title: Districts of Sri Lanka

text: In Sri Lanka, districts (, ) are the second-level administrative divisions, and are included in a province. There are 25 districts organized into 9 provinces. Each district is administered under a district secretary, who is appointed by the central government. The main tasks of the district secretariat involve coordinating communications and activities of the central government and divisional secretariats. The district secretariat is also responsible for implementing and monitoring development projects at the district level and assisting lower-level subdivisions in their activities, as well as revenue collection and coordination of elections in the district. A district is divided into a number of Divisional Secretary's Divisions (commonly known as DS divisions), which are in turn subdivided into 14,022 grama niladhari divisions. There are 331 DS divisions in the country.


title: Districts of Sri Lanka

text: The country was first divided into several administrative units during the Anuradhapura Kingdom. The kingdom was divided into three provinces; "Rajarata", "Ruhuna" and "Malaya Rata". These were further subdivided into smaller units called "rata". Over time, the number of provinces increased, but the second-level administrative division continued to be the "rata". However, with the country eventually being divided into more than one kingdom and with foreign colonial missions landing and taking parts of the country under their control, this structure began to change. The territory of the Kotte Kingdom was organized into four , which were further subdivided into forty . The had their own civil and military officials with a small militia. The Jaffna kingdom appears to have had a similar administrative structure to this with four provinces.


title: Districts of Sri Lanka

text: When the Portuguese took over parts of the country after their arrival in 1505, they maintained more or less the same administrative structure followed by Sri Lankan rulers. During the Dutch rule in the country, the terrain under their control was divided into three administrative divisions. These were subdivided into as in earlier systems. The British initially continued this system, but following reforms in 1796 to 1802, the country was divided according to ethnic composition. This was abolished by the Colebrook–Cameron reforms in 1833 and a legislative council was created, making the island a politically and administratively single unit. Five provinces were created, later expanded into nine, and these were subdivided into twenty-one districts. These districts were administered by officials known as Government Agents or Assistant Government Agents.


title: Districts of Sri Lanka

text: In 1955, the district replaced the province as the country's main administrative unit. Ampara District was created in April 1961, followed by the creation of Mullaitivu and Gampaha districts in September 1978 through a new constitution, which also reintroduced the province as the main administrative unit. The last district to be created was Kilinochchi in February 1984, and the current constitution (that of 1978) states that the territory of Sri Lanka consists of 25 administrative districts. These districts may be subdivided or amalgamated by a resolution of the Parliament of Sri Lanka.


title: AD 1000

text: Year 1000 (M) was a leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. In the proleptic Gregorian calendar, it was a non-leap century year starting on Wednesday (like 1800). It was also the last year of the 10th century as well as the last year of the 1st millennium of the Christian Era ending on December 31, but the first year of the 1000s decade.


title: AD 1000

text: The year falls well into the period of Old World history known as the Middle Ages; in Europe, it is sometimes and by convention considered the boundary date between the Early Middle Ages and the High Middle Ages.


title: AD 1000

text: China was in its Song dynasty, Korea was in its Goryeo dynasty, Japan was in its classical Heian period.


title: AD 1000

text: India was divided into a number of lesser empires, such as the Chalukya Empire, Pala Empire (Kamboja Pala dynasty; Mahipala), Chola dynasty (Raja Raja Chola I), Yadava dynasty, etc.


title: AD 1000

text: Sub-Saharan Africa was still in the prehistoric period, although trans Saharan slave trade was beginning to be an important factor in the formation of the Sahelian kingdoms.


title: AD 1000

text: The pre-Columbian New World was in a time of general transition in many regions. Wari and Tiwanaku cultures receded in power and influence while Chachapoya and Chimú cultures rose toward florescence in South America. In Mesoamerica, the Maya Terminal Classic period saw the decline of many grand polities of the Petén like Palenque and Tikal yet a renewed vigor and greater construction phases of sites in the Yucatán region like Chichén Itzá and Uxmal. Mitla, with Mixtec influence, became the more important site of the Zapotec, overshadowing the waning Monte Albán. Cholula flourished in central Mexico, as did Tula, the center of Toltec culture.


title: AD 1000

text: The Islamic world was in its Golden Age; still organised in caliphates, it continued to be dominated by the Abbasid Caliphate, with the Caliphate of Córdoba to the west, and experienced ongoing campaigns in Africa and in India. At the time, Persia was in a period of instability, with various polities seceding from Abbasid rule, among whom the Ghaznavids would emerge as the most powerful.


title: AD 1000

text: The Islamic world was reaching the peak of its historical scientific achievements. Important scholars and scientists who flourished in AD 1000 include Abu al-Qasim (Abcasis), Ibn Yunus (publishes his astronomical treatise "Al-Zij al-Hakimi al-Kabir" in Cairo in c. 1000), Abu Sahl al-Quhi (Kuhi), Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi, Abu Nasr Mansur, Abu al-Wafa, Ahmad ibn Fadlan, Al-Muqaddasi, Ali Ibn Isa, and al-Karaji (al-Karkhi). Ibn al-Haytham ("Book of Optics"), Avicenna, Averroes, and Abu Rayhan al-Biruni all flourished around the year 1000.


title: AD 1000

text: By this time, the Turkic migration from the Eurasian Steppe had reached Eastern Europe, and most of the Turkic tribes (Khazars, Bulghars, Pechenegs etc.) had been Islamized.


title: Murder of Elisa Izquierdo

text: Elisa Izquierdo (February 11, 1989 – November 22, 1995) was a six-year-old Puerto Rican–Cuban-American girl who died of a brain hemorrhage inflicted by her mother, Awilda Lopez, at the peak of a prolonged and increasing campaign of physical, mental, emotional, and sexual child abuse conducted between 1994 and 1995.


title: Murder of Elisa Izquierdo

text: Described by authorities in New York City as the "worst case of child abuse they had ever seen," the life and death of Elisa Izquierdo first made city, then national headlines when it became clear that the city's child welfare system (now the Administration for Children's Services) had missed numerous opportunities to intervene with her family and ultimately save her life. These failures to protect Elisa subsequently became the inspiration for Elisa's Law, a major restructuring of the New York City Child Welfare System; increasing accountability of all parties involved in child welfare within the city and reducing areas of confidentiality relating to public disclosure in cases of this nature. Elisa's Law was implemented in February 1996.


title: Murder of Elisa Izquierdo

text: Elisa has been referred to as a modern-day Cinderella because she had at first been under the protection of a loving father and had befriended Prince Michael of Greece—who had offered to pay for her private tuition until 12th grade—before being placed into the permanent custody of her mother.


title: Murder of Elisa Izquierdo

text: Elisa Izquierdo was born on February 11, 1989, in Woodhull Hospital Brooklyn, New York. Her father, Gustavo, was a Cuban immigrant who had emigrated to America with aspirations to become a dance teacher, whereas her mother, Awilda, was a Puerto Rican raised in Brooklyn. The pair met at a Fort Greene homeless shelter two years prior to Elisa's birth, where Gustavo worked part-time as a cleaner and caterer. Awilda herself was a temporary resident at the shelter, having been evicted from the apartment she shared with a previous partner named Ruben Rivera (with whom she had borne two children) due to the couple's failure to pay rent—in part caused by her extensive usage of narcotics. The two began a temporary relationship, although reportedly, this ended when Gustavo discovered Awilda – at the time pregnant with Elisa – was a regular user of crack cocaine. Concern by her own family as to her extensive usage of drugs resulted in Awilda losing custody of her two eldest children, Rubencino and Kasey, to her own family in January 1989.


title: Murder of Elisa Izquierdo

text: When Elisa was born, she was addicted to crack cocaine, requiring social workers to immediately notify the city's child welfare administration services as to her condition. As a result of her mother's evident addiction, full custody of Elisa was awarded to her father, Gustavo, who himself had no experience of parenting. By all accounts, Gustavo was a doting, caring father to Elisa: attending parenting classes; seeking advice from relatives as to how to care for his daughter; organizing celebrations for her first birthdays and renting a banquet hall to celebrate her baptism at age four. One family friend later related: "She (Elisa) was his life. He would always say she was his princess."


title: Murder of Elisa Izquierdo

text: In 1990, Gustavo enrolled his daughter in the Montessori preschool, although shortly thereafter, his incipient ailing health complicated his ability to pay for Elisa's schooling. As Elisa was such an outstanding and promising student and Gustavo such a dedicated father, both teachers and the school principal introduced her to one of the school's patrons, Prince Michael of Greece, in 1993. Reportedly, upon his arrival at the school, Elisa leaped into Prince Michael's arms, and stayed by his side for the rest of the day. He in turn offered to pay for Elisa's private tuition at the independent Brooklyn Friends School until 12th grade; she in turn responded to this gesture with a handwritten note expressing her gratitude. Occasionally thereafter, Prince Michael of Greece would send Elisa small gifts, to which she would express her thanks by responding with drawings or notes.


title: Murder of Elisa Izquierdo

text: The same year Elisa was enrolled in preschool, a social worker signed an affidavit stating that Awilda had successfully beaten her addiction, had secured permanent accommodation within the Rutgers Houses project in the Lower East Side of Manhattan, and had married a maintenance worker named Carlos Lopez, with whom she was now expecting her fourth child. In December 1990, having given birth to a daughter named Taisha, she regained custody of her two oldest children.


title: Murder of Elisa Izquierdo

text: In November 1991, Awilda Lopez secured the right to obtain unsupervised visitation rights to Elisa: this ruling awarded her custody of the child every second weekend. Reportedly, Awilda's two oldest children informed relatives that throughout these unsupervised visits, Elisa would be beaten and neglected by her mother and stepfather. These relatives did not inform authorities of these revelations.


title: Murder of Elisa Izquierdo

text: Both Elisa's father and her teachers noted the child bore bruising and other signs of physical mistreatment when she returned from these unsupervised visits. One of the locations of these injuries was Elisa's genitalia and the child did divulge that her mother had repeatedly hit her and locked her in a closet, adding that she had no desire to see her mother again. Her father also noted that Elisa had begun bedwetting in addition to losing control of her bowels, and would regularly experience nightmares upon learning she was to be in the custody of her mother for even short periods of time. Another family acquaintance noted that Elisa would always vomit upon her return from these visits to her mother, and refused to enter bathrooms.


title: Murder of Elisa Izquierdo

text: Both Gustavo Izquierdo and Elisa's teachers did inform authorities of the abuse Elisa was enduring at the hands of her mother and stepfather. These revelations were also disclosed by Elisa herself to a social worker and her father did apply in 1992 to have Awilda Lopez's visitation rights ceased; however, the courts ruled that the visitation rights could continue, albeit with the conditions Awilda must not strike or otherwise harm her daughter.


