title: Sergio Rico

text: Rico signed a permanent four-year contract on 5 September 2020, the transfer fee being of €6 million. After the arrival of Gianluigi Donnarumma in July 2021, however, he was demoted to the role of third-choice.


title: Sergio Rico

text: On 21 January 2022, Rico returned to Spain to join Mallorca on loan until the end of the season. He made his debut on 2 February, in a 1–0 loss at Rayo Vallecano in the quarter-finals of the Copa del Rey. He quickly became the starter, overtaking veteran Manolo Reina; however, after conceding six goals against relegation rivals Granada on 7 May, he returned to the bench.


title: Sergio Rico

text: On 26 May 2015, Rico and Sevilla teammate Aleix Vidal were the two players called up to the Spanish national team for the first time, ahead of a friendly with Costa Rica and a UEFA Euro 2016 qualifying match against Belarus, but he did not play in either fixture. He was the third-choice goalkeeper for the final tournament behind Iker Casillas and David de Gea, and made his debut on 1 June, replacing the former for the final 14 minutes of a 6–1 friendly win over South Korea in Salzburg.


title: Sergio Rico

text: In December 2016, Rico was given the Sport award at the Young Andalusia Prizes, receiving his honour from regional president Susana Díaz, a fan of city rivals Real Betis.


title: Sergio Rico

text: During a match between PSG and Montpellier on 22 January 2021, Rico's home in Neuilly-sur-Seine was burgled. His father died in March, and teammate Navas dedicated his penalty save against Barcelona in the Champions League round of 16 to him.


title: Old Trafford Cricket Ground

text: Old Trafford is a cricket ground in Old Trafford, Greater Manchester, England. It opened in 1857 as the home of Manchester Cricket Club and has been the home of Lancashire County Cricket Club since 1864. From 2013 onwards it has been known as Emirates Old Trafford due to a sponsorship deal with the Emirates airline.


title: Old Trafford Cricket Ground

text: Old Trafford is England's second oldest Test venue after The Oval and hosted the first Ashes Test in England in 1884. The venue has hosted the Cricket World Cup five times (1975, 1979, 1983, 1999 and 2019). Old Trafford holds the record for both most World Cup matches hosted (17) and most semi-finals hosted (5). In 1956, the first 10-wicket haul in a single innings was achieved by England bowler Jim Laker who achieved bowling figures of 19 wickets for 90 runs—a bowling record which is unmatched in Test and first-class cricket. In 1990, a 17 year old Sachin Tendulkar scored 119 not out against England, which was the first of his 100 international centuries. In the 1993 Ashes Test at Old Trafford, leg-spinner Shane Warne bowled Mike Gatting with the "Ball of the Century". In 2020 the ground was used as one of two biosecure venues, alongside the Ageas Bowl, for the tours involving West Indies and Pakistan which were regulated due to the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Old Trafford Cricket Ground

text: After Old Trafford lost test status in 2009, extensive redevelopment of the ground to increase capacity and modernise facilities saw the restoration of the pavilion and creation of The Point, a £12 million stand overlooking the pitch.


title: Old Trafford Cricket Ground

text: The site was first used as a cricket ground in 1857, when the Manchester Cricket Club moved onto the meadows of the de Trafford estate. Despite the construction of a large pavilion (for the amateurs—the professionals used a shed at the opposite end of the ground), Old Trafford's first years were rocky: accessible only along a footpath from the railway station, the ground was situated out in the country, and games only attracted small crowds. It was not until the Roses match of 1875 that significant numbers attended a game. When W. G. Grace brought Gloucestershire in 1878, Old Trafford saw 28,000 spectators over three days, and this provoked improvements to access and facilities.


title: Old Trafford Cricket Ground

text: In 1884, Old Trafford became the second English ground, after The Oval, to stage Test cricket: with the first day being lost to rain, England drew with Australia. Expansion of the ground followed over the next decade, with the decision being taken to construct a new pavilion in 1894.


title: Old Trafford Cricket Ground

text: The ground was purchased outright from the de Traffords in 1898, for £24,372, as crowds increased, with over 50,000 spectators attending the 1899 Test match.


title: Old Trafford Cricket Ground

text: In 1902, the Australian Victor Trumper hit a hundred before lunch on the first day; Australia went on to win the Test by 3 runs—the third-closest Test result in history.


title: Old Trafford Cricket Ground

text: Crowds fell through the early 20th century, and the ground was closed during the First World War; however, in the conflict's aftermath, crowd numbers reached new heights. Investment followed throughout the inter-war period, and during this time, Lancashire experienced their most successful run to date, gaining four championship titles in five years.


title: Old Trafford Cricket Ground

text: During the Second World War, Old Trafford was used as a transit camp for troops returning from Dunkirk, and as a supply depot. In December 1940, the ground was hit by bombs, damaging or destroying several stands. Despite this damage—and the failure of an appeal to raise funds for repairs—cricket resumed promptly after the war, with German PoWs being paid a small wage to prepare the ground. The 'Victory Test' between England and Australia of August 1945 proved to be extremely popular, with 76,463 seeing it over three days.


title: Old Trafford Cricket Ground

text: Differences of opinion between the club's committee and players led to a bad run of form in the 1950s and early 1960s; this consequently saw gate money drop, and a lack of investment. After 1964, however, the situation was reversed, and 1969 saw the first Indoor Cricket Centre opened.


title: Old Trafford Cricket Ground

text: In 1956 Jim Laker became the first person to take all 10 wickets in a Test match innings, achieving figures of 10 for 53 in the fourth Test against Australia (the only other bowlers to take all 10 wickets in an innings are Anil Kumble of India in 1999 and Ajaz Patel of New Zealand in 2021). Having also taken 9 for 37 in the first innings, Laker ended the match with record figures of 19 for 90, which remain unmatched to this day.


title: Old Trafford Cricket Ground

text: On 1 May 1963 the first ever one day cricket match took place at Old Trafford, as the Gillette Cup was launched. Lancashire beat Leicestershire in a preliminary knock-out game, as 16th and 17th finishers in the Championship the previous year, to decide who would fill the 16th spot in the One Day competition.


title: Old Trafford Cricket Ground

text: Following Lancashire's reign as One Day champions in the 1970s, a programme of renovation and replacement was initiated in 1981. This changed the face of the ground to the extent that, now, only the Pavilion "is recognisable to a visitor who last watched or played a game in, say, the early 1980s".


title: Old Trafford Cricket Ground

text: In 1981 Ian Botham hit 118, including six sixes (the second greatest number in an Ashes innings), which he has called "one of the three innings I would like to tell my grandchildren about". England went on to win the Ashes after being lampooned in the national media for such poor performances.


title: Old Trafford Cricket Ground

text: In 1990, Sachin Tendulkar scored his first Test hundred at the age of 17—becoming the second-youngest centurion—to help India draw. In 1993, Shane Warne bowled the "Ball of the Century" to Mike Gatting at the ground. In the same game, Graham Gooch was out handling the ball for 133—only the sixth out of nine times this has ever happened. In 1995, Dominic Cork took a hat-trick for England against the West Indies. In 2000, both Mike Atherton and Alec Stewart played their hundredth Tests, against the West Indies. In the Third Test of the 2005 Ashes series the match ended in a nailbiting draw, with 10,000 fans shut out of the ground on the final day as tickets were sold out. England went on to win the series regaining the Ashes for the first time since 1986/87. In 2020 the ground was used as one of two biosecure venues, alongside the Ageas Bowl, for the tours involving West Indies and Pakistan which were regulated due to the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Old Trafford Cricket Ground

text: The cricket ground is near the Old Trafford football stadium (a five-minute walk away down Warwick Road and Sir Matt Busby Way), in the borough of Trafford in Greater Manchester, approximately two miles south west of Manchester city centre. Its capacity is 22,000 for Test matches, for which temporary stands are erected, and 15,000 for other matches. Since 1884, it has hosted 74 Tests, the third-highest number in England, behind Lord's and The Oval.


title: Old Trafford Cricket Ground

text: The northern End is the James Anderson End, formerly the Pavilion End. ("The Point" is the distinctive, red conference center immediately west of The Pavilion.)


title: Old Trafford Cricket Ground

text: The southern End is the Brian Statham End, named in honour of the former Lancashire and England player. The red building at this Statham (south) End is the Media & Players Center.


title: Old Trafford Cricket Ground

text: A section of Warwick Road to the east is also called Brian Statham Way. Immediately abutting the ground to the south-east is the Old Trafford tram stop.


title: Old Trafford Cricket Ground

text: Old Trafford has a reputation for unpredictable weather. Old Trafford is the only ground in England where a Test match has been abandoned without a ball being bowled—and this has happened here twice in 1890 and 1938, though before five-day test matches were introduced. Before Cardiff hosted its first Test match in July 2009, Old Trafford was reputedly the wettest Test ground in the country; Manchester is situated to the west of the Pennines and faces prevailing winds and weather fronts from the Atlantic Ocean.


title: Old Trafford Cricket Ground

text: These prevailing conditions have encouraged Lancashire to keep the ground as well-drained as possible, most recently through the acquisition of a hover cover in 2007, and the installation of new drains towards the end of the 2008 season.


title: Old Trafford Cricket Ground

text: In the second Test of 1938 in a desperate effort to ensure play after heavy rain the groundstaff moved the turf from the practice pitch to the square—a unique attempt. In 2010–11 the wickets were relaid, changing their extremely unusual east–west axis to a more conventional north–south layout. The Brian Statham End (previously the Warwick Road End) to the east, and Stretford End to the west, were replaced by the Pavilion End to the north, and the Brian Statham End to the south.


title: Old Trafford Cricket Ground

text: The three-tiered Victorian members' pavilion was built in 1895 for £10,000. Hit by a bomb in 1940—which destroyed the members' dining room and groundsman's quarters—most of the pavilion was rebuilt. One million pounds was spent on a new roof after it began to leak in 2003.


title: Old Trafford Cricket Ground

text: The Pavilion's position was noteworthy in that, until 2010, it sat parallel to the wickets, rather than behind them, presenting the members with one of the worst viewing angles possible. It contains batting and bowling Honour Boards, unveiled during the 2004 Test match. The pavilion underwent redevelopment at the start of 2012 and was reopened for the YB40 game against Scotland.


title: Old Trafford Cricket Ground

text: When the bowler is operating from the southern Brian Statham End, television viewers will be looking at the Pavilion with its two clock towers directly behind the keeper.


