title: Medal

text: The first known instance of a medal being awarded comes from the historian Josephus who, writing long after the event, accounts that in the second century BCE, the High Priest Jonathan led the Hebrews in aid of Alexander Balas, and that in return for this, Alexander "...sent to Jonathan... honorary awards, as a golden button, which it is custom to give the king's kinsmen." Roman emperors used both military awards of medals, and political gifts of medallions that were like very large coins, usually in gold or silver, and die-struck like coins. Both these and actual golden coins were often set as pieces of jewellery, worn by both sexes.


title: Medal

text: The bracteate is a type of thin gold medal, usually plain on the reverse, found in Northern Europe from the so-called "Dark Ages" or Migration Period. They often have suspension loops and were clearly intended to be worn on a chain as jewellery. They imitate, at a distance, Roman imperial coins and medallions, but have the heads of gods, animals, or other designs. The Liudhard medalet, produced around AD 600 in Anglo-Saxon England, is an isolated example, known from a single copy, of a Christian medal, featuring an inscription naming Liudhard (or "Saint Letard"), the first priest among the Anglo-Saxons, and most likely presented to converts. The surviving example is mounted for wearing as jewellery.


title: Medal

text: In Europe, from the late Middle Ages on, it became common for sovereigns, nobles, and later, intellectuals to commission medals to be given simply as gifts to their political allies to either maintain or gain support of an influential person. The medals were made in a range of metals, such as gold, silver-gilt, silver, bronze, and lead, depending on the status of the recipient. They were typically up to about three inches across, and usually featured the head of the donor on the obverse, surrounded by an inscription with their name and title, and their emblem on the reverse, with a learned motto inscribed round the edges. Such medals were not usually intended to be worn, although they might have been set as pendants on a chain. From the 16th century onward, medals were made, both by rulers for presentation and private enterprise for sale, to commemorate specific events, including military battles and victories, and from this grew the practice of awarding military medals specifically to combatants, though initially only a few of the much higher-ranking officers.


title: Medal

text: The medieval revival seems to have begun around 1400 with the extravagant French prince Jean, Duc de Berry, who commissioned a number of large classicising medals that were probably produced in very small numbers, or a unique cast. Only casts in bronze from the originals in precious metal survive, although it is known that at least some medals were also set with jewels, and these may well have been worn on a chain. At the same period, the first known post-classical medal commemorating a victory was struck for Francesco Carrara (Novello) on the occasion of the capture of Padua in 1390. The Italian artist Pisanello, generally agreed to be the finest medallist of the Renaissance, began in 1438 with a medal, celebrating the unprecedented visit of the Byzantine Emperor John VIII Palaiologos to Italy. This was presumably a commercial venture, but his later medals were mostly commissioned for distribution as gifts by rulers or nobles. Like almost all early Renaissance medals, it was cast rather than die-struck. With each successive cast the medal became slightly smaller, and the numbers that could be produced were probably not large. A lead "proof" was probably often used. The association between medals and the classical revival began to take a rather different form, and the exchange of medals became associated with Renaissance Humanism. Princes would send humanist writers and scholars medals in recognition of their work, and the humanists began to make their own medals, normally in bronze, to send to their patrons and peers. The fashion remained restricted to Italy until near the end of the 15th century, when it spread to other countries. By the 16th century, medals were increasingly produced by rulers or cities for propaganda purposes. In 1550, a die-stamping machine, using steel dies, was introduced in Augsburg, Germany, and soon this process became standard. The artist now cut an intaglio die rather than modelling in relief.


title: Medal

text: By the 16th century, the wearing of smaller medals on a chain was a persistent fashion for both sexes, and a variety of medals were produced commercially for the purpose, commemorating persons or events, or just with non-specific suitable sentiments. German artists had been producing high-quality medals from the beginning of the century, while the French and British were slower to produce fine work. However, by the late 17th century, most parts of Western Europe could produce fine work. Some medals were also collected, which continues to the present day. Official medals, from which specialized military awards descended, were increasingly produced, but the real growth in military medals did not come until the 19th century.


title: Medal

text: In the East, a wide variety of medals and decorations have been given by the Ottoman Empire since the 18th century.


title: Medal

text: Devotional medals became very popular in Catholic countries. Very famous is the Miraculous Medal, whose design was created based on the apparitions of the Blessed Virgin Mary to Saint Catherine Labouré in Paris. In 1832, during an epidemic, the first medals were distributed, to which numerous healings and conversions were attributed, receiving the name of Miraculous Medal and distributed to millions of people around the world.


title: Medal

text: During the Reformation there had also been a vigorous tradition of Protestant medals, more polemical than devotional, which continued with the Geuzen medals produced in the Dutch Revolt.


title: Medal

text: Military decorations, service awards, and medals are often mistakenly confused with one another. "Decoration" is a term for awards which require specific acts of heroism or achievement (such as the British Victoria Cross or American Silver Star), whereas a "service award" or "campaign medal" is awarded for serving in a particular capacity in a particular geographical area and time frame (such as the Iraq Campaign Medal). In either case, an award or decoration may be presented as a medal.


title: Medal

text: The Roman Republic adopted an elaborate system of military awards that included medals called phalerae to be issued to soldiers and units for a variety of achievements. The practice was revived in the Early Modern period, and medals began to be worn on the chest as part of standard military uniform. The United States Continental Congress awarded the Fidelity Medallion as early as 1780, to three specified men for a particular incident, as a one-off award, which was characteristic of early military decorations. In 1782, the Badge of Military Merit was established, and mostly awarded to non-officers. The Légion d'honneur instituted by Napoleon I in 1802 had some of the characteristics of the old military orders, but was intended to be far more inclusive, and was awarded to rank and file soldiers for bravery or exceptional service. Other nations followed with decorations such as the British Army Gold Medal from 1810, though this only went to senior officers, and the Prussian Iron Cross from 1813. Medals were not awarded to all combatants in a war or battle until the 19th century, when the Waterloo Medal was the first British medal given to all present, at the Battle of Waterloo and all associated actions in 1815. By the middle of the 19th century, the number of awards used had greatly expanded in most countries to something near modern levels.


title: Medal

text: An order tends to be the most elaborate of military decorations, typically awarded for distinguished services to a nation or to the general betterment of humanity. Orders are distinguished from other forms of decoration in that they often imply membership in an organization or association of others that have received the same award. Two of the most well known and commonly awarded orders are the "Légion d'honneur" of France (military and civil) and the civil Order of the British Empire. The practice of conferring orders originates with the mediaeval fraternities of knighthood, some of which still exist and are still awarded. While most modern orders have no roots in knighthood, they still tend to carry over the terms of their historic counterparts, and terms such as knight, commander, officer, members, and so on are still commonly found as ranks. A military order may use a medal as its insignia, however, most tend to have a unique badge or a type of plaque specifically designed for an emblem.


title: Medal

text: The Medal of Honor is the highest military decoration awarded by the United States Government, and is an example of a decoration that is modeled as a military order, even though not expressly defining itself as one. It is bestowed on a member of the United States Armed Forces who distinguishes himself, "conspicuously by gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty while engaged in an action against an enemy of the United States." Each of the three departments of the American armed forces has a unique picture displayed on a medal, which is in turn displayed upon a star-shaped heraldic badge. The medal of the U.S. Army depicts the head of Minerva, the U.S. Navy medal shows a scene of Minerva doing battle with Discord, and the U.S. Air Force depicts the Statue of Liberty upon its medal.


title: Medal

text: Military decorations, including medals and orders, are usually presented to the recipient in a formal ceremony. Medals are normally worn on more formal occasions and are suspended from a ribbon of the medal's colours on the left breast, while a corresponding ribbon bar is to be worn to common events where medals would be inappropriate or impractical to wear.


title: Medal

text: Medallion is a vague term, often used for larger, usually circular, medals, which might be worn as pendants round the neck. It is the correct term for such medals from the late Roman Empire, typically distributed by the emperor and bearing his image, but in later periods larger medals are best termed just as medals.


title: Medal

text: Generally circular, table medals are issued for artistic, commemoration, or souvenir purposes, not for commerce, and are too large to be plausibly worn. Tokens and Table Medals of coin-like appearance are part of the Exonumia subcategory of Numismatics, while Orders, Decorations, and Medals are considered Militaria (military related).


title: Medal

text: The Nobel Foundation, the organization awarding the prestigious Nobel Prize, presents each winner, "an assignment for the amount of the prize, a diploma, and a gold medal..." This medal would be displayed framed like a picture, on a table, wall or in a cabinet, rather than be worn by the winner.


title: Medal

text: The Carnegie Hero Foundation is the issuer of a bravery medal, most commonly issued in the US, Canada, and the UK. This large bronze table medal features Andrew Carnegie's likeness on the obverse and the name of the awardee and citation engraved on the reverse. It is usually issued for lifesaving incidents. In the U.S. Military, challenge coins are a type of relatively unofficial medal given to boost morale, and sometimes to act as convenient passes for unit members.


title: Medal

text: Also related are plaques and plaquettes, which may be commemorative, but especially in the Renaissance and Mannerist periods were often made for purely decorative purposes, with often crowded scenes from religious, historical or mythological sources. While usually metal, table medals have been issued in wood, plastic, fibre, and other compositions. The US Government awards gold medals on important occasions, with bronze copies available for public sale.


title: Medal

text: Amongst the many fraternal organisations which wear ceremonial regalia, the use of medals is commonplace. In many prominent fraternal organisations, fraternal medals are known as "jewels". Their purpose varies, and may include use as a badge of membership, an indication of rank, a symbol of office within the fraternity, or an indication of support having been given to a designated charitable cause (so-called "charity jewels"). Common secular fraternities using jewels (medals) in the English-speaking world include Freemasonry, the Orange Order, the Royal Antediluvian Order of Buffaloes, and the Oddfellows. There are also religious fraternal organisations attached to certain Christian denominations (for example, the Catenian Association), also using medals as jewels of their Orders. Many of these organisations advertise jewels (medals) for sale on their corporate websites.


title: Medal

text: Fraternal jewels may be worn as military-style medals, on ribbons, from the left breast, or more prominently on collars or collarettes as part of the organisation's regalia. Historic examples of such medals and jewels may be found in many museums, particularly museums dedicated to fraternal organisations.


title: Medal

text: There is extensive trade in fraternal jewels and medals, with societies and associations existing to promote such trade, and to encourage the sharing of resources, and on-line resources available to support the hobby.