title: Murder of Elisa Izquierdo

text: In 1993, Gustavo Izquierdo formed plans to relocate with Elisa to his native Cuba. He is known to have purchased airline tickets for himself and his daughter, with the travel date being May 26, 1994. However, in May, Gustavo was admitted to hospital with acute respiratory complications (subsequently diagnosed as lung cancer). Gustavo Izquierdo died on May 26; the same date he had planned to travel to Cuba with Elisa. Shortly thereafter, when Elisa asked her mother where her father was, Awilda simply screamed the words, "Your father's dead!"


title: Murder of Elisa Izquierdo

text: Upon hearing news of Gustavo's death, the director of Elisa's school, Phyllis Bryce, contacted a family court judge to express the grave concerns of both herself and numerous members of the school's staff as to the child's safety should her mother gain custody of her.


title: Murder of Elisa Izquierdo

text: Upon hearing news of Gustavo's death, Awilda applied for full, permanent custody of Elisa. She was initially granted temporary custody of the child. Upon hearing the initial awarding of Elisa's temporary custody to Awilda Lopez, Elsa Canizares—the cousin of Gustavo and Elisa—challenged the ruling and herself applied for custody of Elisa; citing the documented abuse Elisa had previously endured during the unsupervised weekend visits with her mother, and the manner in which Awilda is known to have spoken to the child. Both the head teacher of the school Elisa still attended and Prince Michael of Greece also wrote personal letters to Judge Phoebe Greenbaum, opposing the initial temporary custody of Elisa awarded to Awilda Lopez upon the death of her father and endorsing Elsa Canizares's application to obtain permanent custody of Elisa. Furthermore, in his letter to Judge Greenbaum, Prince Michael of Greece emphasized his intentions to pay for Elisa's education at Brooklyn Friends School should Elsa Canizares be awarded custody of the child.


title: Murder of Elisa Izquierdo

text: Lacking sufficient funding to pay legal fees, Elsa Canizares attended court hearings without any legal representation, whereas backing Awilda Lopez's application for custody were a lawyer from the Legal Aid Society and a federally funded parenting program. According to Elsa Canizares, at this hearing, the legal representatives for Awilda testified as to her "valiant efforts" to refrain from relapsing into drug use, falsely claiming that caseworkers had visited the Lopez residence and that Elisa had expressed a strong desire to live with her biological mother. Furthermore, Canizares was criticized by Awilda's legal representation at this hearing for having "the nerve" to try and take Elisa from her biological mother. To this accusation, Elsa Canizares replied her nerve was borne out of fear of Elisa being placed with her mother.


title: Murder of Elisa Izquierdo

text: Awilda Lopez's application to obtain permanent custody of Elisa was approved by Judge Greenbaum in September 1994.


title: Murder of Elisa Izquierdo

text: Upon being awarded full custody of her daughter, Awilda withdrew Elisa from the private school she had been attending, and enrolled her in Manhattan's Public School 126, where Elisa was quickly observed to be withdrawn, emotionally disturbed, uncommunicative, and to urinate frequently. The principal of this school also noted that Elisa bore numerous bruises, walked with apparent difficulty, and had evidently begun tearing out sections of her hair.


title: Murder of Elisa Izquierdo

text: On March 14, 1995, an anonymous letter was posted to the Manhattan Child Welfare Authorities. The author of this letter stated that Awilda Lopez had cut off much of Elisa's hair and had begun locking her in a dark room for extensive periods of time. Six days later, Elisa was admitted to hospital with a fractured shoulder—the wound having been untreated for three days.


title: Murder of Elisa Izquierdo

text: The increasing concerns of staff at Public School 126 regarding evident abuse were also reported to the Manhattan Child Welfare Authorities. Reportedly, the Manhattan Child Welfare Authorities soon replied to the school that their concerns were "not reportable" due to a lack of direct evidence of child abuse or neglect. As such, this report was rejected. A further factor in this decision was the fact Elisa had been under court-ordered caseworker supervision. In response to the school having reporting the suspected abuse of her daughter to the Manhattan Child Welfare Authorities and a subsequent home visit by staff at the school, Awilda—by this time known to have reverted to regular crack cocaine use—withdrew Elisa from Public School 126 in December of 1994. She made no effort to enroll Elisa in any other school.


title: Murder of Elisa Izquierdo

text: Reportedly, despite the fact that in addition to having by this time borne six children (three of whom had been born after Elisa), Awilda targeted Elisa for almost all of the abuse she inflicted upon her children. After withdrawing her from her school, Elisa was locked in her bedroom, was denied any opportunity to socialize with her siblings or to leave the apartment and was denied access to the toilet—being forced to use a chamber pot. Neighbors also reported hearing sounds of Elisa being beaten and otherwise abused, later reporting hearing Elisa's repeatedly pleading with her mother to stop hitting her, crying out pleas such as: "Mommy, Mommy, please stop! No more! I'm sorry." Some neighbors did report their suspicions of child abuse to child welfare authorities; however, no effective action was taken. Other neighbors reportedly knew of the abuse Elisa and—to a much lesser degree—her siblings endured, but failed to notify authorities. Some neighbors noted that Awilda would refer to Elisa as a "Mongoloid" and a "filthy little whore" who had been placed under a spell by her father.


title: Murder of Elisa Izquierdo

text: A representative from the federally funded parenting program which had endorsed Awilda's initial motion to achieve sole custody of her daughter also reported that Awilda had herself phoned him, complaining that her daughter was unable to control her bladder or bowels, had cut off her hair and was apparently drinking from the toilet. In response to this phone call from Awilda, this representative did call a representative from the Manhattan Child Welfare Authorities, who rebuffed his requests to visit the Lopez residence.


title: Murder of Elisa Izquierdo

text: Other indignities and abuse inflicted by Awilda upon her daughter (some of which were witnessed by Elisa's siblings) included repeated punching and kicking; forcing the child to eat her own feces or drink ammoniated water; mopping the floor with Elisa's head and face; inflicting burns upon the child's head, face, lips, and body; sexually violating her both vaginally and anally with a hairbrush or toothbrush, hanging her from a shower rod for the purpose of entertainment, and dropping a chest of drawers on her ring finger and toe. Awilda's partner, Carlos Lopez (himself also a regular user of drugs) is also known to have repeatedly physically abused and neglected Elisa and her two older siblings.


title: Murder of Elisa Izquierdo

text: On November 15, Carlos Lopez was jailed in relation to a violation of parole. Seven days later, on the evening of November 22, Awilda phoned one of her sisters, Mercy Torres, to report that Elisa was "like retarded on the bed", with fluid (later determined to be brain fluid) leaking from her nose and mouth. In addition, Lopez informed her sister that Elisa would not eat or drink. When Mrs. Torres insisted Awilda take Elisa to the hospital, Awilda replied she would "think about it" after she had finished cleaning the dishes. The following morning, Awilda contacted a neighbor, whom she invited to view Elisa's lifeless body. Upon being unable to locate signs of life, this neighbor told Awilda to call the police, which she refused to do. In response, this neighbor immediately called police and an ambulance as Awilda threatened to commit suicide.


title: Murder of Elisa Izquierdo

text: In custody, Awilda initially confessed to having thrown Elisa head-first into a concrete wall two days prior to her contacting her neighbor, adding that Elisa had neither talked nor walked after this incident. A subsequent autopsy revealed numerous injuries including broken fingers (one bone of which was protruding through the skin), a broken toe, damage to internal organs, deep welts and burns across her head, face and body. In addition, her genitalia and rectum also bore evidence of trauma, including tearing. Thirty circular marks upon her body were found to be impressions left by the stone in the ring of the individual who had struck Elisa. Forensically, it was proven that the injuries had been sustained over a prolonged period of time.


title: Murder of Elisa Izquierdo

text: Elisa Izquierdo's funeral was held on November 29, 1995. The service was officiated by the Reverend Gianni Agostinelli, who informed the estimated 300 mourners in attendance that Elisa had been murdered not only by her own mother, but by the "silence of many, by the neglect of child-welfare institutions and the moral mediocrity that has intoxicated our neighborhoods".


title: Murder of Elisa Izquierdo

text: Prior to Elisa's burial, a wake was held. Those present at Elisa's wake and funeral included relatives, neighbors, politicians, Prince Michael of Greece, and members of the public touched by the case.


title: Murder of Elisa Izquierdo

text: Elisa's casket remained open throughout the ceremony. The extensive damage inflicted to her face and neck was heavily concealed via . Elisa wore a crown of white flowers on her head and a single red rose was placed in her hand; her coffin adorned with white flowers, and a Barbie doll given to Elisa by her father which she is known to have cherished was placed alongside her body. Many mourners placed additional flowers, toys, stuffed animals and notes of sympathy in and upon her coffin prior to her casket being closed and her burial at Cypress Hills Cemetery. Elisa's gravestone bears a plaque, with the inscription reading: "World please watch over the children."


title: Murder of Elisa Izquierdo

text: On June 25, 1996, Awilda Lopez pleaded guilty to the second-degree murder of her daughter in a hearing held before Judge Alvin Schlesinger at the New York's State Supreme Court. Upon the advice of her attorney, Daniel Ollen, Lopez pleaded guilty to this deal offered by the prosecution team with the knowledge she would become eligible for parole after serving 15 years' imprisonment.


title: Murder of Elisa Izquierdo

text: The following month, Judge Schlesinger sentenced Awilda Lopez to a term of 15 years to life imprisonment. Prior to formal sentencing, Judge Schlesinger openly criticized the child welfare system within New York, stating: "We have not created procedures to do everything necessary to protect the young and vulnerable in this society. The system has failed to protect our babies, and don't tell me how much it costs. If anything is to become of this horrendous tragedy, [then] it will be that we give priority to these babies."


title: Murder of Elisa Izquierdo

text: Although Awilda Lopez initially became eligible for parole in 2010, she has remained incarcerated since August 1996.


title: Murder of Elisa Izquierdo

text: Lopez was most recently denied parole in January 2022; her next scheduled parole hearing is to be held in September 2022. As of 2022, she remains incarcerated at the maximum security Bedford Hills Correctional Facility for Women.


title: Murder of Elisa Izquierdo

text: On October 29, 1996, Elisa's stepfather, Carlos Lopez, was sentenced to serve between one-and-a-half and three years in prison, to run consecutive with the sentence he was serving at the time of Elisa's death. This sentence was in relation to one specific instance of physical abuse dating from October 31, 1995 in which he had repeatedly banged Elisa's head against a concrete wall in the presence of her siblings.


title: Murder of Elisa Izquierdo

text: Although Carlos Lopez pleaded guilty to this charge of attempted second-degree assault, claiming he had not actually assaulted Elisa, but had opted to do so to spare his children the emotional trauma of having to testify against him, Judge Schlesinger rejected this claim outright, adding that the prosecution team had largely chosen to charge Carlos Lopez with this charge to spare Elisa's siblings any further psychological or emotional trauma.


