors' money. Ocrant investigated and wrote an article, "Madoff tops charts; skeptics ask how", published May 1, 2001, questioning Madoff's returns. Within a week, Erin Arvedlund followed with an investigative article in "Barron's", further questioning Madoff's secrecy and results; despite the details in these scathing articles, they generated no action from the SEC, and did not scare off Madoff's existing investors.


title: Harry Markopolos

text: Markopolos sent a more detailed submission to the SEC a year later. He also offered to let the SEC send him to Madoff's headquarters undercover, obtain the trading tickets, and compare them with the Options Price Reporting Authority tape. By then, Markopolos was convinced that Madoff was not really trading. He believed that his trading tickets would not match the OPRA tape, which would have been hard proof that Madoff was a fraud. This submission also passed without action from the SEC.


title: Harry Markopolos

text: From the beginning, Markopolos believed that Madoff was most likely running a Ponzi scheme, given his voracious appetite for cash; a Ponzi scheme can last only as long as new money is flowing in to pay existing investors. His colleagues, Casey and Chelo, were more inclined to think that Madoff was front running. Casey and Chelo believed Madoff was already a very wealthy man, and on paper it made no sense for him essentially to steal billions of dollars that he didn't need. They suspected that it was more feasible for him to increase his returns on actual trades via front-running. Markopolos, however, doubted this, since front-runners don't need the massive amount of new investor money that Madoff kept bringing in. Additionally, Markopolos believed that if Madoff was front-running, he would have to siphon off money from his broker-dealer arm to pay the investors in his hedge fund. This would have resulted in the customers of his broker-dealer operation getting shortchanged — something that would not have gone unnoticed by Madoff's more sophisticated broker-dealer customers.


title: Harry Markopolos

text: Soon after his second submission, Markopolos traveled to Europe with Magon de La Villehuchet to help get investors for an alternative product to Madoff that he'd developed for Rampart. While in Europe, Markopolos found that 14 different funds, at various firms, were invested with Madoff. Each manager believed that his fund was the only one from which Madoff was taking new money, a classic "robbing Peter to pay Paul" scenario. When Markopolos heard this, he was convinced that Madoff's wealth-management business was a Ponzi scheme.


title: Harry Markopolos

text: Markopolos persevered, even though he felt that it created a considerable risk to his own safety. He learned during his European tour that a large number of funds invested with Madoff operated offshore. To his mind, this was evidence that the Russian mafia and Latin-American drug cartels were invested with Madoff, and might want to silence anyone who threatened the viability of the hedge funds.


title: Harry Markopolos

text: On December 17, 2002, Markopolos came up with a plan to deliver an investigative file anonymously to an aide of then Attorney General of New York Eliot Spitzer as Spitzer delivered a speech at the John F. Kennedy Library in Boston. He put on a pair of white gloves to prevent leaving fingerprints, and wore an oversize coat.


title: Harry Markopolos

text: Even after leaving Rampart in 2004, frustrated that he was in a business that had to compete with cheats and lawbreakers, Markopolos continued to be driven by the intellectual challenge of solving the problem, and the ongoing encouragement from Boston SEC staffer Ed Manion. The culmination of Markopolos's analysis was a 21-page memo sent during November 2005 to SEC regulators, entitled "The World's Largest Hedge Fund is a Fraud". It outlined his suspicions in more detail and invited officials to check his theories. He outlined 30 red flags that he believed proved Madoff's returns could not be legitimate. His analysis was based on more than 14 years of Madoff return numbers, during which time Madoff reported only four losing months, an implausible scenario that Markopolos said could be achieved only by fraud. In the document Markopolos states:


title: Harry Markopolos

text: Although Madoff's scheme did not collapse until 2008, Markopolos believed that Madoff was on the brink of insolvency as early as the summer of 2005, when Casey found out that at least two banks were no longer lending money to their clients to invest with Madoff. This prompted Madoff to seek loans from banks. In June 2008 – six months before Madoff's scheme imploded – Markopolos's team uncovered evidence that Madoff was accepting leveraged money. In his book, Markopolos wrote that this was a sign Madoff was running out of cash and needed to increase his intake of new funds to keep the scheme going.


title: Harry Markopolos

text: On June 3, 2009, Markopolos told a conference at Boston College, his alma mater, that he believed Madoff personally kept less than 1 percent of the $65 billion reported stolen, and would probably lose what remained of his portion to money launderers. Markopolos estimated that $35 billion to $55 billion of the money Madoff claimed to have stolen never really existed, but were simply fictional profits he reported to his clients. Markopolos believed that Madoff's customers lost $10 billion to $35 billion, most of which went to early investors. "Madoff will wind up in a special prison designed as much to keep the crook's victims out as Madoff in. He's a guy who can't afford not to be in prison," he said. Thierry Magon de La Villehuchet committed suicide soon after Madoff's scheme collapsed, having lost $1.5 billion of his own and clients' money.


title: Harry Markopolos

text: On February 4, 2009, Markopolos testified before the United States Congress' House Financial Services Committee's capital markets panel and on March 1, appeared on CBS's "60 Minutes".


title: Harry Markopolos

text: Markopolos harshly criticized the SEC for ignoring his warnings about Madoff. "Nothing was done. There was an abject failure by the regulatory agencies we entrust as our watchdog," he said in 65 pages of prepared testimony. He said that his original 2000 complaint gave the SEC enough evidence to stop Madoff when he was supposedly managing as little as $3 billion.


title: Harry Markopolos

text: Describing Madoff as "one of the most powerful men on Wall Street," Markopolos stated that there was "great danger" in investigating him: "My team and I surmised that if Mr. Madoff gained knowledge of our activities, he may feel threatened enough to seek to stifle us." He testified that he feared for his, as well as his family's safety, until after Madoff's arrest, when the SEC finally acknowledged that it had received "credible evidence" of Madoff's Ponzi scheme years before. He said that Madoff's "math never made sense," that his "return stream never resembled any known financial instrument or strategy," and that Madoff wasn't making the volumes of trades he claimed. According to Markopolos, the best warning about Madoff came during his initial analysis of 87 months (a little more than seven years) of Madoff trades. During that time, Madoff reported only three losing months. By comparison, the S&P 500 Index reported 28 losing months during the same period. He likened Madoff's purported returns to a baseball player batting .966 for the season and "no one suspecting a cheat".


title: Harry Markopolos

text: Markopolos had originally concealed his identity from SEC regulators during May 1999, although he did meet face-to-face with SEC officials in Boston during 2000 and 2001. After the SEC did not respond, Markopolos was fearful of taking his complaints to the industry's self-regulatory authority, the National Association of Securities Dealers (since succeeded by the Financial Industry Regulatory Authority (FINRA)).


title: Harry Markopolos

text: He not only feared the power of Madoff's brother, Peter, had in that organization (he is a former Vice Chairman), but also feared that Madoff might have had associations with Russian and South American organized crime. Markopolos believed the FBI would reject his allegations without the SEC staff's endorsement. He believed that only a few SEC officials, including Manion and SEC Boston branch chief Mike Garrity, understood Madoff's operation well enough to detect the fraud. Markopolos met with Garrity during 2005, and said that while Garrity realized almost immediately that Madoff was violating the law, he could not take any action because Madoff was not based in New England.


title: Harry Markopolos

text: Markopolos later wrote that a few days after that meeting, Garrity called him and said his preliminary investigation revealed serious irregularities in the Madoff operation, and that he would have had inspection teams "tearing the place apart" if Madoff had been based in New England. However, since the Boston office's jurisdiction extended only as far as Greenwich, Connecticut; Garrity had no choice but to pass it down to the New York office. "My experiences with other SEC officials proved to be a systemic disappointment and led me to conclude that the SEC securities lawyers, if only through their investigative ineptitude and financial illiteracy, colluded to maintain large frauds such as the one to which Madoff later confessed."


