title: Saab 9000

text: In the autumn of 1986, Saab organised a record attempt with the Saab 9000, which received much attention in the US and internationally, at the Alabama International Motor Speedway at Talladega, now the Talladega Superspeedway. "Saab Turbo--In The Long Run" took place over 20 days and 20 nights. "The main purpose of the Long Run project is to test the endurance of our cars as part of our ongoing testing program," explained Olle Granlund, head of Saab's engine and transmission department and the person in charge of this project. All three 9000 Turbo 16s passed the 100,000 [KM] mark in 21 days, the lead car breaking 21 international and two world speed records in the process. In memory of this event. Saab was to sell special models under the name "Talladega" in the prospective years, not only for the Saab 9000 but also for other model series. Furthermore, the event was repeated 10 years later in 1996 with models of the "NG 900".


title: Saab 9000

text: For MY 1987 a modern ZF automatic with four stages became available (and remained the only available automatic version until the end of production). In 1987 for model year 1988, Saab released a 4-door sedan variant of the 9000 known as the CD. The front of the Sedan was different (more modern) and more streamlined than the hatchback version. This involved smoothing the edges of the headlamps and grille, and sloping the front outwards. Saab adapted the design of the sedan to the current facelift of the Saab 900, which had already received a similar new front for the MY 1987. This re-design marked a departure from the more upright front styling of the 1984 original, which was also similar to the old design of the Saab 900 from 1978 to 1986. The fact that the older medium class model Saab 900 had received the facelift first seems curiously, also that the 9000 hatchback 5-door model still retained the old front design. But it can be explained by the fact that in the 1980s the bulk of sales in the US were still through the classic 900.


title: Saab 9000

text: From 1988, all 9000 variants were equipped with a Saab Information Display (SID) which showed fuel consumption, distance to an empty fuel tank, alternator output voltage, outside temperature, and lowest battery voltage during vehicle start. If the outside temperature fell to , the temperature display is automatically selected to warn of possible "black ice" road conditions. A separate pictogram monitored door and hatch opening and exterior light bulb condition. 1988 also marked the introduction of pyrotechnic seat belt tensioners for the front seats.


title: Saab 9000

text: Saab Direct Ignition was also introduced 1988 with the 9000 CD and its B202 turbo engine. The same engine in the CC got the DI with MY 1989. Since then all new engine releases for the 9000 got the DI from beginning (except later V6 which came from GM). The output of both engines increased slightly through optimisations from 160 hp DIN to 163 hp DIN (with catalytic converter) and from 125 hp DIN to 128 hp DIN (with) and from 128 hp DIn to 133 hp DIN (without).


title: Saab 9000

text: For MY 1990 Saab introduced the new developed larger B234 2.3-litre engine, providing in the normally aspirated engine. For MY 1991, the "B234" became available also with a turbocharger, producing and an impressive torque. Unlike the other engines, each of which was also used in the classic Saab 900, the B234 was only used in the Saab 9000 (and later in other model series).


title: Saab 9000

text: For MY 1991 (Europe) and MY 92 (US) Saab also adopted the sloping front of the CD also for the hatchback (CC). With this, the classic flat front of the Saab 90, 99, 900 and the early 9000 was finally over. But this design existed only for this MY on the CC in most markets (the CD notchback kept the old design till MY 1994).


title: Saab 9000

text: Because the next bigger facelift for the Saab 9000 5-door hatchback was followed by release of a partially redesigned body for the 1992 model year in Europe (for MY 1993 in the US), known as the CS. At the release of the CS, the original liftback variant from MY 1985-1991/1992 was retrospectively designated CC to differentiate it from the newer version. The "old" CC was continued to sell out of stock alongside in some markets as an entry-level model and in particular in the US, where the new CS was not available until MY 1993.


title: Saab 9000

text: A new turbocharger management system, Trionic 5 and later Trionic 7, was equipped from the 1993 model year onwards (the Trionic system used resistor spark plugs to detect for engine knock in place of the knock sensors incorporated into the engine block in the previous APC system).


title: Saab 9000

text: For MY 1993 the model range was revised to provide some uniformity to the model designations on all markets. They became CS/CSE and CD/CDE:


title: Saab 9000

text: - the CS / CD with basis equipment (which in principle already contained more equipment than the German competition in particular offered at the time)


title: Saab 9000

text: In principle, both equipment lines could be combined with the engines available in the respective MY. This means that even a "simple" CS could be ordered f.e. with the 200 hp turbo engine.


title: Saab 9000

text: As the 4 doors CD/E and the sporty Aero already expired after MY 1997, only 1400 of the Saab 9000 were produced for the last 1998 model year, and of these only 400 were exported to the United States, the main foreign market for Saab. Saab already concentrated on the successor of the Saab 9000, the Saab 9-5.


title: Saab 9000

text: Originally known simply as the 9000, the original liftback variant was later given the CC identifier, standing for "Combi Coupe", to differentiate it from the CD ("Corps Diplomatique") sedan and later CS liftback. Saab also uses this different identifier for the Saab 900 versions. While originally equipped with an upright front design, this was replaced by the sloped version in MY 1990 that had earlier debuted on the 9000 CD (sedan) in 1988.


title: Saab 9000

text: The original MY 1985 CC model (for this MY only available in Europe) was powered by an air-cooled, turbocharged, double overhead camshaft, 16-valve inline-four engine, providing 175 bhp without and 160 bhp with catalysator. Earlier on in the development, the PRV engine had also been considered.


title: Saab 9000

text: The 9000 became available in the US for MY 1986, and since MY 1987 onwards the turbo-charger became water-cooled. For MY 89 the CC with B202 turbo got the famous DI system which Saab introduced in the CD version one year before, raising the performance to 163 PS (161 hp) with cat.


title: Saab 9000

text: As with the Saab 900 CC, the Saab 9000 CC had some special series in some countries, such as the "Saab 9000 turbo 16 SP" in France (SP stands for "Sport and Performance") with 185-204 hp with the B202 turbo engine, supplied by special control units and optimized fuel injection. In Germany and Switzerland there were also a special edition named "Saab 9000 Turbo 16 S", with an airflow kit and the B202 turbo with catalytic converter tuned up to 195 hp (for MY 1990), and for MY 1991 and 1992 (also available as CD with the new 195 hp B234 Turbo. But the most popular special series is the so-called "Talladega" (US and most parts of Europe) or "Carlsson"(UK), both models available as CC and CD (sedan) versions. The “Carlsson” takes its name from legendary Swedish rally ace Erik Carlsson, who secured numerous wins for Saab in the Sixties. In markets outside the UK, it was known as the Talladega in honour of the 19 endurance records set by three standard turbocharged 9000s at Talladega Speedway in the US in 1986. Since MY 1988 it was available both with and without catalytic converter. Saab had scared the power to 175 PS (160 original) in the catalytic converter engine and 192 PS (175 original) in non-cat. The pressure was around 1.0 bar. Furthermore, a new "black box" (APC) had been installed in the "Talladegas" which allows higher power. In the UK, however, it carried on the tradition of the Saab 900 Carlsson and took its moniker from Swedish rally legend Erik Carlsson. 9000 Carlsson models were produced with a paint-matched airflow body kit, only with a manual transmission, spoiler, and specially tuned turbocharged engine producing 195 PS (185PS with catalytic converter) with the B202 turbo in MY 1990 up to in MY 1991-92 with the B234 turbo. The "Carlsson" was produced from MY 1990 to 1992 (changing from CC to CS design) with engine output up to 225 PS and can be described as the precursor of the further Aero, which was introduced in MY 1993 with the CS design. A number of the Carlsson editions fitted with the "B202" turbocharged engine were sold into the Australian market.


title: Saab 9000

text: All four series, the "SP 16" (France), "Turbo 16 S" (Germany, Switzerland), "Talladega" (Europe, US) and "Carlsson" are rare items sought today from Saab fans around the world. Unfortunately many of the few remaining specimens are often not in good condition.


title: Saab 9000

text: The Saab 9000 CD Sedan model was presented in Nice in January 1988. The CD was the four-door sedan body style with from beginning a slightly more aerodynamic nose which the CC get not until MY 1991. Just as in the launch of the CC variant, the 9000 CD was initially available only with the B202 turbo engine, but Saab combined it right from the start with its new "DI ignition system" At the Birmingham Motor Show in September 1988, Saab premiered the non-turbo model of the CD with the naturally aspirated 2.0-litre inline-four. For MY 1990 Saab introduced the 2.3-litre "B234" normally aspirated engine for both body shapes, the CC and CD. Since then the CD was available with the same basic engines as the CC for all MY (except the 225 PS "Aero" engine). The CD kept its old front and back till MY 1994, when Saab redesigned the CD for the first time since its start now wearing the front and back similar to the CS. The sedan was phased out after MY 1997.


title: Saab 9000

text: From the beginning, Saab had placed the CD above the hatchback model in terms of equipment and price. This was in keeping with the spirit of the times, which saw an expensive notchback model more as a car for business people (with or without a chauffeur) who did not need the cargo space of the CC. This is why Saab never offered the CD with a folding rear seat, which would have been at the expense of stability and peace and quiet in the interior.


title: Saab 9000

text: With the introduction of the Saab 9000 2.3 Turbo CD "Griffin" for MY 1992 as the top model of the 9000 series, Saab finally placed itself in the luxury class. The Griffin in the limited edition of 400 pieces was only available in the form of the CD and only with the 2.3 Turbo engine.


title: Saab 9000

text: In 1995, a 3.0-litre "B308" V6 engine with was introduced as standard for the CDE sedan and optional for the CSE liftback. The V6 was discontinued in the United States after one year along with the CDE model, but continued on in Europe until 1997. In some European markets, Saab revived the special model "Griffin" for MY 1995 onwards. It was only available with the V6 engine, automatic transmission and with numerous luxury appointments, such as an optional second air conditioning unit in the boot for the rear occupants and with all available electric options, special eucalyptus green paint, a separate rear-seat air conditioning system, walnut trim and rear window blinds.