title: Murder of Elisa Izquierdo

text: The public outrage at Elisa's death was fuelled by revelations that despite Awilda Lopez's evident and spiraling drug addiction and the obvious and increasing signs of the ongoing abuse Elisa was suffering at the hands of her mother and stepfather, not only had a judge awarded custody of the child to her mother in 1994 in spite of protestations from her family and school, but numerous instances of concerns for Elisa's safety reported to child welfare agencies such as the Manhattan Child Welfare Authorities by various individuals since that date had ultimately failed to remove Elisa from the custody of her mother.


title: Murder of Elisa Izquierdo

text: Following Elisa's death and subsequent public funeral, her life story became the subject of numerous local and national media articles, from local tabloids such as the "New York Daily News" and "The New York Post" to her story being given front page coverage of the December 11, 1995 edition of "Time Magazine" under the title "A Shameful Death". Elisa's story was also featured on an August 1996 episode of "Dateline NBC". Much of the media coverage devoted to this case was openly scathing of New York's child welfare agencies.


title: Murder of Elisa Izquierdo

text: Following Elisa's death, Judge Greenbaum was subjected to severe criticism regarding her 1994 decision to award custody of Elisa to Awilda Lopez as opposed to Elsa Canizares. Judge Greenbaum responded to this criticism by claiming she had been merely following procedural recommendations when she had made her custodial decision. In response to Greenbaum's claim, then-Mayor of New York City Rudy Giuliani would state to the media: "The judge ultimately makes the decision, based on all the facts and records, and is supposed to go behind those things [to] make determinations."


title: Murder of Elisa Izquierdo

text: In response to the death of Elisa Izquierdo, the then-Mayor of New York City, Rudolph Giuliani, instigated an urgent review of the city's child welfare system. This review inspired the creation of the Administration for Children's Services—an agency solely devoted to the issue of child welfare in New York.


title: Murder of Elisa Izquierdo

text: On February 12, 1996, Governor George Pataki formally signed Elisa's Law into legislation. This legislation, named in Elisa's honor, was signed into law in the presence of several relatives of Elisa, plus numerous social workers and school teachers who had all attempted to intervene and/or inform child welfare authorities in their collective efforts to prevent the child being with or remaining in the awarded custody of her mother.


title: Murder of Elisa Izquierdo

text: Elisa's Law is designed to balance the need for increased accountability through public awareness and government oversight with the privacy interests of individuals involved in child protective services cases—particularly with regards to the deaths of children previously reported to child welfare services as suffering any form of neglect or abuse. All reports pertaining to the deaths of children resulting from child abuse available for public scrutiny do not name the actual deceased child or children, or the actual caseworker(s) assigned to investigate reports of suspected child abuse or neglect relating to the deceased child or children in question; however, these reports do list each and every complaint and/or report submitted relating to the child or children, and the agency's actual response. In addition, these public records contain an assessment detailing whether or not the agency's overall response had been adequate.


title: Murder of Elisa Izquierdo

text: Elisa's Law continues to hold the child welfare agency of New York City and the Administration for Children's Services (ACS) publicly accountable for its performance.


title: Murder of Elisa Izquierdo

text: Elisa Izquierdo's five siblings were raised in separate foster homes. Reportedly, all suffered acute psychological trauma due to the acts of extreme physical, mental, and sexual abuse they had been forced to witness inflicted upon their sister.


title: John Hodiak

text: John Hodiak ( ; April 16, 1914 – October 19, 1955) was an American actor who worked in radio, stage and film.


title: John Hodiak

text: Hodiak was born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, the son of Anna (Pogorzelec) and Walter Hodiak. He was of Ukrainian and Polish descent. Hodiak grew up in Hamtramck, Michigan.


title: John Hodiak

text: Hodiak had his first theatrical experience at age 11, acting in Ukrainian and Russian plays at the Ukrainian Catholic Church. From the moment he first appeared on the stage, he resolved to become an actor. Hodiak was not even swayed when as a third baseman on his local high school baseball team, he was offered a contract with a St. Louis Cardinals farm club. He turned the offer down.


title: John Hodiak

text: When Hodiak first tried out for a radio acting job, he was turned down because of his accent. He became a caddie at a Detroit golf course, then worked at a Chevrolet automobile factory – and practised his diction. When he conquered the diction hurdle, he became a radio actor and moved to Chicago. There Hodiak created the role of the comic strip character Li'l Abner on radio.


title: John Hodiak

text: Hodiak arrived in Hollywood in 1942 and signed a motion picture contract with MGM. He refused to change his name, saying, "I like my name. It sounds like I look."


title: John Hodiak

text: Hodiak was cast in a few small parts at MGM, including "A Stranger in Town" (1943), "I Dood It" (1943) and "Maisie Goes to Reno" (1944).


title: John Hodiak

text: Hodiak then caught the eye of director Alfred Hitchcock and, on loan to 20th Century Fox, was featured in "Lifeboat" (1944) opposite Tallulah Bankhead.


title: John Hodiak

text: MGM cast him in the third lead in "Song of Russia" (1944) supporting Robert Taylor and Susan Peters. He was Ann Sothern's love interest in "Maisie Goes to Reno" (1944) and competed with James Craig for Lana Turner in "Marriage Is a Private Affair" (1944).


title: John Hodiak

text: 20th Century Fox borrowed Hodiak again to play the title role in "Sunday Dinner for a Soldier" (1944), opposite Anne Baxter, whom he married in real life. Fox kept him on to play Maj. Joppolo in "A Bell for Adano" (1945) opposite Gene Tierney.


title: John Hodiak

text: Back at MGM, Hodiak was second billed to Judy Garland as her love interest in "The Harvey Girls" (1946).


title: John Hodiak

text: Fox gave him his first proper starring role in "Somewhere in the Night" (1946), directed by Joseph L. Mankiewicz. Hodiak played opposite Lucille Ball in MGM's "Two Smart People" (1946), which lost money. So too did the film noir "The Arnelo Affair" (1947).


title: John Hodiak

text: Hodiak went to Paramount for "Desert Fury" (1947), playing third lead to Burt Lancaster and Lizabeth Scott. He starred in "Love from a Stranger" (1947) for Eagle Lion, then supported Lana Turner and Clark Gable in "Homecoming" (1948). He supported Gable again in "Command Decision" (1948). The two Gable films were hits but Hodiak was voted "box office poison" by exhibitors at the end of 1948.


title: John Hodiak

text: Hodiak was down the cast list for "The Bribe" (1949). He was second billed in MGM's war film "Battleground" (1949) a huge success. Also popular was "Malaya" (1949) where Hodiak supported James Stewart and Spencer Tracy.


title: John Hodiak

text: Hodiak was a love rival for Robert Taylor in "Ambush" (1950), a popular Western. MGM gave him another lead role, co-starring with Hedy Lamarr in "A Lady Without Passport" (1950), but it lost money. He was third billed in "The Miniver Story" (1950), the flop sequel to "Mrs. Miniver", and fourth lead in "Night into Morning" (1951), an unsuccessful drama.


title: John Hodiak

text: Hodiak supported Spencer Tracy in "The People Against O'Hara" (1951) and Clark Gable in "Across the Wide Missouri" (1952). He was second billed to Walter Pidgeon in "The Sellout" (1953).


title: John Hodiak

text: In 1952, Hodiak went to New York City and made his Broadway debut in "The Chase" by Horton Foote and directed by José Ferrer. The play was a failure, but its star received positive notices.


title: John Hodiak

text: Hodiak went to Allied Artists to star in the movie "Battle Zone" (1952). He starred in two Westerns, "Ambush at Tomahawk Gap" (1953) and "Conquest of Cochise" (1953), and then the war movies "Mission Over Korea" (1953) and "Dragonfly Squadron" (1954).


title: John Hodiak

text: He originated the role of Lieutenant Maryk in Paul Gregory's production of the play "The Caine Mutiny Court Martial" (1954–1955) by Herman Wouk adapted from his novel "The Caine Mutiny". The play, starring Henry Fonda and Lloyd Nolan, ran for two years, and Hodiak's portrayal brought him acclaim.


title: John Hodiak

text: When the show closed after its U.S. tour, Hodiak began work on "Trial" (1955) at MGM, billed fourth as the prosecuting attorney. When it wrapped, he played Major Ward Thomas in "On the Threshold of Space" (1956) at 20th Century Fox.


title: John Hodiak

text: Hodiak and actress Anne Baxter (whom he met while they were starring in "Sunday Dinner for a Soldier") married on July 7, 1946, and divorced on January 27, 1953. They had one daughter, Katrina Hodiak, who became an actress.


title: John Hodiak

text: At age 41, Hodiak suffered a fatal heart attack at his parents' home in Tarzana, California. He was acting in "On the Threshold of Space"; it was decided that his performance was sufficient to release the movie. He is interred in Block 303, Crypt D-1 of the main mausoleum at Calvary Cemetery, East Los Angeles.


title: Jon Fitch

text: Jonathan Parker Fitch (born February 24, 1978) is an American retired mixed martial artist. He has competed in the Welterweight divisions of the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC), the Professional Fighters League (PFL), and most recently for Bellator MMA. In the UFC, Fitch compiled a record of 14–3–1 and once challenged for the UFC Welterweight Championship. In the PFL, Fitch achieved championship success when he won the PFL Welterweight Championship, and he also once challenged for the Bellator MMA Welterweight World Championship.


title: Jon Fitch

text: After graduating from Carroll High School (Fort Wayne, Indiana), Fitch enrolled at Purdue University in 1997 and graduated in 2002 with a bachelor's in physical education and a minor in history. As a walk-on to the Purdue wrestling team, Fitch – a four-year letterman – wrestled under the tutelage of Tom Erikson and eventually became the team captain of his wrestling squad. Fitch secured a starting spot early on in his career, but struggled to find initial success. Compiling an 8-23 record his sophomore season, Fitch impressively turned that around to compile an 18-12 record in his final year. He finished with a 45-51 record overall for his collegiate wrestling career.


title: Jon Fitch

text: Tom Erikson– a former PRIDE fighter – would occasionally bring other mixed martial artists to the wrestling gym, and Fitch would be introduced to such fighters as Mark Coleman and Gary Goodridge. The sport, and the money that the high-level fighters were making interested Fitch, and he started his mixed martial arts career in 2002.


title: Jon Fitch

text: Jon Fitch began his career at light heavyweight with a record of four wins, two losses and one No Contest. Understanding that the sport required cross training in various martial arts, Fitch soon left for San Jose, California to train with the American Kickboxing Academy.