title: Harry Markopolos

text: He also added that during 2005 it was Meaghan Cheung, the branch chief of the SEC's New York office, to whom he gave his 21-page report alleging that Madoff was paying old investors with money from fresh recruits. "Ms. Cheung never expressed even the slightest interest in asking me questions", Markopolos said, claiming she was too concerned with Markopolos mentioning the possibility of a reward and the fact that he was a competitor of Madoff. Cheung approved an internal memo during November 2007 to close an SEC investigation of Madoff without bringing any claim. Subsequently, she left the agency. He testified he gave details about the case during 2005 to John Wilke, an investigative reporter for "The Wall Street Journal", but that it was never pursued. Markopolos testified he (anonymously) sent a package of documents concerning Madoff to former New York Attorney General Eliot Spitzer, who had successfully prosecuted a number of securities fraud cases, but that Spitzer apparently did not act, either. Spitzer's family firm had invested in Madoff's business.


title: Harry Markopolos

text: "Government has coddled, accepted, and ignored white-collar crime for too long," he testified. "It is time the nation woke up and realized that it's not the armed robbers or drug dealers who cause the most economic harm, it's the white collar criminals living in the most expensive homes who have the most impressive resumes who harm us the most. They steal our pensions, bankrupt our companies, and destroy thousands of jobs, ruining countless lives." He testified to Rep. Gary Ackerman (D-NY) that he had never been compensated for his efforts. "I did it for our flag, for patriotism." Markopolos presented recommendations to improve the SEC's operations, which included mandatory department standards: good ethics, full transparency, full disclosure, and fair dealing for all. The SEC must establish a unit to accept "whistleblower" tips, and move its activity closer to financial centers away from Washington, D.C.


title: Harry Markopolos

text: His testimony included a reference to another $1 billion Ponzi scheme, which he shared the next day with SEC Inspector General H. David Kotz, who gave the tips to SEC Chairman Mary Schapiro. He disclosed information regarding a dozen as-yet-unknown foreign Madoff feeder funds, "hiding in the weeds" in Europe, the victims of which likely included Russian mafia and drug cartels, "dirty money" investors. Markopolos remarked that European royal families had also lost assets.


title: Harry Markopolos

text: Because of concerns of improper conduct by Inspector General Kotz in the Madoff investigation, Inspector General David C. Williams of the United States Postal Service was brought in to conduct an independent outside review. The Williams Report questioned Kotz's work on the Madoff investigation, because Kotz was a "very good friend" with Markopolos. Investigators were not able to determine when Kotz and Markopolos became friends. A violation of the ethics rule would have taken place if the friendship had been concurrent with Kotz's investigation of Madoff.


title: Harry Markopolos

text: In his interview with Steve Kroft of "60 Minutes", Markopolos said the biggest warning he noticed during his initial 1999 analysis of Madoff was that he reported losing months only four percent of the time. To Markopolos's mind, no one could possibly be that good, given the volatility of the markets. "As we know, markets go up and down, and his only went up," he said. Markopolos noted that during his tenure at Rampart, he traded with some of the biggest derivatives companies in the world, and none of them dealt with Madoff, because they didn't think his numbers were real. He admitted that he had some financial incentive to eliminate Madoff, as the two competed against each other from 2000 to 2004. However, he said, he felt compelled to pursue it, because "when someone's competing on your playing field, who's a dirty player, you want him tossed off the field." He assailed the SEC once again for ignoring his warnings, saying that the only reason Madoff was caught was that he ultimately collapsed under the weight of his own lies.


title: Harry Markopolos

text: Markopolos expanded on his criticism of the SEC in "No One Would Listen". He claimed that SEC regulators don't have nearly enough expertise to understand the various products offered in the modern market; as he put it, the SEC was still "panning by hand". He also believed that the SEC's enforcement staff didn't take his complaints seriously, because they were expecting legal proof Madoff was a fraud, not the mathematical evidence he provided. To his mind, the investigators didn't understand that mathematical proof was stronger evidence than legal proof, because "with a math problem, there is only one correct answer."


title: Harry Markopolos

text: As a result of the Madoff scandal, the SEC's chairman Christopher Cox stated that an investigation will delve into "all staff contact and relationships with the Madoff family and firm, and their impact, if any, on decisions by staff regarding the firm."


title: Harry Markopolos

text: In 2019, Markopolos published a report alleging fraudulent accounting within General Electric. The report caused the company's stock to drop 10.3% on August 15, 2019. The stock closed at $9.03 prior to the report, and then closed at $8.01 the following day when the report was published. Markopolos claimed GE was a fraud "bigger than Enron." Subsequently, GE called the report "meritless" and an attempt at "market manipulation" by Markopolos; Wall Street analysts shrugged off the report; and the regulators called the report "fairly simplistic." A Financial Times article labeled the report "some ill-thought out twaddle disguised as deep financial analysis." The Markopolos website (www.gefraud.com) alleging this giant fraud disappeared after criticism about the quality of his analyses. The full report is still available, however, in internet archives. Three months after the 175 page Markopolos report, GE stock had risen almost 44% to close at $11.52 on November 15, outperforming the general stock market.


title: Harry Markopolos

text: According to Bloomberg in November 2021, "For GE, the never-ending storm may pass, but at the moment, its future looks cloudy."


title: Harry Markopolos

text: Markopolos is the eldest of three children of Georgia and Louis Markopolos, Greek-American restaurateurs.


title: Harry Markopolos

text: His father and two uncles once owned 12 Arthur Treacher's Fish and Chips restaurants in Maryland and Delaware. His younger brother, Louie, once managed the trading office for a New Jersey brokerage company. He has a sister, Melissa.


title: Harry Markopolos

text: He and his wife Faith, who works in the financial industry for an investment company conducting due diligence of portfolio managers, have three sons, two of whom  – Harry "Hare Bear" Markopolos and Louis "Big Lou" Markopolos  – are twins.


title: Harry Markopolos

text: Markopolos's account of the Madoff scandal was published in a book titled "No One Would Listen: A True Financial Thriller." The book was released in 2010.


title: Frugivore

text: A frugivore is an animal that thrives mostly on raw fruits or succulent fruit-like produce of plants such as roots, shoots, nuts and seeds. Approximately 20% of mammalian herbivores eat fruit. Frugivores are highly dependent on the abundance and nutritional composition of fruits. Frugivores can benefit or hinder fruit-producing plants by either dispersing or destroying their seeds through digestion. When both the fruit-producing plant and the frugivore benefit by fruit-eating behavior the interaction is a form of mutualism.


title: Frugivore

text: Seed dispersal is important for plants because it allows their progeny to move away from their parents over time. The advantages of seed dispersal may have led to the evolution of fleshy fruits, which entice animals to consume them and move the plant's seeds from place to place. While many fruit-producing plant species would not disperse far without frugivores, their seeds can usually germinate even if they fall to the ground directly below their parent.


title: Frugivore

text: Many types of animals are seed dispersers. Mammal and bird species represent the majority of seed-dispersing species. However, frugivorous tortoises, lizards, amphibians, and even fish also disperse seeds. For example, cassowaries are a keystone species because they spread fruit through digestion, many of the seeds of which will not grow unless they have been digested by the animal. While frugivores and fruit-producing plant species are present worldwide, there is some evidence that tropical forests have more frugivore seed dispersers than the temperate zones.


title: Frugivore

text: Frugivore seed dispersal is a common phenomenon in many ecosystems. However, it is not a highly specific type of plant–animal interaction. For example, a single species of frugivorous bird may disperse fruits from several species of plants, or a few species of bird may disperse seeds of one plant species. This lack of specialization could be because fruit availability varies by season and year, which tends to discourage frugivore animals from focusing on just one plant species. Furthermore, different seed dispersers tend to disperse seeds to different habitats, at different abundances, and distances, depending on their behavior and numbers.


title: Frugivore

text: There are a number of fruit characteristics that seem to be adaptive characteristics to attract frugivores. Animal-dispersed fruits may advertise their palatability to animals with bright colors and attractive smells (mimetic fruits). Fruit pulp is generally rich in water and carbohydrates and low in protein and lipids. However, the exact nutritional composition of fruits varies widely. The seeds of animal-dispersed fruits are often adapted to survive digestion by frugivores. For example, seeds can become more permeable to water after passage through an animal's gut. This leads to higher germination rates. Some mistletoe seeds even germinate inside the disperser's intestine.