title: Saab 9000

text: Saab presented the 9000 CS (Combi Sedan), an updated version of the former CC liftback body variant, in Europe in autumn 1991 for the 1992 model year (in the US the CS starts in MY 1993). This replaced the CC. Featuring a lowered front fascia with new headlights, new grille, some minor changes at the doors and a substantially redesigned rear-end. Although the interior design remained basically the same, there were some changes in detail.


title: Saab 9000

text: Here is an overview over the different versions of the different engine types used in the Saab 9000 CS Versions.


title: Saab 9000

text: After the old B202 engine phased out after MY 1993, there were in summary 9 different engine versions for the CS available in the upcoming years.


title: Saab 9000

text: After the 1995 model year, both the naturally aspirated four-cylinder engines were discontinued in the United States.


title: Saab 9000

text: A limited edition Anniversary model was introduced 1997 to mark Saab's 50th anniversary, featuring leather seats embossed with the classic, aircraft-inspired Saab logo and a colour-keyed body kit. The engine type was freely selectable from the available turbo engines of MY 1997 except the Aero engine with 225 PS. The "Anniversary" could be ordered until the end of the 9000 production in 1998. In the last MY 1998 the "Anniversary" could be also ordered with the 225 PS engine. Today this model is sought after by aficionados.


title: Saab 9000

text: A special version of the CS is the so-called Saab 9000 CS Aero introduced in MY 1993. The predecessor was (in some European markets) the "Saab 9000 CS 2.3 16 S" in MY 1992 with the "normal" B234 turbo engine and 195 PS, but with special textile/leather seats, sporty styling and generous equipment. Revealed at the Paris Salon in October 1992 for MY 1993, then the new 9000 Aero was the fastest Saab to date and an exclusive interior and exterior. It was powered by a version of Saab's 2.3-litre "B234" engine, with more power courtesy of a larger Mitsubishi "TD04" turbocharger. Automatic transmission-equipped Aeros were limited to and kept the regular turbocharged models' Garrett AiResearch T25 turbocharger. Aeros were equipped with paint-matched body kit and spoiler, eight-way Recaro-designed heated sports seats, a sport suspension, and 16-inch Super Aero wheels. The Aero's in-gear acceleration was strongly emphasised, and period advertising boasted, “The 5-speed Saab 9000 Aero will streak from 50 to 75 mph faster than a Ferrari Testarossa or a Porsche Carrera 4.” The Aero was discontinued after model year 1997, so in the last MY 1998 the 225 PS engine was available for all Saab 9000.


title: Saab 9000

text: A convertible version was constructed by Finnish Valmet, the prototype version is currently on display at the Uusikaupunki car museum near the Valmet factory. Other experiments included fitting of the Yamaha developed V6 engine most famously fitted to the Ford Taurus SHO. This was vetoed by Saab-Scania, Saab's owner at the time, as was the fitting of a VM Motori diesel engine which had been executed with the aim of increasing Saab's sales in central and southern Europe. A station wagon was never truly under consideration due to the expenses involved, not in the least out of concern for the often tiny Saab importers who were thereby saved the trouble of having to keep a larger inventory.


title: Saab 9000

text: In 1993, Saab experimented with steer-by-wire technology as part of the pan-European programme "Prometheus" (Programme for European Traffic with Highest Efficiency and Unprecedented Safety). Their contribution to the programme consisted of a modified 9000 with the steering wheel replaced with a center-mounted joystick. This setup removed the risk of body and facial injury in the event of an accident. It also provided easier and cheaper airbag installation, as well as improved instrument panel visibility. This prototype was tested by Jeremy Clarkson in an episode of "Top Gear"; the segment was revisited in Series 18, Episode 5 of the current "Top Gear" series, where Clarkson and James May paid tribute to the fallen automotive marque.


title: Saab 9000

text: At a visit to the American Sunroof Company, who helped design the Saab 900 convertible, the engineers spotted the building of a minivan based on the Chrysler's K-car (later launched as Chrysler Voyager). Gunnar Larsson thought it was a neat idea and when he came home he asked the head of bodyworks Dick Ohlsson if they could do something like that based on the Saab 9000. "No problem", was the reply and a small team started working on it in secret. They used the 9000 platform but lengthened and with higher roof and room for seven persons (even if the rear seat was mostly suitable for children). The full-scale model was finished in May 1985, two months after the idea was first mooted.


title: Saab 9000

text: Also, motoring presenter James May created a stretch limousine from a Saab 9000 and its Alfa Romeo 164 relative, as part of a challenge for an episode of BBC's Top Gear.


title: Saab 9000

text: The Saab 9000 was available with a big variety of naturally-aspirated and turbocharged engines. The range consisted mostly of the Saab 2.0 and 2.3 litre engines, but there was also the 3.0-liter V6 made by Isuzu. One model was fitted with a prototype Saab V8 engine.


title: Saab 9000

text: After the facelift in MY 1992 and as of MY 1993 (in most markets) the new introduced two equipment series CS/CD and CSE/CDE could be combined with all available engines in the respective MY. This means that even a "simple" equipped CS could be ordered with the most powerful 200 HP turbo engine. The face lifted CS models and furthermore "old fashioned" CD were available in MY 1992 in most countries with the same four engines which had also powered the former CC:


title: Saab 9000

text: This changed for MY 1993: on most international markets a 2.0l light pressure turbo (LPT), called B204 engine with also two balance shafts (like in the B234), became available on both CS and CD models giving 150 hp. In these markets, this LPT engine gradually replaced the 2.3l engine without turbo. Because Saab did not introduce the 2.0l LPT in the U.S., the LPT concept did not enter the U.S. market until 1994 with the 2.3 LPT (delivering 170 hp), based on a re-designed B234 engine. Since then, the Saab 9000 has only been available in the U.S. with the three 2.3l turbo engines:


title: Saab 9000

text: The Saab 9000 with this LPT engine had the best fuel economy of any large car in the U.S. in MY 1995.


title: Saab 9000

text: The background of the new B204 and re-designed B234 engine was that Saab needed a suitable engine for the upcoming new Saab 900/2. Since Saab was always under high cost pressure, the new B204 were designed to fit both the new Saab 900/2 and the Saab 9000. So the new B234 without turbo (150 hp) and the B204 without turbo (133 hp) and as LPT (154 hp) and FPT (185 hp) was used in both the Saab 9000 and Saab 900 NG.


title: Saab 9000

text: So worth paying attention to there were two generations of B234 engine in the Saab 9000, one made from MY 1990-1993 (called "long block"), the other from 1994 to 1998 ("short block"). The later motors had a revised oil sump system, head, timing cover, and different bell housing pattern.


title: Saab 9000

text: Therefore, over the years three different engine types developed from Saab itself were available for the 9000: B202/B204/B234 (with the old B202 phased out on all markets for at the latest MY 1994). The B204 and B234 both came as non-turbos and turbo variants which additionally split in so called LPT (low pressure turbo) and FPT (full pressure turbo). Till MY 1995 the LPT had the designation "Ecopower" on the cylinder head in some markets. From MY 1996 Saab used this designation "EcoPower" for all turbo engines and in general for the Saab turbo concept. Both systems used the same Garrett "T25" turbocharger with a base boost pressure of , but the FPT is equipped with a boost control valve that is manipulated by the ECU. This allows the boost pressure to be increased as the ECU sees fit. Maximum stock boost on a full pressure turbo varies from depending on the year and transmission. This is also the reason why every LPT can also be subsequently made into an FPT or even higher performances can be achieved. There are official tuning kits for this purpose as well as do-it-yourself instructions (recommended for experienced mechanics only!).


title: Saab 9000

text: For MY 1995 a 210 hp three-litre V6, originating from General Motors and also found on the Opel (and Vauxhall) Omega, was introduced.


title: Saab 9000

text: For MY 1996 the name “Ecopower” was now applied to all turbo engines regardless of FPT or LPT variants. The 2.3 litre injection engine (without turbo) phased out.


title: Matt Chapman

text: Matthew James Chapman (born April 28, 1993) is an American professional baseball third baseman for the Toronto Blue Jays of Major League Baseball (MLB). He previously played for the Oakland Athletics.


title: Matt Chapman

text: Chapman made his MLB debut with Oakland in 2017. He was traded to the Blue Jays prior to the 2022 season. He has won three Gold Glove Awards, two Platinum Glove Awards, and two Fielding Bible Awards. He also won the Wilson Defensive Player of the Year Award in 2018 and was an All-Star in 2019.


title: Matt Chapman

text: Chapman attended El Toro High School in Lake Forest, California. In 2011, as a senior, he had a .422 batting average. Undrafted out of high school in the 2011 MLB draft, he enrolled at California State University, Fullerton where he played college baseball for the Cal State Fullerton Titans. In 2014, his junior year, he slashed .312/.412/.498 with six home runs and 48 runs batted in (RBIs) in 54 games. After the season, the Oakland Athletics selected Chapman in the first round of the 2014 MLB draft.


title: Matt Chapman

text: After signing, Chapman made his professional debut with the Rookie-level Arizona League Athletics. He was promoted to the Class-A Beloit Snappers after three games. In 50 games for Beloit, he batted .237 with five home runs and 20 RBIs. He also played in one game for the Double-A Midland RockHounds at the end of the season. His entire 2015 season was spent with the Class A-Advanced Stockton Ports where he batted .250 with 23 home runs and 57 RBIs in 80 games. Chapman was invited to major league spring training with the Athletics in 2016. He began the season with Midland, and after slashing .244/.335/.521 with 29 home runs and 83 RBIs in 117 games, was promoted to the Triple-A Nashville Sounds in August, where he finished the season batting .197 with seven home runs and 13 RBIs in 18 games. He was selected as the Texas League Player of the Year for 2016.