title: Jon Fitch

text: In his next seven fights, Fitch fought at Middleweight and amassed wins over fighters such as Shonie Carter, Alex Serdyukov and Jeff Joslin. After failing to make the selection process for the first season of "The Ultimate Fighter" – a last-minute decision by the production team that left Fitch stranded in an airport with his luggage already boarded – he earned a shot in the Ultimate Fighting Championship on October 3, 2005, where Fitch defeated Brock Larson by unanimous decision in a middleweight fight.


title: Jon Fitch

text: Soon after, Fitch dropped down to the welterweight division and won his next seven fights. With victories over Josh Burkman, Thiago Alves, Luigi Fioravanti, Diego Sanchez, and Chris Wilson (tying the record set by Royce Gracie for most consecutive wins in the UFC), Fitch was seen as a top welterweight contender. UFC President Dana White praised Fitch's performances inside the Octagon, and indicated that Fitch would fight the winner of the Georges St-Pierre vs. Matt Serra Welterweight title fight.


title: Jon Fitch

text: Fitch was defeated by Georges St-Pierre via unanimous decision (50–43, 50–44, and 50–44) at UFC 87. After the fight GSP spoke to Fitch about the growth that his own loss prompted and said that Fitch's experience should be no different. Had Fitch beaten St-Pierre he would have had a nine fight winning streak in the UFC, surpassing Royce Gracie's streak of eight straight wins (a record that has since been broken by Anderson Silva, whose winning streak ended at 16 on July 6, 2013). The loss also snapped Fitch's 16 fight winning streak, both in and out of the UFC.


title: Jon Fitch

text: Fitch was released from the UFC on November 20, 2008. The dispute was over his reluctance to sign a lifetime contract to allow his name and likeness to be used in a video game the UFC released with THQ. In the end, Fitch ended up signing a licensing agreement that will allow the UFC to feature him in their "UFC Undisputed" video game release and returned to the UFC. Fitch's exile from the UFC lasted less than 24 hours.


title: Jon Fitch

text: Fitch dominated Pride Fighting Championships veteran Akihiro Gono en route to a unanimous decision victory at UFC 94.


title: Jon Fitch

text: Fitch was expected to fight Ricardo Almeida on November 21, 2009 at UFC 106 but, due to a knee injury sustained by Almeida, the fight was cancelled.


title: Jon Fitch

text: Fitch was then scheduled to face Thiago Alves in a highly anticipated rematch on December 12, 2009 at UFC 107. However, Alves suffered an injury and was replaced by Mike Pierce. Fitch won via unanimous decision.


title: Jon Fitch

text: Fitch was expected to finally face Thiago Alves on March 27, 2010 at UFC 111, but on March 25, 2010, Alves was forced off the card due to a brain irregularity that appeared on a pre fight CAT scan. However, Ben Saunders, who was previously scheduled to fight on the same card against Jake Ellenberger, requested that he fight Fitch instead and that fight took place on the main card. Fitch won the fight via unanimous decision.


title: Jon Fitch

text: The Alves/Fitch rematch finally took place at UFC 117. This fight was confirmed to be the number one contendership for the welterweight championship (to fight the winner of the St-Pierre/Koscheck bout). Alves again failed to make weight, weighing in at 171.5 lbs, meaning he had to give up 20% of his fight purse. Fitch went on to defeat Alves via unanimous decision. Dana White later made remarks that the manner of Fitch's victories (primarily judges' decisions rather than finishes) and lack of connection with the UFC fans has put Fitch's number one contender status in doubt. Following Jake Shields' victory over Martin Kampmann at UFC 121, White confirmed Shields as the next in line for the Welterweight title shot, leaving Fitch's status in the division unconfirmed. Fitch thought this funny, considering that Shields' victory was mostly the same as Fitch's previous performances.


title: Jon Fitch

text: Fitch was expected to face Jake Ellenberger on February 5, 2011, at UFC 126. But after B.J. Penn defeated Matt Hughes at UFC 123, UFC president Dana White decided to match Fitch up against Penn at UFC 127 in Australia instead. At the end of the fight the scorecards of the judges were (29–28 Fitch, 28–28, and 28–28). It was declared a majority draw. When asked by Joe Rogan if Fitch would like a rematch, Fitch replied that he wants another title shot more than anything. No confirmation of a rematch resulted from the interview of either fighter.


title: Jon Fitch

text: A rematch with Penn was expected to take place on July 2, 2011, at UFC 132., but in late March, Fitch pulled out of the bout with an injury.


title: Jon Fitch

text: After months of dealing with a shoulder injury, Jon Fitch is back in business. “I’m back! Dr. Kavitne gave me the ok to fight,” he tweeted. Fitch has made no small secret of his desire to fight on the UFC 139 fight card that takes place in his city of residence, San Jose, Calif.


title: Jon Fitch

text: Fitch fought Johny Hendricks on December 30, 2011, at UFC 141. He was knocked out 12 seconds into the fight.


title: Jon Fitch

text: Fitch was expected to face Aaron Simpson on July 11, 2012, at . However, Fitch pulled out of the bout citing a knee injury and was replaced by returning veteran Kenny Robertson.


title: Jon Fitch

text: Fitch defeated rising prospect Erick Silva via unanimous decision on October 13, 2012, at UFC 153, with the back-and-forth bout receiving "Fight of the Night" honors. In a prefight interview, Fitch mentioned that he was experiencing tremendous financial difficulties and that losing the fight would force him to end his full-time training so that he could get a day job to help support his family. After winning the fight, he said the victory had saved his MMA career.


title: Jon Fitch

text: Fitch next faced Demian Maia on February 2, 2013, at UFC 156. Fitch lost by unanimous decision and was subsequently released from the promotion, despite being a top 10 ranked welterweight and having a 14-3-1 record with the promotion overall. Fitch's release from the promotion caused much debate about the UFC "code of conduct" and the general "skill-demand" in UFC, as most commentators had not expected a single loss to lead to a release from the promotion.


title: Jon Fitch

text: On March 7, 2013, it was announced that Fitch signed a four-fight contract with World Series of Fighting. He made his promotional debut on June 14, 2013, at WSOF 3, in a rematch against Josh Burkman. Fitch was knocked down by a punch and then finished by Burkman due to a guillotine choke submission. Burkman became the second man to defeat Fitch by a submission, the first being Mike Pyle.


title: Jon Fitch

text: Fitch faced Marcelo Alfaya at on October 26, 2013, winning via split decision. Despite spending most of the first round trapped in a body triangle defending against submission attempts, Fitch showed improved striking in a back-and-forth fight, dropping Alfaya and following up with heavy ground-and-pound in the third.


title: Jon Fitch

text: In his third fight for the promotion, Fitch faced Dennis Hallman on July 5, 2014 at World Series of Fighting 11. He won the fight via unanimous decision.


title: Jon Fitch

text: In July, Fitch was scheduled to fight Rousimar Palhares at WSOF 11 for the WSOF Welterweight Championship. However, on April 30, 2014, Palhares pulled out of the fight due to personal reasons. The title fight was rescheduled for WSOF 16 on December 13, 2014. He lost the fight by kneebar in the first round. After the fight, it was revealed that Fitch had failed the California State Athletic Commission's pre-fight drug testing. The positive test results of Fitch, who had previously been vocal in his criticism of PED users in MMA, were almost certainly due to synthetic testosterone.


title: Jon Fitch

text: Following his nine-month suspension, Fitch returned to the promotion on October 17, 2015 at . He faced Yushin Okami in the main event for the chance to fight for the vacant Welterweight title. Fitch won the bout by unanimous decision.


title: Jon Fitch

text: Fitch was lined up to face Jake Shields for the vacant WSOF welterweight championship at WSOF 30 on April 1, 2016. Though they have never competed together in an MMA contest, Shields holds a victory over Fitch in a submission grappling match. However, the match was later cancelled due to contract issues between Shields and the company. Fitch went on to face João Zeferino for the vacant WSOF Welterweight Championship. He won via unanimous decision.


title: Jon Fitch

text: On September 13, 2016, it was announced that Fitch would defend the WSOF Welterweight Championship against Jake Shields on November 12, 2016 at . On October 17, 2016, it was announced that the fight was then rescheduled to take place on December 31, 2016 in the co-main event. Fitch won the fight via unanimous decision.


title: Jon Fitch

text: In his second title defense for the now renamed league, Fitch faced Brian Foster on June 30, 2017 at Professional Fighters League 1, He won the fight in the second round due to submission, his first finish in ten years.


title: Jon Fitch

text: Fitch made his promotional debut against Paul Daley at Bellator 199 on May 12, 2018. He won the fight by unanimous decision.


title: Jon Fitch

text: Fitch next challenged Rory MacDonald in a welterweight title fight that was simultaneously the first round of Bellator Welterweight World Grand Prix at Bellator 220 on April 27, 2019. The back-and-forth bout ended in a majority draw. Due to the fight ending in a draw, MacDonald retained the title and advanced to the semifinals.


title: Jon Fitch

text: Fitch faced Neiman Gracie at Bellator 246 on September 12, 2020. He lost the bout via second round submission and subsequently announced his retirement following the bout.


title: Jon Fitch

text: Jon and his longtime girlfriend Michele got engaged the day after UFC 100. The couple were married on September 4, 2010 and had 2 children together, but later divorced in late 2018.


title: Jon Fitch

text: On December 16, 2014, Fitch was listed as one of three MMA fighters who filed a class-action lawsuit against Zuffa, LLC., the parent company of the UFC. The suit alleges that the UFC participated in anti-competitive practices that hindered fighters and their mixed martial arts careers.


title: Jon Fitch

text: Jon Fitch appeared on the November 5, 2008, episode of MythBusters, "Coffin Punch". The MythBusters were attempting to determine if someone could punch their way out of a coffin. For his part, Jon Fitch laid on his back and punched up into a sensor, attached to a punching bag that was a few inches above Fitch, allowing his arm only three inches of travel before contact with the sensor. The sensor read that the power behind Fitch's punch was just under 1,500 pounds of force (6672 N).


title: Jon Fitch

text: Fitch also made a brief cameo in the award-winning mixed martial arts documentary "Fight Life" sparring with Jake Shields. The film was directed by James Z. Feng and released in 2013.


title: Jon Fitch

text: Fitch is the main subject of the movie "Such Great Heights" which documents his preparations to fight Georges St. Pierre at UFC 87. The film was directed by Jonah Tulis and released in 2012.


title: Nissim Ezekiel

text: Nissim Ezekiel (16 December 1924 – 9 January 2004) was an Indian Jewish poet, actor, playwright, editor and art critic. He was a foundational figure in postcolonial India's literary history, specifically for Indian Poetry in English.