title: Old Trafford Cricket Ground

text: The Point, Old Trafford's distinctive £12 million conference centre, and at 1,000 seats one of the largest multi-purpose conference facilities in North West England, opened in 2010. It is positioned immediately west of the Pavilion, and hence, is northwest of the cricket pitch.


title: Old Trafford Cricket Ground

text: Old Trafford was unusual in that there were two media stands at opposite ends of the ground prior to the new Media Centre which opened in September 2012. Television and radio commentators previously operated in temporary television studios and commentary boxes at the Stretford End which were perched on hospitality boxes. The Media and Players Centre is at the Brian Statham End (southern end). When the bowler is operating from the northern James Anderson End, television viewers will be looking at the Media and Players Center directly behind the keeper.


title: Old Trafford Cricket Ground

text: The idea of an indoor school was born in 1951, when nets were strung up in the Members' Dining Room in the pavilion. A permanent facility was built in 1969, and replaced in 1997. The current building stands to the north-west of the pitch; it contains five 60-metre lanes on various surfaces, several conference rooms, and a large shop.


title: Old Trafford Cricket Ground

text: To the north-east of the ground, immediately adjacent to the Pavilion is a 150-bed Hilton Garden hotel which opened in late 2017. Similar in architecture to "The Point" on the other side of the Pavilion, half the rooms have a balcony with a full view of the pitch. Previously, this was occupied by the "Old Trafford Lodge" which opened in 1999. The hotel had 68 rooms, 36 having unobstructed views of the playing surface. It was demolished in 2016 and the new hotel opened in late 2017.


title: Old Trafford Cricket Ground

text: Following rejection of plans, in 2003, to sell Old Trafford, and move the club to a new purpose-built stadium in East Manchester, the focus was switched to upgrading the current ground. Lancashire CCC, with a coalition of businesses, are in the process of making the cricket ground the centre of an anticipated development, in a mixed-use scheme involving business, residential, retail, hotel and leisure facilities.


title: Old Trafford Cricket Ground

text: The first phase of redevelopment saw the laying of new drains in Autumn 2008. In 2009, the Stretford end of the ground was closed to facilitate destruction of the County Suite, Tyldesley Suite, 'K' and 'L' Stands and the scoreboard; The Point, overshadowing new seating to the west of the pavilion, opened in June 2010. During the 2010/11 winter the wickets were turned from their previous east–west axis to a more typical north–south alignment, which prevents the low evening sun from interfering with matches, and increased the number of available wickets by five, to sixteen. Many of Lancashire's home games for the 2011 season were transferred to out grounds while the new wickets 'bedded in'.


title: Old Trafford Cricket Ground

text: The main planning process began in September 2008, but faced stiff legal opposition. Since Tesco pledged £21 million to the redevelopment, the stadium's planning application included a request for a new supermarket nearby. Trafford Council gave this joint proposal permission in March 2010—a decision which was initially called in by the Communities Secretary for Judicial Review, before the go-ahead was given in September 2010. Derwent Holdings, a property development company denied permission to build a supermarket at the nearby White City retail park, then called for a Judicial Review. Although this was turned down by the High Court in March 2011, the case went to the Court of Appeal. Lancashire took the risky decision to begin work ahead of the matter being resolved, in order to qualify for grants from the North West Development Agency before it was wound up. However, the Court of Appeal ruled in Lancashire's favour in July 2011, and denied leave to further appeal.


title: Old Trafford Cricket Ground

text: Work therefore began on this main phase in summer 2011, beginning with the installation of permanent floodlights and a new video screen. A new 'Players and Media' facility, mimicking to some degree the design of The Point, has been built on the site of the demolished Washbrook-Statham stand, with a two-tiered cantilever stand being erected on either side. The Pavilion has been renovated to have its sloped roof replaced with two modern glass storeys, finished in April 2013.


title: Old Trafford Cricket Ground

text: The media facilities and corporate boxes on the western side of the ground have been demolished, leaving an empty space, which will be used for temporary seating or a stage when required.


title: Old Trafford Cricket Ground

text: The Old Trafford Lodge opened in 1999; however, it has been since demolished and replaced by the Hilton Garden Inn Emirates Old Trafford. It is a Hilton Garden Inn 150-bedroom hotel for Hilton Worldwide. It completed in July 2017.


title: Old Trafford Cricket Ground

text: The ground is used heavily throughout the summer as the base of Lancashire County Cricket Club, with other home games being played at Stanley Park, Blackpool, Birkdale in Southport and at Aigburth in Liverpool. Until 2008, Old Trafford commonly hosted a Test match each year; none were hosted in 2009, 2011 or 2012 due to sub-standard facilities, although following redevelopment, Old Trafford hosted an Ashes Test in 2013, and further Tests in 2014 and 2016. One Day Internationals and/or International Twenty20s continue to be hosted every year.


title: Old Trafford Cricket Ground

text: In Tests, the highest team score posted here is 656/8 dec by Australia against England on 23 July 1964. The leading run scorers here are Denis Compton (818 runs), Mike Atherton (729 runs) and Alec Stewart (704 runs). The leading wicket takers are Alec Bedser (51 wickets), James Anderson (28 wickets) and Jim Laker (27 wickets).


title: Old Trafford Cricket Ground

text: In ODIs, the highest team score posted here is 397/6 by England against Afghanistan on 18 June 2019. The leading run scorers here are Graham Gooch (405 runs), Eoin Morgan (368 runs), and Allan Lamb (341 runs). The leading wicket takers are Bob Willis (15 wickets), James Anderson (14 wickets) and Darren Gough (13 wickets).


title: Old Trafford Cricket Ground

text: The ground is occasionally used as a venue for large-scale concerts, with a maximum capacity of 50,000. Although the old stage location, in front of the Indoor Cricket School, has been built on buildings on the western side of the ground, which were cleared in 2013 to allow space for a larger stage. The concert capacity increased to 65,000 after redevelopment.


title: Old Trafford Cricket Ground

text: The Old Trafford Lodge, The Point, and other corporate facilities are open all year round, as are the ground's car parks, situated to the north and west of the ground.


title: Old Trafford Cricket Ground

text: The ground is served by the adjacent Old Trafford tram stop on the Manchester Metrolink's Altrincham Line.


title: The Patient

text: The Patient is an American psychological thriller limited series created and written by Joel Fields and Joe Weisberg, who also serve as showrunners and are executive producers along with Chris Long, Caroline Moore, Victor Hsu, and Steve Carell. It premiered on August 30, 2022, on FX on Hulu and concluded on October 25 of that same year, consisting of ten episodes. The series stars Carell, Domhnall Gleeson, and Linda Emond.


title: The Patient

text: A therapist (Steve Carell) is held captive by a serial killer (Domhnall Gleeson) who seeks help to curb his homicidal urges.


title: The Patient

text: In October 2021, the series was announced and given a ten-episode order. Steve Carell was set to star and executive produce the limited series. Joel Fields and Joe Weisberg created the show and serve as showrunners, as well as co-write each episode. Caroline Moore, Victor Hsu, and Chris Long are the other executive producers, with Long also directing for the series.


title: The Patient

text: Alongside the series announcement, Steve Carell was cast. Domhnall Gleeson, Linda Emond, Laura Niemi, and Andrew Leeds were cast in January 2022. In February 2022, Alex Rich and David Alan Grier were cast in recurring roles.


title: The Patient

text: According to Whip Media, "The Patient" was the ninth most streamed original series in the United States across all platforms, during the week of September 4, 2022, the sixth during the week of October 9, 2022, the fifth during the week of October 23, 2022, and the third during the week of October 30, 2022. According to the streaming aggregator Reelgood, "The Patient" was the fourth most watched program across all platforms during the week of September 9, 2022.


title: The Patient

text: On the review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the series holds an approval rating of 88% with an average rating of 7.1/10, based on 57 reviews. The website's critics consensus is, "While "The Patient" might test viewers' patience by overextending its killer conceit, the arguably career-best work by Domhnall Gleeson and Steve Carell make this therapy session worth eavesdropping on." On Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, the series has received a score of 74 out of 100 based on 30 critic reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Septicflesh

text: Septicflesh (formerly known as Septic Flesh) are a Greek death metal band from Athens, founded in 1990.


title: Septicflesh

text: Septicflesh were formed in Athens in March 1990 by Sotiris Vayenas (guitar), Spiros Antoniou (bass and vocals), and Christos Antoniou (guitars). They released a debut EP, "Temple of the Lost Race" in December with Black Power Records, 1991. The band recorded their first full-length album, "Mystic Places of Dawn", in April 1994 at the Storm studio with the co-production of Magus Wampyr Daoloth (who had been the keyboardist for Rotting Christ). released by Holy Records. They started working on a new album for 1995 and named it "Esoptron". It was produced by Septic Flesh and George Zacharopoulos, recorded and mixed at Storm Studios in March - April 1995, mastered by Sonic Contact (France), and released by Holy Records


title: Septicflesh

text: Session vocalist Natalie Rassoulis joined for "The Ophidian Wheel" (1997) and again for "A Fallen Temple" (1998).


title: Septicflesh

text: The group split up in October 2003, and after the breakup, its members moved on to different or existing projects:


title: Septicflesh

text: Christos Antoniou continued involvement with Chaostar, which he formed in 1998, and Katsionis played guitar for Nightfall and keyboards for Firewind.


title: Septicflesh

text: from Septic Flesh's original line-up. In March 2007, guitarist Sotiris Vayenas revealed his plans for a new solo project called Aenaos.


title: Septicflesh

text: On February 19, 2007, Septic Flesh announced a reunion for Greece's "Metal Healing Festival" featuring Orphaned Land, Rage and Aborted, set to take place July 20–22.


title: Septicflesh

text: On April 3, 2007, Blabbermouth.net reported the band reunited for a seventh full-length CD, for French record label Season of Mist. According to guitarist and composer Christos Antoniou, the release would feature a full orchestra and a choir, totalling 80 musicians and 32 singers. Septic Flesh finalized the new album, "Communion", in Studio Fredman in Sweden; it was released in April 2008. By this time the band had changed its name from Septic Flesh to Septicflesh. According to guitarist Christos it looks better and states a new phase in the band.


title: Septicflesh

text: On September 10, 2009, the band announced that they had begun work on a new studio album, tentatively planned for release in the beginning of 2011.


title: Septicflesh

text: On December 17, 2010, the band released the first single, "The Vampire From Nazareth", and announced that the new album will be shipped on April 28 in the UK, and April 29 in the United States.