title: Medal

text: Many medals were and are made in several different metals, either representing awards for different places in a competition, or standards or classes, as with the Olympic medals, or simply different price levels for medals made for sale or donation by the commissioner. Medals have historically been given as prizes in various types of competitive activities, especially athletics. The gold, silver and bronze Olympic medals for first, second and third places were first used at the 1904 Summer Olympics. At the 1896 event, silver was awarded to winners and bronze to runners-up, while at 1900 other prizes were given, not medals. The medals for the London 2012 Summer Olympics are the largest ever, reflecting a trend for increasing size in Olympic medals.


title: Medal

text: The first well-known great artist to create medals was the Italian painter Antonio Pisano, also known as Pisanello, who modelled and cast a number of portrait medals of princes and scholars in the 1440s. Many other artists followed his example, in places such as Italy, the Low Countries, Germany, and France. In the seventeenth century medals were extensively used to commemorate events and glorify rulers. In the eighteenth century prize medals became common. In the 19th century art medals exploded in popularity. In the early part of the aforementioned century, David d'Angers produced a great series of portrait medals of famous contemporaries and in the latter part of the century, Jules-Clément Chaplain and Louis-Oscar Roty were among many highly regarded medalists. The early twentieth century saw art medals flourish, particularly in France, Italy, and Belgium, while later in the century Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, the US, Canada, and England produced much high quality work.


title: Degree (graph theory)

text: In graph theory, the degree (or valency) of a vertex of a graph is the number of edges that are incident to the vertex; in a multigraph, a loop contributes 2 to a vertex's degree, for the two ends of the edge. The degree of a vertex formula_1 is denoted formula_2 or formula_3. The maximum degree of a graph formula_4, denoted by formula_5, and the minimum degree of a graph, denoted by formula_6, are the maximum and minimum of its vertices' degrees. In the multigraph shown on the right, the maximum degree is 5 and the minimum degree is 0.


title: Degree (graph theory)

text: In a regular graph, every vertex has the same degree, and so we can speak of "the" degree of the graph. A complete graph (denoted formula_7, where formula_8 is the number of vertices in the graph) is a special kind of regular graph where all vertices have the maximum possible degree, formula_9.


title: Degree (graph theory)

text: In a signed graph, the number of positive edges connected to the vertex formula_1 is called positive degformula_11 and the number of connected negative edges is entitled negative degformula_11.<ref name="10.1016/j.physa.2014.11.062"></ref><ref name="10.1038/s41598-021-81767-7"></ref>


title: Degree (graph theory)

text: The formula implies that in any undirected graph, the number of vertices with odd degree is even. This statement (as well as the degree sum formula) is known as the handshaking lemma. The latter name comes from a popular mathematical problem, which is to prove that in any group of people, the number of people who have shaken hands with an odd number of other people from the group is even.


title: Degree (graph theory)

text: The degree sequence of an undirected graph is the non-increasing sequence of its vertex degrees; for the above graph it is (5, 3, 3, 2, 2, 1, 0). The degree sequence is a graph invariant, so isomorphic graphs have the same degree sequence. However, the degree sequence does not, in general, uniquely identify a graph; in some cases, non-isomorphic graphs have the same degree sequence.


title: Degree (graph theory)

text: The degree sequence problem is the problem of finding some or all graphs with the degree sequence being a given non-increasing sequence of positive integers. (Trailing zeroes may be ignored since they are trivially realized by adding an appropriate number of isolated vertices to the graph.) A sequence which is the degree sequence of some graph, i.e. for which the degree sequence problem has a solution, is called a graphic or graphical sequence. As a consequence of the degree sum formula, any sequence with an odd sum, such as (3, 3, 1), cannot be realized as the degree sequence of a graph. The inverse is also true: if a sequence has an even sum, it is the degree sequence of a multigraph. The construction of such a graph is straightforward: connect vertices with odd degrees in pairs (forming a matching), and fill out the remaining even degree counts by self-loops.


title: Degree (graph theory)

text: The question of whether a given degree sequence can be realized by a simple graph is more challenging. This problem is also called graph realization problem and can be solved by either the Erdős–Gallai theorem or the Havel–Hakimi algorithm.


title: Degree (graph theory)

text: The problem of finding or estimating the number of graphs with a given degree sequence is a problem from the field of graph enumeration.


title: Degree (graph theory)

text: More generally, the degree sequence of a hypergraph is the non-increasing sequence of its vertex degrees. A sequence is formula_15-graphic if it is the degree sequence of some formula_15-uniform hypergraph. In particular, a formula_17-graphic sequence is graphic. Deciding if a given sequence is formula_15-graphic is doable in polynomial time for formula_19 via the Erdős–Gallai theorem but is NP-complete for all formula_20 (Deza et al., 2018 ).


title: Triops

text: Triops is a genus of small crustaceans in the order Notostraca (tadpole shrimp). The long-lasting resting eggs of several species of "Triops" are commonly sold in kits as a pet. The animals hatch upon contact with fresh water. Most adult-stage "Triops" have a life expectancy of up to 90 days and can tolerate a pH range of 6–10. In nature, they often inhabit temporary pools.


title: Triops

text: The genus "Triops" can be distinguished from the only other living genus of Notostraca, "Lepidurus", by the form of the telson (the end of its 'tail'), which bears only a pair of long, thin caudal extensions in "Triops", while "Lepidurus" also bears a central platelike process. Only 24 hours after hatching they already resemble miniature versions of the adult form.


title: Triops

text: "Triops" are sometimes called "living fossils", since fossils that have been attributed to this genus have been found in rocks hundreds of millions of years old. However, careful analysis of these fossils cannot definitively assign these specimens to "Triops". Molecular clock estimates suggest that "Triops" split from "Lepidurus" during the Triassic or Jurassic, between 152.3–233.5 million years ago. The earliest diverging lineages of living "Triops" are found in areas that are part of the former supercontinent Gondwana, suggesting "Triops" originated in Gondwana.


title: Triops

text: "Triops" can be found in Africa, Australia, Asia, South America, Europe (including Great Britain), and in some parts of North America where the climate is right. Some eggs stay unhatched from the previous group and hatch when rain soaks the area. "Triops" are often found in vernal pools.


title: Triops

text: Most species reproduce sexually, but some populations are dominated by hermaphrodites which produce internally fertilised eggs. Reproduction in "T. cancriformis" varies with latitude, with sexual reproduction dominating in the south of its range, and parthenogenesis dominating in the north.


title: Triops

text: "Triops" eggs enter a state of extended diapause when dry, and will tolerate temperatures of up to for 16 hours, whereas the adult cannot survive temperatures above for 24 hours or for 2 hours. The diapause also prevents the eggs from hatching too soon after rain; the pool must fill with enough water for the dormancy to be broken.


title: Triops

text: (') meaning "three" and (') meaning "eye". The head of "T. longicaudatus" bears a pair of dorsal compound eyes that lie close to each other and are nearly fused together. The compound eyes are generally sessile (not stalked). In addition, there is a naupliar ocellus (the "third eye") between them. The compound eyes are on the surface of the head, but the ocellus is deep within the head. All the eyes, however, are easily visible through the shell covering of the head.


title: Triops

text: Franz von Paula Schrank was the first author to use the genus name "Triops", coining it in his 1803 work on the fauna of Bavaria. Their German name was "", which means 'three-eye'. He collected and described specimens from the same locality in Regensburg from which Schäffer, another naturalist who had studied the Notostraca, obtained his specimens in the 1750s. However, other authors, starting with Louis Augustin Guillaume Bosc, had adopted the genus name "Apus" for the organisms Schrank had named "Triops"


title: Triops

text: Ludwig Keilhack used the genus name "Triops" in his 1909 field identification key of the freshwater fauna of Germany. He suggested that the genus name "Apus" be replaced by "Triops" Schrank since an avian genus had already been described by Giovanni Antonio Scopoli under the name "Apus". However, Robert Gurney preferred the name "Apus" Schäffer. He suggested that the name '…"Triops" Schrank, may be returned to the obscurity from which it was unearthed'. This controversy continued and was not resolved until the 1950s.


title: Triops

text: In his 1955 taxonomic review of the Notostraca, Alan R. Longhurst supported Keilhack's genus name "Triops" over "Apus". Longhurst provided historical evidence to support this position. The International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) followed Longhurst in their 1958 ruling on the usage and origin of the genus names "Triops" and "Apus". They rejected the genus name "Apus" and instead recognized the genus name "Triops" Schrank, 1803 (ICZN name no. 1246).


title: Triops

text: Although the taxonomy of the genus has not been reviewed since 1955, the following species are recognised:


title: Triops

text: "T. mauritanicus" was considered a subspecies of "T. cancriformis" by Longhurst in 1955, but was given full species status again by Korn "et al." in 2006.


title: Triops

text: Note that for several of these species there are different varieties, some of which have recently been suggested as subspecies and even separate species. "T. longicaudatus", for example, may actually be several species lumped together, and "T. cancriformis" is generally recognized as having three subspecies: "T. cancriformis cancriformis",


title: Triops

text: "T. c. mauretanicus", and "T. c. simplex". Also, the albino form has the special name of "T. cancriformis" var. "Beni-Kabuto Ebi".


title: Triops

text: The species is considered a human ally against the West Nile virus, as the individuals consume "Culex" mosquito larvae. They also are used as a biological pest control in Japan, eating weeds in rice paddies. The Beni-Kabuto Ebi Albino variant of "T. cancriformis" is particularly valued for this purpose. In Wyoming, the presence of "T. longicaudatus" usually indicates a good chance of the hatching of spadefoot frogs.


title: Triops

text: Dried eggs of "T. longicaudatus" are sold in kits to be raised as aquarium pets, sold under the name of "aquasaurs", "trigons" or "triops". Among enthusiasts, "T. cancriformis" is also common. Other species often encountered in captivity include "T. australiensis", "T. newberryi" and "T. granarius".


title: Triops

text: Captive "Triops" are frequently kept in aquaria and fed a diet consisting mainly of carrots, shrimp pellets and dried shrimp. Often they are also given living shrimp and "Daphnia" as live prey. Because they can feed on just about anything they are also fed lunch meat, crackers, potatoes etc.


title: Triops

text: In California, "T. longicaudatus" has emerged as a significant pest of rice cultivation, due to its digging behaviour uprooting young rice seedlings.


title: Homeland (season 2)

text: The second season of the American television drama series "Homeland" premiered on September 30, 2012 on Showtime and concluded on December 16, 2012, consisting of 12 episodes. The series is loosely based on the Israeli television series "Hatufim" (English: "Prisoners of War") created by Gideon Raff and is developed for American television by Howard Gordon and Alex Gansa.