title: Frugivore

text: Many seed-dispersing animals have specialized digestive systems to process fruits, which leave seeds intact. Some bird species have shorter intestines to rapidly pass seeds from fruits, while some frugivorous bat species have longer intestines. Some seed-dispersing frugivores have short gut-retention times, and others can alter intestinal enzyme composition when eating different types of fruits.


title: Frugivore

text: Since plants invest considerable energy into fruit production, many have evolved to encourage mutualist frugivores to consume their fruit for seed dispersal. Some have also evolved mechanisms to decrease consumption of fruits when unripe and from non-seed-dispersing predators. Predators and parasites of fruit include seed predators, insects, and microbial frugivores.


title: Frugivore

text: Birds are a main focus of frugivory research. An article by Bette A. Loiselle and John G. Blake, "Potential Consequences of Extinction of Frugivorous Birds for Shrubs of a Tropical Wet Forest", discusses the important role frugivorous birds have on ecosystems. The conclusions of their research indicate how the extinction of seed-dispersing species could negatively affect seed removal, seed viability, and plant establishment. The article highlights the importance that seed-dispersing birds have on the deposition of plant species.


title: Frugivore

text: Examples of seed-dispersing birds are the hornbill, the toucan, the aracari, the cotinga (ex. Guianan cock-of-the-rock), and some species of parrots. Frugivores are common in the temperate zone, but mostly found in the tropics. Many frugivorous birds feed mainly on fruits until nesting season, when they incorporate protein-rich insects into their diet. Facultatively-baccivorous birds may also eat bitter berries, such as juniper, in months when alternative foods are scarce. In North America, red mulberry ("Morus rubra") fruits are widely sought after by birds in spring and early summer; as many as 31 species of birds were recorded visiting a fruiting tree in Arkansas.


title: Frugivore

text: Prior to 1980, most reports of avian frugivory were made in the tropics. From 1979–1981, a number of studies recognized the importance of fruits to fall temperate assemblages of passerine migrants. The earliest of these field studies were conducted in the fall of 1974 in upstate New York by Robert Rybczynski & Donald K. Riker and separately by John W. Baird in New Jersey, each documenting ingestion of fruits in stands of fruit-bearing shrubs by mixed species assemblages dominated by migrant white-throated sparrows.


title: Frugivore

text: Mammals are considered frugivorous if the seed is dispersed and able to establish. One example of a mammalian frugivore is the maned wolf, or "Chrysocyon brachyurus", which is found in South America. A study by José Carlos Motta-Junior and Karina Martins found that the maned wolf is probably an important seed disperser. The researchers found that 22.5–54.3% of the diet was fruit.


title: Frugivore

text: 65% of the diet of orangutans consists of fruit. Orangutans primarily eat fruit, along with young leaves, bark, flowers, honey, insects, and vines. One of their preferred foods is the fruit of the durian tree, which tastes somewhat like sweet custard. Orangutans discard the skin, eat the flesh, and spit out the seeds.


title: Frugivore

text: Other examples of mammalian frugivores include fruit bats and the gray-bellied night monkey, also known as the owl monkey:


title: Frugivore

text: "Owl monkeys are frugivores and supplement their diet with flowers, insects, nectar, and leaves (Wright 1989; 1994). They prefer small, ripe fruit when available and in order to find these, they forage in large-crown trees (larger than ten meters [32.8 ft]) (Wright 1986). Seasonal availability of fruit varies across environments. Aotus species in tropical forests eat more fruit throughout the year because it is more readily available compared to the dry forests where fruit is limited in the dry season and owl monkeys are more dependent on leaves."


title: Frugivore

text: Since seed dispersal allows plant species to disperse to other areas, the loss of frugivores could change plant communities and lead to the local loss of particular plant species. Since frugivore seed dispersal is so important in the tropics, many researchers have studied the loss of frugivores and related it to changed plant population dynamics. Several studies have noted that even the loss of only large frugivores, such as monkeys, could have a negative effect, since they are responsible for certain types of long-distance seed dispersal that is not seen with other frugivore types, like birds. However, plant species whose seeds are dispersed by animals may be less vulnerable to fragmentation than other plant species. Frugivores can also benefit from the invasion of exotic fruit-producing species and can be vectors of exotic invasion by dispersing non-native seeds. Consequently, anthropogenic habitat loss and change may negatively affect some frugivore species but benefit others.


title: Auxilia

text: The (, lit. "auxiliaries") were introduced as non-citizen troops attached to the citizen legions by Augustus after his reorganisation of the Imperial Roman army from 30 BC. By the 2nd century, the Auxilia contained the same number of infantry as the legions and, in addition, provided almost all of the Roman army's cavalry (especially light cavalry and archers) and more specialised troops. The "auxilia" thus represented three-fifths of Rome's regular land forces at that time. Like their legionary counterparts, auxiliary recruits were mostly volunteers, not conscripts.


title: Auxilia

text: The Auxilia were mainly recruited from the "peregrini", free provincial subjects who did not hold Roman citizenship and constituted the vast majority of the population in the 1st and 2nd centuries (c. 90% in the early 1st century). In contrast to the legions, which only admitted Roman citizens, members of the Auxilia could be recruited from territories outside of Roman control.


title: Auxilia

text: Reliance on the various contingents of non-Italic troops, especially cavalry, increased when the Roman Republic employed them in increasing numbers to support its legions after 200 BC. The Julio-Claudian period (30 BC–68 AD) saw the transformation of the Auxilia from motley levies to a standing corps with standardised structure, equipment and conditions of service. By the end of the period, there were no significant differences between legionaries and auxiliaries in terms of training, and thus, combat capability.


title: Auxilia

text: Auxiliary regiments were often stationed in provinces other than that in which they were originally raised, for reasons of security and to foster the process of Romanization in the provinces. The regimental names of many auxiliary units persisted into the 4th century, but by then the units in question were different in size, structure, and quality from their predecessors.


title: Auxilia

text: The mainstay of the Roman republic's war machine was the manipular legion, a heavy infantry unit suitable for close-quarter engagements on more or less any terrain, which was probably adopted sometime during the Samnite Wars (343–290 BC). Despite its formidable strength, the legion had a number of deficiencies, especially a lack of cavalry. Around 200 BC, a legion of 4,200 infantry had a cavalry arm of only 300 horse (just 7% of the total force). This was because the class of citizens who could afford to pay for their own horse and equipment – the equestrian order, the second rank in Roman society, after the senatorial order – was relatively small. In addition, the legion lacked missile forces such as slingers and archers. Until 200 BC, the bulk of a Roman army's cavalry was provided by Rome's regular Italian allies ("socii"), commonly known as the "Latin" allies, which made up the Roman military confederation. This was Rome's defence system until the Social War of 91–88 BC. The Italian forces were organised into "alae" (literally: "wings", because they were generally posted on the flanks of the Roman line of battle). An allied "ala", commanded by 3 Roman "praefecti sociorum", was similar or slightly larger in infantry size (4–5,000 men) to a legion, but contained a more substantial cavalry contingent: 900 horse, three times the legionary contingent. Since a pre-Social War consular army always contained an equal number of legions and "alae", 75% of its cavalry was provided by the Latin allies. The overall cavalry element, c. 12% of the total force (2,400 out of a normal consular army of approximately 20,000 total effectives), was greater than in most peninsular Italian forces, but well below the overall 21% cavalry component that was typical of the Principate army (80,000 cavalry out of 380,000 total effectives in the early 2nd century).


title: Auxilia

text: The Roman/Latin cavalry was sufficient while Rome was in conflict with other states in the mountainous Italian peninsula, which also disposed of limited cavalry resources. But, as Rome was confronted by external enemies that deployed far more powerful cavalry elements, such as the Gauls and the Carthaginians, the Roman deficiency in cavalry numbers could be a serious liability, which in the Second Punic War (218–202 BC) resulted in crushing defeats. Hannibal's major victories at the Trebia and at Cannae, were owed to his Spanish and Gallic heavy cavalry, which far outnumbered the Roman and Latin levies, and to his Numidians, light, fast cavalry which the Romans wholly lacked. The decisive Roman victory at Zama in 202 BC, which ended the war, owed much to the Numidian cavalry provided by king Massinissa, which outnumbered the Roman/Latin cavalry fielded by 2 to 1. From then, Roman armies were always accompanied by large numbers of non-Italian cavalry: Numidian light cavalry and, later, Gallic heavy cavalry. For example, Caesar relied heavily on Gallic and German cavalry for his Conquest of Gaul (58–51 BC).