title: Septicflesh

text: On February 12, 2014, the band released details about "Titan". The album was released in June 2014. On December 15, 2014, it was announced that Kerim "Krimh" Lechner had joined Septicflesh as their new drummer, following the recent departure of their former longtime drummer, Fotis Benardo (a.k.a. Fotis Gianakopoulos).


title: Septicflesh

text: In June 2016 interview it was declared that, since early 2016, Septicflesh had been working on their tenth studio album, scheduled for release toward spring 2017. In early June 2017, band members claimed that Septicflesh's tenth album, titled "Codex Omega", is officially due to release on September 1, 2017. Like the previous album, "Titan", "Codex Omega" was released through Prosthetic Records.


title: Septicflesh

text: In February 2019, Septicflesh performed their first live performance featuring a full orchestra and choir, in a sold-out performance at the Teatro Metropólitan in Mexico City, Mexico. The show was recorded and was released through Season of Mist in July 2020 as the band's first official live album, titled "Infernus Sinfonica MMXIX", in audio and video format.


title: Septicflesh

text: In 2020, the band announced the upcoming release of a new studio album. The album, entitled "Modern Primitive" was released in May of 2022.


title: Sage (philosophy)

text: A sage (, "sophos"), in classical philosophy, is someone who has attained wisdom. The term has also been used interchangeably with a 'good person' (, "agathos"), and a 'virtuous person' (, "spoudaios"). Among the earliest accounts of the sage begin with Empedocles' "Sphairos". Horace describes the "Sphairos" as "Completely within itself, well-rounded and spherical, so that nothing extraneous can adhere to it, because of its smooth and polished surface." Alternatively, the sage is one who lives "according to an ideal which transcends the everyday."


title: Sage (philosophy)

text: Several of the schools of Hellenistic philosophy have the sage as a featured figure. Karl Ludwig Michelet wrote that "Greek religion culminated with its true god, the sage"; Pierre Hadot develops this idea, stating that "the moment philosophers achieve a rational conception of God based on the model of the sage, Greece surpasses its mythical representation of its gods." Indeed, the actions of the sage are propounded to be how a god would act in the same situation.


title: Sage (philosophy)

text: In Plato's "Symposium" Socrates says the difference between a sage and a philosopher (, meaning "lover of wisdom") was that the sage has what the philosopher seeks. While analyzing the concept of love, Socrates concludes love is that which lacks the object it seeks. Therefore, the philosopher does not have the wisdom sought, while the sage, on the other hand, does not love or seek wisdom, for it is already possessed. Socrates then examines the two categories of persons who do not partake in philosophy:


title: Sage (philosophy)

text: The position of the philosopher is between these two groups. The philosopher is not wise, but possesses the self-awareness of lacking wisdom, and thus pursues it.


title: Sage (philosophy)

text: Plato is also the first to develop this notion of the sage in various works. Within "The Republic", Plato indicates that when a friend of a sage dies, the sage "will not think that for a good man... death is a terrible thing." In the "Theaetetus", Plato defines the sage as one who becomes "righteous and holy and wise."


title: Sage (philosophy)

text: The Platonic sages would raise themselves by the life of their mind, while the Aristotelian sages raise themselves to the realm of the divine Mind.


title: Sage (philosophy)

text: Epicurus believed that one would achieve ataraxia by intense study and examination of Nature. This sage would be like the gods and would "[watch] the infinity of worlds arising out of atoms in the infinite void" and because of this nothing ever disturbs the peace of his soul. Certainly, they would be "unconcerned by mundane affairs in their bright, eternal tranquility, they spend their time contemplating the infinity of space, time, and the multiple worlds."


title: Sage (philosophy)

text: According to Seneca the Younger, Epicurus believed that the sage rarely gets married, because marriage is accompanied by many inconveniences.


title: Sage (philosophy)

text: Léon Robin, in his commentary on Lucretius, writes "the sage places himself within the immutability of eternal Nature, which is independent of time."


title: Sage (philosophy)

text: The concept of the sage within Stoicism was an important topic. Indeed, the discussion of Stoic ethics within Stobaeus, which depended on Arius Didymus, spent over a third of its length discussing the sage. The Stoic sage was understood to be an inaccessible ideal rather than a concrete reality.


title: Sage (philosophy)

text: The aim of Stoicism was to live a life of virtue, where "virtue consists in a will which is in agreement with Nature." As such, the sage is one who has attained such a state of being and whose life consequently becomes tranquil. The standard was so high that Stoics were unsure whether one had ever existed; if so, possibly only Socrates or Diogenes of Sinope had achieved such a state.


title: Sage (philosophy)

text: Despite this, the Stoics regarded sages as the only virtuous and happy humans. All others are regarded as fools, morally vicious, slaves and unfortunate. The Stoics did not admit any middle ground, as Cicero articulated the concept: "every non-sage is mad."


title: Sage (philosophy)

text: The Stoics conceived of the sage as an individual beyond any possibility of harm from fate. The difficulties of life faced by other humans (illness, poverty, criticism, bad reputation, death, etc.) could not cause any sorrow to the sage, while the circumstances of life sought by other people (good health, wealth, praise, fame, long life, etc.) were regarded by the Stoic sage as unnecessary externals. This indifference to externals was achieved by the sage through the correct knowledge of impressions, a core concept in Stoic epistemology. Thus, the sage's happiness, eudaimonia, was based entirely on virtue.


title: Sage (philosophy)

text: The difficulty of becoming a sage was often discussed in Stoicism. When Panaetius, the seventh and final scholarch of the Stoa, was asked by a young man whether a sage would fall in love, he responded by saying: "As to the wise man, we shall see. What concerns you and me, who are still a great distance from the wise man, is to ensure that we do not fall into a state of affairs which is disturbed, powerless, subservient to another and worthless to oneself."


title: Sage (philosophy)

text: Epictetus claims that only after the removal of any attachments to things in the external world could a Stoic truly possess friendship. He also outlined that progress towards sagehood would occur when one has learned what is in one's power. This would only come from the correct use of impressions.


title: Sage (philosophy)

text: Marcus Aurelius defines the sage as one "who has knowledge of the beginning and the end, and of that all-pervading Reason which orders the universe in its determinate cycles to the end of time".


title: Adam Hložek

text: Adam Hložek (born 25 July 2002) is a Czech professional footballer who plays as a forward for Bundesliga club Bayer Leverkusen and the Czech Republic national team.


title: Adam Hložek

text: Hložek was 12 years old when transferred from his hometown club Ivančice to Sparta Prague along with his older brother Daniel.


title: Adam Hložek

text: Four years later, on 2 October 2018, he made his debut for the first team in a Czech Cup match against as a substitution, scoring the final goal in a 4–1 away win. Hložek made his league debut for Sparta Prague on 10 November 2018 in their 3–1 win at Karviná at the age of 16 years, three months and 16 days, becoming the youngest Sparta player to appear in a league match.


title: Adam Hložek

text: Hložek finished the 2020–21 Czech First League as joint top scorer, alongside Jan Kuchta with 15 goals, despite missing four months of the season due to injury. On 30 May 2021, a day after scoring four first-half goals in a 6–1 win away to Zbrojovka Brno, Hložek signed a new contract extension until 2024 with Sparta Prague. Hložek finished the 2020–21 league season with 15 goals and seven assists in 19 games.


title: Adam Hložek

text: Hložek made his Czech Republic national team debut on 4 September 2020 in a UEFA Nations League game against Slovakia. In May 2021, Hložek was called up by the Czech Republic for their UEFA Euro 2020 campaign. He scored his first international goal in October 2021, in the 2–0 World Cup qualification win against Belarus.


title: Beam (nautical)

text: The beam of a ship is its width at its widest point. The maximum beam (B) is the distance between planes passing through the outer extremities of the ship, beam of the hull (B) only includes permanently fixed parts of the hull, and beam at waterline (B) is the maximum width where the hull intersects the surface of the water.


title: Beam (nautical)

text: Generally speaking, the wider the beam of a ship (or boat), the more initial stability it has, at the expense of secondary stability in the event of a capsize, where more energy is required to right the vessel from its inverted position. A ship that heels on her "beam ends" has her deck beams nearly vertical.


title: Beam (nautical)

text: Typical length-to-beam ratios (aspect ratios) for small sailboats are from 2:1 (dinghies to trailerable sailboats around ) to 5:1 (racing sailboats over ).


title: Beam (nautical)

text: Rowing shells designed for flatwater racing may have length to beam ratios as high as 30:1, while a coracle has a ratio of almost 1:1 – it is nearly circular.


title: Beam (nautical)

text: As catamarans have more than one hull, there is a different beam calculation for this kind of vessel.


title: Beam (nautical)

text: BOC stands for Beam On Centerline. This term in typically used in conjunction with LOA (Length overall). The ratio of LOA/BOC is used to estimate the stability of multihull vessels. The lower the ratio the greater the boat's stability.


title: Avani Chaturvedi

text: Flight Lieutenant Avani Chaturvedi (born 27 October 1993) is an Indian pilot from Rewa district, Madhya Pradesh. She was declared as the first woman combat pilot along with two of her cohorts, Mohana Singh Jitarwal, and Bhawana Kanth. The trio was inducted into the Indian Air Force fighter squadron in June 2016. They were formally commissioned by then Defence Minister Manohar Parrikar on 18 June 2016, to serve the nation.


title: Avani Chaturvedi

text: Avani was born on 27 October in 1993. Her father, Dinkar Chaturvedi, is an superintending engineer in Water Resource Department of Madhya Pradesh government and her mother is a home maker. She completed her schooling from Deolond, a small town in Shahdol district of Madhya Pradesh. Completing her Bachelors in Technology from Banasthali University, Rajasthan in 2014 where she joined the college's flying club which fascinated her to fly. She passed the AFCAT and further was recommended by AFSB.


title: Avani Chaturvedi

text: Avani's elder brother, who is an officer in the Indian Army, inspired her to join the Indian Air Force. She also has a few hours of flying experience in the flying club of her college Banasthali University.


title: Avani Chaturvedi

text: She was selected for training at the Air Force Academy and completed the training at the age of 25. After further training, Chaturvedi became a fighter pilot in June 2016.


title: Avani Chaturvedi

text: In 2018, Chaturvedi became the first Indian woman pilot to take a solo flight in a MiG-21. In 2018 Avani was promoted to the rank of Flight Lieutenant.