title: Homeland (season 2)

text: Set in the aftermath of Season 1, Carrie Mathison is now on leave from the CIA. However, she is recruited for an operation in Beirut by mentor Saul Berenson, resulting in their securing of conclusive proof that Nicholas Brody has been turned by al-Qaeda and is working against the United States. All the while, Brody becomes closer and closer to the Vice President as he enters into politics.


title: Homeland (season 2)

text: Production for the season began in May 2012, with the first two episodes being filmed in Israel, which doubles as Beirut, where the episodes take place.


title: Homeland (season 2)

text: The second season has three season one recurring actors–David Marciano, Navid Negahban, and Jamey Sheridan–being promoted to series regulars. Actor Rupert Friend joined the cast playing Peter Quinn, a CIA analyst; he was originally reported to be a series regular, but he is credited as a guest star.


title: Homeland (season 2)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the season has an approval rating of 93% with an average score of 8.6 out of 10 based on 42 reviews. The website's critical consensus reads, ""Homeland" is proving itself one of the best thrillers on television, as its second season ratchets up the tension and benefits from increased chemistry between its stars." The second season of "Homeland" scored a Metacritic rating of 96 out of 100 based on 21 reviews. Based on aggregation of television critics' top-ten lists, the season was ranked as the second best television show of 2012 by HitFix, and third best by Metacritic. "TV Guide" named it the best television show of 2012.


title: Homeland (season 2)

text: Dorothy Rabinowitz of "The Wall Street Journal" observed that the show is more relevant than ever given recent world events, and proclaimed that "Television's best drama series is, in short, back with all that was delectable about season one on vivid display again—first-class writing, sterling performances, rocketing suspense".


title: Homeland (season 2)

text: David Wiegand of the "San Francisco Chronicle" felt that Season 2 delivered on extremely high expectations and maintained the show's level of writing, acting, and tension.


title: Homeland (season 2)

text: "TV Guide"s Matt Roush praised the "powerhouse performances" by Claire Danes and Damian Lewis, as well as the relentless pace of the writing.


title: Homeland (season 2)

text: "USA Today"s Robert Bianco gave the season a 4/4 score, calling it "unmissable TV", and said that even with the expertly crafted plot, Homeland's biggest strength is in its characters.


title: Homeland (season 2)

text: Brian Lowry of "Variety" wrote a positive review, noting that there are some plot points that strain plausibility, but that "once the narrative begins hitting its stride in the second episode, it's clear the program remains on a rarefied creative tier".


title: Homeland (season 2)

text: "Homeland" won three awards at the 70th Golden Globe Awards, including for Best Drama Series, which it won the previous year. Claire Danes and Damian Lewis each won for Best Performance in a Television Series – Drama, with Mandy Patinkin receiving a nomination for Best Supporting Performance in a Series, Miniseries, or Television Film.


title: Homeland (season 2)

text: At the 19th Screen Actors Guild Awards, the cast was nominated for Best Cast in a Drama Series. Claire Danes and Damian Lewis were also nominated for Best Female Actor and Best Male Actor in a Drama Series respectively. Danes won to claim her second career SAG award.


title: Homeland (season 2)

text: For the 65th Primetime Emmy Awards, the series received 11 nominations, with two wins. Claire Danes won her second consecutive award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series, and Henry Bromell posthumously won for Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series. Nominations included Outstanding Drama Series, Damian Lewis for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series, Morena Baccarin for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series, Mandy Patinkin for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series, Rupert Friend for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series, and Lesli Linka Glatter for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series for the episode "Q&A". It also received nominations or Outstanding Casting for a Drama Series, Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Comedy or Drama Series (One Hour), and Outstanding Cinematography for a Single-camera Series.


title: Homeland (season 2)

text: For the 2013 Writers Guild of America Awards, it was nominated for Best Drama Series and Meredith Stiehm received a nomination for Best Episodic Drama for "New Car Smell".


title: Homeland (season 2)

text: "Homeland: The Complete Second Season" was released as a widescreen region 1 four-disc DVD and three-disc Blu-ray box set in the United States and Canada on September 10, 2013. In addition to the 12 episodes, it includes deleted scenes and four featurettes—"The Border: Prologue to Season 3", "Return to the "Homeland": Filming in Israel", "Damian Lewis: A Personal Video Diary", and "The Choice: The Making of the Season Finale". The same set was also released on September 23, 2013 in region 2.


title: Silver bullet

text: In folklore, a bullet cast from silver is often one of the few weapons that are effective against a werewolf or witch. The term "silver bullet" is also a metaphor for a simple, seemingly magical, solution to a difficult problem: for example, penicillin circa 1930 was a "silver bullet" that allowed doctors to treat and successfully cure many bacterial infections.


title: Silver bullet

text: Some authors asserted that the idea of the werewolf's supposed vulnerability to silver dates back to the Beast of Gévaudan, a man-eating animal killed by the hunter Jean Chastel in the year 1767. However, the allegations of Chastel purportedly using a gun loaded with silver bullets are derived from a distorted detail based primarily on Henri Pourrat's "Histoire fidèle de la bête en Gévaudan" (1946). In this novel, the French writer imagines that the beast was shot thanks to fictitious medals of the Virgin Mary, worn by Jean Chastel in his hat and then melted down to make bullets. An account of a Jämte about were-bears in 1936 attributes bullets of silver as the method of killing. Swedish folklore tends to ascribe silver bullets as a catch all weapon against creatures, as wizards or the skogsrå, that are "hard" against regular ammunition.


title: Silver bullet

text: In the Brothers Grimm fairy-tale of "The Two Brothers", a bullet-proof witch is shot down by silver buttons, fired from a gun.


title: Silver bullet

text: In some epic folk songs about Bulgarian rebel leader Delyo, he is described as invulnerable to normal weapons, driving his enemies to cast a silver bullet in order to murder him.


title: Silver bullet

text: Silver bullets also act as a calling card for Lone Ranger in his adventures. The masked man decided to use bullets forged from the precious metal as a symbol of justice, law and order, and to remind himself and others that life has value and the decision to shoot someone is not to be taken lightly. In the 3rd episode, his friend, who will be making his bullets for him, mentions killing villains with the bullets and the Lone Ranger explains that he will not shoot to kill; he will let the law dispense justice. The silver bullets will be as symbols of justice. Whether he actually used silver bullets in his guns varies depending on story and medium. In the radio series, the Lone Ranger used only lead bullets as weapons, while the silver bullets were used symbolically. In the 1981 feature film, The Lone Ranger used silver bullets in his guns as he was told that silver was far more solid than lead slugs and provided a straighter shot. The Lone Ranger's usage of bullets made from valuable metal like silver is satirized in an episode of "Robot Chicken" where after the Ranger expertly shoots a tin can in the air, his sidekick Tonto laments that the amount of silver the Ranger thoughtlessly wasted could have bought enough food to feed Tonto's entire village for a year.


title: Silver bullet

text: Silver bullets differ from lead bullets in several respects. Lead has a 10% higher density than silver, so a silver bullet will have a little less mass than a lead bullet of identical dimensions. Pure silver is less malleable than lead and falls between lead and copper in terms of hardness (1.5 < 2.5 < 3.0 Mohs) and shear modulus (5.6 < 30 < 48 GPa). A silver bullet accepts the rifling of a gun barrel.


title: Silver bullet

text: The terminal impact is somewhat speculative and will depend on a variety of factors including bullet size and shape, flight distance, and target material. At short ranges, the silver bullet will most likely give better penetration due to its higher shear modulus, and will not deform as much as a lead bullet. A 2007 episode of "MythBusters" demonstrated a greater penetration depth of lead bullets vs. silver bullets. Results cannot be considered conclusive, however, as the show utilized a lead slug in a .45-caliber Colt long shell vs a lighter, silver slug fired at closer range. Another "MythBusters" episode, from 2012, showed that silver bullets are less accurate than lead bullets when fired from the M1 Garand. Michael Briggs also did some experiments with silver bullets compared to lead bullets. After making a custom mold to ensure that the sizes of the silver bullets were comparable to the lead bullets, he fired them. He found that the silver bullets were slightly slower than the lead bullets and less accurate.


title: Peterhouse, Cambridge

text: Peterhouse is the oldest constituent college of the University of Cambridge in England, founded in 1284 by Hugh de Balsham, Bishop of Ely. Today, Peterhouse has 254 undergraduates, 116 full-time graduate students and 54 fellows. It is quite often erroneously referred to as "Peterhouse College", although the correct name is simply "Peterhouse".


title: Peterhouse, Cambridge

text: Peterhouse alumni are notably eminent within the natural sciences, including scientists Lord Kelvin, Henry Cavendish, Charles Babbage, James Clerk Maxwell, James Dewar, Frank Whittle, and five Nobel prize winners in science: Sir John Kendrew, Sir Aaron Klug, Archer Martin, Max Perutz, and Michael Levitt. Peterhouse alumni also include the Archbishop of Canterbury John Whitgift, Lord Chancellors, Lord Chief Justices, as well as Oscar-winning film director Sam Mendes, and comedian David Mitchell. British Prime Minister Augustus FitzRoy, 3rd Duke of Grafton, and Elijah Mudenda, second prime minister of Zambia, also studied at the college.


title: Peterhouse, Cambridge

text: Peterhouse is one of the wealthiest and most traditional colleges in Cambridge, with assets exceeding £320 million. It is one of the few Oxbridge colleges that still seeks to insist that its members attend communal dinners, known as "Hall". Hall takes place in two sittings, with the second known as "Formal Hall", which consists of a three-course candlelit meal and which must be attended wearing suits and gowns. At Formal Hall, the students rise as the fellows proceed in, a gong is rung, and two Latin graces are read. Peterhouse also hosts a biennial white-tie ball as part of May Week celebrations.


title: Peterhouse, Cambridge

text: In recent years, Peterhouse has been ranked as one of the highest achieving colleges in Cambridge, although academic performance tends to vary year to year due to its small population. In the past five years, it has sat in the top ten of the 29 colleges within the Tompkins Table. Peterhouse sat at fourth in 2018 and 2019.


title: Peterhouse, Cambridge

text: The foundation of Peterhouse dates to 1280, when letters patent from Edward I dated Burgh, Suffolk, 24 December 1280 allowed Hugh de Balsham, to keep a number of scholars in the Hospital of St John, where they were to live according to the rules of the scholars of Merton. After disagreement between the scholars and the Brethren of the Hospital, both requested a separation. As a result, in 1284 Balsham transferred the scholars to the present site with the purchase of two houses just outside the then Trumpington Gate to accommodate a Master and fourteen "worthy but impoverished Fellows". The Church of St Peter without Trumpington Gate was to be used by the scholars. Bishop Hugo de Balsham died in 1286, bequeathing 300 marks that were used to buy further land to the south of St Peter's Church, on which the college's Hall was built.