title: Matt Chapman

text: Chapman started the 2017 season playing for Nashville. He suffered a wrist injury on a check swing in the first series of the season and spent two weeks on the disabled list. In 49 games for Nashville, he batted .257 with 16 home runs and 30 RBIs.


title: Matt Chapman

text: The Athletics promoted Chapman to the major league on June 15, 2017, to make his major league debut that night. On June 16, Chapman had his first major league hit and collected three RBIs (including the go-ahead run) against the New York Yankees. On September 6, Chapman was thrown out of a game by umpire Mike Everitt for arguing with Los Angeles Angels catcher Juan Graterol. Chapman took exception to Graterol staring at the Oakland batters, and Graterol felt that the Athletics were trying to steal signs. He spent the remainder of the season with Oakland after his June 15 call-up, batting .234 with 14 home runs and 40 RBIs in 84 games.


title: Matt Chapman

text: Chapman was placed on the disabled list on June 16, 2018, with a bruised right thumb and activated on July 3. Chapman finished his 2018 campaign batting .278 with 24 home runs and 68 RBIs, offering solid baserunning and excellent defense as well. He underwent ulnar sided sesamoid bone excision surgery on the thumb on October 16 in Los Angeles. On October 29, Chapman received a Fielding Bible Award. On November 4, Chapman received a Rawlings Gold Glove Award as well as winning the Rawlings Platinum Glove Award with his former high school teammate Nolan Arenado. He also won the fan vote for the Platinum Glove Award. On December 14, 2018, Chapman underwent left shoulder surgery.


title: Matt Chapman

text: In 2019, Chapman excelled offensively, hitting 36 home runs with 91 RBI despite hitting .249/.342/.506 in 156 games as he struck out 147 times in 583 at bats.


title: Matt Chapman

text: On September 12, 2020, Chapman decided to opt out for the remainder of the season due to hip tendonitis that would require surgery.


title: Matt Chapman

text: In 2020, Chapman batted .232/.276/.535 with 10 home runs and 25 RBIs as he struck out 54 times in 142 at bats. He last played on September 6 due to hip tendonitis. He underwent labrum surgery that month, ending his season.


title: Matt Chapman

text: In 2021, Chapman batted .210/.314/.403 with 27 home runs and 72 RBIs in 151 games. He became the first Athletic to ever strike out 200 times in a season and had the lowest line drive percentage of any major leaguer, at 14.6%. He also took more pitches per plate appearance than any other MLB batter, at 4.29. He received his third career Gold Glove Award.


title: Matt Chapman

text: On March 16, 2022, the Athletics traded Chapman to the Toronto Blue Jays for Gunnar Hoglund, Kevin Smith, Zach Logue, and Kirby Snead. On March 22, 2022, Chapman signed a 2-year, $25 million contract with the Blue Jays, avoiding salary arbitration.


title: Matt Chapman

text: Chapman has a reputation of being an elite defender who has exceptional range, arm strength and arm accuracy. His arm strength allows him to play at a deeper depth to field a hard-hit ball heading down his right side. He uses a two-handed gather on forehand, and one-handed backhand with a basketball defensive crouch to prevent the ball from sailing.


title: Matt Chapman

text: During the off-season, Chapman is roommates with Philadelphia Phillies catcher Garrett Stubbs in California.


title: Dushyanta

text: Dushyanta () is a king of the Chandravamsha (Lunar) dynasty featured in Hindu literature. He is the husband of Shakuntala and the father of Bharata. He appears in the Mahabharata and in Kalidasa's play, Abhijnanashakuntalam ( 300 CE).


title: Dushyanta

text: According to the "Mahabharata", Dushyanta is the son of Ilin and Rathantī, also rendered Ilina and Rathantara, respectively. According to primogeniture, Dushyanta succeeds his father, for he is the eldest among his siblings Sura, Bhima, Pravashu, and Vasu. He rules as the king of Hastinapura.


title: Dushyanta

text: The Mahabharata narrates that King Dushyanta was once hunting in the forests, when he struck a fawn with his arrow. The fawn fled to the ashrama of Sage Kanva, and the king followed it. Upon reaching the ashrama, the king saw Shakuntala watering the plants, accompanied by her friends, named Anasuya and Priyamvada. Dushyanta and Shakuntala fell in love with each other. Since the sage Kanva was absent from the ashrama, they married according to the gandharva rites, and Shakuntala soon became pregnant. The king presented her with his signet ring, and left for his palace. When Dushyanta left Shakuntala, she grew pensive, and did not realise the arrival of Durvasa to the ashrama. Reputed for his anger, Durvasa took her ignorance of him as a sign of disrespect, and cursed her to be forgotten by the man she was contemplating at that very moment. Shakuntala did not hear this curse being placed upon her. When Kanva returned and learnt of these events, he sent Shakuntala to the palace of Dushyanta. Owing to the curse, Dushyanta did not recognised her. Greatly aggrieved, while Shakuntala was returning to the ashrama, her mother, Menaka, took her to the ashrama of Kashyapa. Shakuntala delivered a son. The boy grew brave and fearless, and was able to subdue even the wildest of beasts in the region. Kashyapa, therefore, named him Sarvadamana (all-subduing). After a period of time, when Dushyanta was returning home after visiting Indra, he came across Shakuntala, recognised her, and took her and his son to his palace. This boy grew up to become Bharata. Bharata conquered the world, and acquired three wives, though the sons born of these wives were so cruel that they were slain. Bharata propitiated the devas for a son, and they gave him a boy, whom he named Vitatha, also called Bharadvaja. According to another account, Bharadvaja blessed Bharata with a son named Bhumanyu. Bharata ruled for twenty-seven thousand years, and therefore, the kingdom that he inherited and expanded came to be known as Bhārata, named after him.


title: Dushyanta

text: During the summer, King Dushyanta pursued an antelope in the forest, when he was confronted by an ascetic. The ascetic told him that that the creature belonged to the ashrama of Kanva, and he was not to violate the sanctity of the land by slaying it. Dushyanta agreed to not kill the antelope, and was encouraged to visit the ashrama. He was told that he would be welcomed by Shakuntala, Kanva's adopted daughter, due to the sage's absence. Upon entering the ashrama, he came across three exquisite girls watering the plants, and became infatuated with Shakuntala, who was one among the trio. After a conversation with the bevy, he learnt that the true parents of Shakuntala were Vishvamitra and Menaka, which made Shakuntala a suitable bride for him due to her Kshatriya parentage. Dushyanta, however, chose not to reveal his identity. The company broke up due to hearing that an elephant was running amok, and Shakuntala grew enamoured of the visitor. The king directed his general to stop the chaos and instruct his men to stay away from the ashrama. He confessed his feelings to his companion and jester Vidushaka, urging him to think of a pretext to stay in the ashrama without arousing suspicion. Fortunately, a few ascetics approached him soon to request him to safeguard their yajna, which he readily accepted. He sent Vidushaka to his capital, and fearing that his friend would be a tattletale, he lied, stating that his feelings for Shakuntala were but a joke. For a time, he watched over the ascetics' yajna. Shankuntala soon confessed her feelings for Dushyanta, and the two were married according to gandharva rites. The king left for the capital, and promised his wife that he would send a suitable guard to escort her to his palace.


title: Dushyanta

text: In her solitude, Shakuntala was absorbed in thoughts of her husband, due to which she failed to offer the appropriate hospitality to the short-tempered sage, Durvasa. Durvasa cursed her, stating that the man she was thinking of to such an extent that he had been neglected would never remember her. One of Shakuntala's friends, Anasuya, offered an explanation of her friend's absent-mindedness, and sought forgiveness from the sage. Duravasa agreed to offer a concession of the curse, stating that the man would remember her upon the presentation of a token of recognition. Shakuntala's companions did not reveal this curse to her, reasoning that it did not matter; Shakuntala did, after all, have such a token of recognition, so her husband would no doubt recall her. Kanva returned to his ashrama, and offered his consent for the marriage. The curse took effect, and Dushyanta lost all memory of Shakuntala. When Shakuntala started to show signs of pregnancy, Kanva decided to send her to her lawful husband, explaining to her the duties of a wife and a daughter-in-law. Upon reaching the king's palace, Dushyanta failed to recognise Shakuntala, and merely expressed his incredulity when the accompanying sages urged him to accept her as his queen. Shakuntala searched for the ring that the king had presented her during their parting, but realised that it had been lost during the journey. While leaving the hall, the anguished Shakuntala is carried off by an apsara. After a while, the ring that Shakuntala had dropped in a pool of water was discovered by a fisherman inside a fish, which was produced before Dushyanta following accusations of theft. Durvasa's curse was broken upon the king seeing the ring, and his memory of his wife was restored. Helpless and repentant of his actions, Dushyanta dwelt on his childlessness, which caused him to faint. Matali, Indra's charioteer, arrived to Dushyanta's court, seeking his assistance in the war of the devas against the asuras. Dushyanta agreed to participate, viewing it as a welcome diversion. Dushyanta was successful in his war, and was honoured by Indra following their triumph. Matali escorted the king back to earth upon his vimana, and the two alighted upon the ashrama of Sage Kashyapa (Maricha in other accounts) to pay their respects. While the charioteer visited the sage, the king came across a boy who was the spitting image of himself, playing with a lion cub. He soon learnt that the boy, Bharata, belonged to the race of Puru, and was the son of Shakuntala. Shakuntala appeared, and the couple soon reconciled. Kashyapa explained the nature of the curse to Dushyanta, and assured him that the loss of his memory of his wife was not his fault. He pronounced his blessings on the couple. Together, the couple and their son returned to Hastinapura, and led a happy life.


title: ¡Tré!