title: Stratum corneum

text: The stratum corneum (Latin for 'horny layer') is the outermost layer of the epidermis. The human stratum corneum comprises several levels of flattened corneocytes that are divided into two layers: the "stratum disjunctum" and "stratum compactum". The skin's protective acid mantle and lipid barrier sit on top of the stratum disjunctum. The stratum disjunctum is the uppermost and loosest layer of skin. The stratum compactum is the comparatively deeper, more compacted and more cohesive part of the stratum corneum. The corneocytes of the stratum disjunctum are larger, more rigid and more hydrophobic than that of the stratum compactum.


title: Stratum corneum

text: The stratum corneum is the dead tissue that performs protective and adaptive physiological functions including mechanical shear, impact resistance, water flux and hydration regulation, microbial proliferation and invasion regulation, initiation of inflammation through cytokine activation and dendritic cell activity, and selective permeability to exclude toxins, irritants, and allergens. This layer is composed of 15–20 layers of flattened cells with no nuclei and cell organelles. Their cytoplasm shows filamentous keratin. These corneocytes are embedded in a lipid matrix composed of ceramides, cholesterol, and fatty acids.


title: Stratum corneum

text: The stratum corneum functions to form a barrier to protect underlying tissue from infection, dehydration, chemicals and mechanical stress. Desquamation, the process of cell shedding from the surface of the stratum corneum, balances proliferating keratinocytes that form in the stratum basale. These cells migrate through the epidermis towards the surface in a journey that takes approximately fourteen days.


title: Stratum corneum

text: During cornification, the process whereby living keratinocytes are transformed into non-living corneocytes, the cell membrane is replaced by a layer of ceramides which become covalently linked to an envelope of structural proteins (the cornified envelope).


title: Stratum corneum

text: This complex surrounds cells in the "stratum corneum" and contributes to the skin's barrier function. Corneodesmosomes (modified desmosomes) facilitate cellular adhesion by linking adjacent cells within this epidermal layer. These complexes are degraded by proteases, eventually permitting cells to be shed at the surface. Desquamation and formation of the cornified envelope are both required for the maintenance of skin homeostasis. A failure to correctly regulate these processes leads to skin disorders developing.


title: Stratum corneum

text: Cells of the stratum corneum contain a dense network of keratin, a protein that helps keep the skin hydrated by preventing water evaporation. These cells can also absorb water, further aiding in hydration. In addition, this layer is responsible for the "spring back" or stretchy properties of skin. A weak glutenous protein bond pulls the skin back to its natural shape.


title: Stratum corneum

text: The thickness of the stratum corneum varies throughout the body. In the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet (sometimes knees, elbows, knuckles,) this layer is stabilized and built by the "stratum lucidum" (clear phase) which allows the cells to concentrate keratin and toughen them before they rise into a typically thicker, more cohesive SC. The mechanical stress of heavy structural strain causes this SL phase in these regions which require additional protection in order to grasp objects, resist abrasion or impact, and avoid injury. In general, the stratum corneum contains 15 to 20 layers of corneocytes. The stratum corneum has a thickness between 10 and 40 μm.


title: Stratum corneum

text: In reptiles, the stratum corneum is permanent, and is replaced only during times of rapid growth, in a process called ecdysis or moulting. This is conferred by the presence of beta-keratin, which provides a much more rigid skin layer.


title: Stratum corneum

text: In the human forearm, about 1300 cells per cm per hour are shed. Stratum corneum protects the internal structures of the body from external injury and bacterial invasion.


title: Stratum corneum

text: An inability to correctly maintain the skin barrier function due to the dysregulation of epidermal components can lead to skin disorders. For example, a failure to modulate the activity of kallikreins via the disruption of the protease inhibitor LEKTI causes the debilitating disorder Netherton syndrome.


title: Stratum corneum

text: Hyperkeratosis is an increased thickness of the stratum corneum, and is an unspecific finding, seen in many skin conditions.


title: Indianmeal moth

text: The Indianmeal moth ("Plodia interpunctella"), also spelled Indian meal moth and Indian-meal moth, is a pyraloid moth of the family Pyralidae. Alternative common names are weevil moth, pantry moth, flour moth or grain moth. The almond moth ("Cadra cautella") and the raisin moth ("Cadra figulilella") are commonly confused with the Indian-meal moth due to similar food sources and appearance. The species was named for feeding on Indian meal or cornmeal, and does not occur natively in India. It is also not to be confused with the Mediterranean flour moth ("Ephestia kuehniella"), another common pest of stored grains.


title: Indianmeal moth

text: "P. interpunctella" larvae (caterpillars) are commonly known as waxworms. It is important to note that they are not the same species as the waxworms often bred as animal feed. Rather, they are a common grain-feeding pest found around the world, consuming cereals, fruits, and similar products. Substantial efforts have been taken in the United States to control the moth's damage to grain crops.


title: Indianmeal moth

text: The larvae of this species have the ability to bite through plastic and cardboard so even sealed containers may be infested. Once found, the moths are difficult to eradicate.


title: Indianmeal moth

text: The last larval instar is also able to travel long distances before pupating; so a new infestation site may develop far from the last pupation site. In addition to food sources, this species can reproduce and pupate on clothing and any source of clothing must be inspected to prevent reinfestation.


title: Indianmeal moth

text: "Plodia interpunctella" is found on every continent in tropical habitats, excluding Antarctica. Within the United States, the moth is most commonly found in Florida, where it thrives in the tropical habitat. The moth lives in a wide range of conditions, making it a persistent pest. It is often found at food storage facilities worldwide, specifically in grain bins or grain storage buildings.


title: Indianmeal moth

text: The Indian-meal moth is the only known living species of the genus "Plodia". It is closely related to the genera "Cadra" and "Ephestia," which include other pest species like "E. kuehniella," also known as the "flour moth".


title: Indianmeal moth

text: The species has been described under a number of junior synonyms, which may occasionally still be found in non-entomological sources.


title: Indianmeal moth

text: The common name, "Indian-meal moth", for this species was coined by Asa Fitch, an entomologist employed by the state of New York in the 19th century. In a report published in 1856, Fitch discussed the species, noting that the larvae had been observed to infest stores of cornmeal, which at the time was referred to as "Indian meal".


title: Indianmeal moth

text: Adults are in length with wingspans. The distal two thirds of their forewings are generally reddish brown in color with a copper luster. They can also be bronze or dark gray. The more proximal parts of the wings are yellow-gray or white-gray, with a dark band at the intersection between the proximal and distal regions. The hindwings, in general, are uniformly gray.


title: Indianmeal moth

text: The eggs of the Indian-meal moth are white, ovate, and very small. It is difficult to see them with the naked eye. Newly hatched larvae are equally difficult to see. They are mostly off-white in color, have brown heads, and develop through five to seven larval instars. When these larvae mature, they measure about long. Larvae also have three sets of legs near the head and five sets of prolegs protruding from the abdomen. The legs help the larvae move over long distances in order to find pupation sites.


title: Indianmeal moth

text: Moths feed on many plant-based foods including dry pet food (plant based), birdseed, cereal, soup mixes, bread, pasta, rice, flour, nairn's oatcakes, spices, dried fruits and nuts. There is strong evidence that the northern Manitoba wheat supports the development of the moth. Other optimal diets include sultanas, American yellow corn and almonds. Groundnuts and maize meal, on the other hand, result in a longer development time for the moths.


title: Indianmeal moth

text: Indian-meal moths are also known to cannibalize larvae but this often leads to viral granulosis infections spreading through an Indian-meal moth population. Healthy larvae are picked more often than unhealthy larvae for cannibalism. Typically, cannibals do not eat closely related individuals which might share genes with them, but when given the choice between siblings and unrelated individuals, caterpillars tend to cannibalize their siblings.


title: Indianmeal moth

text: Though Indian-meal moths generally do not migrate over long distances, they do engage in long-distance foraging flights. These flights take place during the twilight hours during which blue light (400–475 nm) rather than UV light (10–400 nm) is dominant and attracts the moths. Blue light's role in the Indian-meal moth foraging behavior has recently been harnessed as a form of pest control since it is attractive to the moth.


title: Indianmeal moth

text: Usually the life cycle of an Indian-meal moth colony starts in a location where grain is present. The temperature within a grain bin must exceed . The eggs of the moth are grayish white and have a length between . Eggs can be laid directly on the food source singly or in groups of between 12 and 30. A mature female may lay between 100 and 300 eggs at a time.


title: Indianmeal moth

text: Larvae begin to hatch in approximately two to fourteen days. The larvae have between five and seven instars. Newly hatched larvae feed on grain while more mature larvae feed on grain germ. The larvae are an off-white color, but can be pink, brown, or greenish. They are about 12 mm long and have prolegs for movement. Fully-grown larvae are able to spin webs and leave silk threads in their path of travel. Mature larvae that make silk also make threaded cocoons.


title: Indianmeal moth

text: The pupae are often seen on grain surfaces and on the walls of grain bins. The adults emerge in four to ten days. They then mate and the cycle begins again. The entire life cycle of this species ranges between 30 and 300 days. A typical life cycle is 50 days. Under optimal conditions a life cycle can be as short as 28 days but cooler winter months prohibit this. Seven to nine generations of moths can live in a year.


title: Indianmeal moth

text: Diapause is defined as a delay in animal development due to certain external factors and can end once the adverse environmental conditions wear off. The duration of diapause can vary in Indian-meal moths. Diapause is especially prevalent late in the breeding season. During the egg stage, if the temperature of the moth's environment exceeds , it can cause a delay in hatching. In the moth's early larval stage, temperatures of below can cause a similar diapause. Different strains of "P. interpunctella" have differing tendencies to enter diapause.


title: Indianmeal moth

text: Indian-meal moths are developing a resistance to many kinds of biological agents, such as the granulosis virus. Use of pest control agents can cause resistance to these agents to be selected for in populations of Indian-meal moths. In populations exposed to the granulosis virus, it was found that the moths were 96 times more resistant to the virus. This led to the prohibition of many such biological agents.


title: Indianmeal moth

text: Regulations prevent the use of many pesticides near food sources so these pests are highly suitable for control with natural predators.


title: Indianmeal moth

text: Females mate multiple times, so sperm competition could be an important aspect of male-male competition for being reproductively successful. Males have a limited number of sperm and allocate it depending on various factors. Male Indian-meal moths ejaculate a greater amount of sperm to females that have mated multiple times previously. This is to ensure a greater chance of success in sperm competition in the females' storage organs. Males also ejaculate more sperm when mating with a younger female.


title: Indianmeal moth

text: The most common type of competition in Indian-meal moths is due to a lack of food. This competition can change the timing of male and female emergence, reducing the chance of early males finding females to mate with, which could encourage emigration. This is considered a form of male-male competition because males that emerge at an appropriate time are more likely to be reproductively successful with the surrounding females.