title: Peterhouse, Cambridge

text: The earliest surviving set of statutes for the college was given to it by the then Bishop of Ely, Simon Montacute, in 1344. Although based on those of Merton College, these statutes clearly display the lack of resources then available to the college. They were used in 1345 to defeat an attempt by Edward III to appoint a candidate of his own as scholar. In 1354–55, William Moschett set up a trust that resulted in nearly of land at Fen Ditton being transferred to the College by 1391–92. The College's relative poverty was relieved in 1401 when it acquired the advowson and rectory of Hinton through the efforts of Bishop John Fordham and John Newton. During the reign of Elizabeth I, the college also acquired the area formerly known as Volney's Croft, which today is the area of St Peter's Terrace, the William Stone Building and the Scholars' Garden.


title: Peterhouse, Cambridge

text: In 1553, Andrew Perne was appointed Master. His religious views were pragmatic enough to be favoured by both Mary I, who gave him the Deanery of Ely, and Elizabeth I. A contemporary joke was that the letters on the weathervane of St Peter's Church could represent "Andrew Perne, Papist" or "Andrew Perne, Protestant" according to which way the wind was blowing. Having previously been close to the reformist Regius Chair of Divinity, Martin Bucer, later as vice-chancellor of the university Perne would have Bucer's bones exhumed and burnt in Market Square. John Foxe in his "Actes and Monuments" singled this out as "shameful railing". There is a hole burnt in the middle of the relevant page in Perne's own copy of Foxe. Perne died in 1589, leaving a legacy to the college that funded a number of fellowships and scholarships, as well bequeathing an extensive collection of books. This collection and rare volumes since added to it is now known as the Perne Library.


title: Peterhouse, Cambridge

text: Between 1626 and 1634, the Master was Matthew Wren. Wren had previously accompanied Charles I on his journey to Spain to attempt to negotiate the Spanish Match. Wren was a firm supporter of Archbishop William Laud, and under Wren the college became known as a centre of Arminianism. This continued under the Mastership of John Cosin, who succeeded Wren in 1634. Under Cosin significant changes were made to the college's Chapel to bring it into line with Laud's idea of the "beauty of holiness". On 13 March 1643, in the early stages of the English Civil War, Cosin was expelled from his position by a Parliamentary ordinance from the Earl of Manchester. The Earl stated that he was deposed "for his opposing the proceedings of Parliament, and other scandalous acts in the University". On 21 December of the same year, statues and decorations in the Chapel were pulled down by a committee led by the Puritan zealot William Dowsing.


title: Peterhouse, Cambridge

text: The college was the first in the University to have electric lighting installed, when Lord Kelvin provided it for the Hall and Combination Room to celebrate the College's six-hundredth anniversary in 1883–1884. It was the second building in the country to get electric lighting, after the Palace of Westminster.


title: Peterhouse, Cambridge

text: The college developed a strong reputation for the teaching of history from the time of Harold Temperley and during World War II its fellowship simultaneously included four professors in the university's faculty for that subject - Herbert Butterfield, David Knowles, Michael Postan and Denis Brogan.


title: Peterhouse, Cambridge

text: In the 1980s Peterhouse acquired an association with Conservative, Thatcherite politics. Maurice Cowling and Roger Scruton were both influential fellows of the College and are sometimes described as key figures in the so-called "Peterhouse right" – an intellectual movement linked to Margaret Thatcher. The Conservative politicians Michael Portillo and Michael Howard both studied at Peterhouse. During this period, which coincided with the mastership of Hugh Trevor-Roper, the college endured a period of significant conflict among the fellowship, particularly between Trevor-Roper and Cowling.


title: Peterhouse, Cambridge

text: Trevor-Roper feuded constantly with Cowling and his allies, while launching a series of administrative reforms. Women were admitted in 1983 at his urging. The British journalist Neal Ascherson summarised the quarrel between Cowling and Trevor-Roper as:Lord Dacre, far from being a romantic Tory ultra, turned out to be an anti-clerical Whig with a preference for free speech over superstition. He did not find it normal that fellows should wear mourning on the anniversary of General Franco’s death, attend parties in SS uniform or insult black and Jewish guests at high table. For the next seven years, Trevor-Roper battled to suppress the insurgency of the Cowling clique ("a strong mind trapped in its own glutinous frustrations"), and to bring the college back to a condition in which students might actually want to go there. Neither side won this struggle, which soon became a campaign to drive Trevor-Roper out of the college by grotesque rudeness and insubordination. In a review of Adam Sisman's 2010 biography of Trevor-Roper, the "Economist" wrote that picture of Peterhouse in the 1980s was "startling", stating the college had become under Cowling's influence a sort of right-wing "lunatic asylum", who were determined to sabotage Trevor-Roper's reforms. In 1987 Trevor-Roper retired complaining of "seven wasted years."


title: Peterhouse, Cambridge

text: Peterhouse has its main site situated on Trumpington Street, to the south of Cambridge's town centre. The main portion of the college is just to the north of the Fitzwilliam Museum, and its grounds run behind the museum. The buildings date from a wide variety of times, and have been much altered over the years. The college is reputed to have been at least partially destroyed by fire in 1420. The entrance of the college has shifted through its lifetime as well, with the change being principally the result of the demolition of the row of houses that originally lined Trumpington Street on the east side of the college. In 1574, a map shows the entrance being on the south side of a single main court. The modern entrance is to the east, straight onto Trumpington Street.


title: Peterhouse, Cambridge

text: The area closest to Trumpington Street is referred to as First Court. It is bounded to the north by the Burrough's Building (added in the 18th century), to the east by the street, to the south by the Porters' lodge and to the west by the chapel. Above the Porters' lodge is the Perne Library, named in honour of Andrew Perne, a former Master, and originally built in 1590 to house the collection that he donated to the college. It was extended towards the road in 1633 and features interior woodwork that was added in 1641–48 by William Ashley, who was also responsible for similar woodwork in the chapel. Electric lighting was added to the library in 1937. The area above the Perne Library was used as the Ward Library (the college's general purpose library) from 1952 to 1984, but that has now been moved to its own building in the north-west corner of the college site.


title: Peterhouse, Cambridge

text: The Burrough's Building is situated at the front of the college, parallel to the Chapel. It is named after its architect, Sir James Burrough, the Master of Caius, and was built in 1736. It is one of several Cambridge neo-Palladian buildings designed by Burrough. Others include the remodelling of the Hall and Old Court at Trinity Hall and the chapel at Clare College. The building is occupied by fellows and college offices.


title: Peterhouse, Cambridge

text: Old Court lies beyond the Chapel cloisters. To the south of the court is the dining hall, the only College building that survives from the 13th century. Between 1866 and 1870, the hall was restored by the architect George Gilbert Scott, Jr. Under Scott, the timber roof was repaired and two old parlours merged to form a new Combination Room. The stained glass windows were also replaced with Pre-Raphaelite pieces by William Morris, Ford Madox Brown and Edward Burne-Jones. The fireplace (originally built in 1618) was restored with tiles by Morris, including depictions of St Peter and Hugo de Balsham. The hall was extensively renovated in 2006-7.


title: Peterhouse, Cambridge

text: The north and west sides of Old Court were added in the 15th century, and classicised in the 18th century. The chapel makes up the fourth, east side to the court. Rooms in Old Court are occupied by a mixture of fellows and undergraduates. The north side of the court also house Peterhouse's MCR (Middle Combination Room).


title: Peterhouse, Cambridge

text: Viewed from the main entrance to Peterhouse on Trumpington Street, the altar end of the Chapel is the most immediately visible building. The Chapel was built in 1628 when the Master of the time Matthew Wren (Christopher Wren's uncle) demolished the college's original hostels. Previously the college had employed the adjacent Church of St Mary the Less as its chapel. The Chapel was consecrated on 17 March 1632 by Dr Francis White, Bishop of Ely. The building's style reflects the contemporary religious trend towards Arminianism. The Laudian Gothic style of the Chapel mixes Renaissance details but incorporated them into a traditional Gothic building. The Chapel's Renaissance architecture contains a Pietà altarpiece and a striking ceiling of golden suns. Its placement in the centre of one side of a court, between open colonnades is unusual, being copied for a single other college (Emmanuel) by Christopher Wren. The original stained glass was destroyed by Parliamentarians in 1643, with only the east window's crucifixion scene (based on Rubens's "Le Coup de Lance") surviving. The current side windows are by Max Ainmiller, and were added in 1855. The cloisters on each side of the Chapel date from the 17th century. Their design was classicised in 1709, while an ornamental porch was removed in 1755. The Peterhouse Partbooks, music manuscripts from the early years of the Chapel, survive, and are one of the most important collections of Tudor and Jacobean church music. The Chapel Choir, one of the smallest in Cambridge, has recently attracted wider interest for its regular performances of this material, some of which has not been heard since the 16th century. The restoration of the 1763 John Snetzler organ in the Chapel was by Noel Mander.


title: Peterhouse, Cambridge

text: The first person buried in the Chapel was Samuel Horne, a fellow of the college. Horne was probably chaplain.


title: Peterhouse, Cambridge

text: Gisborne Court is accessible through an archway leading from the west side of Old Court. It was built in 1825-6. Its cost was met with part of a benefaction of 1817 from the Rev. Francis Gisborne, a former fellow. The court is built in white brick with stone dressings in a simple Gothic revival style from the designs of William McIntosh Brookes. Only three sides to the court were built, with the fourth side being a screen wall. The wall was demolished in 1939, leaving only its footing. Rooms in Gisborne Court are mainly occupied by undergraduates. Many previously housed distinguished alumni, including Lord Kelvin in I staircase.


title: Peterhouse, Cambridge

text: The Whittle Building, named after Petrean Frank Whittle, opened on the western side of Gisborne Court in early 2015. Designed in neo-gothic style by John Simpson Architects, it contains en-suite undergraduate accommodation, the student bar and common room, a function room and a gym. Its design recalls that of the original screen-wall that once stood in its place.


title: Peterhouse, Cambridge

text: Beyond Gisborne Court is Fen Court, a 20th-century building partially on stilts. Fen Court was built between 1939 and 1941 from designs by H. C. Hughes and his partner Peter Bicknell. It was amongst the earliest buildings in Cambridge designed in the style of the Modern Movement pioneered by Walter Gropius at the Bauhaus. The carved panel by Anthony Foster over the entrance doorway evokes the mood in Britain as the building was completed. It bears the inscription DE PROFUNDIS CLAMAVI MCMXL — "out of the depths have I cried out 1940". These are the first words of Psalm 130, one of the Penitential Psalms. Alongside the inscription is a depiction of St Peter being saved from the sea.