title: Auxilia

text: As the role of native cavalry grew, that of Roman/Latin cavalry diminished. In the early 1st century BC, Roman cavalry was phased out altogether. After the Social War, the "socii" were all granted Roman citizenship, the Latin "alae" abolished, and the "socii" recruited into the legions. Furthermore, Roman equestrians were no longer required to perform cavalry service after this time. The late Republican legion was thus probably bereft of cavalry (a tiny cavalry force of 120 men was probably added back to the legion under Augustus).


title: Auxilia

text: By the outbreak of the Second Punic War, the Romans were remedying the legions' other deficiencies by using non-Italian specialised troops. Livy reports Hiero of Syracuse offering to supply Rome with archers and slingers in 217 BC. From 200 BC onwards, specialist troops were hired as mercenaries on a regular basis: "sagittarii" (archers) from Crete, and "funditores" (slingers) from the Balearic Isles almost always accompanied Roman legions in campaigns all over the Mediterranean.


title: Auxilia

text: The other main sources of non-Italian troops in the late Republic were subject provincials, allied cities and Rome's "amici" (satellite kings). During the late Republic, non-Italian units were led by their own native chiefs, and their internal organisation was left to their own commanders. The units varied widely in dress, equipment, and weapons. They were normally raised for specific campaigns and often disbanded soon afterwards, in a similar manner to the earlier "socii" militia legions.


title: Auxilia

text: It appears that not all indigenous units were disbanded at the end of the civil war period (31 BC). Some of the more experienced units were kept in existence to complement the legions, and became the core of the standing auxiliary forces that developed in the Julio-Claudian period. During the early part of Augustus' rule (27 BC onwards), the corps of regular Auxilia was created. It was clearly inspired by the Latin forces of the pre-Social War Republic, as a corps of non-citizen troops parallel to the legions. But there were fundamental differences, the same as between Republican and Augustan legions. The Latin forces of the Republic were made up of part-time conscripts in units that would be raised and disbanded for and after particular campaigns. The Augustan Auxilia were mainly volunteer professionals serving in permanent units.


title: Auxilia

text: The unit structure of the Auxilia also differed from the Latin "alae", which were like legions with a larger cavalry arm. However, Augustus organised the Auxilia into regiments the size of cohorts (a tenth the size of legions), due to the much greater flexibility of the smaller unit size. Further, the regiments were of three types: "ala" (cavalry), "cohors (peditata)" (infantry) and "cohors equitata" (mixed cavalry/infantry).


title: Auxilia

text: The evidence for the size of the Augustus' new units is not clearcut, with our most precise evidence dating to the 2nd century, by which time the unit strengths may have changed. "Cohortes" were likely modelled on legionary cohorts i.e. six "centuriae" of about 80 men each (total about 480 men). "Alae" were divided into "turmae" (squadrons) of 30 (or 32) men, each under a "decurio" (literally: "leader of ten"). This title derives from the old Roman cavalry of the pre-Social War republic, in which each "turma" was under the command of three "decuriones". "Cohortes equitatae" were infantry "cohortes" with a cavalry contingent of four "turmae" attached.


title: Auxilia

text: Auxiliary regiments were now led by a "praefectus" (prefect), who could be either a native nobleman, who would probably be granted Roman citizenship for the purpose (e.g. the famous German war leader Arminius gained Roman citizenship probably by serving as an auxiliary prefect before turning against Rome); or a Roman, either of knightly rank, or a senior centurion.


title: Auxilia

text: At the start of Augustus' sole rule (30 BC), the original core auxiliary units in the West were composed of warlike tribesmen from the Gallic provinces (especially Gallia Belgica, which then included the regions later separated to form the provinces Germania Inferior and Germania Superior), and from the Balkan provinces (Dalmatia and Illyricum). By 19 BC, the Cantabrian and Asturian Wars were concluded, leading to the annexation of northern Hispania and Lusitania. Judging by the names of attested auxiliary regiments, these parts of the Iberian peninsula soon became a major source of recruits. Then the Danubian regions were annexed: Raetia (annexed 15 BC), Noricum (16 BC), Pannonia (9 BC) and Moesia (6 AD), becoming, with Illyricum, the Principate's most important source of auxiliary recruits for its entire duration. In the East, where the Syrians already provided the bulk of the Roman army's archers, Augustus annexed Galatia (25 BC) and Judaea: the former, a region in central Anatolia with a Celtic-speaking people, became an important source of recruits. In N. Africa, Egypt, Cyrene, and Numidia (25 BC) were added to the empire. Numidia (modern day Eastern Algeria) was home to the Numidians/Moors, the ancestors of today's Berber people. Their light cavalry ("equites Maurorum") was highly prized and had alternately fought and assisted the Romans for well over two centuries: they now started to be recruited into the regular Auxilia. Even more Mauri units were formed after the annexation of Mauretania (NW Algeria, Morocco), the rest of the Berber homeland, in 44 AD by emperor Claudius (ruled 41–54).


title: Auxilia

text: Recruitment was thus heavy throughout the Augustan period, with a steady increase in the number of units formed. By AD 23, the Roman historian Tacitus records that there were roughly the same numbers of auxiliaries in service as there were legionaries. Since at this time there were 25 legions of c. 5,000 men each, the Auxilia thus amounted to c. 125,000 men, implying c. 250 auxiliary regiments.


title: Auxilia

text: During the early Julio-Claudian period, many auxiliary regiments raised in frontier provinces were stationed in or near their home provinces, except during periods of major crises such as the Cantabrian Wars, when they were deployed temporarily in theatre. This carried the obvious risk if their own tribe or ethnic group rebelled against Rome (or attacked the Roman frontier from outside the Empire), auxiliary troops could be tempted to make common cause with them. The Romans would then be faced by an enemy that included units fully equipped and trained by themselves, thus losing their usual tactical advantages over tribal foes.


title: Auxilia

text: The German leader Arminius is the classic example at an individual level: after several years of serving in Rome's forces as prefect of an auxiliary unit, he used the military training and experience he had gained to lead a confederacy of German tribes against Rome, culminating in the destruction of three Roman legions in the Teutoberg Forest in 9 AD, and the abandonment of Augustus' strategy of annexing Germany as far as the Elbe river. (This strategy was never revived by later emperors).


title: Auxilia

text: At a collective level, the risk was even greater, as the hugely dangerous Illyrian revolt proved. The central Illyrian tribes were tough and spartan shepherds of the Bosnian mountains and excellent soldier-material. Their territory formed part of the strategic province of Illyricum, recently expanded to include the territory of the Pannonii, Celticised Illyrian tribes based on the west bank of the Danube who were subjugated by Rome in 12–9 BC (the "Bellum Pannonicum"). By the start of the Common Era, they were an important recruitment base for the auxilia. But discontent was festering among the Illyrian tribes, largely due to what they saw as the rapacity of Roman tax officials. In AD 6, several regiments of Dalmatae, a warlike Illyrian tribe, were ordered to report to a designated location to prepare to join Augustus' stepson and senior military commander Tiberius in a war against the Germans. Instead, they mutinied at the assembly point, and defeated a Roman force sent against them. The Dalmatae were soon joined by the Breuci, another Illyrian tribe that supplied several auxiliary regiments. They gave battle to a second Roman force from Moesia. They lost, but inflicted heavy casualties. The rebels were now joined by a large number of other Illyrian tribes. The Dalmatae attacked the port of Salona and overran the Adriatic coast, defeating a Roman force and exposing the Roman heartland of Italy to the fear of a rebel invasion.