title: Nissim Ezekiel

text: He was awarded the Sahitya Akademi Award in 1983 for his collection, ""Latter-Day Psalms"", by the Sahitya Akademi, India's National Academy of Letters. Ezekiel has been applauded for his subtle, restrained and well crafted diction, dealing with common and mundane (simple) themes in a manner that manifests both cognitive profundity, as well as an unsentimental, realistic sensibility, that has been influential on the course of succeeding Indian English poetry.


title: Nissim Ezekiel

text: Ezekiel enriched and established Indian English language poetry through his modernist innovations and techniques, which enlarged Indian English literature, moving it beyond purely spiritual and orientalist themes, to include a wider range of concerns and interests, including familial events, individual angst and skeptical societal introspection.


title: Nissim Ezekiel

text: Ezekiel was born on 16 December 1924 in Bombay (Mumbai) in Maharashtra. His father was a professor of botany at Wilson College, and his mother was principal of her own school. The Ezekiels belonged to Mumbai's Marathi-speaking Jewish community known as the Bene Israel.


title: Nissim Ezekiel

text: In 1947, Ezekiel earned a BA in Literature from Wilson College, Mumbai, Bombay University. In 1947-48, he taught English literature and published literary articles. After dabbling in politics for a while, he sailed to England in November 1948. He studied philosophy at Birkbeck College, London. After three and a half years, Ezekiel worked his way home as a deck-scrubber aboard a ship carrying arms to Indochina.


title: Nissim Ezekiel

text: Ezekiel's first book, "A Time to change", appeared in 1952. He published another volume of poems, "The deadly man" in 1960. After working as an advertising copywriter and general manager of a picture frame company (1954–59), he co-founded the literary monthly "Jumpo", in 1961. He became art critic of "The Times of India" (1964–66) and edited "Poetry India" (1966–67). From 1961 to 1972, he headed the English department of Mithibai College, Bombay. "The Exact Name", his fifth book of poetry, was published in 1965. During this period he held short-term tenure as visiting professor at University of Leeds (1964) and University of Pondicherry (1967). In 1969, at the Writers Workshop, Ezekiel published his "Three Plays" which includes "Nalini, Marriage Poem, The Sleep-walkers". A year later, he presented an art series of ten programmes for Indian television. In 1976, he translated Jawaharlal Nehru's poetry from English to Marathi, in collaboration with Vrinda Nabar, and co-edited a fiction and poetry anthology. His poem "The Night of the Scorpion" is used as study material in Indian and Colombian schools. Ezekiel also penned poems in ‘Indian English’ like the one based on instruction boards in his favourite Irani café. His poems are used in NCERT and ICSE English textbooks. His poem 'Background, Casually' is considered to be the most defining poem of his poetic and personal career.


title: Nissim Ezekiel

text: He was honoured with the Padmashri award by the President of India in 1988 and the Sahitya Akademi cultural award in 1983.


title: Nissim Ezekiel

text: He edited "The Indian P.E.N"., official organ of P.E.N. All-India Centre, Bombay from The Theosophy Hall, New Marine Lines, and encouraged poets and writers.


title: Nissim Ezekiel

text: After a prolonged battle with Alzheimer’s disease, Nissim Ezekiel died in Mumbai, on 9 January 2004 (aged 79).


title: Malta (soft drink)

text: Malta is a lightly carbonated, non-alcoholic malt beverage, brewed from barley, hops, and water; corn and caramel color may also be added.


title: Malta (soft drink)

text: Most Malta is brewed in the Caribbean and can be purchased in areas with substantial Caribbean populations.


title: Nellyville

text: Nellyville is the second studio album by American rapper and singer Nelly. It was released on June 25, 2002, by Universal Records and Fo' Reel Entertainment. The album's production was handled by Waiel Yaghnam, the Neptunes, Jay E, Trackboyz, Ryan Bowser, and Just Blaze. Two singles from "Nellyville", "Hot in Herre" and "Dilemma", both topped the US "Billboard" Hot 100 for respectively seven and ten weeks. The album received generally favorable reviews from music critics, who praised the production.


title: Nellyville

text: "Nellyville" debuted at the top of the US "Billboard" 200, with sales of 715,000 equivalent-units in the opening week of the country. It remained at number one for four non-consecutive weeks and was eventually certified six-times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for shipments of over six million equivalent-units in sales, which allowed "Nellyville" to become Nelly's second number-one, multi-platinum, and top-10 album in the United States following his debut album "Country Grammar" in 2000. As of March 16, 2011, "Nellyville" sold 6,488,000 copies in the United States, and it became the 14th best-selling rap album of all time. Internationally, it peaked at number two on the album charts in the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, Germany, and New Zealand.


title: Nellyville

text: The recording of "Nellyville" was handled by Steve Eigner and Marc Lee. Rich Travali was assisted by Jeff Robinette, while Jamie Duncan and Dan Milazzo were performing the mixing on the album. Audio mastering was done by Herb Powers. The album's artwork was provided by Sandy Brummels, while Robert Sims handled design, and Jonathan Mannion was responsible for photography. Several artists made an appearance on the album, including Justin Timberlake, Kelly Rowland, Beanie Sigel, Freeway and Dani Stevenson.


title: Nellyville

text: "Nellyville" received generally positive reviews from music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album has received an average score of 70, based on 15 reviews, which indicates "generally favorable reviews". Wayne Franklin of PopMatters held low expectations for the album prior to listening to it, following Nelly's feud with rapper KRS-One, but found its music to be "incredible". Wayne lauded the track "Air Force Ones", describing it as an "unbelievable ode" to hip hop, while noting several other songs as stand-outs. Allmusic's Jason Birchmeier gave the album three-and-a-half stars out of five, noting "Hot in Herre", "Dilemma" and "Roc the Mic" as "three well-calculated, standout moments". Birchmeier praised "Hot in Herre"'s production, "Roc the Mic"'s hip hop composition and the "Dilemma"'s interpolation of Patti LaBelle's "Love, Need and Want You". RapReviews.com's Steve Juon gave "Nellyville" an 8.5 out of ten, citing the album's consistency and production, praising "Hot in Herre" for its Midwestern drawl and "harmonious musical flow". Giving the album a B+, Tom Sinclair of "Entertainment Weekly" praised several new additions to Nelly's vocal style, summarizing: "If you like your rap loose and funny, Nelly's the man for you".


title: Nellyville

text: "NME" Dele Fadele saw "Nellyville" as Nelly's "reply to the haters"; Fadele described the album as a "glossy, well-produced album of populist anthems with a gangsta undertow" that expands his perspective of the world and "celebrates success". Though Fadele wasn't impressed at the Justin Timberlake featured track "Work It", calling the song a "silly pop-directed collaboration". "The A.V. Club"'s Nathan Rabin praised "Nellyville" for achieving similar universal appeal to Nelly's previous effort "Country Grammar", which achieved it with songs such as its self-titled track and "E.I.". Rabin criticized Timberlake's "high-schooler doing a Bee Gees impersonation" on "Work It", though noted the song as the only "glaring misstep" on the album. "People" lauded "Hot in Herre" for its "funky go-go groove", declaring it the "perfect summer jam", but were ambivalent towards the rest of the album's beats for being slightly repetitive. "Rolling Stone" Rob Marriott described Nelly as a "gifted, witty MC" with the "catchiest rhymes to ever hit the pop charts" but wrote that "Nellyville" sounds "weighted down" by the commercial pressure of having to have another multi-platinum album.


title: Nellyville

text: At the 45th Annual Grammy Awards, "Nellyville" was nominated for Album of the Year and Best Rap Album, "Dilemma" won Best Rap/Sung Collaboration and was nominated for Record of the Year, and "Hot in Herre" won Best Male Rap Solo Performance. Nelly received three BET Award nominations such as Best Male Hip-Hop Artist, Best Collaboration (for "Dilemma") and Video of the Year (for "Hot in Herre"). At the 2003's American Music Awards, Nelly was nominated for Favorite Pop/Rock Male Artist and the Fan's Choice Award, while "Nellyville" was nominated for Favorite Pop/Rock Album and Favorite Hip/Hop/R&B Album, with Nelly winning the Fan's Choice Award. Nelly received six awards at the 2002's Billboard Music Awards, winning the awards for Artist of the Year, Male Artist of the Year, Hot 100 Singles Male Artist of the Year, R&B/Hip-Hop Male Artist of the Year, Rap Artist of the Year and Rap Track of the Year (for "Hot in Herre"). On the 2002's "Billboard" year-end charts, the album was ranked third on the "Billboard" 200 and the Top R&B/Hip Hop Albums charts.


title: Nellyville

text: The album debuted at No. 1 on the US "Billboard" 200, selling 715,000 copies, outperforming Nelly's previous effort "Country Grammar" (2000), which debuted at number 3 selling 235,000 copies. With the single, "Hot in Herre" debuting at No. 1 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 that week, Nelly was in possession of the top spot on 10 different "Billboard" charts. After its release, "Nellyville" remained atop the "Billboard" 200, selling 450,000 in its first week and 340,000 in its second week, surpassing 1.5 million copies in sales in its 3rd week. In its fourth week, "Nellyville" replaced atop the chart by Dave Matthews Band's "Busted Stuff". The former album was positioned at No. 2 on the "Billboard" 200, with its sales decreasing to 305,000 copies. In the 5th week, it sold 271,000 copies, dropping from #2 to No. 3, and in its sixth week, it sold 244,000 copies remaining at number 3. "Nellville" reached to No. 2 and sold 210,000 units in its 7th week of release and in its 8th week, topping the "Billboard" 200, accumulating to 4 non-consecutive weeks atop. The album sold 185,000 copies that week. "Nellyville" 4-week #1 run and sales were, according to "Billboard", largely in part to the success of the album's singles, "Hot in Herre" and "Dilemma". The former track was number one on the Hot 100 prior to the album's release, maintaining a third week atop the chart, when "Nellville" made its debut. The song topped the Hot 100 for 7 consecutive weeks before being replaced by its successor, "Dilemma", which topped the chart for 10 non-consecutive weeks, selling worldwide over 7.6 million copies. On June 9, 2003, "Nellyville" was certified Sex-tuple Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for shipments of over 6 million copies in the United States of America. On March 16, 2011, the album sold 6,490,000 copies in the United States, becoming the fourteenth best-selling rap album of all time. "Nellyville" was ranked as the 174th best album of all time on the "Billboard Top 200 Albums of All Time".