title: Peterhouse, Cambridge

text: An adjacent bath-house, known as the Birdwood Building, used to make up the western side of Gisborne Court. This was also designed by Hughes and Bicknell, and was built between 1932 and 1934. It was demolished in 2013 to make way for the new Whittle Building.


title: Peterhouse, Cambridge

text: The north-west corner of the main site is occupied by former Victorian warehouses containing the Ward Library, as well as a theatre and function room. The building it is housed in was originally the University's Museum of Classical Archaeology and was designed by Basil Champneys in 1883. It was adapted to its modern purpose by Robert Potter in 1982 and opened in its current form as a library two years later. In recent years, the final gallery of the old museum building has been converted into a reading room, named the Gunn Gallery, after Dr Chan Gunn.


title: Peterhouse, Cambridge

text: While officially being named the Grove, the grounds to the south of Gisborne Court have been known as the Deer Park since deer were brought there in the 19th century. During that period it achieved fame as the smallest deer park in England. After the First World War the deer sickened and passed their illness onto stock that had been imported from the Duke of Portland's estate at Welbeck Abbey in an attempt to improve the situation. There are no longer any deer.


title: Peterhouse, Cambridge

text: The remainder of the college's gardens divide into areas known as the Fellows' Garden, just to the south of Old Court, and the Scholars' Garden, at the south end of the site, surrounding the William Stone Building.


title: Peterhouse, Cambridge

text: The William Stone Building stands in the Scholars' Garden and was funded by a £100,000 bequest from William Stone (1857–1958), a former scholar of the college. Erected in 1963-4, to a design by Sir Leslie Martin and Sir Colin St John Wilson, it is an eight-storey brick tower housing eight fellows and 24 undergraduates. It has been refurbished, converting the rooms to en-suite.


title: Peterhouse, Cambridge

text: The Master's Lodge is situated across Trumpington Street from the College, and was bequeathed to the College in 1727 by a fellow, Dr Charles Beaumont, son of the 30th Master of the college, Joseph Beaumont. It is built in red brick in the Queen Anne style.


title: Peterhouse, Cambridge

text: The Hostel is situated next to the Master's Lodge. It was built in a neo-Georgian style in 1926 from designs by Thomas Henry Lyon. The Hostel was intended to be part of a larger complex but only one wing was built. It currently houses undergraduates and some fellows. During World War II the London School of Economics was housed in The Hostel and nearby buildings, at the invitation of the Master and Fellows.


title: Peterhouse, Cambridge

text: Behind the Hostel lies Cosin Court, which provides accommodation for fellows and mature, postgraduate, and married students. The court is named for John Cosin (1594–1672) who was successively Master of Peterhouse, Vice-Chancellor of Cambridge University and Prince-Bishop of Durham.


title: Peterhouse, Cambridge

text: This row of Georgian townhouses houses first-year undergraduates, fellows, and some graduate students in basement flats. It is directly in front of the William Stone Building.


title: Peterhouse, Cambridge

text: The College has, during its history, used five different coats of arms. The one currently in use has two legitimate blazons. The first form is the original grant by Robert Cooke, Clarenceux King of Arms, in 1575:


title: Peterhouse, Cambridge

text: The College did, however, habitually use a version with three pallets, and this was allowed at the Herald's Visitation of Cambridgeshire in 1684. The latter version (with three pallets) was officially adopted by the Governing Body in 1935. The construction of the arms is that of the founder, Hugo de Balsham, surrounded by the crowns of the See of Ely.


title: Peterhouse, Cambridge

text: Peterhouse and Jesus College are the only two colleges to have two separate halves to their grace, the first being a standard grace, and the second a quotation of 1 John 4:16.


title: Peterhouse, Cambridge

text: Members of Peterhouse — as masters, fellows (including honorary fellows) or students — are known as "Petreans."


title: 1987–88 European Cup

text: The 1987–88 European Cup was the 33rd season of the European Cup club football tournament. The competition was won for the first time by PSV Eindhoven, who defeated two-time winners Benfica in the final at Neckarstadion in Stuttgart. PSV became the first Dutch team to win the title in 15 years. They also set a record by winning only three matches on their route to the Cup, including no wins from the quarter-final onwards.


title: 1987–88 European Cup

text: English clubs were still banned, following the Heysel Stadium disaster of 1985, so Everton were denied a place in the competition for the second time in three years.


title: 1987–88 European Cup

text: Partizani Tirana were disqualified due to the behaviour of their players and officials, including having four players sent off in their first leg.


title: 1987–88 European Cup

text: "Partizani were disqualified due to the behaviour of their players and officials, having four players sent off in their first leg. Benfica qualified on a walkover."


title: Míchel Salgado

text: Miguel Ángel "Míchel" Salgado Fernández (born 22 October 1975) is a Spanish former footballer who played as a right-back.


title: Míchel Salgado

text: Nicknamed "Il Due" ("two" in Italian), he was known for his combative tackling and attacking play. After excellent displays at Celta, he spent an entire decade at Real Madrid, where former teammate Steve McManaman attested to his aggressive style by describing him as "the hardest person in the world...a genuine psychopath, even in training." He also played three seasons in England with Blackburn Rovers.


title: Míchel Salgado

text: Salgado, who played 341 La Liga matches and scored seven goals, represented the Spain national team over eight years, collecting more than 50 caps and appearing in one World Cup and one European Championship.


title: Míchel Salgado

text: Born in As Neves, Province of Pontevedra, Galicia, Salgado began his professional career with hometown's RC Celta de Vigo, making his La Liga debut on 22 January 1995 in a 0–4 away loss against Real Madrid. He was loaned for a season to UD Salamanca in the Segunda División, and after his return became the first-choice in his position.


title: Míchel Salgado

text: Whilst at Celta, Salgado was involved in an incident with Atlético Madrid's Juninho Paulista in February 1998: after a dangerous challenge, the Brazilian was sidelined for six months and missed that year's FIFA World Cup.


title: Míchel Salgado

text: Salgado scored a career-best three goals in the 1998–99 campaign, helping his team finish fifth and qualify for the UEFA Cup.


title: Míchel Salgado

text: In 1999, Salgado was purchased by Real Madrid for €11,000,000, playing 29 league games in his first season while also helping the club win the UEFA Champions League. He was the capital side's starter during his first seven years, but was relegated to the bench by former Sevilla FC youngster Sergio Ramos in 2006–07.


title: Míchel Salgado

text: Salgado was still able to contribute 16 matches to the "Merengues"' 30th national title, mainly due to injuries to Pepe, with Ramos being relocated to centre back. In the following two campaigns he featured very rarely (only 17 appearances), being sent off in the final game of 2008–09, a 1–2 loss at CA Osasuna on 31 May 2009 as Madrid slumped to a fifth consecutive league defeat.


title: Míchel Salgado

text: Aged nearly 34, Salgado moved to Blackburn Rovers of the Premier League on 19 August 2009, signing a two-year deal after impressing manager Sam Allardyce whilst on trial. He went on to say he was happy to be playing for his new club, intending to retire at Ewood Park.


title: Míchel Salgado

text: Salgado made his competitive debut on 12 September 2009, against Wolverhampton Wanderers as a late substitute (3–1 home win). On 27 October he scored his first goal for his new team, in a 5–2 victory over Peterborough United in the Football League Cup.


title: Míchel Salgado

text: On 27 January 2011, 35-year-old Salgado agreed to a contract extension. He was first choice in the first games of the 2011–12 season, until picking up an injury.


title: Míchel Salgado

text: Blackburn manager Steve Kean revealed in December 2011 that Salgado was being omitted from the squad as his contract stated that the player was entitled to a new deal if he played nine more matches in the campaign, the club not being able to afford fresh terms.


title: Míchel Salgado

text: Aged 40, Salgado came out of retirement to join Kochi 5s in India's Premier Futsal as a marquee player. He later was part of the board of Heritage Sports Holdings, which owned the football clubs Gibraltar United F.C. and UD Los Barrios.


title: Míchel Salgado

text: Salgado came out of retirement again in April 2018, starting for Independiente F.C. in a 1–1 draw against C.D. Plaza Amador in the quarter-finals of the Panamanian Clausura tournament. On 5 February 2021, he was appointed director of football of Cypriot First Division side Pafos FC.


title: Míchel Salgado

text: Salgado won the first of his 53 caps for Spain on 5 September 1998, in an infamous 3–2 loss in Cyprus for the UEFA Euro 2000 qualifiers. He was part of the nation's squads at Euro 2000 and the 2006 FIFA World Cup, starting in the former tournament and being backup in the latter to Real Madrid teammate Ramos.


title: Míchel Salgado

text: Due to last-minute injuries, Salgado missed out on the 2002 World Cup and Euro 2004. He also represented the Galician autonomous team, which he later coached alongside Deportivo de La Coruña's Fran.


title: Míchel Salgado

text: Salgado is married to Malula Sanz, daughter of former Real Madrid president Lorenzo Sanz. He is an avid chess fan.


title: Sarah Natochenny

text: Sarah Natochenny (born September 20, 1987) is an American voice actress and film editor. She is best known for voicing Ash Ketchum and various other characters in the English dub of "Pokémon" since 2006, as well as Alicia in the 2006 video game "Bullet Witch". She has also edited documentaries for networks such as MSNBC and worked as an assistant editor on the films "Life of Crime", "Cold Comes the Night", "Worst Friends", and "Cruise".


title: Sarah Natochenny

text: Natochenny was born in the Forest Hills neighborhood of New York City's Queens borough. When she was 12, she participated in the Junior Olympics, where she won a bronze medal in rhythmic gymnastics. She graduated from Brooklyn Technical High School in 2005. She went on to study at the Lee Strasberg Theatre Institute's Young Actors Program, as well as the Upright Citizens Brigade and Magnet Theatre in New York City.


title: Sarah Natochenny

text: At the age of 19, Natochenny replaced Veronica Taylor as the voice of Ash Ketchum on the English-language dub of "Pokémon", starting with the show's in 2006. She likened getting the role to "being struck by Pikachu’s Thunderbolt", stating: "Booking the job was the most exciting moment of my life." She also voices various other characters on the show. She voiced Alicia in the 2006 video game "Bullet Witch".


title: Sarah Natochenny

text: In 2019, Natochenny won the Outstanding Animation or Gaming - Demo, Best Voiceover award from the Society of Voice Arts and Sciences.