title: Auxilia

text: Augustus ordered Tiberius to break off operations in Germany and move his main army to Illyricum. When it became clear that even Tiberius' forces were insufficient, Augustus was obliged to raise a second task force under Tiberius' nephew Germanicus, resorting to the compulsory purchase and emancipation of thousands of slaves to find enough troops, for the first time since the aftermath of the Battle of Cannae over two centuries earlier. The Romans had now deployed no less than 15 legions and an equivalent number of auxilia. This amounts to a total of c. 150,000 men, including at least 50 auxiliary cohorts composed, exceptionally, of Roman citizens. These were men whose status or background was regarded by Augustus as unsuitable for recruitment into the legions: either natural-born citizens of the lowest category, including vagrants and convicted criminals, or the freed slaves (Roman law accorded citizenship to the freed slaves of Roman citizens). These special units were accorded the title "civium Romanorum" ("of Roman citizens"), or "c.R." for short. After the Illyrian revolt, these cohorts remained in being and recruited non-citizens like other auxiliary units, but retained their prestigious "c.R." title. In addition, the regular forces were assisted by a large number of allied troops from neighbouring Thrace deployed by their king Rhoemetalces I, a Roman "amicus" (puppet king).


title: Auxilia

text: The Romans faced further reverses on the battlefield and a savage guerrilla war in the Bosnian mountains. It took them three years of hard fighting to quell the revolt, which was described by the Roman historian Suetonius, writing in c. AD 100, as the most difficult conflict faced by Rome since the Punic Wars over two centuries earlier. Tiberius finally succeeded in quelling the revolt in 9 AD. This was apparently lucky timing for the Romans: that same year Arminius destroyed Varus' three legions in Germany. The Roman high command had no doubt that Arminius would have formed a grand alliance with the Illyrians.


title: Auxilia

text: Despite the gravity of this rebellion, the Illyrians went on, alongside their neighbours the Thracians, to become the backbone of the Roman army. By the 2nd century, with roughly half the Roman army deployed on the Danube frontier, the auxilia and legions alike were dominated by Illyrian recruits. In the 3rd century, Illyrians largely replaced Italians in the senior officer echelons of "praefecti" of auxiliary regiments and "tribuni militum" of legions. Finally, from AD 268 to 379, virtually all emperors, including Diocletian and Constantine the Great, were Romanised Illyrians from the provinces of Dalmatia, Moesia Superior and Pannonia. These were members of a military aristocracy, outstanding soldiers who saved the empire from collapse in the turbulent late 3rd century.


title: Auxilia

text: Significant development of the Auxilia appears to have taken place during the rule of the emperor Claudius (41–54 AD).


title: Auxilia

text: A minimum term of service of 25 years was established, at the end of which the retiring auxiliary soldier, and all his children, were awarded Roman citizenship. This is deduced from the fact that the first known Roman military diplomas date from the time of Claudius. This was a folding bronze tablet engraved with the details of the soldier's service record, which he could use to prove his citizenship. Claudius also decreed that prefects of auxiliary regiments must all be of equestrian rank, thus excluding centurions from such commands. The fact that auxiliary commanders were now all of the same social rank as most "tribuni militum", (military tribunes, a legion's senior staff officers, all of whom only one, the "tribunus laticlavius", was of the higher senatorial rank), probably indicates that auxilia now enjoyed greater prestige. Indigenous chiefs continued to command some auxiliary regiments, and were probably granted equestrian rank for the purpose. It is also likely that auxiliary pay was standardised at this time, but we only have estimates for the Julio-Claudian period.


title: Auxilia

text: Auxiliary uniform, armour, weapons and equipment were probably standardised by the end of the Julio-Claudian period. Auxiliary equipment was broadly similar to that of the legions (see Section 2.1 below for possible differences in armour). By 68 AD, there was little difference between most auxiliary infantry and their legionary counterparts in equipment, training and fighting capability. The main difference was that auxilia contained combat cavalry, both heavy and light, and other specialized units that legions lacked.


title: Auxilia

text: Claudius annexed to the empire three regions that became important sources of auxiliary recruits: Britannia (43 AD), and the former client kingdoms of Mauretania (44) and Thracia (46). The latter became as important as Illyria as a source of auxiliary recruits, especially cavalry and archers. Britain in mid-2nd century contained the largest number of auxiliary regiments in any single province: about 60 out of about 400 (15%). By the rule of Nero (54–68), auxiliary numbers may have reached, by one estimate, about 200,000 men, implying about 400 regiments.


title: Auxilia

text: The Batavi, a Germanic tribe, inhabited the region today known as Gelderland (Netherlands), in the Rhine river delta, then known as the "Insula Batavorum" ("Island of the Batavi", because surrounded by branches of the Rhine), part of the Roman province of Germania Inferior. They were a warlike people, skilled horsemen, boatmen and swimmers. In return for the unusual privilege of exemption from "tributum" (direct taxes on land and heads normally exacted from "peregrini"), they supplied a disproportionate number of recruits to the Julio-Claudian auxilia: one "ala" and eight "cohortes". They also provided most of Augustus' elite personal bodyguard unit (the "Germani corpore custodes"), which continued in service until 68 AD. The Batavi auxilia amounted to about 5,000 men, implying that during the entire Julio-Claudian period, over 50% of all Batavi males reaching military age (16 years) may have enlisted in the auxilia. Thus the Batavi, although just 0.05% of the total population of the empire of c. 70 million in 23 AD, supplied about 4% of the total auxilia i.e. 80 times their proportionate share. They were regarded by the Romans as the very best ("fortissimi", "validissimi") of their auxiliary, and indeed all, their forces. In Roman service, both their cavalry and infantry had perfected a technique for swimming across rivers wearing full armour and weapons.


title: Auxilia

text: Julius Civilis (literally: "Julius the Citizen", clearly a Latin name adopted on gaining Roman citizenship, not his native one) was a hereditary prince of the Batavi and the prefect of a Batavi cohort. A veteran of 25 years' service, he had distinguished himself by service in Britain, where he and the eight Batavi cohorts had played a crucial role in both the Roman invasion in 43 AD and the subsequent subjugation of southern Britain.


title: Auxilia

text: By 69, however, Civilis, the Batavi regiments and the Batavi people had become utterly disaffected with Rome. After the Batavi regiments were withdrawn from Britain to Italy in 66, Civilis and his brother (also a prefect) were arrested by the governor of Germania Inferior on a fabricated accusation of sedition. The governor ordered his brother's execution, while Civilis, who as a Roman citizen had the right to appeal to the emperor, was sent to Rome in chains for judgement by Nero. He was released by Nero's overthrower and successor, Galba, but the latter also disbanded the imperial bodyguard unit for their loyalty to Nero. This alienated several hundred crack Batavi troops, and indeed the whole Batavi nation who regarded it as a grave insult. At the same time, relations collapsed between the Batavi cohorts and the legion to which they had been attached since the invasion of Britain 25 years earlier ("XIV Gemina"). Their mutual hatred erupted in open fighting on at least two occasions.


title: Auxilia

text: At this juncture, the Roman empire was convulsed by its first major civil war since the Battle of Actium exactly a century earlier: the Year of the Four Emperors (69–70 AD). The governor of Germania Inferior, ordered to raise more troops, outraged the Batavi by attempting to conscript more Batavi than the maximum stipulated in their treaty. The brutality and corruption of the Roman recruiting-centurions (including incidents of sexual assault on Batavi young men) brought already deep discontent in the Batavi homeland to the boil.


title: Auxilia

text: Civilis now led his people in open revolt. Initially, he claimed he was supporting the bid for power of Vespasian, the general in command of the legions in Syria, whom Civilis had probably befriended when both were involved in the Roman invasion of Britain 25 years earlier (Vespasian was then commander of the legion "II Augusta"). But the uprising soon became a bid for independence. Civilis exploited the fact that some legions were absent from the Rhine area due to the civil war, and the rest under-strength. In addition, the Roman commanders and their rank-and-file soldiers were divided by loyalty to rival emperors. Civilis quickly won the support of the Batavi's neighbours and kinsmen, the Cananefates, who in turn won over the Frisii. First the rebel allies captured two Roman forts in their territory, and a cohort of Tungri defected to Civilis. Then two legions sent against Civilis were defeated when their companion Batavi "ala" defected to his side. The "Classis Germanica" (Rhine flotilla), largely manned by Batavi, was seized by Civilis. Most importantly, the 8 Batavi cohorts stationed at Mainz with "XIV Gemina" mutinied and joined him, defeating at Bonn a Roman force that attempted to block their return to their homeland. By now, Civilis commanded at least 12 regiments (6,000 men) of Roman-trained and equipped auxiliary troops, as well as a much larger number of tribal levies. A number of German tribes from beyond the Rhine joined his cause. Several other German and Gallic units sent against him deserted, as the revolt spread to the rest of Gallia Belgica, including the Tungri, Lingones and Treviri tribes. He was able to destroy the two remaining legions in Germania Inferior, ("V Alaudae" and "XV Primigenia").