title: Nellyville

text: "Nellyville" debuted and peaked at No. 2 on the UK Albums Chart on the week of July 13, 2002, remaining on the chart for 40 weeks. On July 1, 2002, the album was certified Double Platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI), for shipments of 600,000 copies. On the Australian Albums Chart, it debuted and peaked at No. 2 for two weeks, staying within the top 10 for 16 non-consecutive weeks. The album dropped off the chart after 31 weeks, and was certified Triple Platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) for shipments of 210,000 copies. "Nellyville" also peaked at No. 2 on the New Zealand Albums Chart, Canadian Albums Chart and German Albums Chart. It remained on the chart in New Zealand for 30 weeks, in Canada for 18 weeks and in Germany for 33 weeks. It was certified Double Platinum by Recorded Music NZ and Quadruple Platinum by Music Canada. the album was certified Gold by the Bundesverband Musikindustrie (BVMI). "Nellyville" also achieved success in several other territories, peaking within the top ten in Ireland, Netherlands, Denmark, Finland, Switzerland, Norway, Austria and Belgian (Flanders). It was certified Gold by IFPI Austria for shipments of 15,000 and certified Platinum by IFPI Switzerland for shipments of 40,000 copies The album reached at number 11 in Sweden and #25 in Belgium (Wallonia) and France. The Swedish Recording Industry Association (GLF) awarded the album a Gold certification, for shipments of over 30,000 copies.


title: USS Constellation (1854)

text: USS "Constellation" is a sloop-of-war, the last sail-only warship designed and built by the United States Navy. She was built at the Gosport Shipyard between 1853 and 1855 and was named for the earlier frigate of the same name that had been broken up in 1853. The sloop's primary armament was shell-firing guns and four 32-pounder long guns, though she carried other guns as well, including two Parrott rifle chase guns. "Constellation"s career as a front-line unit was relatively short; after entering service in 1855, she served with the Mediterranean Squadron until 1858, and in 1859, she was assigned as the flagship of the Africa Squadron, where she served with the African Slave Trade Patrol. During the American Civil War (1861–1865), the ship returned to the Mediterranean to patrol for Confederate vessels. In late 1864, she returned to the United States to be decommissioned, as most of her crews' enlistments had expired. She spent the rest of the war out of service.


title: USS Constellation (1854)

text: "Constellation" was recommissioned in 1871 for use as a training ship, being used for shooting practice and training cruises for midshipmen. She filled this role for twenty-two years, and during this period, she saw a number of other activities, including transporting exhibits for the 1878 Exposition Universelle in Paris and carrying food to Ireland during the 1879 Irish famine. She was reduced to a stationary training hulk in late 1893, being moored in Newport for the next twenty years. During this period, the mistaken belief that the two "Constellation"s were one and the same arose, and she was presented as such in 1914 during the centennial of the writing of "The Star-Spangled Banner", the national anthem of the United States. Briefly renamed Old Constellation in 1917 to free the name for a new battlecruiser of the , she reverted to her original name when the battlecruiser was scrapped in 1925. "Constellation" was recommissioned in 1940 as part of the build-up in anticipation of the United States' entry into World War II, during which she served as the port flagship of the commander of the Atlantic Fleet.


title: USS Constellation (1854)

text: Proposals to restore the vessel as a museum ship had been submitted already in the 1930s, but work began in earnest after World War II. Shortages of funds prevented her transfer to the city of Baltimore, Maryland until 1955. Operating under the mistaken belief that she was the original "Constellation", the organization responsible for the ship modified her to match the earlier vessel's appearance during a refit in the late 1950s and early 1960s. During this period, a controversy arose over the vessel's identity that lasted into the 1990s, when new research definitively proved that the "Constellation" launched in 1797 and the 1854-launched vessel were distinct ships. Periodic repairs have been carried out since the mid-1990s to repair rotted wood. "Constellation" remains open to the public as part of the Historic Ships in Baltimore in the city's Inner Harbor, having been designated a National Historic Landmark.


title: USS Constellation (1854)

text: From 1816 to the 1830s, the Navy accumulated extensive stocks of live oak timbers for use in new warship construction under the provisions of the Act for the Gradual Increase of the Navy of the United States, passed in 1816. In the early 1850s, the Navy decided to build a new sail-powered ship using these existing stockpiles, calling for a sloop-of-war that would be fast, with a long endurance, and sufficiently armed to be capable of engaging other warships of her type. This would produce a capable warship while keeping costs low since the material used was already on hand and an expensive steam engine would not be required. Chief Constructor John Lenthall prepared the design, along with Edward Delano, the constructor of the Gosport Shipyard. In June 1853, Lenthall completed the hull half model, which was necessary to scale up the design and to prepare the necessary hull timbers. During this period, the new vessel's namesake, , was in the process of being broken up a short distance away in the Gosport yard.


title: USS Constellation (1854)

text: Beginning in May 1853, work on assembling the timbers commenced, as the shipyard workers prepared to start construction of the new sloop-of-war. The vessel's keel was laid down on 25 June 1853, using material from the oak stockpile; her sternpost was erected on 27 August, and her stem followed a couple of weeks later. She was launched on 26 August 1854 at 11:45. Fitting-out work then commenced, which included the installation of her masts, rigging, and armament.


title: USS Constellation (1854)

text: "Constellation" is long at the waterline and long overall. She has a beam of at the waterline, and is across at her widest point. Her maximum draft is at a full load displacement of . The ship's crew numbered 21 officers and 265 enlisted men.


title: USS Constellation (1854)

text: In her original configuration, "Constellation" was armed with a battery of sixteen shell-firing guns and four 32-pounder guns mounted on her gun deck in the main battery. On her spar deck, she carried a pair of chase guns; a 30-pounder Parrott rifle was placed in the bow and a 20-pounder Parrott rifle was placed in the stern. She also carried three 12-pounder boat howitzers.


title: USS Constellation (1854)

text: "Constellation" was commissioned on 28 July 1855, under the command of Captain Charles H. Bell. She immediately departed for a tour with the Mediterranean Squadron that lasted three years. During this period, she stopped in Málaga, Spain in July 1856 to protect American nationals in the area during a period of civil unrest. Later that year, she came to the aid of a barque in the Sea of Marmara; the ship received an official thanks from the Emperor of Austria. On 17 April 1858, she left the Mediterranean Squadron for a short patrol in the Caribbean Sea to protect American shipping in the region. On 5 June she returned to the New York Navy Yard before proceeding to Boston, where she was decommissioned on 13 August.


title: USS Constellation (1854)

text: In June 1859, she recommissioned for service with the Africa Squadron, where she served as the squadron flagship, under the command of Captain Thomas Aloysius Dornin. She arrived off the mouth of the Congo River on 21 November, where she began operating as part of the African Slave Trade Patrol. As part of its efforts to end the Atlantic slave trade, the Navy awarded prize money for each slave ship captured, along with a $25 bounty for each slave that was freed; these prizes were divided among the crew, based on rank. On 29 December, she captured the brig "Delicia" that had no papers and was fitted to carry slaves in her hold. On 26 September 1860, "Constellation" captured the barque "Cora", which had 705 slaves aboard, who were then released in Monrovia, Liberia. The Navy impounded "Cora" and sold her at an auction.


title: USS Constellation (1854)

text: A week after the Battle of Fort Sumter, which began the American Civil War, President Abraham Lincoln declared a blockade of all ports of the Confederacy on 19 April 1861. A month later, on 21 May, "Constellation" captured another slave ship, again without any slaves aboard. In August, the Navy recalled "Constellation", and she arrived in Portsmouth, New Hampshire on 28 September. She was dispatched to the Mediterranean on 11 March 1862 to patrol for Confederate commerce raiders attempting to attack Union merchant shipping, since her sails provided much greater endurance than steam-powered warships of the day. Commanded by Captain Henry Thatcher, "Constellation" arrived in the Mediterranean on 19 April. Over the course of the following two years, she patrolled the Mediterranean, but saw little action apart from the blockade of the blockade runner and commerce raider that was laid up in Gibraltar in need of repairs and refueling. She also blocked the Confederate Navy from taking possession of in Italy.


title: USS Constellation (1854)

text: In May 1864, "Constellation" departed the Mediterranean, bound for the West Indies; Thatcher reasoned that since his ship was known to be patrolling the Mediterranean, and there were no other similar warships in the Navy, that he would be able to surprise Confederate cruisers and blockade runners. Admiral David Farragut recalled "Constellation" on 27 November; while en route, she chased a blockade runner but was unable to catch her. She reached Fort Monroe, Virginia on 25 December, and most of her crew, whose enlistments had ended, were discharged. Without a crew to man the vessel, "Constellation" spent the remainder of the war as a receiving ship based in Norfolk; she continued in this role until 1869.


title: USS Constellation (1854)

text: On 25 May 1871, "Constellation" was recommissioned for midshipmen training cruises; this was a duty she performed for the next 22 years. In 1871–1872, she was rearmed with eight Dahlgren guns, plus one 100-pound Parrott rifle and one Dahlgren gun, which would also allow her to be used as a gunnery training ship. From March to July 1878, "Constellation" was used to transfer exhibits to France for the Exposition Universelle in Paris. On 10 November 1879, she was sent to Gibraltar with a cargo of stores and a replacement crew for the Mediterranean Squadron flagship.


title: USS Constellation (1854)

text: She was around the Azores on 24 November, during a week long storm, when she spotted a vessel in distress. The vessel was the Austro-Hungarian-flagged barque in sinking condition. "Constellation"s boat rescued her crew and the vessel was scuttled by burning as the vessel was a hazard to navigation in her waterlogged condition. The Ensign in charge of the boat was awarded the United States Life Saving Service's Gold Life Saving Medal, and medals from the Massachusetts Humane Society and the New York Life Saving Benevolent Association. After returning to New York, she was modified to carry a large cargo of food and other supplies to Ireland for the relief effort for the 1879 Irish famine. To accommodate as much food as possible, some of the ship's guns were removed, along with some of her ballast. She was able to carry more than 2,500 barrels of flour and potatoes. She left the United States in March 1880 and arrived in Queenstown (now Cobh), Ireland on 20 April, where she sent the food ashore, took on ballast, and returned to the United States, arriving in June.


title: USS Constellation (1854)

text: In September 1892, "Constellation" recommissioned for another unusual duty, to help assemble works of art in Gibraltar for the World's Columbian Exposition. During the cruise, she made stops in Naples, Italy and Le Havre, France, before returning to New York in February 1893. Another training cruise to Gibraltar followed on 3 June and ended on 29 August. She was then transferred to Annapolis, where she was decommissioned on 2 September before being towed to Norfolk for repairs. There, she was converted into a stationary training ship. She was moved to Newport on 22 May 1894, where she remained largely in port for the next twenty years, apart from periodic trips for maintenance. This included an extensive repair in the New York Navy Yard in June 1904.