title: Indianmeal moth

text: Males are also involved in finding pupation sites. If the larvae do not find pupation sites in the food layer, they may wander long distances to find one. This competition to find a pupation site affects males more than it does females, it indirectly impacts females as well because it results in a delayed population of males to mate with.


title: Indianmeal moth

text: In the Indian-meal moth, mating occurs a few days after the adult moth emerges from the silk cocoon. Mating rituals are largely limited to pheromones release by the female. There are four identified (via mass spectrometry techniques) primary pheromones in the female pheromone blend: (Z,E)-9,12-tetradecadienyl acetate, (Z,E)-9,12-tetradecadienal, (Z,E)-9,12-tetradecadienol, and (Z)-9-tetradecenyl acetate. These pheromones are attractants to male moths. Removing any one component of the blend reduces the activity of the pheromone and the number of males attracted. Other components of the pheromone blend are also known but their functions are unclear. It has been suggested the reason for having so many components to the pheromone is that it ensures species specificity.


title: Indianmeal moth

text: Male moths also release pheromones. After approaching the female from the back, the male releases a pheromone from wing glands located at the base of each forewing. These pheromones induce the female to remain stationary in the acceptance posture (raised abdomen between wings) which facilitates copulation.


title: Indianmeal moth

text: Indian-meal moths are known to mate multiple times. For males, it is vital to ensure paternity after copulation. To ensure this trait, males who mate with a female first (before any other males) will insert a large package of spermatophore, accessory gland fluids, and nutrients into the bursa copulatrix of the female during copulation. Other donations after the first mating are smaller in size. Even so, there is no change in postcopulatory behavior in females after this large donation (with respect to pheromone production and calling behavior).


title: Indianmeal moth

text: It has been observed in many insects that vital resources are tracked using odor plumes. For the Indian-meal moth these odors have other effects as well. The Indian-meal moth's fecundity and fertility was found to be enhanced in the presence of the odor of vital nutrients. This effect is thought to be genetic since it is not related to parental generations or previous experiences in the lifetime of the moth. Females also show a strong preference towards laying their eggs near the site of the odor. It was observed that without antennae, this effect is lost, suggesting that there are olfactory receptors in the antennae.


title: Indianmeal moth

text: The Indian-meal moth often takes part in interspecific courtship especially with the almond moth ("Cadra cautella"). Successful mating between the species does not happen due to multiple isolation mechanisms. The main mechanism that has been identified is the male sex pheromone. This pheromone is a strong species recognition signal. It allows the almond moth to differentiate between members of its own species and members of the Indian-meal moth species. There are also mechanical barriers to insemination that render the species incompatible. Their courtship behaviors are also relatively incompatible. Thus, copulation rarely occurs.


title: Indianmeal moth

text: Even when courtship does continue to a later stage, the female of the other species rejects the male due to the wrong pheromone being released at the wrong time from scent scales. Even with these fail safes, some male almond moths are still excited by Indian-meal moth females. They may be able to successfully copulate, but insemination is not possible.


title: Indianmeal moth

text: Indian-meal moth larvae can infest a wide range of dry foodstuffs of vegetable origin, such as cereal, bread, pasta, rice, couscous, flour, spices, dried fruits, and nuts. More unusual recorded foods include crushed red pepper, chocolate and cocoa beans, coffee substitute, cookies, dried mangelwurzel, and even the toxic seeds of jimsonweed ("Datura stramonium"). They have also been known to infest commercial pet food, such as cracked corn used for bird feed. They often leave webbing in the food they infest.


title: Indianmeal moth

text: After larvae or moths have been found, it is important to throw out all food sources not in very tightly sealed containers. Moth larvae can chew through plastic bags and thin cardboard, so even unopened packages may become infested. They are also notoriously difficult to get rid of, and can crawl on ceilings and spin cocoons in rooms other than where they hatched. Last instar larvae are able to travel significant distances before they pupate. When seeking the source of an infestation, the search thus cannot be limited to the immediate area where pupae are discovered. Pantry moths can use clothing (remaining hidden) to reproduce and pupate, so it is important to inspect any source of clothing material.


title: Indianmeal moth

text: None of the stages of the organism (eggs, larvae, adults) are temperature tolerant and can be killed by a week of freezing or by brief heating in a microwave or conventional oven when such treatment is practical. Scrubbing infested areas with a mixture of soap and water or vinegar is also effective.


title: Indianmeal moth

text: Nontoxic traps are available to monitor outbreaks. One type of trap is a triangular box with a pheromone lure and sticky walls inside. These traps are known as pheromone traps. Male moths are attracted by the female pheromone (the lure) and stick against the sticky walls inside the box.


title: Indianmeal moth

text: Moths often do not even need a lure, common glue traps sometimes work well to reduce the number of adults. The efficiency of such traps is highly doubtful as they only capture males, and usually only a fraction of them, while adult females, eggs and larvae are unaffected, enabling a possible reinfestation. Moths can be deterred from an area by using nontoxic pantry moth spray. It is most effective to treat the infestation by eliminating the source and any affected food items, interrupting their mating processes, and repelling them from the areas where dried food and grains are kept. It is recommended to first eliminate the source of infestation followed by larvae, eggs, and eventually moths.


title: Indianmeal moth

text: The caterpillars are parasitized by "Habrobracon hebetor", a braconid wasp which is a potential biological control agent.


title: Indianmeal moth

text: Additionally, blue to violet light can be very effective in drawing moths out, which suggests that the deployment of violet light could become another pest control tactic for these moths.


title: Chef de cuisine

text: A chef de cuisine (, French for "head of kitchen") or head chef is a chef that leads and manages the kitchen and chefs of a restaurant or hotel. A chef patron (feminine form "chef patronne") (French for "boss chef") or executive chef is a chef that owns and/or manages restaurants and their staffs (e.g. head chefs).


title: Chef de cuisine

text: The chef de cuisine is in charge of all activities related to the kitchen, which usually includes creating menus, managing kitchen staff, ordering and purchasing stock and equipment, plating design, enforces nutrition, safety, and sanitation, and ensuring the quality of the meals that are served in the restaurant. Chef de cuisine is the traditional French term, meaning "chief of the kitchen" or "kitchen manager", from which the English word chef is derived. Head chef is often used to designate someone with the same duties as an executive chef but, in larger restaurants there is usually someone in charge of a head chef such a general manager, who makes executive decisions such as the direction of the menu, has final authority regarding staff hiring and management decisions and sets the overall tone and style of the restaurant. This is often the case for executive chefs who are in charge of several restaurants. In many restaurants, executive chef or chef de cuisine will have a line-up/pre-shift (meetings with front of house (FOH) and back of house (BOH)) in order to prepare for the service and answer questions about the menu. In some food operations, the executive chef may assist in designing the menu, dining room and kitchen. He or she may also work with food purveyors, catering directors, equipment vendors, financial consultants, the media, sanitation inspectors and dietitians.


title: 11th Streamy Awards

text: The 11th Annual Streamy Awards was the eleventh installment of the Streamy Awards honoring the best in American streaming television series and their creators. The ceremony was held on December 11, 2021, hosted by Larray and livestreamed exclusively to YouTube. Larray hosted the show from a party bus in Los Angeles alongside special guest Issa Twaimz. The show continued the Creator Honor awards, introduced the previous year, which featured past Streamy award winners presenting the award to creators that resonated with them in 2021. It also featured sneak-peaks of YouTube videos by creators such as Dixie D'Amelio, Lexi Rivera, RDCWorld, Safiya Nygaard, and ZHC, including a preview of Markiplier's YouTube Originals interactive special "In Space with Markiplier". MrBeast's Team Seas fundraising initiative to clean oceans, rivers and beaches was highlighted during a special segment of the show.


title: 11th Streamy Awards

text: The nominees were announced on October 20, 2021. Winners were announced during the digital ceremony on December 11, hosted by Larray from a party bus in Los Angeles. Winners of the categories were selected by an independent judging panel.


title: 11th Streamy Awards

text: Paul Grein of "Billboard" said that the show had a "distinctly young vibe" and described Larray and Issa Twaimz as having an "easy rapport" while delivering awards from the Streamys bus. He felt that the return of the Creator Honor awards was the "show's smartest move" because it allowed for genuine moments between the creators presenting the awards and the honorees. International Creator of the Year winner Mythpat praised the Streamys' use of an independent judging panel rather than voting, saying "It is not always about the number of followers but about the quality and type of content. Even someone with 1,000 followers can create path-breaking content while someone with one million followers can create mediocre content. It is always the content that should be valued. I would like to see more award organisers practising this system of judging." The show had a 43% increase in YouTube viewership compared to 2020.


title: Sunday school

text: A Sunday school is an educational institution, usually (but not always) Christian in character. Other religions including Buddhism, Islam, and Judaism have also organised Sunday schools in their temples and mosques, particularly in the West.


title: Sunday school

text: Sunday school classes usually precede a Sunday church service and are used to provide catechesis to Christians, especially children and teenagers, and sometimes adults as well. Churches of many Christian denominations have classrooms attached to the church used for this purpose. Many Sunday school classes operate on a set curriculum, with some teaching attendees a catechism. Members often receive certificates and awards for participation, as well as attendance.


title: Sunday school

text: Sunday school classes may provide a light breakfast. On days when Holy Communion is being celebrated, however, some Christian denominations encourage fasting before receiving the Eucharistic elements.


title: Sunday school

text: Sunday schools were first set up in the 18th century in England to provide education to working children. William King started a Sunday school in 1751 in Dursley, Gloucestershire. Robert Raikes, editor of the "Gloucester Journal", started a similar one in Gloucester in 1781. He wrote an article in his journal, and as a result many clergymen supported schools, which aimed to teach the youngsters reading, writing, cyphering (doing arithmetic) and a knowledge of the Bible.


title: Sunday school

text: The Sunday School Society was founded by Baptist deacon William Fox on 7 September 1785 in Prescott Street Baptist Church of London. The latter had been touched by articles of Raikes, on the problems of youth crime. Pastor Thomas Stock and Raikes have thus registered a hundred children from six to fourteen years old. The society has published its textbooks and brought together nearly 4,000 Sunday schools.