title: Auxilia

text: By this stage, Rome's entire position on the Rhine and even in Gaul was imperiled. Their civil war over, the Romans mustered a huge task force of eight legions (five dispatched from Italy, two from Spain and one from Britain) to deal with Civilis. Its commander Petillius Cerialis had to fight two difficult battles, at Trier and Xanten, before he could overrun the Batavi's homeland. Tacitus' surviving narrative breaks off as he describes a meeting on an island in the Rhine delta between Civilis and Cerialis to discuss peace terms. We do not know the outcome of this meeting or Civilis' ultimate fate. But, in view of his former friendship with Vespasian, who had already offered him a pardon, and the fact that the Romans still needed the Batavi levies, it is likely that the terms were lenient by Roman standards.


title: Auxilia

text: Petilius Cerialis took a number of reconstituted Batavi units with him to Britain, and the Batavi regiments continued to serve with special distinction in Britain and elsewhere for the rest of the 1st century and beyond. Even as late as 395, units with the Batavi name, although long since composed of recruits from all over the empire, were still classified as elite "palatini", e.g. the "equites Batavi seniores" (cavalry) and "auxilium Batavi seniores" (infantry).


title: Auxilia

text: The revolt of the Batavi appears to have led to a significant change in the Roman government's policy on deployment of Auxilia. The revolt proved that in times of civil strife, when legions were far from their bases campaigning for rival claimants to the imperial throne, it was dangerous to leave provinces exclusively in the hands of auxiliary regiments recruited from the indigenous nation. During the Julio-Claudian period, auxiliary regiments had often been deployed away from their original home province. But in the Flavian period (69–96), this appears to have become standard policy. Thus in AD 70, five reconstituted Batavi regiments (one "ala" and four "cohortes") were transferred to Britain under Petillius Cerialis, who had suppressed the Civilis revolt and then embarked on the governorship of the island. The great majority of regiments probably founded in the 1st century were stationed away from their province of origin in the second e.g. of 13 British regiments recorded in the mid-2nd century, none were stationed in Britain. Furthermore, it appears that in the Flavian era native noblemen were no longer permitted to command auxiliary units from their own tribe.


title: Auxilia

text: After a prolonged period in a foreign province a regiment would become assimilated, since the majority of its new recruits would be drawn from the province in which it was stationed, or neighbouring provinces. Those same "British" units, mostly based on the Danube frontier, would by c. 150, after almost a century away from their home island, be largely composed of Illyrian, Thracian and Dacian recruits. However, there is evidence that a few regiments at least continued to draw some recruits from their original home provinces in the 2nd century e.g. Batavi units stationed in Britain.


title: Auxilia

text: The Flavian period also saw the first formation of large, double-size units, both infantry and cavalry, of a nominal strength of 1,000 men ("cohors/ala milliaria"), though they were actually mostly smaller (720 for an "ala milliaria" and 800 for a "cohors milliaria"). These were the mirror image of the double-strength first cohorts of legions also introduced at this time. Such units remained a minority of the Auxilia: in the mid-2nd century, they constituted 13% of units, containing 20% of total manpower.


title: Auxilia

text: In 106 AD, emperor Trajan finally defeated the Dacian kingdom of Decebalus and annexed it as the Roman province of Dacia Traiana. By the mid-2nd century, there were 44 auxiliary regiments stationed there, about 10% of the total auxilia. In Britain, there were 60. Together, these two provinces contained about a quarter of the total auxiliary regiments.


title: Auxilia

text: There is considerable scholarly dispute about the precise size of the auxilia during the imperial era, even during the corp's best-documented period, the rule of Trajan's successor, Hadrian (117–138). This is evident if one compares calculations by Spaul (2000) and Holder (2003):


title: Auxilia

text: In addition, Holder believes that a further 14 "cohortes", which are attested under Trajan, immediately before Hadrian's rule, but not during or after it, probably continued in existence, giving a total of 381 units and 225,000 effectives. The discrepancy between the two scholars is due to: (i) Interpretation of units with the same name and number, but attested in different provinces in the same period. Spaul tends to take a more cautious approach and to assume such are the same unit moving base frequently, while Holder tends to regard them as separate units which acquired the same number due to duplicated (or even triplicated) seriation. (ii) Assumptions about how many "cohortes" were "equitatae". Spaul accepts only those "cohortes" specifically attested as "equitatae" i.e., about 40% of recorded units. Holder estimates that at least 70% of "cohortes" contained cavalry contingents by the early 2nd century


title: Auxilia

text: Even according to the more conservative estimate, the auxilia were by this time significantly larger than the legions, which contained c. 155,000 effectives (28 legions of 5,500 men each) at this time, of which just 3,360 were cavalry. (For a detailed breakdown, see section 4: Auxilia deployment in the 2nd century, below).


title: Auxilia

text: During the second half of the 2nd century, the Roman army underwent considerable further expansion, with the addition of five new legions (27,500 men) to a Principate peak of 33. A matching number of auxilia (i.e. c. 50 regiments, although only the names of around 25–30 have survived in the epigraphic record) were probably added, possibly reaching a peak of c. 440 regiments and around 250,000 effectives by the end of Septimius Severus's rule (211 AD).


title: Auxilia

text: During the 2nd century, some units with the new names "numerus" ("group") and "vexillatio" ("detachment") appear in the diploma record. Their size is uncertain, but was likely smaller than the regular "alae" and "cohortes", as originally they were probably detachments from the latter, acquiring independent status after long-term separation. As these units are mentioned in diplomas, they were presumably part of the regular auxiliary organisation. But "numeri" was also a generic term used for barbarian units outside the regular auxilia. (see section 2.4 Irregular units, below).


title: Auxilia

text: In 212, the "constitutio Antoniniana" (Antonine decree) of emperor Caracalla granted Roman citizenship to all the free inhabitants of the Empire – the "peregrini" – thus abolishing their second-class status. But there is no evidence that the citizens-only rule for legions was also abolished at this time. The legions simply gained a much wider recruitment base, as they were now able to recruit any male free resident of the empire. Auxiliary units were now recruited mainly from Roman citizens, but probably continued to recruit non-citizen "barbari" from outside the Empire's borders. However, the citizens-only rule for legions appears to have been dropped some time during the 3rd century, as by the 4th-century Romans and barbarians are found serving together in all units.


title: Auxilia

text: In the mid to late 3rd century, the army was afflicted by a combination of military disasters and of pestilence, the so-called Crisis of the Third Century. In 251–271, Gaul, the Alpine regions and Italy, the Balkans and the East were simultaneously overrun by Alamanni, Sarmatians, Goths and Persians respectively. At the same time, the Roman army was struggling with the effects of a devastating pandemic, probably of smallpox: the Plague of Cyprian, which began in 251 and was still raging in 270, when it claimed the life of emperor Claudius II Gothicus. The evidence for an earlier pandemic, the Antonine Plague (also smallpox) indicates a mortality of 15–30% in the empire as a whole. The armies would likely have suffered deaths at the top end of the range, due to their close concentration of individuals and frequent movements across the empire. This probably led to a steep decline in military numbers, which only recovered at the end of the century under Diocletian (r. 284–305).


title: Auxilia

text: The recruitment shortfall caused by the crisis seems to have led to recruitment of barbarians to the auxilia on a much greater scale than previously. By the 4th century, it has been estimated that some 25% of regular army recruits were barbarian-born. In the elite "palatini" regiments, anywhere between a third and a half of recruits may have been barbarian. This is likely a much greater proportion of foreigners than joined the auxilia in the 1st and 2nd centuries. In the 3rd century, a small number of regular auxiliary units appear in the record that, for the first time, bear the names of barbarian tribes from outside the empire e.g. the "ala I Sarmatarum" attested in 3rd-century Britain. This was probably an offshoot of the 5,500 surrendered Sarmatian horsemen posted on Hadrian's Wall by emperor Marcus Aurelius in c. 175. This unit may be an early example of a novel process whereby irregular units of "barbari" ("foederati") were transformed into regular auxilia. This process intensified in the 4th century: the "Notitia Dignitatum", a key document on the late Roman army, lists a large number of regular units with barbarian names.