title: Sarah Natochenny

text: In 2020, Natochenny co-starred in the live action pilot "I Adore Dolores," which was one of No Budge's top picks of the year. She also appeared in three videos for "Vanity Fair", talking about the dubbing process and improvising as never-before-seen characters.


title: Sarah Natochenny

text: Natochenny has appeared on multiple episodes of "The George Lucas Talk Show", including "The George Lucas Talk Show All Day Star Wars Movie Watch Along, May the AR Be LIKE$$ You," and "The George Lucas Holiday Special."


title: Sarah Natochenny

text: Natochenny is also a film editor, having worked as the primary editor on documentaries for networks such as MSNBC and an assistant editor on the films "Life of Crime", "Cold Comes the Night", "Worst Friends", and "Cruise".


title: Sarah Natochenny

text: Natochenny splits her time between Los Angeles and New York City. She has been open about her struggles with depression. Natochenny is of Russian descent and speaks fluent Russian in addition to English.


title: Sarah Natochenny

text: Inspired by a "Pokémon" episode that dealt with death, Natochenny and fellow voice actress Lisa Ortiz co-founded Voices for Fosters, a charity dedicated to helping rescued animals find permanent homes and advising people on how to foster them. Their website states, "Our goal is to bring the joy of pet companionship to people who didn't think they had the time, end euthanasia and improve care standards for all animals."


title: Naamah (demon)

text: Naamah or Na'amah (; "pleasant") is a demon described in the Zohar, a foundational work of Jewish mysticism. She originated from and is often conflated with another Naamah, sister to Tubal-cain.


title: Naamah (demon)

text: In Talmudic-midrashic literature, Naamah is indistinguishable from the human Naamah, who earned her name by seducing men through her play of cymbals. She also enticed the angel Shamdon or Shomron and bore Ashmodai, the king of devils. It was later, in Kabbalistic literature like the Zohar, that she became an inhuman spirit.


title: Naamah (demon)

text: According to the Zohar, after Cain kills Abel, Adam separates from Eve for 130 years. During this time, Lilith and Naamah seduce him and bear his demonic children, who became the Plagues of Mankind. She and Lilith cause epilepsy in children.


title: Naamah (demon)

text: In another story from the Zohar, Naamah and Lilith are said to have corrupted the angels Ouza and Azazel. The text states she also attracts demons, as she is continuously chased by demon kings Afrira and Qastimon every night, but she leaps away every time and takes multiple forms to entice men.


title: Naamah (demon)

text: She makes sport with the sons of man, and conceives from them through their dreams, from the male desire, and she attaches herself to them. She takes the desire, and nothing more, and from that desire she conceives and brings forth all kinds of demons into the world. And those sons she bears from men visit the women of humankind, who then conceive from them and give birth to spirits. And all of them go to the first Lilith and she brings them up.


title: Naamah (demon)

text: A 1340 Kabbalistic treatise by Bahya ben Asher states Naamah is one of the mates of the archangel Samael, along with Lilith, Agrat bat Mahlat and Eisheth. It is stated Esau took four wives in imitation to him.


title: Cecil Fielder

text: Cecil Grant Fielder (; born September 21, 1963) is an American former professional baseball player in Major League Baseball (MLB). Fielder was a power hitter in the 1980s and 1990s. He attended college at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas (UNLV). He played in MLB for the Toronto Blue Jays (1985–1988), in Japan's Central League for the Hanshin Tigers (1989), and then in MLB for the Detroit Tigers (1990–1996), New York Yankees (1996–97), Anaheim Angels in 1998, and Cleveland Indians in 1998. With the Yankees, he won the 1996 World Series over the Atlanta Braves. In 1990, he became the first player to reach the 50–home run mark since George Foster hit 52 for the Cincinnati Reds in 1977 and the first American League player to do so since Mickey Mantle and Roger Maris famously hit 54 and 61 in 1961.


title: Cecil Fielder

text: He is the father of Prince Fielder, who similarly established himself as a premier power hitter during his career. The Fielders are the only father and son to both have 50-home run seasons in MLB history, and were the only father–son duo to have 40–home run seasons until 2021, when they were joined by Vladimir Guerrero Jr. and his own father.


title: Cecil Fielder

text: Fielder attended Nogales High School in La Puente, California. He was named an All-American while playing for the school's baseball team in 1981. He enrolled at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas (UNLV), where he played college baseball for the UNLV Rebels baseball team. Fielder was drafted by the Baltimore Orioles in the 31st round of the 1981 amateur draft, but did not sign. He was drafted by the Kansas City Royals in the fourth round of the 1982 amateur draft, and this time did sign. In 1983, he was traded by the Royals to the Toronto Blue Jays for Leon Roberts.


title: Cecil Fielder

text: The Blue Jays promoted Fielder to the major leagues on July 18, 1985. Fielder became a part-time first and third baseman for the Blue Jays, sharing playing time with Willie Upshaw and Fred McGriff. Fielder had hit 31 home runs with 84 runs batted in during four seasons. With Toronto, he earned $125,000 per season.


title: Cecil Fielder

text: The Hanshin Tigers of Nippon Professional Baseball's Central League signed Fielder after the 1988 season, paying him $1,050,000 ($1,968,644 today), including a chauffeur and a full-time interpreter. More than the money, he said, he went to Japan for the opportunity to play every day. In the beginning of spring training, Fielder had a difficult time adjusting to Japan's baseball culture. However, with the help of Tiger manager Minoru Murayama and Junichi Kashiwabara, he became adjusted to the new environment. The Tigers offered Fielder the position of cleanup hitter, and he became a hero to the local baseball fans, who nicknamed him "Wild Bear" ("wild", in Japan, is the image of power; "bear", for his hulking presence). Fielder batted .302 and hit 38 home runs for Hanshin in 1989.


title: Cecil Fielder

text: After the 1989 season, Fielder signed a two-year, $3 million contract with the Detroit Tigers. Fielder hit 51 home runs with 132 RBIs in 1990. On the last day of the Tigers' season at Yankee Stadium, Fielder hit his 50th and 51st home runs to become the 11th player in MLB history – and only the second in the previous 25 years – to reach the 50 home run plateau. No Detroit Tigers player had turned the mark since Hank Greenberg slugged 58 in 1938, and no Tiger player has reached 50 home runs since. Fielder, whose previous high mark was 14 with Toronto in 1987, provided a sudden and unexpected emergence as a legitimate slugger. In addition to his 51 homers, Fielder also led the American League in RBI and total bases (339) that season, finishing runner-up for the AL MVP award. In 1990, Fielder also became the fourth American League player to ever have two three-home run games in a season.


title: Cecil Fielder

text: With his 44 home runs in 1991, Cecil joined Hank Greenberg (1937–38) as the only Tiger players at that time to hit 40 or more homers in consecutive seasons. (Miguel Cabrera joined Fielder and Greenberg in 2012–13.) Fielder repeated as AL RBI champion with 133 driven in that season, and finished runner-up in the AL MVP balloting for the second consecutive year. In 1992, Fielder avoided salary arbitration by agreeing to a one-year, $4.5million contract, which at the time set a record for highest salary by an arbitration-eligible player. Fielder responded by leading the league in RBI (124) for the third consecutive season, becoming the first American Leaguer since Babe Ruth to do so.


title: Cecil Fielder

text: During the 1990s, Fielder built a reputation for clutch hitting and power, though the Tigers continued to be no better than mediocre. His team's fates possibly hurt him with MVP voters. Rickey Henderson and Cal Ripken Jr. narrowly edged him for the AL's MVP Award in 1990 and 1991, respectively. His new fans in Detroit nicknamed him "Big Daddy" for his big smile, peaceful temperament, and prodigious home runs (as well as his massive physical stature).


title: Cecil Fielder

text: In his six-year tenure with Detroit, Fielder had four consecutive 30-homer and 100-RBI seasons. He had 28 home runs and 90 RBIs in 109 games during the 1994 season before it was ended by a player strike, denying him a chance to extend his accomplishments to a fifth season. He also became the first Tiger to hit at least 25 home runs in six consecutive seasons. No player in Detroit history hit as many over a six-year period (219) until Miguel Cabrera hit 227 in 2008–13, and no major league player had more home runs between 1990 and 1995.


title: Cecil Fielder

text: Fielder was a member of the All-Star Team in 1990, 1991, and 1993. Fielder was named "Tiger of the Year" by the Detroit chapter of the BBWAA in 1990, 1991, and 1992. He is the only player to receive the award three consecutive years.


title: Cecil Fielder

text: In 1993, Fielder signed a five-year, $36million contract with the Tigers; which made him the highest paid player in baseball for two seasons (1995 and 1996).


title: Cecil Fielder

text: Fielder had a reputation for being a slow baserunner. In 1996 he set a major league record by taking 1,096 games to record his first career stolen base, which occurred on a botched hit and run. He stole another base that season as well, and finished his career with two stolen bases over 13 seasons and 1,470 games. Fielder also had a reputation as a below average fielder, mostly caused by his poor speed and range. He was, however, considered a competent defensive first baseman when it came to putouts and digging infield assists out of the dirt.


title: Cecil Fielder

text: Fielder was traded to the New York Yankees on July 31, 1996, for Rubén Sierra and Matt Drews. Fielder's acquisition was integral in the Yankees' World Series championship that year, as he won the Babe Ruth Award for most outstanding performance in the 1996 postseason. In 14 postseason games, Fielder hit .308 (16-for-52) with two doubles, three home runs and 14 RBI. He stayed with the Yankees in 1997, then played for the Anaheim Angels and Cleveland Indians in 1998. Fielder was signed by the Toronto Blue Jays before the start of the 1999 season. Despite batting .264 in 17 spring training games, going 14-for-53 with two doubles, a team-high three homers and 11 RBI; Toronto traded for Dave Hollins and Fielder was released once spring training wrapped. He subsequently retired.


title: Cecil Fielder

text: In his career, Cecil Fielder batted .255, with 744 runs, 200 doubles, 319 home runs, 1,008 RBI, and a .482 slugging average, drawing 693 walks for a .345 on-base percentage with two career stolen bases. As neither of his stolen bases came in the 1990 season, he held the single season record for most home runs (51) without a single stolen base (later passed by Mark McGwire in 1996 and 1999, when he hit 52 and 65 respectively). He was inducted in the Kinston Professional Baseball Hall of Fame in 1994.


title: Cecil Fielder

text: In October 2004, "The Detroit News" reported that Fielder was suffering from domestic and gambling problems. They relied on court documents from Fielder's divorce and a lawsuit brought against him by Trump Plaza Hotel and Casinos in New Jersey describing debts to various casinos, credit card companies and banks. Fielder later filed a libel suit against Gannett, the parent company of "The Detroit News", and the lead reporter, Fred Girard, accusing them of slander and defamation of character. The suit sought US$25million in damages and fees. The trial court dismissed the suit and the Michigan Court of Appeals affirmed the decision.