text: ¡Tré! (stylized in all caps) is the eleventh studio album by American rock band Green Day. It is the third and final installment in the "¡Uno!" "¡Dos!" "¡Tré!" trilogy, a series of studio albums that were released from September to December 2012. Green Day started recording material for the album on February 14, 2012, and finished on June 26, 2012. "¡Tré!" follows the power pop style of "¡Uno!", and the garage rock feel of "¡Dos!" The album's title (making a pun on "tres", which should follow the previous two titles) is a nod to the band's drummer Tré Cool. Cool is also featured on the album's cover. It is the band's last album as a quartet, due to Jason White reverting back to being a touring member in 2016. It is also their last album to date to be produced by their long-time producer Rob Cavallo, whose relationship with the band began with their 1994 album "Dookie".


title: ¡Tré!

text: "¡Tré!" was released on December 7, 2012, in Australia, December 10 in the UK and December 11 in the US, through Reprise Records. Producing first week sales of 58,000 copies, a low for the band, the album received generally positive reviews from critics.


title: ¡Tré!

text: On April 11, 2012, Green Day announced that they would be releasing a trilogy of albums titled "¡Uno!", "¡Dos!", and "¡Tré!" and stated that they would be released on September 25, 2012, November 13, 2012, and January 15, 2013, respectively, through Reprise Records. On August 22, Armstrong gave preview of some songs through his iPhone on Zane Lowe's show on BBC Radio 1 in the UK. The preview included a brief snippet of "8th Ave Serenade". The track listing for "¡Tré!" was revealed at the beginning of their video for the promotional single "Nuclear Family" from "¡Uno!" It was later released officially on the "Idiot Club" and was later posted on their website. The song "99 Revolutions" previously appeared in the film "The Campaign". "99 Revolutions" also appeared in a trailer released by Green Day on their YouTube channel on June 21, 2012. On October 29, it was announced that the album's release will be pushed forward to December 11, 2012, due to Green Day having to cancel their upcoming 2012 section of their 2012/2013 tour and delay much of the 2013 leg. On November 1, Green Day released "Behind The Scenes of "¡Uno!", "¡Dos!", and "¡Tré!" – Part 1" which featured the preview of the song "X-Kid". The release date of the "¡Tré!" LPs were pushed back to February 12, 2013, presumably to correct the erroneous inclusion of "Stray Heart" on initial pressings of the album, replacing the track with "Drama Queen", as present on CD and digital releases of the album. Previews of "Missing You" and "Dirty Rotten Bastards" were featured on Green Day's "¡Cuatro!" documentary.


title: ¡Tré!

text: The band released a video of a cassette tape playing for the song "X-Kid" and later confirmed it as the first single released on February 12, 2013.


title: ¡Tré!

text: Billie Joe Armstrong had said the following about the trilogy: Each of the three albums has a totally different vibe. "The first one is power pop. The second is more garage-y, "Nuggets"-type rock. And the third is supposed to be epic. With the first album you're getting in the mood to party. On the second one, you're at the party. And the third album you're cleaning up the mess." "¡Tré!" will be geared more towards stadium rock and will have more of a grandiose sound complete with string arrangements and brass sections. He also went on to say that the mood of "¡Tré!" will be "reflective" and explained the album would be a "mixed bag" with the sound fluctuating from the punk rock feel of "Dookie" and "Insomniac", the experimental elements of "Nimrod" and "Warning" and finishing with the stadium rock/rock opera sound taken from "American Idiot" and "21st Century Breakdown". While musically, Rob Cavallo said that "They wanted to return to the simplicity of "Dookie"." "We also wanted to go pre-"Dookie", back to our love of Fifties and Sixties music, close-to-the-bone rock and roll. You don't hear a gazillion parts. The majority of this is drums, bass, two guitars and vocals." Frontman Billie Joe also stated that "¡Tre!" would be the most ambitious album of the trilogy. He has also stated the following of the album's opening track: "Brutal Love", which marries glam rock, doo-wop and soul music, includes swelling strings at its conclusion."


title: ¡Tré!

text: At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, "¡Tré!" received an average score of 64, which indicates "generally favorable reviews", based on 19 reviews. Ray Rahman of "Entertainment Weekly" wrote that the album "lets their tightly wound hooks decompress, delivering stadium-worthy three-chord nods to various ghosts of rock past". AllMusic editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine felt that the album is "hookier and not as ponderous as "¡Uno!" but not quite as breakneck as "¡Dos!"", writing that it "feels like ... a collection of songs capturing the band at its loosest and poppiest, throwing away tunes without much care." "Kerrang!" cited it as "the best of the bunch". Although he found it to be "littered with head-scratching filler and awkward sonic diversions", Ryan Reed of "Paste" called "¡Tré!" "more raw, pointed and hard-hitting than anything they've released in years".


title: ¡Tré!

text: Michael Hann of "The Guardian" felt that "it's got some pretty good songs – but they never get better than pretty good." "Alternative Press" commented that the album "feels scattershot and slapped together, making it difficult to enjoy on its own merits." Jason Heller of "The A.V. Club" observed a lack of "inspiration" and wrote that the album "succeeds most as an exercise in influence-dropping and self-recycling". Barry Nicolson of "NME" viewed its songs as formulaic and found "little to distinguish them" from songs in the trilogy's first two albums. AJ Ramirez of PopMatters criticized its instrumentation as "functional and characterless", while critiquing the trilogy in general, "The wide spread afforded by the "¡Uno!"/"¡Dos!"/"¡Tré!" trilogy does not suit a band whose aptitudes include simplicity, energy, and irreverence." Stephanie Benson at "Spin" stated ""¡Tré!" is not nearly the vivacious "Let Yourself Go"/"Fuck Time" party of its two predecessors. The music may be just as strong, tight, and impeccable — this is a band that's been going at it for more than a quarter of a century, after all — but there's a lightness missing here, a lack of passion." Benson also compared some of the songs to those on "Dookie" and "Nimrod".


title: ¡Tré!

text: The album debuted at number 13 on the US "Billboard" 200 chart, with first-week sales of 58,000 copies in the United States. This became the second consecutive Green Day album, after "¡Dos!", not to sell 100,000 records in its first week after signing to a major record label. As of October 2016, the album had sold 155,000 copies. The album debuted at number 31 on the UK charts with first-week sales of 24,000 and total sales of 62,000 as of October 13, 2016


title: Dhirubhai Ambani International School

text: The Dhirubhai Ambani International School (DAIS) is a private co-educational LKG-15 dayschool in Mumbai, Maharashtra, India, built by Reliance Industries, named after the late patriarch of the conglomerate, Dhirubhai Ambani. The school was established in 2003 and has been an IB World School since January 2003. It offers the International Baccalaureate Program in its Diploma form. Nita Ambani, wife of Mukesh Ambani is the chairperson of the school.


title: Dhirubhai Ambani International School

text: The school prepares students for the Indian Certificate of Secondary Education, the IGCSE and the IB Diploma examinations.


title: Dhirubhai Ambani International School

text: The Primary School programme comprises Lower and Upper Kindergarten (LKG and UKG) years and classes I to V. In classes LKG to V, the school follows an integrated curriculum by drawing on teaching programmes of the Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations and international examination boards. The school is a member of the Cambridge International Primary Programme.


title: Dhirubhai Ambani International School

text: The Middle School Programme i.e. classes 6 and 7. The Cambridge Lower Secondary Programme is followed by the school.


title: Dhirubhai Ambani International School

text: The school offers the following in class VIII, where students prepare for the programme that they will study in classes IX and X: ICSE Programme and


title: Dhirubhai Ambani International School

text: Dhirubhai Ambani International School has been an IB World School since January 2003. It offers the IB Diploma Programme.


title: Dhirubhai Ambani International School

text: The school building is seven storied with lawns, landscaped gardens and playgrounds. The school premises house of teaching space containing classrooms and laboratories.


title: Dhirubhai Ambani International School

text: Every classroom has a public address system, display and writing boards, lockers for students, broadband Internet access and air conditioning. There is schoolwide Wi-Fi internet access for the students of grades 8-10 affiliated with the IGCSE board and its 11th and 12th graders. There are laboratories for Physics, Chemistry and Biology and teaching rooms for Art, Music, Social Science, Languages, Computer Studies, and Mathematics.


title: Dhirubhai Ambani International School

text: The school has a Learning Centre with access to periodicals and audio-visual resources, the internet and photocopying/printing facilities. The school has a terrace garden for its art students and a performing arts centre with sound proof walls and professional AV technology. It shares a playground with the American School of Bombay with an astroturf, tennis and basketball courts for outdoor sports. The Dhirubhai Ambani International School Study and Activity Centre situated in Matheran, 100  km from Mumbai, opened in 2008. It is used for cross-curricular, recreational activities as well as for weekend training camps and Physical Education activities.


title: Dhirubhai Ambani International School

text: The school has four houses: Panthers (Blue), Tigers (Green), Jaguars (Red) and Lions (Yellow). Each house has two house captains, one sports captain, one house coordinator, two vice house captains, one vice sports captain, and two cub captains. Recently, the post of a middle school coordinator has also been added.


title: Dhirubhai Ambani International School

text: The council Core positions are Head Boy, Head Girl, two Student Council Coordinators, two Sports Coordinators, one Round Square Student Committee Chair and two Vice Student Council Coordinators and one Vice Sports Coordinator. The council is non-democratic (members are selected by the teachers and outgoing captains). The council is usually changed in October each year.


title: Dhirubhai Ambani International School

text: The school hosts an annual Model United Nations (MUN) conference called The Dhirubhai Ambani International Model United Nations (DAIMUN) in October. The conference is one of two conferences in India to be affiliated with The Hague International Model United Nations (THIMUN) Foundation.