title: USS Constellation (1854)

text: In 1914, "Constellation" took part in celebration commemorating the one-hundredth anniversary of the writing of "The Star-Spangled Banner", the national anthem of the United States. Then-Acting Secretary of the Navy Franklin D. Roosevelt ordered the Navy to restore "Constellation" to her appearance in 1814 (as at the time, the Navy believed this ship to have been the one launched in 1797; see the Identity controversy section below), but to limit the work to general details to reduce costs. As a result, her bridge platform, which had been installed in the 1880s, was removed, along with a deck house that had been erected in the 1890s. She was then towed to Baltimore, where she was on display from 7 September to 29 October, when she was towed to Washington, DC. She remained on display there from 31 October to 4 December. Repairs in Norfolk followed later that month, and she resumed training duties on 19 May 1915.


title: USS Constellation (1854)

text: "Constellation" was renamed "Old Constellation" on 1 December 1917, since the name was to be used for a new that had been ordered. In 1920, the Navy stopped training sailors in handling sails and rigging, significantly reducing "Old Constellation"s activity. On 24 July 1925, the ship reverted to her original name when the battlecruiser was scrapped under the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty. "Constellation" was towed to Philadelphia on 15 May 1926 and moored alongside the protected cruiser , which had been Admiral George Dewey's flagship at the Battle of Manila Bay during the Spanish–American War in 1898. There, on 4 July 1926, she participated in ceremonies for the 150th anniversary of the signing of the Declaration of Independence. Following the celebration, she was dry-docked in Philadelphia for maintenance and then was towed back to Newport in November.


title: USS Constellation (1854)

text: The Navy Department ordered that "Constellation" be decommissioned for preservation on 16 June 1933. The Navy conducted surveys of the ship and prepared cost estimates for the work needed to restore her, but no work was done. With World War II having broken out in Europe in 1939, "Constellation" was recommissioned on 24 August 1940 and assigned the hull number IX-20 on 8 January 1941 as part of the United States' prewar buildup. She became the reserve flagship for Admiral Ernest J. King, the commander in chief of the Atlantic Fleet, until he became the Chief of Naval Operations in early 1942. King was replaced by Vice Admiral Royal E. Ingersoll, who came aboard "Constellation" from 19 January to 20 July, when he transferred to the gunboat . Ingersoll returned to "Constellation" from 1943 to 1944. After the war in October 1946, the Navy began work on plans to turn the ship into a memorial in Boston, but lacked the funds to do the necessary work. Finally, she was decommissioned on 4 February 1955 and towed to Baltimore, where she was dry-docked for restoration by a private, non-profit organization. She arrived there on 9 August, and was stricken from the naval register on 15 August.


title: USS Constellation (1854)

text: During the initial reconstruction to ready the ship for use as a museum, and under the mistaken impression that the 1797 frigate and the 1854 sloop were the same vessel, the workers reconfigured "Constellation" to resemble the 1797 vessel. During this period, she was designated a National Historic Landmark on 23 May 1963 and was placed on the National Register of Historic Places on 15 October 1966. In 1968, she was moved to Baltimore's Inner Harbor, moored at Constellation Dock.


title: USS Constellation (1854)

text: By the 1990s, "Constellation" was in poor condition owing to a lack of maintenance for many years. Problems included dry rot, compromised structural integrity, and a significant of hogging in her keel. She was towed to a drydock at Locust Point, near Fort McHenry, in 1996, and a $7.3 million rebuilding and restoration project was undertaken and completed in 1999. About half of her original but badly-rotted wood was replaced. The restoration was funded in equal shares by private donations, the City of Baltimore, and the State of Maryland.


title: USS Constellation (1854)

text: In 2004, the United States Postal Service issued a postage stamp commemorating the ship at the 150th anniversary of her launching; its design was based on the vessel as pictured in 1893.


title: USS Constellation (1854)

text: On 26 October 2004, "Constellation" made her first trip out of Baltimore's Inner Harbor since 1955, and her first to Annapolis since 1893. The trip to the U.S. Naval Academy in Annapolis took about eight hours and her visit lasted six days. While there, she was available for public tours from 27 to 31 October. The vessel was towed to and from Annapolis, as her rigging and ballast were not in a condition to allow her to sail on her own.


title: USS Constellation (1854)

text: In 2011, significant rot was discovered in the ship's hull during routine maintenance; many of the affected timbers had been installed during the refit in the 1990s. After raising funds to cover the cost of the reconstruction, the ship was dry docked at the United States Coast Guard Yard just to the south of Baltimore in October 2014. The project cost about $2 million and was completed in February 2015. Further repairs were necessitated in mid-2016 after some hull planks were found to have rotted.


title: USS Constellation (1854)

text: The ship is now part of Historic Ships in Baltimore, which also operates the Coast Guard cutter WHEC-37, the World War II submarine , the , and the Seven Foot Knoll Light. "Constellation" and her companions are major contributing elements in the Baltimore National Heritage Area. She is the last existing intact naval vessel from the American Civil War, and she was the last solely wind-powered warship built by the U.S. Navy.


title: USS Constellation (1854)

text: The city of Baltimore and the organization that maintained "Constellation" promoted the ship as having been the 1797 frigate and even rebuilt sections of the ship to resemble the earlier vessel. Additionally, they relied on the fact that some of the funds used to build the sloop were originally allocated to rebuild the frigate, the incorrect assertion that the keel and futtocks from the broken-up frigate were used in the construction of the sloop, and that at the time of her donation to the city, the Navy insisted that the vessel was the original frigate launched in 1797. They also relied on a series of forged documents that had been created in the 1960s to support their position. The amateur historian Geoffrey M. Footner continued to support the assertion that the ship was rebuilt in 1854 but traces its lineage to 1797.


title: USS Constellation (1854)

text: Starting shortly after World War II, a controversy arose over whether the 1854 sloop was a new ship or a rebuilt version of the 1797 frigate. Naval architect Howard I. Chapelle was one of the first people to raise the issue. In his book "The History of the American Sailing Navy", published in 1949, he pointed out the differences in the hull dimensions of the 1797 "Constellation" and the 1854 "Constellation" as evidence that they were two different ships. He also stated that, "Unfortunately, some of the semi-official lists of American naval ships have listed [the original "Constellation"] as though she had, in fact, been preserved and altered. This has led to many believing the sloop-of-war, which is still in existence, to be the oldest ship in the Navy and to have had a continuous identity since 1797...the only reason her register was maintained, by means of an administrative fiction, was to enable the work to be done without the need of applying to Congress for authority and funds to build an entirely new ship." Stephen Bockmiller and Lawrence Bopp agree with Chapelle, writing in "USS Constellation: An Illustrated History", that "working under the subterfuge of 'repairs,' the Navy actually began building a new ship about 900 yards from where the original "Constellation" was being dismantled. Thus, unwittingly, the Navy itself would originate the arguments about the authenticity of the "Constellation". To further compound the argument, some salvageable timbers from the original ship, particularly the ship’s knees, were used in constructing the new vessel."


title: USS Constellation (1854)

text: In the United States Navy's deed of custody given to the city of Baltimore in 1954 to repair and display "Constellation", Rear Admiral John R. Hefferman assured Baltimore of its unbroken provenance, stating that "Nowhere in these records, however, is there any indication that the original "Constellation", launched in 1797, was in fact broken up, stranded, scrapped or otherwise disposed of, nor is there any statement authorizing or sanctioning the disposal of the ship by any means whatsoever." In "USS Constellation on the Dismal Coast", published in 2013, C. Herbert Gilliland wrote, " For much of the twentieth century, this ship was believed to be the 1797 frigate "Constellation". In fact, however, when the 1797 frigate was being dismantled at the Gosport Navy Yard near Norfolk, Virginia, work was beginning on the 1854 sloop, likely reusing some timber from the old ship in building this very new one. The misidentification was maintained by deliberate deception, apparently to enhance the likelihood of the ship's being preserved as a historic relic. Naval records and the evidence from the extant ship's hull, though, make it clear that the vessel floating today dates from 1854."


title: USS Constellation (1854)

text: In September 1991, researchers Dana M. Wegner and Colan Ratliff from the David Taylor Research Center and Kevin Lynaugh, from the Carderock Division of the Naval Surface Warfare Center, published an exhaustive report on the question. Their research noted several key pieces of historical evidence that the two ships were not the same vessel. This included the fact that the timbers from the dismantled 1797 "Constellation" were auctioned off after the ship-breaking process ended in September 1853, the fact that the keel-laying for the 1854 ship had been done in June 1853, before the 1797 ship had been dismantled completely, and building records that meticulously accounted for each piece of timber that was used to build the new ship; in fact, only 204 oak knees were re-used, but these came from existing stocks, not the original vessel and they stated that, "There was no evidence that any material was transferred directly from the old ship to the new." In March 1989, they had come upon the builder's half-hull model of "Constellation" in the U.S. Naval Academy Museum. This was important because half-hull models are only built for new designs, not rebuilds, and the use of half-hull models was not introduced until after 1797. The authors conclude that this is definitive evidence that the vessel launched in 1854 was new, as it was "impossible to accurately scale down the form of an existing ship to model format," and that "a new half model would not have been employed by Lenthall unless he was forging a fully new design."


title: USS Constellation (1854)

text: In addition to evaluating the half model, the researchers also reviewed all the evidence used in the debate to date. With the help of FBI and BATF forensics investigators, they concluded that some 25 to 30 documents supporting the ship being a rebuild were forgeries. In 1991, they published their findings and conclusion that the current "Constellation" and the original frigate are two different ships. The authors did not agree with Chapelle, however, over the nature of the new ship's construction; they pointed out that the Act for the Gradual Increase authorized the Navy to build new ships from the oak acquired under its provisions, so there was no need to subvert Congress's authority on the matter. Lynaugh summarized the report in a separate article published in 1993, "Discussion of the Origins of the Frigate and the Sloop Constellation", and concluded that "though not built in Baltimore in 1797, the present ship was the last sail-only powered warship designed and built by the U.S. Navy. As such, it is a rare artifact of first importance and truly deserves to be preserved and displayed for the American public."


title: USS Constellation (1854)

text: Indeed, the "Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships" (DANFS), the official reference work for vessels of the US Navy, has exemplified and evolved with this identity controversy. In its 1969 edition it stated that the original "Constellation" was "Laid up in ordinary at Norfolk from 1845 through 1853, she was found to be greatly in need of extensive repair. Thus, in 1854 she was brought into the yard and, in keeping with the needs of the time, modified into a 22-gun sloop-of-war." By its 2004 edition this had been modified to state the original "Constellation" was broken up at Norfolk in 1853.


title: USS Constellation (1854)

text: For its part, Historic Ships in Baltimore, the organization that operates the museum of which "Constellation" is a part, does not present the ship as having been the original vessel. They instead acknowledge that the first vessel was broken up in 1853, and present the accounts provided by more recent editions of DANFS. Its predecessor organization, the U.S.F. Constellation Foundation, had maintained the opposite policy until its board resigned in 1994 and was replaced by advocates of the new-ship school of thought.