title: Cecil Fielder

text: Fielder's son Prince was a first baseman who played his career with the Milwaukee Brewers, Detroit Tigers, and Texas Rangers. Fielder was originally involved in his son's professional career, even negotiating his first contract. After a dispute as to whether Cecil should receive a typical agent's fee for negotiating the contract, Prince and his family were no longer on speaking terms with Cecil. In a 2012 interview, Cecil Fielder said that he and Prince had recently begun speaking again, and that their relationship was improving. On September 25, 2007, Prince hit his 50th home run of the season, making Cecil and Prince the only father/son duo in Major League history to each reach the milestone. The two each have 319 career home runs, and are tied for 126th on the career MLB home run list.


title: Cecil Fielder

text: After managing the South Coast League's Charlotte County Redfish in 2007, Fielder became the manager of the Atlantic City Surf of the Canadian-American Association of Professional Baseball in 2008. On March 25, 2011, Fielder was named to the Torrington Titans advisory board.


title: Hadrosauridae

text: Hadrosaurids (), or duck-billed dinosaurs, are members of the ornithischian family Hadrosauridae. This group is known as the duck-billed dinosaurs for the flat duck-bill appearance of the bones in their snouts. The ornithopod family, which includes genera such as "Edmontosaurus" and "Parasaurolophus", was a common group of herbivores during the Late Cretaceous Period. Hadrosaurids are descendants of the Upper Jurassic/Lower Cretaceous iguanodontian dinosaurs and had a similar body layout. Hadrosaurs were among the most dominant herbivores during the Late Cretaceous in Asia and North America, and during the close of the Cretaceous several lineages dispersed into Europe, Africa, South America and Antarctica.


title: Hadrosauridae

text: Like other ornithischians, hadrosaurids had a predentary bone and a pubic bone which was positioned backwards in the pelvis. Unlike more primitive iguanodonts, the teeth of hadrosaurids are stacked into complex structures known as dental batteries, which acted as effective grinding surfaces. Hadrosauridae is divided into two principal subfamilies: the lambeosaurines (Lambeosaurinae), which had hollow cranial crests or tubes; and the saurolophines (Saurolophinae), identified as hadrosaurines (Hadrosaurinae) in most pre-2010 works, which lacked hollow cranial crests (solid crests were present in some forms). Saurolophines tended to be bulkier than lambeosaurines. Lambeosaurines included the aralosaurins, tsintaosaurins, lambeosaurins and parasaurolophins, while saurolophines included the brachylophosaurins, kritosaurins, saurolophins and edmontosaurins.


title: Hadrosauridae

text: Hadrosaurids were facultative bipeds, with the young of some species walking mostly on two legs and the adults walking mostly on four.


title: Hadrosauridae

text: Ferdinand Vandeveer Hayden, during expeditions near the Judith River in 1854 through 1856, discovered the very first dinosaur fossils recognized from North America. These specimens were obtained by Joseph Leidy, who described and named them in 1856; two of the several species named were "Trachodon mirabilis" of the Judith River Formation and "Thespesius occidentalis" of the "Great Lignite Formation". The former was based on a collection of teeth whilst the later on two and a . Although most of the "Trachodon" teeth turned out to belong to ceratopsids, the holotype and remains of "T. occidentalis" would come to be recognized as the first recognized hadrosaur specimens. Around the same time in Philadelphia, on the other side of the continent, geologist William Parker Foulke was informed of numerous large bones accidentally uncovered by farmer John E. Hopkins some twenty years earlier. Foulke obtained permission to investigate the now scattered fossils in 1858, and these specimens as well were given to Leidy. They were described in the same year as "Hadrosaurus foulkii", giving a slightly better picture of the form of a hadrosaur. Leidy provided additional description in a 1865 paper. Among his 1858 work Leidy briefly suggested that the animal was likely amphibious in nature; this school of thought about hadrosaurs would come to be dominant for over a century to come.


title: Hadrosauridae

text: Further discoveries such as ""Hadrosaurus minor"" and ""Ornithotarsus immanis"" would come from the East, and Edward Drinker Cope led an expedition to the Judith River Formation where "Trachodon" was found. Upon the fragments discovered he named seven new species in two genera, as well as assigning material to "Hadrosaurus". Cope had studied the jaws of hadrosaurs and come to the conclusion that the teeth were fragile and could have been dislodged incredibly easily. As such, he supposed the animals must have fed largely on soft water plants; he presented this idea to the Philadelphia Academy in 1883, and this idea would come to be very influential on future study. Research would continue in the Judith River area for years to come, but the formation never yielded much more than fragmentary remains, and Cope's species as well as "Trachodon" itself would be in time be seen as of doubtful validity. The Eastern states, too, would never yield particularly informative specimens. Instead, other sites in the American West would come to provide many very complete specimens that would form the backbone of hadrosaur research. One such specimen was the very complete AMNH 5060 ( belonging to "Edmontosaurus annectens"), recovered in 1908 by the fossil collector Charles Hazelius Sternberg and his three sons in Converse County, Wyoming. It was described by Henry Osborn in 1912, who dubbed it the "Dinosaur mummy". This specimen's skin was almost completely preserved in the form of impressions. The skin around its hands, thought to represent webbing, was seen as further bolstering the idea that hadrosaurs were very aquatic animals.


title: Hadrosauridae

text: Cope had planned to write a monograph about the group Ornithopoda, but never made much progress towards it before his death. This unrealized endeavor would come to be the inspiration for Richard Swann Lull and Nelda Wright to work on a similar project decades later. Eventually they realized the whole of Ornithopoda was too broad of a scope, until eventually it was narrowed down to specifically North American hadrosaurs. Their monograph, "Hadrosaurian Dinosaurs of North America", was published in 1942, and looked back at the whole of understanding about the family. It was designed as a definitive work, covering all aspects of their biology and evolution, and as part of it every known species was re-evaluated and many of them redescribed. They agreed with prior authors on the semi-aquatic nature of hadrosaurs, but re-evaluated Cope's idea of weak jaws and found quite the opposite. The teeth were rooted in strong batteries and would be continuously replaced to prevent them getting worn down. Such a system seemed incredibly overbuilt for the job of eating soft Mesozoic plants, and this fact confused the authors. Though they stil proposed a diet of water plants, they considered it likely this would be supplemented by occasional forrays into browsing on land plants.


title: Hadrosauridae

text: Twenty years later, in 1964, another very important work would be published, this time by John H. Ostrom. It challenged the idea that hadrosaurs were semi-aquatic animals, which had been held since the work of Leidy back in the 1850s. This new approach was backed using evidence of the environment and climate they lived in, co-existing flora and fauna, physical anatomy, and preserved stomach context from mummies. Based on evaluation of all this data, Ostrom found the idea that hadrosaurs were adapted for aquatic life incredibly lacking, and instead proposed they were capable terrestrial animals that browsed on plants such as conifers. He remained uncertain, however, as to the purpose of the paddle-like hand Osborn had described, as well as their long and somewhat paddle-like tails. Thus he agreed with the idea that hadrosaurs would have taken refuge from predators in water. Numerous important studies would follow this; Ostrom's student Peter Dodson published a paper about lambeosaur skull anatomy that made enormous changes to hadrosaur taxonomy in 1975, and Michael K. Brett-Surman conducted a full revision of the group as part of his Graduate studies through the 1970s and 1980s. John R. Horner would also begin to leave his impact on the field, including with the naming of "Maiasaura" in 1979.


title: Hadrosauridae

text: Hadrosaur research experienced a surge in the decade of the 2000s, similar to the research of other dinosaurs. In response to this, the Royal Ontario Museum and the Royal Tyrrell Museum collaborated to arrange the International Hadrosaur Symposium, a professional meeting about ongoing hadrosaur research that was held at the latter institution on September 22 and 23 in 2011. Over fifty presentations were made at the event, thirty-six of which were later incorporated into a book, titled "Hadrosaurs", published in 2015. The volume was brought together primarily by palaeontologists David A. Eberth and David C. Evans, and featured an afterword from John R. Horner, all of whom also contributed to one or more of the studies published therein. The first chapter of the volume was a study by David B. Weishampel about the rate of ornithopod research over history, and the interest in different aspects of it over that history, using the 2004 volume "The Dinosauria" as the source of data on the amount of works published in each decade. Various periods of high and low activity were found, but the twenty-first century was found to overwhelmingly be the most prolific time, with over two-hundred papers published. The advent of the internet was cited as a likely catalyst for this boom. Hadrosaur research experienced high levels of diversity within the decade, with previously uncommon subjects such as growth, phylogeny, and biogeography experiencing more attention, though the functional morphology of hadrosaurids was found to have declined in study since the Dinosaur Renaissance.


title: Hadrosauridae

text: The family Hadrosauridae was first used by Edward Drinker Cope in 1869, then containing only "Hadrosaurus". Since its creation, a major division has been recognized in the group between the hollow-crested subfamily Lambeosaurinae and the subfamily Saurolophinae, historically known as Hadrosaurinae. Both of these have been robustly supported in all recent literature. Phylogenetic analysis has increased the resolution of hadrosaurid relationships considerably, leading to the widespread usage of tribes (a taxonomic unit below subfamily) to describe the finer relationships within each group of hadrosaurids. .


title: Hadrosauridae

text: Lambeosaurines have also been traditionally split into Parasaurolophini and Lambeosaurini. These terms entered the formal literature in Evans and Reisz's 2007 redescription of "Lambeosaurus magnicristatus". Lambeosaurini is defined as all taxa more closely related "Lambeosaurus lambei" than to "Parasaurolophus walkeri", and Parasaurolophini as all those taxa closer to "P. walkeri" than to "L. lambei". In recent years Tsintaosaurini and Aralosaurini have also emerged.


title: Hadrosauridae

text: The use of the term Hadrosaurinae was questioned in a comprehensive study of hadrosaurid relationships by Albert Prieto-Márquez in 2010. Prieto-Márquez noted that, though the name Hadrosaurinae had been used for the clade of mostly crestless hadrosaurids by nearly all previous studies, its type species, "Hadrosaurus foulkii", has almost always been excluded from the clade that bears its name, in violation of the rules for naming animals set out by the ICZN. Prieto-Márquez defined Hadrosaurinae as just the lineage containing "H. foulkii", and used the name Saurolophinae instead for the traditional grouping.