title: Auxilia

text: In the 4th century, the Roman army underwent a radical restructuring. In the rule of Diocletian (284–305), the traditional Principate formations of "legiones", "alae" and "cohortes" appear to have been broken up into smaller units, many of which bore a variety of new names. Under Constantine I (r. 312–337) it appears that military units were classified into three grades based on strategic role and to some extent quality: "palatini", elite units normally part of the "exercitus praesentales" (imperial escort armies); "comitatenses", higher-grade interception forces based in frontier provinces; and "limitanei", lower-grade border troops. (See Late Roman army).


title: Auxilia

text: The old Principate auxilia regiments provided the basis for units at all three grades. The "Notitia Dignitatum" lists about 70 "alae" and "cohortes" that retained their 2nd-century names, mostly "limitanei". But traces of other auxilia regiments can be found in the "praesentales" and "comitatenses" armies. For example, many of the new-style "auxilia palatina" infantry regiments, considered among the best units in the army, were probably formed from old-style auxiliary "cohortes", which they appear to closely resemble.


title: Auxilia

text: The late 4th-century writer on military affairs Vegetius complains of contemporary young men joining the "auxilia" in preference to the "legions" to avoid the latter's tougher training and duties. But it is unclear what types of units he was referring to. It is possible that those older terms were still popularly used (misleadingly) to mean "limitanei" and "comitatenses" respectively. In any event, his quote in no way describes accurately the Principate auxilia, many of which were of very high quality.


title: Auxilia

text: The following table sets out the official, or establishment, strength of auxiliary units in the 2nd century. The real strength of a unit would fluctuate continually, but would likely have been somewhat less than the establishment most of the time.


title: Auxilia

text: These all-infantry units were modeled on the cohorts of the legions, with the same officers and sub-units. They were typically considered to be more of a light infantry than proper legionaries. Some auxiliaries may however have been equipped with the "lorica segmentata", the most sophisticated legionary body-armour, although scholars dispute this. Besides this possibility, monuments (like on Trajan's Column) show auxiliaries wearing chain mail armor, which length and form varied over the first and second century. They wore helmets similar to those of the Legion. Yet they seem to be simplified versions that where further improved over the same timeframe. They were equipped with a sword, a dagger and one or more spears or javelins. This spear might have been a "lancea", which can be used as a javelin as well as a thrusting spear. Based on archeological evidences auxiliaries probably had additional lighter javelins to their "lancea". The shield of the auxiliaries was oval.


title: Auxilia

text: There is no evidence that auxiliary infantry fought in a looser order than legionaries. It appears that in a set-piece battle-line, auxiliary infantry would normally be stationed on the flanks, with legionary infantry holding the centre e.g. as in the Battle of Watling Street (AD 60), the final defeat of the rebel Britons under queen Boudicca. This was a tradition inherited from the Republic, when the precursors of auxiliary "cohortes", the Latin "alae", occupied the same position in the line. The flanks of the line required equal, if not greater, skill to hold as the centre.


title: Auxilia

text: During the Principate period of the Roman Empire (30 BC – AD 284), the all-mounted "Alae" ("wings") contained the elite cavalry of the army. They were specially trained in elaborate manoeuvres, such as those displayed to the emperor Hadrian during a documented inspection in Numidia. They were best-suited for large-scale operations and battle, during which they acted as the primary cavalry escort for the legions, which had almost no cavalry of their own. Roman alares were normally armoured, with mail or scale body armour, a cavalry version of the infantry helmet (with more protective features, such as completely covered ears) and oval shield or hexagonal. Their weapons could be a lance, javelins, or bow and arrow but all Roman horseman had a sword called a ("spatha") and the ubiquitous pugio. The elite status of an "alaris" is shown by the fact that he received 20% more pay than his counterpart in an auxiliary cohort or a legionary infantryman.


title: Auxilia

text: The favored sources of recruitment for the cavalry of the "auxilia" were Gauls, Germans, Iberians and Thracians. All of these peoples had long-established skills and experience of fighting from horseback – in contrast to the Romans themselves. The "alae" were better paid and mounted than the more numerous horsemen of the "cohortes equitatae" (see below).


title: Auxilia

text: These were "cohortes" with a cavalry contingent attached. There is evidence that their numbers expanded with the passage of time. Only about 40% of attested "cohortes" are specifically attested as "equitatae" in inscriptions, which is probably the original Augustan proportion. A study of units stationed in Syria in the mid-2nd century found that many units that did not carry the "equitata" title did in fact contain cavalrymen e.g. by discovery of a tombstone of a cavalryman attached to the cohort. This implies that by that time, at least 70% of "cohortes" were probably "equitatae". The addition of cavalry to a cohort obviously enabled it to carry out a wider range of independent operations. A "cohors equitata" was in effect a self-contained mini-army.


title: Auxilia

text: The traditional view of "equites cohortales" (the cavalry arm of "cohortes equitatae"), as expounded by G.L. Cheesman, was that they were just a mounted infantry with poor-quality horses. They would use their mounts simply to reach the battlefield and then would dismount to fight. This view is today discredited. Although it is clear that "equites cohortales" did not match "equites alares" ("ala" cavalrymen) in quality (hence their lower pay), the evidence is that they fought as cavalry in the same way as the "alares" and often alongside them. Their armour and weapons were the same as for the "alares".


title: Auxilia

text: Nevertheless, non-combat roles of the "equites cohortales" differed significantly from the "alares". Non-combat roles such as despatch-riders ("dispositi") were generally filled by cohort cavalry.


title: Auxilia

text: In the Republican period, the standard trio of specialised auxilia were Balearic slingers, Cretan archers and Numidian light cavalry. These functions, plus some new ones, continued in the 2nd-century auxilia.


title: Auxilia

text: "Equites cataphractarii", or simply "cataphractarii" for short, were the heavily armoured cavalry of the Roman army. Based on Sarmatian and Parthian models, they were also known as "contarii" and "clibanarii", although it is unclear whether these terms were interchangeable or whether they denoted variations in equipment or role. Together with new units of light mounted archers, the "cataphractarii" were designed to counter Parthian (and, in Pannonia, Sarmatian) battle tactics. Parthian armies consisted largely of cavalry. Their standard tactic was to use light mounted archers to weaken and break up the Roman infantry line, and then to rout it with a charge by the "cataphractarii" concentrated on the weakest point. The only special heavy cavalry units to appear in the 2nd-century record are: "ala I Ulpia contariorum" and "ala I Gallorum et Pannoniorum cataphractaria" stationed in Pannonia and Moesia Inferior respectively in the 2nd century.


title: Auxilia

text: From the Second Punic War until the 3rd century AD, the bulk of Rome's light cavalry (apart from mounted archers from Syria) was provided by the inhabitants of the provinces of Africa and Mauretania Caesariensis, the Numidae or Mauri (from whom derives the English term "Moors"), who were the ancestors of the Berber people of modern Algeria and Morocco. They were known as the "equites Maurorum" or "Numidarum" ("Moorish or Numidian cavalry"). On Trajan's Column, Mauri horsemen, depicted with long hair in dreadlocks, are shown riding their small but resilient horses bare-back and unbridled, with a simple braided rope round their mount's neck for control. They wear no body or head armour, carrying only a small, round leather shield. Their weaponry cannot be discerned due to stone erosion, but is known from Livy to have consisted of several short javelins. Exceptionally fast and maneuverable, Numidian cavalry would harass the enemy by hit-and-run attacks, riding up and loosing volleys of javelins, then scattering faster than any opposing cavalry could pursue. They were superbly suited to scouting, harassment, ambush and pursuit. It is unclear what proportion of the Numidian cavalry were regular auxilia units as opposed to irregular "foederati" units.