title: Sunday school

text: In 1785, 250,000 English children were attending Sunday school. There were 5,000 in Manchester alone. By 1835, the Sunday School Society had distributed 91,915 spelling books, 24,232 New Testaments and 5,360 Bibles. The Sunday school movement was cross-denominational. Financed through subscription, large buildings were constructed that could host public lectures as well as providing classrooms. Adults would attend the same classes as the infants, as each was instructed in basic reading. In some towns, the Methodists withdrew from the large Sunday school and built their own. The Anglicans set up their own National schools that would act as Sunday schools and day schools. These schools were the precursors to a national system of education.


title: Sunday school

text: The role of the Sunday schools changed with the Education Act 1870 which provided universal elementary education. In the 1920s they also promoted sports, and ran Sunday school leagues. They became social centres hosting amateur dramatics and concert parties. By the 1960s, the term "Sunday school" could refer to the building and rarely to education classes. By the 1970s even the largest Sunday school had been demolished. The locution today chiefly refers to catechism classes for children and adults that occur prior to the start of a church service. In certain Christian traditions, in certain grades, for example the second grade or eighth grade, Sunday school classes may prepare youth to undergo a rite such as First Communion or Confirmation. The doctrine of Sunday Sabbatarianism held by many Christian denominations encourages practices such as Sunday school attendance as it teaches that the entirety of the Lord's Day should be devoted to God; as such many children and teenagers often return to church in the late afternoon for youth group before attending an evening service of worship.


title: Sunday school

text: The first recorded Sunday school opened in 1751 in St Mary's Church, Nottingham. Hannah Ball made another early start, founding a school in High Wycombe, Buckinghamshire, in 1769. However, the pioneer of Sunday schools is commonly said to be Robert Raikes, editor of the "Gloucester Journal", who in 1781, after prompting from William King (who was running a Sunday School in Dursley), recognised the need of children living in the Gloucester slums; the need also to prevent them from taking up crime. He opened a school in the home of a Mrs Meredith, operating it on a Sunday - the only day that the boys and girls working in the factories could attend. Using the Bible as their textbook, the children learned to read and write.


title: Sunday school

text: In 18th-century England, education was largely reserved for a wealthy, male minority and was not compulsory. The wealthy educated their children privately at home, with hired governesses or tutors for younger children. The town-based middle class may have sent their sons to grammar schools, while daughters were left to learn what they could from their mothers or from their fathers' libraries. The children of factory workers and farm labourers received no formal education, and typically worked alongside their parents six days a week, sometimes for more than 13 hours a day.


title: Sunday school

text: By 1785 over 250,000 children throughout England attended schools on Sundays. In 1784 many new schools opened, including the interdenominational Stockport Sunday School, which financed and constructed a school for 5,000 scholars in 1805. In the late-19th century this was accepted as being the largest in the world. By 1831 it was reported that attendance at Sunday schools had grown to 1.2 million.


title: Sunday school

text: The first Sunday school in London opened at Surrey Chapel under Rowland Hill. By 1831 1,250,000 children in Great Britain, or about 25 per cent of the eligible population, attended Sunday schools weekly. The schools provided basic lessons in literacy alongside religious instruction.


title: Sunday school

text: In 1833, "for the unification and progress of the work of religious education among the young", the Unitarians founded their Sunday School Association, as "junior partner" to the British and Foreign Unitarian Association, with which it eventually set up offices at Essex Hall in Central London.


title: Sunday school

text: The work of Sunday schools in the industrial cities was increasingly supplemented by "ragged schools" (charitable provision for the industrial poor), and eventually by publicly funded education under the terms of the Elementary Education Act 1870. Sunday schools continued alongside such increasing educational provision, and new forms also developed such as the Socialist Sunday Schools movement, which began in the United Kingdom in 1886.


title: Sunday school

text: The earliest recorded Sunday school programme in Ireland goes back to 1777 when Roman Catholic priest Daniel Delany – later (1787) Bishop Daniel Delany of Kildare and Leighlin – started a school in Tullow, County Carlow. This was a complex system which involved timetables, lesson plans, streaming, and various teaching activities. This system spread to other parishes in the diocese. By 1787 in Tullow alone there were 700 students, boys and girls, men and women, and 80 teachers. The primary intent of this Sunday school system was the teaching of the Catholic faith; the teaching of reading and writing became necessary to assist in this. With the coming of Catholic Emancipation in Ireland (1829) and the establishment of the National Schools system (1831), which meant that the Catholic faith could be taught in school, the Catholic Sunday school system became unnecessary.


title: Sunday school

text: The Church of Ireland Sunday School Society was founded in 1809. The Sabbath School Society of the Presbyterian Church in Ireland was founded in 1862.


title: Sunday school

text: The concept of Sunday school in Sweden started in the early to mid-1800s, initially facing some backlash before becoming more mainstream as it was often intertwined with the growth (and eventual legalization) of free churches. The first documented Sunday school was started in 1826 in Snavlunda parish, Örebro County, by priest Ringzelli, and was still active during the time of Pastor Lennart Sickeldal in the 1950s. Ringzelli was also an early organizer of school meals for students who lived far from the school or were from poor families.


title: Sunday school

text: Carl Ludvig Tellström, later missionary to the Sámi people, made another early attempt to start a Sunday school around 1834. While in Stockholm, he was converted by George Scott, an influential Scottish Wesleyan Methodist preacher who worked in Sweden from 1830–1842 and was controversial due to his preaching in violation of the Conventicle Act. Within the Church of Sweden, however, based on the format of Methodist Sunday schools, he started several in Flykälen, Föllinge, Ottsjön, Storå, and Tuvattnet.


title: Sunday school

text: Later, Mathilda Foy founded an early Sunday school in 1843–1844. Influenced by Pietistic revivalist preachers such as Scott, and particularly Carl Olof Rosenius, Foy found herself part of the "läsare" (Reader) movement. Always engaged in charitable work, she started a Sunday school not long after her spiritual awakening. However, it was soon closed due to the protests of clergy, who considered it "Methodist". Another attempt by Augusta Norstedt was noted around the same time.


title: Sunday school

text: Sometime between 1848 and 1856, educator and preacher Amelie von Braun, also part of the revivalist awakening movement, started a Sunday school primarily teaching children Bible stories. She worked within the state church. Her Sunday school was supported by Peter Fjellstedt and grew quickly, with 250 students noted in 1853.


title: Sunday school

text: Around 1851, Sunday schools were established by Foy's friends Betty Ehrenborg (1818–1880) and Per Palmqvist (1815–1887), brother of Swedish Baptist pioneers Johannes and Gustaf Palmquist. That year, Ehrenborg and the brothers traveled to London. The brothers, at least, reconnected with Scott, whom they knew from Sweden. In England, they studied the Methodists' Sunday schools and teaching methods, impressed by the number of students and teachers. There were over 250 children and 20 to 30 teachers; classes were taught by laypeople and included literacy training in addition to Bible lessons, singing, and prayer.


title: Sunday school

text: Upon Palmqvist's return to Sweden, he invited 25 local poor children and founded the first Baptist Sunday school; the same year, Ehrenborg began a Sunday school as well, with 13 mostly Baptist and free-church students. Palmqvist was given £5 in financial support by the London Sunday School Association and used the money to travel to Norrland, home of a significant revival movement, to spread the idea of Sunday school there. The first Sunday school association in Sweden, Stockholms Lutherska Söndagsskolförening, was started in 1868. However, even despite the abolition of the Conventicle Act in 1858 and increasing religious freedom, there were still challenges: Palmqvist was reported to the Stockholm City Court by a priest in 1870 for teaching children who did not belong to his congregation but was later acquitted.


title: Sunday school

text: In Stockholm alone, there were 29 Sunday schools by 1871. By 1915 there were 6,518 Sunday schools in the country among a number of denominations, with 23,058 officers and teachers and 317,648 students.


title: Sunday school

text: The first Sunday schools in Finland were run by the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland, with the first one founded in 1807. They were often for those who had not become literate. As a form of schooling, they were recommended by the state in 1853. Some Sunday schools gave vocational training in the trades; after 1858 they were also preparatory schools for further education held during the week. However, Sunday schools did not catch on until the later growth of free churches in the country as well as the establishment of public schooling, at which point they became a form of children's religious education. One of the earliest free-church Sunday schools was founded by sisters Netta and Anna Heikel in Jakobstad in the 1860s. More Sunday schools were soon founded in the 1870s and 1880s: in Vaasa – including by the local Lutheran parish, in Kotka, Turku, Åland, Helsinki, Ekenäs, Hanko, and other cities.


title: Sunday school

text: The first organized and documented Sunday school in the United States was not founded in New England, but rather in Ephrata, Lancaster County, Pennsylvania by an immigrant from Germany, Ludwig Höcker, the son of a well-respected and influential Reformed Church Pastor and teacher in Westerwald. Ludwig immigrated in the 1730's and joined the Sabbatarian Ephrata Cloister in 1739 where he soon created the Sunday school for the impoverished children of the area, and published, on the Ephrata Press, a full textbook.<ref>


title: Front-wheel drive

text: Front-wheel drive (FWD) is a form of engine and transmission layout used in motor vehicles, where the engine drives the front wheels only. Most modern front-wheel drive vehicles feature a transverse engine, rather than the conventional longitudinal engine arrangement generally found in rear-wheel drive and four-wheel drive vehicles.


title: Front-wheel drive

text: By far the most common layout for a front-wheel drive car is with the engine and transmission at the front of the car, mounted transversely.


title: Front-wheel drive

text: Other layouts of front-wheel drive that have been occasionally produced are a front-engine mounted longitudinally, a mid-engine layout and a rear-engine layout.


title: Front-wheel drive

text: Experiments with front-wheel drive cars date to the early days of the automobile. The world's first self-propelled vehicle, Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot's 1769/1770 "fardier à vapeur", was a front-wheel driven three-wheeled steam-tractor. It then took at least a century, for the first experiments with mobile internal combustion engines to gain traction.


title: Front-wheel drive

text: Sometime between 1895 and 1898 the Austrian brothers and bicycle producers Franz, Heinrich and Karl Gräf, see Gräf & Stift, commissioned the technician Josef Kainz to build a "voiturette" with a one-cylinder De Dion-Bouton engine fitted in the front of the vehicle, powering the front axle. It is possibly the world's first front-wheel-drive automobile, but it never saw series production, with just one prototype made.


title: Front-wheel drive

text: In 1899 the inventor Henry Sutton designed and built one of Australia's first cars, called The Sutton Autocar.This car may have been the first front wheel drive car in the world. Henry's car was reported in the English press at the time and featured in the English magazine Autocar which the car was named after. Two prototypes of the Autocar were built and the Austral Otis Company was going to go into business with Henry to manufacture Henry's car but the cost of the car was too prohibitive as it could not compete with the cost of imported cars.