title: Symphony No. 6 (Tchaikovsky)

text: The Symphony No. 6 in B minor, Op. 74, also known as the Pathétique Symphony, is Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky's final completed symphony, written between February and the end of August 1893. The composer entitled the work "The Passionate Symphony", employing a Russian word, Патетическая ("Pateticheskaya"), meaning "passionate" or "emotional", which was then translated into French as "pathétique", meaning "solemn" or "emotive".


title: Symphony No. 6 (Tchaikovsky)

text: The composer led the first performance in Saint Petersburg on of that year, nine days before his death. The second performance, conducted by Eduard Nápravník, took place 21 days later, at a memorial concert on . It included some minor corrections that Tchaikovsky had made after the premiere, and was thus the first performance of the work in the exact form in which it is known today. The first performance in Moscow was on , conducted by Vasily Safonov. It was the last of Tchaikovsky's compositions premiered in his lifetime; his last composition of all, the single-movement 3rd Piano Concerto, Op. 75, which was completed in October 1893, a short time before his death, received a posthumous premiere.


title: Symphony No. 6 (Tchaikovsky)

text: The Russian title of the symphony, Патетическая ("Pateticheskaya"), means "passionate" or "emotional", not "arousing pity," but it is a word reflective of a touch of concurrent suffering. Tchaikovsky considered calling it Программная ("Programmnaya" or "Program Symphony") but realized that would encourage curiosity about the program, which he did not want to reveal.


title: Symphony No. 6 (Tchaikovsky)

text: His brother Modest claims to have suggested the Патетическая title, which was used in early editions of the symphony; there are conflicting accounts about whether Tchaikovsky liked the title, but in any event his publisher chose to keep it and the title remained. Its French translation "Pathétique" is generally used in French, Spanish, English, German and other languages, Many English-speaking classical musicians had, by the early 20th century, adopted an English spelling and pronunciation for Tchaikovsky's symphony, dubbing it "The Pathetic", as shorthand to differentiate it from a popular 1798 Beethoven piano sonata also known as "The Pathétique". Tchaikovsky's symphony was first published in piano reduction by Jurgenson of Moscow in 1893, and by Robert Forberg of Leipzig in 1894.


title: Symphony No. 6 (Tchaikovsky)

text: After completing his 5th Symphony in 1888, Tchaikovsky did not start thinking about his next symphony until April 1891, on his way to the United States. The first drafts of a new symphony were started in the spring of 1891. However, some or all of the symphony was not pleasing to Tchaikovsky, who tore up the manuscript "in one of his frequent moods of depression and doubt over his alleged inability to create". In 1892, Tchaikovsky wrote the following to his nephew Vladimir "Bob" Davydov:


title: Symphony No. 6 (Tchaikovsky)

text: The symphony is only a work written by dint of sheer will on the part of the composer; it contains nothing that is interesting or sympathetic. It should be cast aside and forgotten. This determination on my part is admirable and irrevocable.


title: Symphony No. 6 (Tchaikovsky)

text: This work was the Symphony in E, the first movement of which Tchaikovsky later converted into the one-movement 3rd Piano Concerto (his final composition), and the latter two movements of which Sergei Taneyev reworked after Tchaikovsky's death as the "Andante and Finale".


title: Symphony No. 6 (Tchaikovsky)

text: I am now wholly occupied with the new work ... and it is hard for me to tear myself away from it. I believe it comes into being as the best of my works. I must finish it as soon as possible, for I have to wind up a lot of affairs and I must soon go to London. I told you that I had completed a Symphony which suddenly displeased me, and I tore it up. Now I have composed a new symphony "which I certainly shall not tear up."


title: Symphony No. 6 (Tchaikovsky)

text: The symphony was written in a small house in Klin and completed by August 1893. Tchaikovsky left Klin on 19 October for the first performance in Saint Petersburg, arriving "in excellent spirits". However, the composer began to feel apprehension over his symphony, when, at rehearsals, the orchestra players did not exhibit any great admiration for the new work. Nevertheless, the premiere was met with great appreciation. Tchaikovsky's brother Modest wrote, "There was applause and the composer was recalled, but with more enthusiasm than on previous occasions. There was not the mighty, overpowering impression made by the work when it was conducted by Eduard Nápravník, on November 18, 1893, and later, wherever it was played."


title: Symphony No. 6 (Tchaikovsky)

text: Although not called for in the score, a bass clarinet is commonly employed to replace the solo bassoon for the four notes immediately preceding the "Allegro vivo" section of the first movement, which originates from Austrian conductor Hans Richter. This substitution is because it is nearly impossible in practice for a bassoonist to execute the passage at the indicated dynamic of .


title: Symphony No. 6 (Tchaikovsky)

text: The first movement, in sonata form, frequently alternates speed, mood, and key, with the main key being B minor. It opens quietly with a low bassoon melody in E minor. Violas appear with the first theme of the Allegro in B minor, a faster variant of the slow opening melody. This eventually leads to the lyrical secondary theme in D major.


title: Symphony No. 6 (Tchaikovsky)

text: The energetic development section begins abruptly, with an outburst from the orchestra in C minor, but soon transitions to D minor. It runs seamlessly into the fortissimo recapitulation, whose atmosphere is completely different from its rather hesitant equivalent at the beginning of the exposition. At some point, the main theme of the movement is being restated. Tchaikovsky soon goes into something more nightmarish, which culminates in an explosion of despair and misery in B minor, accompanied by a strong and repetitive 4-note figure in the brass. This explosion concludes in a powerful note in the trombones marked quadruple forte, a rare dynamic mark intending the instrument to be played as loud as possible. This section ends with diminishing strains on the basses and brass, and is a section that truly reveals the pathos and upcoming emotions of the symphony. The movement concludes shortly after the recapitulation of the second subject shown above, this time in the tonic major (B major) with a coda which is also in B major, finally ending very quietly.


title: Symphony No. 6 (Tchaikovsky)

text: The second movement, a dance movement in ternary form, is in time, in D major. It has been described as a "limping" waltz. The opening contrasts with the darker B section in the tonic minor of the symphony, B minor. A graceful coda leads to a quiet ending.


title: Symphony No. 6 (Tchaikovsky)

text: The third movement is in a compound meter ( and ) and in sonatina form. It begins with strings in a fast, exciting motif playing semiquavers against a woodwind meter. It leads to the E major secondary theme in the exposition beginning with clarinet solo with string accompaniment. Between the exposition and the recapitulation, there is no development section – only 2 bars of retransition. The opening theme reappears, now the first theme in the recapitulation, which later leads to the secondary theme but this time in G major and march-like. The movement ends with a coda triumphantly, almost as a deceptive finale. It is probably no coincidence that the movement, with its stormy character through restless strings, wind-like whistling woodwinds and thundering brass instruments, is reminiscent of the finale from Joachim Raff's Symphony No. 3 "In the forest"; the symphony was one of the most played of its time and Tchaikovsky had already been inspired by Raff in his 5th Symphony with its famous horn solo.


title: Symphony No. 6 (Tchaikovsky)

text: Back in B minor, the fourth movement is a slow movement in a six-part sonata rondo form (A-B-A-C-A-B). Beginning instantly with the exposition and the opening A theme, melody on the first and second violins appears frequently through the movement. The theme is a "composite melody"; neither the first nor second violins actually play the theme that is heard.


title: Symphony No. 6 (Tchaikovsky)

text: A calmer relative D-major segment (the B subject) builds into a full orchestral palette with brass and percussion, ending with a C major chord. After a pause, the mournful motif, back in B minor, leads into the restatement of the A theme.


title: Symphony No. 6 (Tchaikovsky)

text: Similar to the first movement, the turbulent climax, with timpani rolls and a descending sequence on the strings, lies in the development section (the C theme). This is followed by a more agitated restatement of the opening A theme (the start of the recapitulation), on an F bass pedal. Then, the music and the F begin to fade away, and a gong quietly opens a somber funeral–like chorale with the trombones and the tuba. The following B section, originally a break in the clouds, is very mournful, since this time it is in the tonic B minor instead of D major.


title: Symphony No. 6 (Tchaikovsky)

text: The melody is then repeated with lower notes on cellos, basses, and bassoon and finally ending quietly again in B minor and in total tragedy, as if the fade out occurs. Among Tchaikovsky's symphonies, this is the only one to end in a minor key. His first, second, fourth and fifth symphonies, plus the Manfred Symphony, are all minor-key symphonies that end in the tonic major, while the home key of his third symphony is D major (even though it begins in D minor) and that of his unfinished Symphony in E (unofficially "No. 7") is E major.


title: Symphony No. 6 (Tchaikovsky)

text: It is also extremely unusual for a slow movement to come at the end of a symphony. Had Tchaikovsky followed the standard four-movement structure, the movements would have been ordered like this:


title: Symphony No. 6 (Tchaikovsky)

text: Suicide theories were much stimulated by the Sixth Symphony, which was first performed under the composer's baton only nine days before his demise, with its lugubrious finale (ending morendo, 'dying away'), its brief but conspicuous allusion to the Orthodox requiem liturgy in the first movement and above all its easily misread subtitle. ... When the symphony was done again a couple of weeks later, in memoriam and with subtitle in place, everyone listened hard for portents, and that is how the symphony became a transparent suicide note. Depression was the first diagnosis. 'Homosexual tragedy' came later.


title: Symphony No. 6 (Tchaikovsky)

text: As critic Alexander Poznansky also writes, "Since the arrival of the 'court of honour' theory in the West, performances of Tchaikovsky's last symphony are almost invariably accompanied by annotations treating it as a testimony of homosexual martyrdom." Yet critic David Brown describes the idea of the Sixth Symphony as some sort of suicide note as "patent nonsense". Other scholars, including Michael Paul Smith, believe that with or without the supposed 'court of honour' sentence, there is no way that Tchaikovsky could have known the time of his own death while composing his last masterpiece. There is also evidence that Tchaikovsky was unlikely to have been depressed while composing the symphony, with his brother noting of him after he had sent the manuscript for publishing, "I had not seen him so bright for a long time past."