title: Hadrosauridae

text: Hadrosauridae was first defined as a clade, by Forster, in a 1997 abstract, as simply "Lambeosaurinae plus Hadrosaurinae and their most recent common ancestor". In 1998, Paul Sereno defined the clade Hadrosauridae as the most inclusive possible group containing "Saurolophus" (a well-known saurolophine) and "Parasaurolophus" (a well-known lambeosaurine), later emending the definition to include "Hadrosaurus", the type genus of the family, which ICZN rules state must be included, despite its status as a "nomen dubium". According to Horner "et al." (2004), Sereno's definition would place a few other well-known hadrosaurs (such as "Telmatosaurus" and "Bactrosaurus") outside the family, which led them to define the family to include "Telmatosaurus" by default. Prieto-Marquez reviewed the phylogeny of Hadrosauridae in 2010, including many taxa potentially within the family.


title: Hadrosauridae

text: Below is a cladogram from Prieto-Marquez "et al." 2016. This cladogram is a recent modification of the original 2010 analysis, including more characters and taxa. The resulting cladistic tree of their analysis was resolved using Maximum-Parsimony. 61 hadrosauroid species were included, characterized for 273 morphological features: 189 for cranial features and 84 for postcranial features. When characters had multiple states that formed an evolutionary scheme, they were ordered to account for the evolution of one state into the next. The final tree was run through TNT version 1.0.


title: Hadrosauridae

text: The most recognizable aspect of hadrosaur anatomy is the flattened and laterally stretched rostral bones, which gives the distinct duck-bill look. Some members of the hadrosaurs also had massive crests on their heads, probably for display. In some genera, including "Edmontosaurus", the whole front of the skull was flat and broadened out to form a beak, which was ideal for clipping leaves and twigs from the forests of Asia, Europe and North America. However, the back of the mouth contained thousands of teeth suitable for grinding food before it was swallowed. This has been hypothesized to have been a crucial factor in the success of this group in the Cretaceous compared to the sauropods.


title: Hadrosauridae

text: Skin impressions of multiple hadrosaurs have been found. From these impressions, the hadrosaurs were determined to be scaled, and not feathered like some dinosaurs of other groups.


title: Hadrosauridae

text: Hadrosaurs, much like sauropods, are noted for having their manus united in a fleshy, often nail-less pad.


title: Hadrosauridae

text: The two major divisions of hadrosaurids are differentiated by their cranial ornamentation. While members of the Lambeosaurinae subfamily have hollow crests that differ depending on species, members of the Saurolophinae (Hadrosaurinae) subfamily have solid crests or none at all. Lambeosaurine crests had air chambers that may have produced a distinct sound and meant that their crests could have been used for both an audio and visual display.


title: Hadrosauridae

text: While studying the chewing methods of hadrosaurids in 2009, the paleontologists Vincent Williams, Paul Barrett, and Mark Purnell found that hadrosaurs likely grazed on horsetails and vegetation close to the ground, rather than browsing higher-growing leaves and twigs. This conclusion was based on the evenness of scratches on hadrosaur teeth, which suggested the hadrosaur used the same series of jaw motions over and over again. As a result, the study determined that the hadrosaur diet was probably made of leaves and lacked the bulkier items, such as twigs or stems, that might have required a different chewing method and created different wear patterns. However, Purnell said these conclusions were less secure than the more conclusive evidence regarding the motion of teeth while chewing.


title: Hadrosauridae

text: The hypothesis that hadrosaurs were likely grazers rather than browsers appears to contradict previous findings from preserved stomach contents found in the fossilized guts in previous hadrosaur studies. The most recent such finding before the publication of the Purnell study was conducted in 2008, when a team led by University of Colorado at Boulder graduate student Justin S. Tweet found a homogeneous accumulation of millimeter-scale leaf fragments in the gut region of a well-preserved partially grown "Brachylophosaurus". As a result of that finding, Tweet concluded in September 2008 that the animal was likely a browser, not a grazer. In response to such findings, Purnell said that preserved stomach contents are questionable because they do not necessarily represent the usual diet of the animal. The issue remains a subject of debate.


title: Hadrosauridae

text: Mallon "et al." (2013) examined herbivore coexistence on the island continent of Laramidia, during the Late Cretaceous. It was concluded that hadrosaurids could reach low-growing trees and shrubs that were out of the reach of ceratopsids, ankylosaurs, and other small herbivores. Hadrosaurids were capable of feeding up to 2 m when standing quadrupedally, and up to 5 m bipedally.


title: Hadrosauridae

text: Coprolites (fossilized droppings) of some Late Cretaceous hadrosaurs show that the animals sometimes deliberately ate rotting wood. Wood itself is not nutritious, but decomposing wood would have contained fungi, decomposed wood material and detritus-eating invertebrates, all of which would have been nutritious. Examination of hadrosaur coprolites from the Grand Staircase-Escalante indicates that shellfish such as crustaceans were also an important component of the hadrosaur diet.


title: Hadrosauridae

text: Hadrosaurs have been noted as having the most complex brains among ornithopods, and indeed among ornithischian dinosaurs as a whole. The brains of hadrosaurid dinosaurs have been studied as far back at the late 19th century, when Othniel Charles Marsh made an endocast of a specimen then referred to "Claosaurus annectens"; only basic remarks were possible but it was noted that the organ was proportionally small. John Ostram would give a more informed analysis and review in 1961, pulling on data from "Edmontosaurus regalis", "E. annectens", and "Gryposaurus notabilis" (then considered a synonym of "Kritosaurus"). Though still obviously small, Ostram recognized that the brains may be more significantly developed than expected, but supported the view that dinosaur brains would've only filled some of the endocranial cavity, limiting possibility of analysis. In 1977 James Hopson introduce the use of estimated encephalization quotients to the topic of dinosaur intelligence, finding "Edmontosaurus" to have an EQ of 1.5, above that of other ornithischians including earlier relatives like "Camptosaurus" and "Iguanodon" and similar to that of carnosaurian theropods and modern crocodilians but below that of coelurosaurian theropods. Reasonings suggested for their comparably high intelligence were the need for acute senses in the lack of defensive weapons, and more complex intraspecific behaviours as indicated by their acoustic and visual display structures.


title: Hadrosauridae

text: The advent of CT scanning for use in palaeontology has allowed for more widespread application of this without the need for specimen destruction. Modern research using these methods has focused largely on hadrosaurs. In a 2009 study by palaeontologist David C. Evans and colleagues, the brains of lambeosaurine hadrosaur genera "Hypacrosaurus" (adult specimen ROM 702), "Corythosaurus" (juvenile specimen ROM 759 and subadult specimen CMN 34825), and "Lambeosaurus" (juvenile specimen ROM 758) were scanned and compared to each other (on a phylogenetic and ontogenetic level), related taxa, and previous predictions, the first such large-scale look into the neurology of the subfamily. Contra the early works, Evans' studies indicate that only some regions of the hadrosaur brain (the dorsal portion and much of the hindbrain) were loosely correlated to the brain wall, like modern reptiles, with the ventral and lateral regions correlating fairly closely. Also unlike modern reptiles, the brains of the juveniles did not seem to correlate any closer to the brain wall than those of adults. It was cautioned, however, that very young individuals were not included in the study.


title: Hadrosauridae

text: As with previous studies, EQ values were investigated, although a wider number range was given to account for uncertainty in brain and body mass. The range for the adult "Hypacrosaurus" was 2.3 to 3.7; the lowest end of this range was still higher than modern reptiles and most non-maniraptoran dinosaurs (nearly all having EQs below two), but fell well short of maniraptorans themselves, which had quotients higher than four. The size of the cerebral hemispheres was, for the first time, remarked upon. It was found to taking up around 43% of endocranial volume (not considering olfactory bulbs) in ROM 702. This is comparable to their size in saurolophine hadrosaurs, but far larger than in any ornithischians outside of Hadrosauriformes, and all large saurischian dinosaurs; maniraptors "Conchoraptor" and "Archaeopteryx", an early bird, had very similar proportions. This lends further support to the idea of complex behaviours and relatively high intelligence, for non-avian dinosaurs, in hadrosaurids.


title: Hadrosauridae

text: "Amurosaurus", a close relative of the taxa from the 2009 study, was the subject of a 2013 paper once again looking into a cranial endocast. A nearly identical EQ range of 2.3 to 3.8 was found, and it was again noted this was higher than that of living reptiles, sauropods and other ornithischians, but different EQ estimates for theropods were cited, placing the hadrosaur numbers significantly below even more basal theropods like "Ceratosaurus" (with an EQ range of 3.31 to 5.07) and "Allosaurus" (with a range of 2.4 to 5.24, compared to only 1.6 in the 2009 study); more bird-like coelurosaurians theropods such as "Troodon" had stated EQs higher than seven. Additionally, the relative cerebral volume was only 30% in "Amurosaurus", significantly lower than in "Hypacrosaurus", closer to that of theropods like "Tyrannosaurus" (with 33%), though still distinctly larger than previously estimated numbers for more primitive iguanodonts like "Lurdusaurus" and "Iguanodon" (both at 19%). This demonstrated a previously unrecognized level of variation in neuro-anatomy within Hadrosauridae.


title: Hadrosauridae

text: Neonate sized hadrosaur fossils have been documented in the scientific literature. Tiny hadrosaur footprints have been discovered in the Blackhawk Formation of Utah.


title: Hadrosauridae

text: In a 2001 review of hadrosaur eggshell and hatchling material from Alberta's Dinosaur Park Formation, Darren Tanke and M. K. Brett-Surman concluded that hadrosaurs nested in both the ancient upland and lowlands of the formation's depositional environment. The upland nesting grounds may have been preferred by the less common hadrosaurs, like "Brachylophosaurus" and "Parasaurolophus". However, the authors were unable to determine what specific factors shaped nesting ground choice in the formation's hadrosaurs. They suggested that behavior, diet, soil condition, and competition between dinosaur species all potentially influenced where hadrosaurs nested.


title: Hadrosauridae

text: Sub-centimeter fragments of pebbly-textured hadrosaur eggshell have been reported from the Dinosaur Park Formation. This eggshell is similar to the hadrosaur eggshell of Devil's Coulee in southern Alberta as well as that of the Two Medicine and Judith River Formations in Montana, United States. While present, dinosaur eggshell is very rare in the Dinosaur Park Formation and is only found in two different microfossil sites. These sites are distinguished by large numbers of pisidiid clams and other less common shelled invertebrates, like unionid clams and snails. This association is not a coincidence, as the invertebrate shells would have slowly dissolved and released enough basic calcium carbonate to protect the eggshells from naturally occurring acids that otherwise would have dissolved them and prevented fossilization.