title: Front-wheel drive

text: In 1898/9 the French manufacturer Société Parisienne patented their front-wheel-drive articulated vehicle concept which they manufactured as a Victoria Combination. It was variously powered by De Dion-Bouton engine or a water cooled Aster engine. The engine was mounted on the front axle and so was rotated by the tiller steering. The name Victoria Combination described the lightweight, two-seater trailer commonly known as a Victoria, combined with the rear axle and drive mechanism from a motor tricycle that was placed in front to achieve front wheel drive. It also known as the "Eureka". By 1899 Victoria Combinations were participating in motoring events such as the 371km Paris-St Malo race, finishing 23rd overall and second(last) in the class. In October a Victoria Combination won its class in the Paris-Rambouillet-Paris event, covering the 100 kilometre course at . In 1900 it completed non-stop at . When production ceased in mid-1901, over 400 copies had been sold for 3,000 Francs (circa $600) each.


title: Front-wheel drive

text: A different concept was the Lohner–Porsche of 1897 with an electric motor in each front wheel, produced by Lohner-Werke in Vienna. It was developed by Ferdinand Porsche in 1897 based on a concept developed by American inventor Wellington Adams. Porsche also raced it in 1897.


title: Front-wheel drive

text: J. Walter Christie of the United States patented a design for a front-wheel-drive car, the first prototype of which he built in 1904. He promoted and demonstrated several such vehicles, notably with "transversely" mounted engines, by racing at various speedways in the United States, and even competed in the 1906 Vanderbilt Cup and the French Grand Prix. In 1912 he began manufacturing a line of wheeled fire engine tractors which used his front-wheel-drive system, but due to lack of sales this venture failed.


title: Front-wheel drive

text: In Australia in 1915 G.J. Hoskins designed and was granted a patent for his front-wheel-drive system. Based in Burwood NSW Mr Hoskins was a prominent member of the Sydney motoring industry and invented a system that used a "spherical radial gear" that was fitted to what is believed to have been a Standard (built by the Standard Motor Company of England). A photo of the car with the system fitted is available from the Mitchell Library and the patent design drawing is still available from the Australian Patent Office. reference; "Gilltraps Australian Cars from 1879 - A history of cars built in Australia" (authors Gilltrap T and M) ISBN 0 85558 936 1 (Golden Press Pty Ltd)


title: Front-wheel drive

text: The next application of front-wheel drive was the supercharged Alvis 12/50 racing car designed by George Thomas Smith-Clarke and William M. Dunn of Alvis Cars of the United Kingdom. This vehicle was entered in the 1925 Kop Hill Climb in Princes Risborough in Buckinghamshire on March 28, 1925. Harry Arminius Miller of Menomonie, Wisconsin designed the Miller 122 front-wheel drive race-car that was entered in the 1925 Indianapolis 500, which was held at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway on Saturday, May 30, 1925.


title: Front-wheel drive

text: However, the idea of front-wheel drive languished outside the motor racing arena as few manufacturers attempted the same for production automobiles. Alvis Cars did introduce a commercial model of the front-wheel drive 12/50 racer in 1928, but it was not a success.


title: Front-wheel drive

text: In France, Jean-Albert Grégoire and Pierre Fenaille developed the Tracta constant-velocity joint in 1926. Both German makers DKW in 1931 and Adler in 1933 bought Tracta licenses for their first front-wheel-drive cars. Imperia in Belgium and Rosengart in France manufactured the Adler under the licenses using the Tracta CV joints. During the second World War, all British vehicles, U.S. Jeeps made by Ford and Dodge command cars used Tracta CV joints. Russia and Germany also used the Tracta CV joints, but without the licensing.


title: Front-wheel drive

text: The United States only saw a few limited production experiments like the Cord L-29 of 1929, the first American front-wheel-drive car to be offered to the public, and a few months later the Ruxton automobile. The Cord L-29's drive system was again inspired by racing, copying from the Indianapolis 500-dominating racers, using the same de Dion layout and inboard brakes.


title: Front-wheel drive

text: Moreover, the Auburn (Indiana) built Cord was the first ever front-wheel drive production car to use constant-velocity joints. These very specific components allow motive power to be delivered to steered wheels more seamlessly than universal joints, and have become common on almost every front-wheel-drive car, including on the front axles of almost every four- or all-wheel-drive wheeled vehicle.


title: Front-wheel drive

text: Neither automobile was particularly successful in the open market. In spite of the Cord's hallmark innovation, using CV joints, and being competitively priced against contemporaneous alternatives, the buyers demographic were expecting more than the car's top speed, and combined with the effect of the Great Depression, by 1932 the Cord L-29 was discontinued, with just 4,400 sold. The 1929 Ruxton sold just 200 cars built that year.


title: Front-wheel drive

text: The first successful consumer application came in 1929. The BSA (Birmingham Small Arms Company) produced the unique front-wheel-drive BSA three-wheeler. Production continued until 1936 during which time sports and touring models were available. In 1931 the DKW F1 from Germany made its debut, with a transverse-mounted engine behind the front axle. This design would continue for 3 decades in Germany. Buckminster Fuller adopted rear-engine, front-wheel drive for his three Dymaxion Car prototypes.


title: Front-wheel drive

text: Other German car producers followed: Stoewer offered a car with front-wheel drive in 1931, Adler in 1932 and Audi in 1933. Versions of the Adler Trumpf sold five-figure numbers from 1932 to 1938, totalling over 25,600 units. In 1934, Adler added a cheaper, and even more successful Trumpf Junior model, which sold over 100,000 in August 1939, and in the same year Citroën introduced the very successful Traction Avant models in France, over time selling them in the hundred thousands.


title: Front-wheel drive

text: Hupmobile made 2 experimental models with front-wheel drive in 1932 and 1934, but none of these came into production


title: Front-wheel drive

text: In the late 1930s, the Cord 810/812 of the United States managed a bit better than its predecessor one decade earlier. These vehicles featured a layout that places the engine behind the transmission, running "backwards," (save for the Cord, which drove the transmission from the front of the engine). The basic front-wheel-drive layout provides sharp turning, and better weight distribution creates "positive handling characteristics" due to its low polar inertia and relatively favourable weight distribution. (The heaviest component is near the centre of the car, making the main component of its moment of inertia relatively low). Another result of this design is a lengthened chassis.


title: Front-wheel drive

text: Except for Citroën, after the 1930s, front-wheel drive would largely be abandoned for the following twenty years. Save the interruption of World War II, Citroën built some million Traction Avants through 1957; adding their cheap 2CV people's car in 1948, and introducing an equally front-wheel driven successor for the TA, the DS model, in 1955.


title: Front-wheel drive

text: Front-wheel drive continued with the 1948 Citroën 2CV, where the air-cooled lightweight aluminium flat twin engine was mounted ahead of the front wheels, but used Hooke type universal joint driveshaft joints, and 1955 Citroën DS, featuring the mid-engine layout. Panhard of France, DKW of Germany and Saab of Sweden offered exclusively front-wheel-drive cars, starting with the 1948 Saab 92.


title: Front-wheel drive

text: In 1946, Lloyd Cars, the English car company, had produced the front-wheel-drive roadster, Lloyd 650. The two-stroke, two-cylinder motor was mounted transversely in the front and connected to the front wheels through four-speed synchronised gearbox. The high price and lacklustre performance had doomed its production. Only 600 units were produced from 1946 to 1950.


title: Front-wheel drive

text: In 1946 in Italy, Antonio Fessia created his Cemsa Caproni F11, produced in 7 specimens his innovation was to created the happy combination with the boxer engine (flat four) on a special frame from the particularly low center of gravity. For post-war financial problems Cemsa could not continue production but the project was resumed when taken in Lancia in the 50s. 1954, Alfa-Romeo had experimented with its first front-wheel-drive compact car named "33" (not related or referred to sports car similarly named "33"). It had the same transverse-mounted, forward-motor layout as the modern front-wheel-drive automobiles. It even resembled the smaller version of its popular Alfa Romeo Giulia. However, due to the financial difficulties in post-war Italy, the 33 never saw the production. Had Alfa-Romeo succeed in producing 33, it would precede the Mini as the first "modern" European front-wheel-drive compact car.


title: Front-wheel drive

text: German car industry resumed from WW2 in 1949/1950. In East Germany (DDR) pre-war DKW F8 and F9 reappeared as IFA F8 and IFA F9 in 1949, followed by AWZ P70 in 1955, Wartburg 311 in 1956 and Trabant in 1958, all with front-wheel drive. P70 and Trabant had Duroplast bodies, and Trabant had both monocoque body and a transversely mounted engine, a modern design in some ways. In 1950 West German makers also reintroduced front-wheel-drive cars: DKW had lost its production facilities in Eisenach (now in DDR) and reestablished itself in Ingolstadt. A version of the prewar F9 was introduced as DKW F89. Borgward introduced 2 new makes with front-wheel drive, Goliath and Lloyd in 1950. Gutbrod also came with a car in 1950; the Superior, but withdrew the car in 1954 and concentrated on other products. This car is best remembered for its Bosch fuel-injection.


title: Front-wheel drive

text: In 1955, one of the first Japanese manufacturers to utilize front-wheel drive with a transversely installed engine was the Suzuki Suzulight, which was a small "city" car, called a "kei" car in Japanese.


title: Front-wheel drive

text: In 1959 Austin Mini was launched by the British Motor Corporation, designed by Alec Issigonis as a response to the first oil crisis, the 1956 Suez Crisis, and the boom in bubble cars that followed. It was the first production front-wheel-drive car with a watercooled inline four-cylinder engine mounted transversely. This allowed eighty percent of the floor plan for the use of passengers and luggage. The majority of modern cars use this configuration. Its progressive rate rubber sprung independent suspension, low centre of gravity, and wheel at each corner with radial tyres, gave a massive increase in grip and handling over all but the most expensive cars on the market. It initially used flexing rubber instead of needle rollers at the inboard universal joints of the driveshafts but later changed to needle rollers, and GKN designed constant-velocity joint at each outboard end of the drive shafts to allow for steering movement. The Mini revived the use of front-wheel drive which had been largely abandoned since the 1930s.