title: Symphony No. 6 (Tchaikovsky)

text: Tchaikovsky dedicated the "Pathétique" to his nephew, Vladimir "Bob" Davydov, whom he greatly admired.


title: Symphony No. 6 (Tchaikovsky)

text: The "Pathétique" has been the subject of a number of theories as to a hidden program. This goes back to the first performance of the work, when fellow composer Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov asked Tchaikovsky whether there was a program to the new symphony, and Tchaikovsky asserted that there was, but would not divulge it.


title: Symphony No. 6 (Tchaikovsky)

text: A suggested program has been what Taruskin disparagingly termed "symphony as suicide note". This idea began to assert itself as early as the second performance of the symphony in Saint Petersburg, not long after the composer had died. People at that performance "listened hard for portents. As always, they found what they were looking for: a brief but conspicuous quotation from the Russian Orthodox requiem at the stormy climax of the first movement, and of course the unconventional Adagio finale with its tense harmonies at the onset and its touching depiction of the dying of the light in conclusion". Countering this is Tchaikovsky's statement on 26 September/8 October 1893 that he was in no mood to write any sort of requiem. This was in reply to a suggestion from his close friend Grand Duke Konstantin that he write a requiem for their mutual friend the writer Aleksey Apukhtin, who had died in late August, just as Tchaikovsky was completing the "Pathétique".


title: Symphony No. 6 (Tchaikovsky)

text: Tchaikovsky specialist David Brown suggests that the symphony deals with the power of Fate in life and death. This program would not only be similar to those suggested for the Fourth and Fifth Symphonies, but also parallels a program suggested by Tchaikovsky for his unfinished Symphony in E. That program reads, "The ultimate essence ... of the symphony is Life. First part – all impulse, passion, confidence, thirst for activity. Must be short (the finale death – result of collapse). Second part love: third disappointments; fourth ends dying away (also short)."


title: Symphony No. 6 (Tchaikovsky)

text: The second theme of the first movement formed the basis of a popular song in the 1940s, "(This is) The Story of a Starry Night" (by Mann Curtis, Al Hoffman and Jerry Livingston) which was popularized by Glenn Miller. This same theme is the music behind "Where", a 1959 hit for Tony Williams and the Platters as well as "In Time", by Steve Lawrence in 1961, and "John O'Dreams" by Bill Caddick. All four songs have different lyrics. It was also used to great effect in one of the early Cinerama movies in the mid-50s.


title: Symphony No. 6 (Tchaikovsky)

text: Excerpts from the symphony can be heard in a number of films, including Victor Young’s theme for Howard Hughes’ 1943 American Western "The Outlaw", 1942’s "Now, Voyager", the 1997 version of "Anna Karenina", as well as "The Ruling Class", "Minority Report", "Sweet Bird of Youth", "Soylent Green", "Maurice", "The Aviator", and "The Death of Stalin". It has also accompanied the cartoon "The Ren & Stimpy Show", specifically the episode 'Son of Stimpy' where the eponymous cat walks out into a blizzard.


title: Symphony No. 6 (Tchaikovsky)

text: The third movement of Tchaikovsky's Sixth Symphony was featured during the 2010 Winter Olympics closing ceremony, being danced by Russia's national ballet company.


title: Symphony No. 6 (Tchaikovsky)

text: The sixth symphony is used extensively in a 2011 collaborative art film by Šejla Kamerić, "1395 Days Without Red", currently part of the Pinault Collection at the Punta della Dogana in Venice. An orchestra rehearses different sections of the symphony in the short film, as a woman is filmed walking through Sarajevo. The woman and the orchestra each stop and start, to express the manner in which ordinary people moved through the city during the siege of Sarajevo.


title: Symphony No. 6 (Tchaikovsky)

text: Tchaikovsky's Sixth is featured in the 2014 sci-fi video game "Destiny", during several missions in which the player must interact with a Russian supercomputer, Rasputin, who serves as a planetary defense system.


title: Symphony No. 6 (Tchaikovsky)

text: Tchaikovsky's Sixth plays a major role in E. M. Forster's novel "Maurice" (written in 1913 and later, but unpublished until 1971), where it serves as a veiled reference to homosexuality.


title: Kyrie (song)

text: "Kyrie" () is a song by American pop rock band Mr. Mister, from their album "Welcome to the Real World". Released around Christmas in 1985, it hit the top spot on the "Billboard" Hot 100 in March 1986, where it was number 1 for two weeks. It also hit the top spot on the "Billboard" Top Rock Tracks chart for one week. In the UK, the song peaked at number 11 in March 1986.


title: Kyrie (song)

text: The lyrics to "Kyrie" were written by Arizona-born John Lang who co-wrote the songs on all of Mr. Mister's albums. The music was composed by Richard Page and Steve George while on tour with Adam Ant.


title: Kyrie (song)

text: Kýrie, eléison means "Lord, have mercy" in Greek, and is a part of many liturgical rites in Eastern and Western Christianity. "Kýrie, eléison; Christé, eléison; Kýrie, eléison" is a prayer that asks "Lord, have mercy; Christ, have mercy; Lord, have mercy." According to Page the entire song is, essentially, a prayer.


title: Kyrie (song)

text: There is a myth that singer Richard Page wrote "Kyrie" while lying in a hospital bed following being assaulted. John Lang has stated that he was the one who was assaulted, three years before the composition, and that the incident has nothing to do with the song.


title: Kyrie (song)

text: The video was directed by Nick Morris, and features the band in performance mixed with footage taken at the tail end of their Autumn 1985 tour with Tina Turner.


title: Kyrie (song)

text: "Kyrie" was used in the hit U.S. TV series "Miami Vice" during season two, episode fourteen "One-Way Ticket".


title: Kyrie (song)

text: It was also used in the Netflix series' "GLOW" as well as the ABC sitcom The Goldbergs. The U.S. 7" single can be found pressed on transparent purple vinyl or polystyrene, depending on where it was manufactured.


title: Kyrie (song)

text: The single edit (which was also used for the video version) ends with the a cappella phrase "Kýrie, eléison, down the road that I must travel", while the album version simply fades out.


title: Kyrie (song)

text: In 1993, Acappella Vocal Band, a traditional Southern gospel group, included a version of the song on their album "U And Me And God Make 5 (Word)". The group later recorded a Spanish version of the song as well. Also in 1993, the song, retitled as "Kyrie Eleison", was covered by Contemporary Christian music duo East to West on their self-titled debut album.


title: Wat Rong Khun

text: Wat Rong Khun (), better known as the White Temple, is a privately owned art exhibit in the style of a Buddhist temple in Pa O Don Chai, Mueang District, Chiang Rai Province, Thailand. It is owned by Chalermchai Kositpipat, who designed, constructed, and opened it to visitors in 1997.


title: Wat Rong Khun

text: By the end of the 20th century, the original Wat Rong Khun was in a bad state of repair. Funds were not available for renovation. Chalermchai Kositpipat, a local artist from Chiang Rai, decided to completely rebuild the temple and fund the project with his own money. To date, Chalermchai has spent THB 1,080 million on the project. The artist intends for the area adjacent to the temple to be a center of learning and meditation and for people to gain benefit from the Buddhist teachings. Kositpipat considers the temple to be an offering to Lord Buddha and believes the project will give him immortal life. Today the works are ongoing, but are not expected to be completed until 2070.


title: Wat Rong Khun

text: When completed, the white temple compound will have nine buildings, including the existing ubosot, a hall of relics, a meditation hall, an art gallery, and living quarters for monks.


title: Wat Rong Khun

text: The main building at the white temple, the ubosot, is reached by crossing a bridge over a small lake. In front of the bridge are hundreds of outreaching hands that symbolize unrestrained desire. The bridge proclaims that the way to happiness is by foregoing temptation, greed, and desire. Next to the lake stand two very elegant Kinnaree, half-human, half-bird creatures from Buddhist mythology.


title: Wat Rong Khun

text: After crossing the bridge, the visitor arrives at the "gate of heaven", guarded by two creatures representing Death and Rahu, who decides the fate of the dead. In front of the ubosot are several meditative Buddha images.


title: Wat Rong Khun

text: A structure that stands out because of its color is the rest rooms building. Another very ornately decorated structure, this golden building represents the body, whereas the white ubosot represents the mind. The gold symbolizes how people focus on worldly desires and money. The white building represents the idea to make merit and to focus on the mind, instead of material things and possession.


title: Wat Rong Khun

text: The principal building, the ubosot is an all-white building with fragments of mirrored glass embedded in the building's exterior. The ubosot embodies design elements from classic Thai architecture such as the three-tiered roof and abundant use of Naga serpents. "Inside the temple, the decor swiftly moves from pristine white to fiery and bewildering. Murals depict swirling orange flames and demon faces, interspersed with Western idols such as Michael Jackson, Neo from "The Matrix", Freddy Krueger, and a T-800 series Terminator. Images of nuclear warfare, terrorist attacks such as the World Trade Center attack, and oil pumps hammer home the destructive impact that humans have had on earth. The presence of Harry Potter, Superman, and Hello Kitty confuses the message somewhat, but the overall moral is clear: people are wicked.


title: Wat Rong Khun

text: On 5 May 2014 at 18:08 (local time), the temple was damaged by the earthquake in Mae Lao that struck the province. It was planned to be closed indefinitely. Chalermchai said on 6 May that he would demolish the structures for safety reasons and would not rebuild it.


title: Wat Rong Khun

text: On May 7, after an engineering expert team inspected and affirmed that all buildings in the compound were structurally unharmed by the quake, Chalermchai announced that he would restore the temple to its original state in two years and promised to devote his life to the work. He also announced that the temple area will be open to visitors from 8 May. The gallery building opened shortly thereafter. But for some buildings, specifically, ubosot itself, visitors are only allowed to take pictures outside.