title: Mountain formation

text: Mountain formation refers to the geological processes that underlie the formation of mountains. These processes are associated with large-scale movements of the Earth's crust (tectonic plates). Folding, faulting, volcanic activity, igneous intrusion and metamorphism can all be parts of the orogenic process of mountain building. The formation of mountains is not necessarily related to the geological structures found on it.


title: Mountain formation

text: The understanding of specific landscape features in terms of the underlying tectonic processes is called "tectonic geomorphology", and the study of geologically young or ongoing processes is called "neotectonics".


title: Mountain formation

text: From the late 18th century until its replacement by plate tectonics in the 1960s, geosyncline theory was used to explain much mountain-building.


title: Mountain formation

text: There are five main types of mountains: volcanic, fold, plateau, fault-block and dome. A more detailed classification useful on a local scale predates plate tectonics and adds to these categories.


title: Mountain formation

text: Movements of tectonic plates create volcanoes along the plate boundaries, which erupt and form mountains. A "volcanic arc system" is a series of volcanoes that form near a subduction zone where the crust of a sinking oceanic plate melts and drags water down with the subducting crust.


title: Mountain formation

text: Most volcanoes occur in a band encircling the Pacific Ocean (the Pacific Ring of Fire), and in another that extends from the Mediterranean across Asia to join the Pacific band in the Indonesian Archipelago. The most important types of volcanic mountain are "composite cones" or "stratovolcanoes" (Vesuvius, Kilimanjaro and Mount Fuji are examples) and "shield volcanoes" (such as Mauna Loa on Hawaii, a hotspot volcano).


title: Mountain formation

text: A shield volcano has a gently sloping cone due to the low viscosity of the emitted material, primarily basalt. Mauna Loa is the classic example, with a slope of 4°-6°. (The relation between slope and viscosity falls under the topic of angle of repose.) The composite volcano or stratovolcano has a more steeply rising cone (33°-40°), due to the higher viscosity of the emitted material, and eruptions are more violent and less frequent than for shield volcanoes. Besides the examples already mentioned are Mount Shasta, Mount Hood and Mount Rainier. Vitosha - the domed mountain next to Sofia, capital of Bulgaria, is also formed by volcanic activity.


title: Mountain formation

text: When plates collide or undergo subduction (that is – ride one over another), the plates tend to buckle and fold, forming mountains. Most of the major continental mountain ranges are associated with thrusting and folding or orogenesis. Examples are the Balkan Mountains, the Jura and the Zagros mountains.


title: Mountain formation

text: When a fault block is raised or tilted, block mountains can result. Higher blocks are called "horsts" and troughs are called "grabens". A spreading apart of the surface causes tensional forces. When the tensional forces are strong enough to cause a plate to split apart, it does so such that a center block drops down relative to its flanking blocks.


title: Mountain formation

text: An example of this is the Sierra Nevada Range, where delamination created a block 650 km long and 80 km wide that consists of many individual portions tipped gently west, with east facing slips rising abruptly to produce the highest mountain front in the continental United States.


title: Mountain formation

text: Another good example is the Rila - Rhodope mountain Massif in Bulgaria, Southeast Europe, including the well defined horsts of Belasitsa (linear horst), Rila mountain (vaulted domed shaped horst) and Pirin mountain - a horst forming a massive anticline situated between the complex graben valleys of Struma and that of Mesta.


title: Mountain formation

text: Unlike orogenic mountains there is no widely accepted geophysical model that explains elevated passive continental margins such as the Scandinavian Mountains, Eastern Greenland, the Brazilian Highlands or Australia's Great Dividing Range.


title: Mountain formation

text: Different elevated passive continental margins most likely share the same mechanism of uplift. This mechanism is possibly related to far-field stresses in Earth's lithosphere. According to this view elevated passived margins can be likened to giant anticlinal lithospheric folds, where folding is caused by horizontal compression acting on a thin to thick crust transition zone (as are all passive margins).


title: Mountain formation

text: Hotspots are supplied by a magma source in the Earth's mantle called a mantle plume. Although originally attributed to a melting of subducted oceanic crust, recent evidence belies this connection. The mechanism for plume formation remains a research topic.


title: Mountain formation

text: Several movements of the Earth's crust that lead to mountains are associated with faults. These movements actually are amenable to analysis that can predict, for example, the height of a raised block and the width of an intervening rift between blocks using the rheology of the layers and the forces of isostasy. Early bent plate models predicting fractures and fault movements have evolved into today's kinematic and flexural models.


title: Half and half

text: "Half and half" is the name of various beverages and foods made of an equal-parts mixture of two substances, including dairy products, alcoholic beverages, and soft drinks.


title: Half and half

text: In some cafés in Brussels, a "half en half", Dutch for "half and half", is a mixture of white wine and champagne. Originally, it was a mixture of two different typical beer types from Brussels: 50% lambic and 50% faro.


title: Half and half

text: If you order a "half and half" in a Copenhagen bar, you will get a mixture of dark beer and pilsner (lager). The dark beer is a Danish version of an Imperial stout-type beer; in Denmark simply called "porter", which is a little sweeter than a Guinness.


title: Half and half

text: In the North East of England, a request for a half and half would more commonly produce a combination of Scotch ale and India pale ale (IPA). This drink fell from favour when the Scottish & Newcastle brewery were obliged to sell many of their tied public houses and McEwan's Scotch and IPA disappeared from public bars across the North East.


title: Half and half

text: In Canada and the United States, "Black and Tan" refers to Guinness and a lager or ale that will support the Guinness, most commonly Bass Ale, although some Irish-themed bars shun the term for its association with the Royal Irish Constabulary's "Black and Tans" force. A "Half and Half" is Guinness and Harp. A Guinness and Smithwick's is a "Blacksmith".


title: Half and half

text: In Scotland, a "hauf an a hauf" (half and a half) is a glass of whisky (a "wee hauf", a quarter gill) and a half-pint of beer as a chaser.


title: Half and half

text: "Pola pola" ("half and half") is a slang term for the drink spritzer, made out of equal parts of white wine or rosé wine and carbonated water. Different ratios of wine and carbonated water are named with various slang terms, depending on the region. "Pola pola" is also known as "litra i voda" (one bottle of wine and one bottle of carbonated water), as well as "Litar-litar" (as in 1 liter of wine, 1 liter of water) and "Gemišt".


title: Half and half

text: In Switzerland, and more particularly in Valais, a half & half is a mixture of dry and sweet liquor of the same fruit. In the canton of Geneva, a "moitié-moitié" generally refers to a digestif containing one half Williamine liqueur and one half Williamine eau-de-vie. In the canton of Ticino, a "mezz e mezz" (literally "half and half" in the local Ticinese dialect) refers to a mixture of one half local Merlot wine and one half gazosa (a local lemon-flavoured carbonated soft drink).


title: Half and half

text: In Uruguay there's a beverage called "Medio y Medio" ("half and half") that consists of sweet sparkling wine and dry white wine in equal parts. "Medio y medio" comes in Red, Rosé and White varieties, the latter being the original and most popular. It is massively consumed during the holidays but it can be found in certain places throughout the year as well. The most common "Medio y Medio" is the one produced by Roldós, a local restaurant that claims having invented the mixture.


title: Half and half

text: "Medio y medio" is also the name for another cocktail, made with White Vermouth and "Caña" (literally "cane"), a 35–50% alcoholic beverage distilled from sugar cane. This name, however, is used not in the majority of bars but only in the most traditional ones, probably due to the existence of Roldós' "Medio y Medio".


title: Half and half

text: The Arnold Palmer, also known as a half and half, is popular in the Northeastern United States. The drink consists of 1 part lemonade and 1 part iced tea; variations may include a mixture of sweet and unsweetened tea. In the Southern United States, "half and half" may also refer to a mixture of half sweet, half unsweetened tea. Some coffee shops in colder climates serve a half and half drink consisting of half coffee and half hot chocolate, similar to caffè mocha. Half & Half might also refer to a flavor of soda which combines the flavors of grapefruit and lemon.


title: Half and half

text: In Canada and the United States, "half and half" almost always refers to a light cream typically used in coffee. (See below.) The name refers to the liquid's content of half milk and half cream. It is widely available in the United States, both in individual-serving containers and in bulk. It is also used to make ice cream. Non-fat versions of the product are also available, containing corn syrup and other ingredients.


title: Half and half

text: In the Romandy, a "moitié-moitié" (lit. "half-half") can refer to coffee mixed with an equal amount of milk..


title: Half and half

text: In the German-speaking part of Switzerland, especially in the north-eastern part, a mixture of apple and orange juice is known as "halb halb" ("half half", sometimes written 1+1).


title: Half and half

text: "Half and half" or "Half-and-half" is a mixture of milk and cream, which is often used in coffee and with breakfast cereals. In the United States, half and half is a common liquid product produced by dairy companies in premixed form. It was invented by William A. Boutwell of Boutwell Dairy in Lake Worth Beach, Florida, which distributed the blend regionally between 1927 and 1956.


title: Half and half

text: In the United States, half-and-half must contain between 10.5 and 18 percent milkfat. It is pasteurized or ultra-pasteurized, and may be homogenized.


title: Half and half

text: A milkette (also referred to as dairy milker, creamette or creamers) is a single serving of milk (2%) or cream (10% and 18%) in or containers used for coffee and tea.


title: Half and half

text: The single cup of milk is stored in a sealed (foil cover) plastic cup of milk or cream with long shelf life but must be refrigerated.


title: Half and half

text: "Half-om-halfgehakt" (half for half minced meat) is commonly used for mixed minced meat, made of equal amounts of beef and pork. The term "Gehacktes halb und halb" is used in Germany, also referring to minced meat.


title: Half and half

text: "Moitié-moitié" (lit. "half-half") refers to a cheese fondue made with half "Gruyère" and half "Vacherin Fribourgeois".


title: Half and half

text: In the Skaraborg region of Sweden "Hälta Hälta" ("Half Half" in the local dialect) refers to a serving of half french fries and half mashed potato, commonly served with sausage.


title: Half and half

text: A half and half is commonly understood to be a side dish of half chips and half rice. A typical order might be "chicken curry half and half" or "chili con carne half and half".


title: USS Akron

text: USS "Akron" (ZRS-4) was a helium-filled rigid airship of the U.S. Navy, the lead ship of her class, which operated between September 1931 and April 1933. It was the world's first purpose-built flying aircraft carrier, carrying F9C Sparrowhawk fighter planes, which could be launched and recovered while it was in flight. With an overall length of , "Akron" and her sister ship were among the largest flying objects ever built. Although LZ 129 "Hindenburg" and LZ 130 "Graf Zeppelin II" were some longer and slightly more voluminous, the two German airships were filled with hydrogen, and so the two US Navy craft still hold the world record for the largest helium-filled airships.