title: Front-wheel drive

text: The transversely mounted engine combined with front-wheel drive was popularized by the 1959 Mini; there the transmission was built into the sump of the engine, and drive was transferred to it via a set of primary gears. Another variant transmission concept was used by Simca in the 1960s keeping the engine and transmission in line, but transverse mounted and with unequal length driveshafts. This has proven itself to be the model on which almost all modern FWD vehicles are now based. Peugeot and Renault on their jointly developed small car engine of the 1970s where the 4-cylinder block was canted over to reduce the overall height of the engine with the transmission mounted on the side of the crankcase in what became popularly known as the "suitcase" arrangement (PSA X engine). The tendency of this layout to generate unwanted transmission "whine" has seen it fall out of favour. Also, clutch changes required engine removal. In Japan, the Prince Motor Company also developed a transmission-in-sump type layout for its first front wheel drive model, which after the company's takeover by Nissan, emerged as the Datsun 100A (Cherry) in 1971.


title: Front-wheel drive

text: In 1960 Lancia could evolve the project CemsaF11 of Antonio Fessia with the innovative Lancia Flavia for first time with motor Boxer on auxiliary frame for low center of gravity. This scheme continued in Lancia until 1984 with the end production of Lancia Gamma and successfully cloned until today by Subaru. Lancia, however also made front-wheel drive its flagship even in sport cars as the winner of the Rally, Lancia Fulvia, and then with large-scale models with excellent road qualities and performances including Lancia Beta, Lancia Delta, Lancia Thema including the powerful Lancia Thema 8.32 with engine Ferrari and all subsequent models.


title: Front-wheel drive

text: Ford introduced front-wheel drive to its European customers in 1962 with the TaunusP4. The 1965 Triumph 1300 was designed for a longitudinal engine with the transmission underneath. Audi has also used a longitudinally mounted engine overhung over the front wheels since the 1970s. Audi is one of the few manufacturers which still uses this particular configuration. It allows the use of equal-length half shafts and the easy addition of all-wheel drive, but has the disadvantage that it makes it difficult to achieve 50/50 weight distribution (although they remedy this in four-wheel-drive models by mounting the gearbox at the rear of the transaxle). The Subaru 1000 appeared in 1966 utilizing front-wheel drive mated to a flat-4 engine, with the driveshafts of equal length extending from the transmission, which addressed some of the issues of the powertrain being somewhat complex and unbalanced in the engine compartment - the Alfa Romeo Alfasud (and its replacement, the 1983 Alfa 33 as well as the Alfa 145/146 up to the late 1990s) also used the same layout.


title: Front-wheel drive

text: Honda also introduced several small front-wheel drive vehicles, with the N360 and N600, the Z360 and Z600 in 1967, the Honda 1300 in 1969, followed by the Honda Civic in 1972 and the Honda Accord in 1976.


title: Front-wheel drive

text: Also in the 1970s and 1980s, the Douvrin engines used in the larger Renaults (20, 21, 25 and 30) used this longitudinal "forward" layout. The Saab Saab 99, launched in 1968, also used a longitudinal engine with a transmission underneath with helical gears. The 1966 Oldsmobile Toronado was the first U.S. front-wheel-drive car since the Cord 810. It used a longitudinal engine placement for its V8, coupled with an unusual "split" transmission, which turned the engine power 180 degrees. Power then went to a differential mounted to the transmission case, from which half-shafts took it to the wheels. The driveline was set fairly at centre-point of the wheels for better weight distribution, though this raised the engine, requiring lowered intake systems.


title: Front-wheel drive

text: Front-wheel-drive layout had been highly impacted by the success of small, inexpensive cars, especially the British Mini. As engineered by Alec Issigonis, the compact arrangement located the transmission and engine sharing a single oil sumpdespite disparate lubricating requirementsand had the engine's radiator mounted to the side of the engine, away from the flow of fresh air and drawing heated rather than cool air over the engine. The layout often required the engine be removed to service the clutch.


title: Front-wheel drive

text: As engineered by Dante Giacosa, the Fiat 128 featured a transverse-mounted engine with unequal-length drive shafts and an innovative clutch release mechanisman arrangement which Fiat had strategically tested on a previous production model, the Primula, from its less market-critical subsidiary, Autobianchi.


title: Front-wheel drive

text: Ready for production in 1964, the Primula featured a gear train offset from the differential and final drive with unequal length drive shafts. The layout enabled the engine and gearbox to be located side by side without sharing lubricating fluid while orienting the cooling fan toward fresh air flow. By using the Primula as a test-bed, Fiat was able to sufficiently resolve the layout's disadvantages, including uneven side-to-side power transmission, uneven tire wear and potential torque steer, the tendency for the power of the engine alone to steer the car under heavy acceleration. The problem was largely solved by making the shorter driveshaft solid, and the longer one hollow, in order to ensure both shafts experienced elastic twist which was roughly the same.


title: Front-wheel drive

text: After the 128, Fiat further demonstrated the layout's flexibility, re-configurating the 128 drive train as a mid-engined layout for the Fiat X1/9. The compact, efficient Giacosa layouta transversely-mounted engine with transmission mounted beside the engine driving the front wheels through an offset final drive and unequal-length driveshafts, combined with MacPherson struts and an independently located radiatorsubsequently became common with competitors and arguably an industry standard.


title: Front-wheel drive

text: The Corporate Average Fuel Economy standard drove a mass changeover of cars in the U.S. to front-wheel drive. The change began in 1978, with the introduction of the first American-built transverse-engined cars, the Plymouth Horizon and Dodge Omni (based on the European designed Simca Horizon), followed by the 1980 Chevrolet Citation and numerous other vehicles.


title: Front-wheel drive

text: Meanwhile, European car makers, that had moved to front-wheel drive decades before, began to homogenize their engine arrangement only in this decade, leaving Saab, Audi (and Volkswagen) as the only manufacturers offering a front-drive longitudinal engine layout. Years before this was the most common layout in Europe, with examples like Citroën DS, Renault 12, Renault 5, Renault 25 (a Chrysler LH ancestor) Alfa Romeo 33, Volkswagen Passat, etc.


title: Front-wheel drive

text: This transition can be exemplified in the Renault 21 that was offered with disparate engine configurations. The 1.7-litre version featured an "east–west" (transversely) mounted engine, but Renault had no gearbox suitable for a more powerful transverse engine: accordingly, faster versions featured longitudinally mounted (north south) engines.


title: Front-wheel drive

text: Despite these developments however, by the end of the 1980s, almost all major European and Japanese manufacturers had converged around the Fiat-pioneered system of a transversely mounted engine with an "end-on" transmission with unequal length driveshafts. For example Renault dropped the transmission-in-sump "Suitcase" engine that it had co-developed with Peugeot in the 1970s for its compact models, starting with the Renault 9 in 1982. Peugeot-Citroen themselves also moved over to the end-on gearbox solution when it phased out the Suitcase unit in favour of the TU-series engine in 1986. Nissan also abandoned the transmission-in-sump concept for its N12-series Cherry/Pulsar in 1982. Perhaps symbolically, British Leyland themselves, heirs to the British Motor Corporation - moved over to the industry standard solution for the Austin Maestro in 1983, and all its subsequent front wheel drive models.


title: Front-wheel drive

text: By reducing drivetrain weight and space needs, vehicles could be made smaller and more efficient without sacrificing acceleration. Integrating the powertrain with a transverse as opposed to a longitudinal layout, along with unibody construction and the use of constant velocity jointed drive axles, along with front wheel drive has evolved into the modern-day mass market automobile. Some suggest that the introduction of the modern Volkswagen Golf in 1974, from a traditional U.S. competitor, and the introduction of the 1973 Honda Civic, and the 1976 Honda Accord served as a wake-up call for the "Big Three" (only Chrysler already produced front-wheel-drive vehicles in their operations outside North America). GM was even later with the 1979 Vauxhall Astra/Opel Kadett. Captive imports were the US car makers initial response to the increased demand for economy cars. The popularity of front-wheel drive began to gain momentum, with the 1981 Ford Escort, the 1982 Nissan Sentra, and the 1983 Toyota Corolla. Front-wheel drive became the norm for mid-sized cars starting with the 1982 Chevrolet Celebrity, 1982 Toyota Camry, 1983 Dodge 600, 1985 Nissan Maxima, 1986 Honda Legend, and the 1986 Ford Taurus. By the mid-1980s, most formerly rear-wheel-drive Japanese models were front-wheel drive, and by the mid-1990s, most American brands only sold a handful of rear-wheel-drive models.


title: Front-wheel drive

text: The vast majority of front-wheel-drive vehicles today use a transversely mounted engine with "end-on" mounted transmission, driving the front wheels via driveshafts linked via constant velocity (CV) joints, and a flexibly located electronically controlled cooling fan. This configuration was pioneered by Dante Giacosa in the 1964 Autobianchi Primula and popularized with the Fiat 128. Fiat promoted in its advertising that mechanical features consumed only 20% of the vehicle's volume and that Enzo Ferrari drove a 128 as his personal vehicle. The 1959 Mini used a substantially different arrangement with the transmission in the sump, and the cooling fan drawing hot air from its side-facing location.


title: Front-wheel drive

text: Volvo Cars has switched its entire lineup after the 900 series to front-wheel drive. Swedish engineers at the company have said that transversely mounted engines allow for more crumple zone area in a head-on collision. American auto manufacturers are now shifting larger models (such as the Chrysler 300 and most of the Cadillac lineup) back to rear-wheel drive. There were relatively few rear-wheel-drive cars marketed in North America by the early 1990s; Chrysler's car line-up was entirely front-wheel drive by 1990. GM followed suit in 1996 where its B-body line was phased out, where its sports cars (Camaro, Firebird, Corvette) were the only RWDs marketed; by the early 2000s, the Chevrolet Corvette and Cadillac Catera were the only RWD cars offered by General Motors until the introduction of the Sigma platform. After the phaseout of the Ford Panther platform (except for the Mustang), Ford automobiles (including the Transit Connect van) manufactured for the 2012 model year to present are front-wheel drive; its D3 platform (based on a Volvo platform) has optional all-wheel drive.


title: Battle of Roncevaux Pass

text: The Battle of Roncevaux Pass (French and English spelling, "Roncesvalles" in Spanish, "Orreaga" in Basque) in 778 saw a large force of Basques ambush a part of Charlemagne's army in Roncevaux Pass, a high mountain pass in the Pyrenees on the present border between France and Spain, after his invasion of the Iberian Peninsula.


title: Battle of Roncevaux Pass

text: The Basque attack was a retaliation for Charlemagne's destruction of the city walls of their capital, Pamplona. As the Franks retreated across the Pyrenees back to Francia, the rearguard of Frankish lords was cut off, stood its ground, and was wiped out.