title: Wat Rong Khun

text: The structure is open year-round. Donations are accepted, but are not to exceed THB 10,000, as Chalermchai refuses to be influenced by big donors.


title: Square kilometre

text: Square kilometre (International spelling as used by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures) or square kilometer (American spelling), symbol km, is a multiple of the square metre, the SI unit of area or surface area.


title: Square kilometre

text: The symbol "km" means (km), square kilometre or kilometre squared and not k(m), kilo–square metre. For example, 3 km is equal to = 3,000,000 m, not 3,000 m.


title: Square kilometre

text: The area enclosed by the walls of many European medieval cities were about one square kilometre. These walls are often either still standing or the route they followed is still clearly visible, such as in Brussels, where the wall has been replaced by a ring road, or in Frankfurt, where the wall has been replaced by gardens. The approximate area of the old walled cities can often be worked out by fitting the course of the wall to a rectangle or an oval (ellipse). Examples include


title: Square kilometre

text: Parks come in all sizes; a few are almost exactly one square kilometre in area. Here are some examples:


title: Square kilometre

text: Using the figures published by golf course architects Crafter and Mogford, a course should have a fairway width of 120 metres and 40 metres clear beyond the hole. Assuming a 18-hole course, an area of 80 hectares (0.8 square kilometre) needs to be allocated for the course itself. Examples of golf courses that are about one square kilometre include:


title: Byron Katie

text: Byron Kathleen Mitchell, better known as Byron Katie (born December 6, 1942), is an American speaker and author who teaches a method of self-inquiry known as "The Work of Byron Katie" or simply as "The Work". She is the founder of Byron Katie International, an organization that includes the School for the Work and Turnaround House in Ojai, California. "Time" magazine describes her as "a spiritual innovator for the 21st century."


title: Byron Katie

text: Katie was born in Breckenridge, Texas, in 1942, and grew up in Barstow, California. Her father was a train engineer and her mother was a housewife. She was married at age 19, had three children and started a career in real estate.


title: Byron Katie

text: In 1986, when she was forty-three with three children and unhappily married to her second husband, she reportedly suffered from depression, agoraphobia, overeating and self-medicating with codeine and alcohol. She called her insurance company for help, and was referred to Hope House in Los Angeles, a women's counseling center that has since closed. After two weeks of self-reflection in her home, she reportedly experienced an epiphany in her thinking which created a way for her to challenge and lessen the harmful effects of long-held beliefs. She credited the epiphany, which became known as "The Work", for a subsequent weight loss and other reductions in bad habits.


title: Byron Katie

text: She began holding informal meetings to discuss her philosophy, and in the early 1990s, began having more formal workshops. The workshops eventually led to the formation of Byron Katie International.


title: Byron Katie

text: She is married to the writer and translator Stephen Mitchell. Katie is the mother of record producer Ross Robinson.


title: Byron Katie

text: Katie's experience, as described in her book "Loving What Is", is that all suffering is caused by believing our stressful thoughts. This, she says, puts people into painful positions that lead to suffering, as she recognized to be the case with herself. Through self-inquiry, she describes how a different, less-known capacity of the mind can end this suffering.


title: Byron Katie

text: Specifically, The Work is a way of identifying and questioning any stressful thought. It consists of four questions and what is referred to as the "turnarounds".


title: Byron Katie

text: The next step of The Work, the turnarounds, are a way of experiencing the opposite of the thought that one is believing. For example, the thought "My husband should listen to me", can be turned around to "I should listen to my husband", "I should listen to myself", and "My husband shouldn't listen to me".


title: Byron Katie

text: Then one finds specific examples of how each turnaround might be "just as true" as the original stress-producing thought.


title: Elimination reaction

text: The E2 mechanism, where E2 stands for bimolecular elimination, involves a one-step mechanism in which "carbon-hydrogen" and "carbon-halogen" bonds break to form a double bond ("C=C Pi bond").


title: Elimination reaction

text: An example of this type of reaction in "scheme 1" is the reaction of isobutylbromide with potassium ethoxide in ethanol. The reaction products are isobutene, ethanol and potassium bromide.


title: Elimination reaction

text: E1 is a model to explain a particular type of chemical elimination reaction. E1 stands for unimolecular elimination and has the following specifications


title: Elimination reaction

text: The reaction rate is influenced by the reactivity of halogens, iodide and bromide being favored. Fluoride is not a good leaving group, so eliminations with fluoride as the leaving group have slower rates than other halogens .


title: Elimination reaction

text: There is a certain level of competition between the elimination reaction and nucleophilic substitution. More precisely, there are competitions between E2 and S2 and also between E1 and S1. Substitution generally predominates and elimination occurs only during precise circumstances. Generally, elimination is favored over substitution when


title: Elimination reaction

text: An example of Elimination predominating substitution is visible from a special case of Williamson synthesis. When 3° haloalkane reacts with an alkoxide, due to strong basic character of the alkoxide and less reactivity of 3° group towards SN2, an alkene will be formed instead of the expected ether with a 3° group.


title: Elimination reaction

text: In one study the kinetic isotope effect (KIE) was determined for the gas phase reaction of several alkyl halides with the chlorate ion. In accordance with an E2 elimination the reaction with t-butyl chloride results in a KIE of 2.3. The methyl chloride reaction (only S2 possible) on the other hand has a KIE of 0.85 consistent with a S2 reaction because in this reaction type the C-H bonds tighten in the transition state. The KIE's for the ethyl (0.99) and isopropyl (1.72) analogues suggest competition between the two reaction modes.


title: Elimination reaction

text: β-Elimination, with loss of electrofuge and nucleofuge on vicinal carbons, is by far the most common type of elimination. The ability to form a stable product containing a C=C or C=X bond, as well as orbital alignment considerations, strongly favors β-elimination over other elimination processes. However, other types are known, generally for systems where β-elimination cannot occur.


title: Elimination reaction

text: The next most common type of elimination reaction is α-elimination. For a carbon center, the result of α-elimination is the formation of a carbene, which includes "stable carbenes" such as carbon monoxide or isocyanides. For instance, α-elimination the elements of HCl from chloroform (CHCl) in the presence of strong base is a classic approach for the generation of dichlorocarbene, :CCl, as a reactive intermediate. On the other hand, formic acid undergoes α-elimination to afford the stable products water and carbon monoxide under acidic conditions. α-Elimination may also occur on a metal center, one particularly common result of which is lowering of both the metal oxidation state and coordination number by 2 units in a process known as reductive elimination. (Confusingly, in organometallic terminology, the terms "α-elimination" and "α-abstraction" refer to processes that result in formation of a metal-carbene complex. In these reactions, it is the carbon adjacent to the metal that undergoes α-elimination.)


title: Elimination reaction

text: In certain special cases, γ- and higher eliminations to form three-membered or larger rings is also possible in both organic and organometallic processes. For instance, certain Pt(II) complexes undergo γ- and δ-elimination to give metallocycles. More recently, γ-silyl elimination of a silylcyclobutyl tosylate has been used to prepare strained bicyclic systems.


title: Elimination reaction

text: Many of the concepts and terminology related to elimination reactions were proposed by Christopher Kelk Ingold in the 1920s.


title: Camille DeAngelis

text: Camille DeAngelis (born November 14, 1980) is an American novelist and travel writer. Her novel about teenage cannibals, "Bones & All", won an Alex Award in 2016. The storyline deals with issues such as feminism, loneliness and self loathing, and the moral problem of flesh eating. A film adaptation was released in 2022.


title: Camille DeAngelis

text: DeAngelis also published a self-help/memoir entitled "Life Without Envy: Ego Management for Creative People" in September 2016.


title: Bruce Brown (basketball)

text: Bruce Brown Jr. (born August 15, 1996) is an American professional basketball player for the Denver Nuggets of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He played college basketball for the Miami Hurricanes and was selected 42nd overall by the Detroit Pistons in the 2018 NBA draft. He played High School basketball at Wakefield Memorial High School, in Wakefield, MA, and Vermont Academy, in Saxtons River, VT.


title: Bruce Brown (basketball)

text: Brown played basketball and football for Wakefield Memorial High School in Wakefield, Massachusetts. For his junior season, he transferred to Vermont Academy in Saxtons River, Vermont. As a senior, Brown led his team to the New England Preparatory School Athletic Council Class AA title and was named tournament most valuable player. He was selected to play in the 2016 Jordan Brand Classic. Brown was considered a five-star recruit by 247Sports and ESPN and a four-star recruit by Rivals. Brown was ranked no. 26 overall recruit and fifth best shooting guard in the 2016 high school class. On November 18, 2015, he committed to play college basketball for Miami (FL) over an offer from Indiana, among others.


title: Bruce Brown (basketball)

text: As a sophomore with the Miami Hurricanes, Brown averaged 11.4 points, 7.1 rebounds, and four assists per game and shot 27 percent from 3-point range. He only played 19 games and missed the postseason with a left foot injury that required surgery. After the season Brown declared for the 2018 NBA draft but did not hire an agent, thereby allowing for the possibility of returning to college. He ultimately decided to stay in the draft.


title: Bruce Brown (basketball)

text: On June 21, 2018, Brown was drafted 42nd overall by the Detroit Pistons in the 2018 NBA draft. Brown made his NBA debut on October 17, 2018 against the Brooklyn Nets, scoring no points with two rebounds and an assist in 19 minutes of action. On November 2, 2019, he posted 22 points and seven assists, with no turnovers, in a 113–109 win over the Nets. On February 2, 2020, Brown recorded 19 points, 10 rebounds and eight assists in a 128–123 overtime victory over the Denver Nuggets.


title: Bruce Brown (basketball)

text: On February 23, 2021, Brown scored a career-high 29 points in the Nets' 127–118 win against the Sacramento Kings.