title: Auxilia

text: In the 3rd century, new formations of light cavalry appear, apparently recruited from the Danubian provinces: the "equites Dalmatae" ("Dalmatian cavalry"). Little is known about these, but they were prominent in the 4th century, with several units listed in the "Notitia Dignitatum".


title: Auxilia

text: A unit of "dromedarii" ("camel-mounted troops") is attested from the 2nd century, the "ala I Ulpia dromedariorum milliaria" in Syria.


title: Auxilia

text: A substantial number of auxiliary regiments (32, or about 1 in 12 in the 2nd century) were denoted "sagittariorum", or archer-units (from "sagittarii" lit. "arrow-men", from "sagitta" = "arrow"). These 32 units (of which 4 were double-strength) had a total official strength of 17,600 men. All three types of auxiliary regiment ("ala", "cohors" and "cohors equitata") could be denoted "sagittariorum". Although these units evidently specialised in archery, it is uncertain from the available evidence whether all "sagittariorum" personnel were archers, or simply a higher proportion than in ordinary units. At the same time, ordinary regiments probably also possessed some archers, otherwise their capacity for independent operations would have been unduly constrained. Bas-reliefs appear to show personnel in ordinary units employing bows.


title: Auxilia

text: From about 218 BC onwards, the archers of the Roman army of the mid-Republic were virtually all mercenaries from the island of Crete, which boasted a long specialist tradition. During the late Republic (88–30 BC) and the Augustan period, Crete was gradually eclipsed by men from other, much more populous, regions subjugated by the Romans with strong archery traditions. These included Thrace, Anatolia and, above all, Syria. Of the 32 "sagittarii" units attested in the mid-2nd century, 13 have Syrian names, 7 Thracian, 5 from Anatolia, 1 from Crete and the remaining 6 of other or uncertain origin.


title: Auxilia

text: Three distinct types of archers are shown on Trajan's Column: (a) with scalar cuirass, conical steel helmet and cloak; (b) without armour, with cloth conical cap and long tunic; or (c) equipped in the same way as general auxiliary foot-soldiers (apart from carrying bows instead of javelins). The first type were probably Syrian or Anatolian units; the third type probably Thracian. The standard bow used by Roman auxilia was the recurved composite bow, a sophisticated, compact and powerful weapon.


title: Auxilia

text: From about 218 BC onwards, the Republican army's slingers were exclusively mercenaries from the Balearic Islands, which had nurtured a strong indigenous tradition of slinging from prehistoric times. As a result, in classical Latin, "Baleares" (literally "inhabitants of the Balearic Islands") became an alternative word for "slingers" ("funditores", from "funda" = "sling"). Because of this, it is uncertain whether most of the imperial army's slingers continued to be drawn from the Balearics themselves, or, like archers, derived mainly from other regions.


title: Auxilia

text: Independent slinger units are not attested in the epigraphic record of the Principate. However, slingers are portrayed on Trajan's Column. They are shown unarmoured, wearing a short tunic. They carry a cloth bag, slung in front, to hold their shot ("glandes").


title: Auxilia

text: "Exploratores" ('reconnaissance troops', from "explorare" = "to scout"). Two examples include "numeri exploratorum" attested to in the 3rd century in Britain: "Habitanco" and "Bremenio" (both names of forts). It is possible, however, that more than 20 such units served in Britain. The literal translation of "numeri" is 'numbers' and it was often used in the context of a generic title for any unit that was not of a standard size or structure. From the 2nd century onward they served as frontier guards, often supplied by the Sarmatians and the Germans. Little else is known about such units.


title: Auxilia

text: Throughout the Principate period, there is evidence of ethnic units of "barbari" outside the normal auxilia organisation fighting alongside Roman troops. To an extent, these units were simply a continuation of the old client-king levies of the late Republic: "ad hoc" bodies of troops supplied by Rome's puppet petty-kings on the imperial borders for particular campaigns. Some clearly remained in Roman service beyond the campaigns, keeping their own native leadership, attire and equipment and structure. These units were known to the Romans as "socii" ("allies"), "symmachiarii" (from "symmachoi", Greek for "allies") or "foederati" ("treaty troops" from "foedus", "treaty"). One estimate puts the number of "foederati" in the time of Trajan at about 11,000, divided into about 40 "numeri" (units) of about 300 men each. The purpose of employing "foederati" units was to use their specialist fighting skills. Many of these would have been troops of Numidian cavalry (see light cavalry above).


title: Auxilia

text: The "foederati" make their first official appearance on Trajan's Column, where they are portrayed in a standardised manner, with long hair and beards, barefoot, stripped to the waist, wearing long trousers held up by wide belts and wielding clubs. In reality, several different tribes supported the Romans in the Dacian wars. Their attire and weapons would have varied widely. The Column stereotypes them with the appearance of a single tribe, probably the most outlandish-looking, to differentiate them clearly from the regular auxilia. Judging by the frequency of their appearance in the Column's battle scenes, the "foederati" were important contributors to the Roman operations in Dacia. Another example of "foederati" are the 5,500 captured Sarmatian cavalrymen sent by Emperor Marcus Aurelius (r. 161–180) to garrison a fort on Hadrian's Wall after their defeat in the Marcomannic Wars.


title: Auxilia

text: The evidence for auxiliary ranks and pay is scant: even less exists than the patchy evidence for their legionary counterparts. There seems to be some consensus, however, that the auxiliary was paid one third of what a legionary received: 300 sesterces a year (400 after the reign of the emperor Commodus). Both auxiliaries and seamen received the "viaticum" of 300 sesterces, although the various sources differ as to whether auxiliaries and sailors received the retirement bonus known as the "honesta missio", or honorable discharge.


title: Auxilia

text: At the bottom end of the rank pyramid, rankers were known as "caligati" (lit: "sandal men" from the "caligae" or hob-nailed sandals worn by soldiers). Depending on the type of regiment they belonged to, they held the official ranks of "pedes" (foot soldier in a "cohors"), "eques" (cavalryman in a "cohors equitata") and "gregalis" ("ala" cavalryman).


title: Auxilia

text: During the Principate, recruitment into the legions was restricted to Roman citizens only. This rule, which derived from the pre-Social War Republican army, was strictly enforced. The few exceptions recorded, such as during emergencies and for the illegitimate sons of legionaries, do not warrant the suggestion that the rule was routinely ignored.


title: Auxilia

text: In the 1st century, the vast majority of auxiliary common soldiers were recruited from the Roman "peregrini" (second-class citizens). In the Julio-Claudian era, conscription of "peregrini" seems to have been practiced alongside voluntary recruitment, probably in the form of a fixed proportion of men reaching military age in each tribe being drafted. From the Flavian era onwards, the auxilia were an all-volunteer force. Although recruits as young as 14 are recorded, the majority of recruits (66%) were from the 18–23 age group.


title: Auxilia

text: When it was first raised, an auxiliary regiment would have been recruited from the native tribe or people whose name it bore. In the early Julio-Claudian period, it seems that efforts were made to preserve the ethnic integrity of units, even when the regiment was posted in a faraway province. But in the later part of the period, recruitment in the region where the regiment was posted increased and became predominant from the Flavian era onwards. The regiment would thus lose its original ethnic identity. The unit's name would thus become a mere curiosity devoid of meaning, although some of its members might inherit foreign names from their veteran ancestors. This view has to be qualified, however, as evidence from military diplomas and other inscriptions shows that some units continued to recruit in their original home areas e.g. Batavi units stationed in Britain, where some units had an international membership. It also appears that the Danubian provinces (Raetia, Pannonia, Moesia, Dacia) remained key recruiting grounds for units stationed all over the empire.


title: Auxilia

text: It appears that Roman citizens were also regularly recruited to the auxilia. Most likely, the majority of citizen recruits to auxiliary regiments were the sons of auxiliary veterans who were enfranchised on their fathers' discharge. Many such may have preferred to join their fathers' old regiments, which were a kind of extended family to them, rather than join a much larger, unfamiliar legion. There are also instances of legionaries transferring to the auxilia (to a higher rank). The incidence of citizens in the auxilia would thus have grown steadily over time until, after the grant of citizenship to all "peregrini" in 212, auxiliary regiments became predominantly, if not exclusively, citizen units.