title: Bruce Brown (basketball)

text: On April 23, 2022, he scored a team leading 26 points for the Nets in a losing effort against the Celtics in the first round of the NBA playoffs. The Nets fell to 0-3 after that game. His performance in Games 2 and 3 were notably impressive, as he scored 23 or more points in both contests, despite eclipsing 20 points only 4 times throughout the entire regular season.


title: Evolution of human intelligence

text: The evolution of human intelligence is closely tied to the evolution of the human brain and to the origin of language. The timeline of human evolution spans approximately seven million years, from the separation of the genus "Pan" until the emergence of behavioral modernity by 50,000 years ago. The first three million years of this timeline concern "Sahelanthropus", the following two million concern "Australopithecus" and the final two million span the history of the genus "Homo" in the Paleolithic era.


title: Evolution of human intelligence

text: Many traits of human intelligence, such as empathy, theory of mind, mourning, ritual, and the use of symbols and tools, are somewhat apparent in great apes, although they are in much less sophisticated forms than what is found in humans like the great ape language.


title: Evolution of human intelligence

text: The great apes (hominidae) show some cognitive and empathic abilities. Chimpanzees can make tools and use them to acquire foods and for social displays; they have mildly complex hunting strategies requiring cooperation, influence and rank; they are status conscious, manipulative and capable of deception; they can learn to use symbols and understand aspects of human language including some relational syntax, concepts of number and numerical sequence. One common characteristic that is present in species of "high degree intelligence" (i.e. dolphins, great apes, and humans - "Homo sapiens") is a brain of enlarged size. Along with this, there is a more developed neocortex, a folding of the cerebral cortex, and von Economo neurons. Said neurons are linked to social intelligence and the ability to gauge what another is thinking or feeling and are also present in bottlenose dolphins.


title: Evolution of human intelligence

text: Around 10 million years ago, the Earth's climate entered a cooler and drier phase, which led eventually to the Quaternary glaciation beginning some 2.6 million years ago. One consequence of this was that the north African tropical forest began to retreat, being replaced first by open grasslands and eventually by desert (the modern Sahara). As their environment changed from continuous forest to patches of forest separated by expanses of grassland, some primates adapted to a partly or fully ground-dwelling life. Here they were exposed to predators, such as the big cats, from whom they had previously been safe.


title: Evolution of human intelligence

text: These environmental pressures caused selection to favor bipedalism: walking on hind legs. This gave the Homininae's eyes greater elevation, the ability to see approaching danger further off, and a more efficient means of locomotion. It also freed the arms from the task of walking and made the hands available for tasks such as gathering food. At some point the bipedal primates developed handedness, giving them the ability to pick up sticks, bones and stones and use them as weapons, or as tools for tasks such as killing smaller animals, cracking nuts, or cutting up carcasses. In other words, these primates developed the use of primitive technology. Bipedal tool-using primates from the subtribe Hominina date back to as far as about 5 to 7 million years ago, such as one of the earliest species, "Sahelanthropus tchadensis".


title: Evolution of human intelligence

text: From about 5 million years ago, the hominin brain began to develop rapidly in both size and differentiation of function.


title: Evolution of human intelligence

text: There has been a gradual increase in brain volume as humans progressed along the timeline of evolution (see Homininae), starting from about 600 cm in "Homo habilis" up to 1500 cm in "Homo neanderthalensis". Thus, in general there's a correlation between brain volume and intelligence. However, modern "Homo sapiens" have a brain volume slightly smaller (1250 cm) than neanderthals, and the Flores hominids ("Homo floresiensis"), nicknamed hobbits, had a cranial capacity of about 380 cm (considered small for a chimpanzee) about a third of that of "Homo erectus". It is proposed that they evolved from "H. erectus" as a case of insular dwarfism. With their three times smaller brain the Flores hominids apparently used fire and made tools as sophisticated as those of their ancestor "H. erectus".


title: Evolution of human intelligence

text: Roughly 2.4 million years ago "Homo habilis" had appeared in East Africa: the first known human species, and the first known to make stone tools, yet the disputed findings of signs of tool use from even earlier ages and from the same vicinity as multiple "Australopithecus" fossils may put to question how much more intelligent than its predecessors "H. habilis" was.


title: Evolution of human intelligence

text: The use of tools conferred a crucial evolutionary advantage, and required a larger and more sophisticated brain to co-ordinate the fine hand movements required for this task. Our knowledge of the complexity of behaviour of "Homo habilis" is not limited to stone culture, they also had habitual therapeutic use of toothpicks.


title: Evolution of human intelligence

text: A larger brain requires a larger skull, and thus is accompanied by other morphological and biological evolutionary changes. One such change required for the female to have a wider birth canal for the newborn's larger skull to pass through. The solution to this was to give birth at an early stage of fetal development, before the skull grew too large to pass through the birth canal. Other accompanying adaptations were the smaller maxillary and mandibular bones, smaller and weaker facial muscles, and shortening and flattening of the face resulting in modern-human's complex cognitive and linguistic capabilities as well as the ability to create facial expressions and smile. Consequentially, dental issues in modern humans arise from these morphological changes that are exacerbated by a shift from nomadic to sedentary lifestyles.


title: Evolution of human intelligence

text: This adaptation enabled the human brain to continue to grow, but it imposed a new discipline. It is to be noted that traditional claims about men's and women's gender roles have been challenged in the past years. Regardless, humans' increasingly sedentary lifestyle to protect their more vulnerable offspring led them to grow even more dependent on tool-making to compete with other animals and other humans, and rely less on body size and strength.


title: Evolution of human intelligence

text: About 200,000 years ago Europe and the Middle East were colonized by Neanderthal man, extinct by 39,000 years ago following the appearance of modern humans in the region from 40,000 to 45,000 years ago.


title: Evolution of human intelligence

text: In the Late Pliocene, hominins were set apart from modern great apes and other closely-related organisms by the anatomical evolutionary changes resulting in bipedalism, or the ability to walk upright. Characteristics such as a supraorbital torus, or prominent eyebrow ridge, and flat face also makes "Homo erectus" distinguishable. Their brain size substantially sets them apart from closely related species, such as "H. habilis", as we can see an increase in average cranial capacity of 1000 cc. Compared to earlier species, "H. erectus" developed keels and small crests in the skull showing morphological changes of the skull to support increased brain capacity. It is believed that "Homo erectus" were, anatomically, modern humans as they are very similar in size, weight, bone structure, and nutritional habits. Over time, however, human intelligence developed in phases that is interrelated with brain physiology, cranial anatomy and morphology, and rapidly changing climate and environments.


title: Evolution of human intelligence

text: The study of the evolution of cognition relies on the archaeological record made up of assemblages of material culture, particularly from the Paleolithic Period, to make inferences about our ancestor's cognition. Paleo-anthropologists from the past half-century have had the tendency of reducing stone tool artifacts to physical products of the metaphysical activity taking place in the brains of hominins. Recently, a new approach called 4E cognition (see Models for other approaches) has been developed by anthropologist Thomas Wynn, and cognitive archaeologists Karenleigh Overmann and Lambros Malafouris, to move past the "internal" and "external" dichotomy by treating stone tools as objects with agency in both providing insight to hominin cognition and having a role in the development of early hominin cognition. The 4E cognition approach describes cognition as embodied, embedded, enactive, and extended, to understand the interconnected nature between the mind, body, and environment.


title: Evolution of human intelligence

text: There are four major categories of tools created and used throughout human evolution that are associated with the corresponding evolution of the brain and intelligence. Stone tools such as flakes and cores used by "Homo habilis" for cracking bones to extract marrow, known as the Oldowan culture, make up the oldest major category of tools from about 2.5 and 1.6 million years ago. The development of stone tool technology suggests that our ancestors had the ability to hit cores with precision, taking into account the force and angle of the strike, and the cognitive planning and capacity to envision a desired outcome.


title: Evolution of human intelligence

text: Acheulean culture, associated with "Homo erectus", is composed of bifacial, or double-sided, hand-axes, that "requires more planning and skill on the part of the toolmaker; he or she would need to be aware of principles of symmetry". In addition, some sites show evidence that selection of raw materials involved travel, advanced planning, cooperation, and thus communication with other hominins.


title: Evolution of human intelligence

text: The third major category of tool industry marked by its innovation in tool-making technique and use is the Mousterian culture. Compared to previous tool cultures, which were regularly discarded after use, Mousterian tools, associated with Neanderthals, were specialized, built to last, and "formed a true toolkit". The making of these tools, called the Levallois technique, involves a multi-step process which yields several tools. In combination with other data, the formation of this tool culture for hunting large mammals in groups evidences the development of speech for communication and complex planning capabilities.


title: Evolution of human intelligence

text: While previous tool cultures did not show great variation, the tools of early modern "Homo sapiens" are robust in the amount of artifacts and diversity in utility. There are several styles associated with this category of the Upper Paleolithic, such as blades, boomerangs, atlatls (spear throwers), and archery made from varying materials of stone, bone, teeth, and shell. Beyond use, some tools have been shown to have served as signifiers of status and group membership. The role of tools for social uses signal cognitive advancements such as complex language and abstract relations to things.


title: Evolution of human intelligence

text: Fossils of "Homo sapiens" were found in East Africa which are c. 200,000 years old. It is unclear to what extent these early modern humans had developed language, music, religion, etc.


title: Evolution of human intelligence

text: According to proponents of the Toba catastrophe theory, the climate in non-tropical regions of the earth experienced a sudden freezing about 70,000 years ago, because of a huge explosion of the Toba volcano that filled the atmosphere with volcanic ash for several years. This reduced the human population to less than 10,000 breeding pairs in equatorial Africa, from which all modern humans are descended. Being unprepared for the sudden change in climate, the survivors were those intelligent enough to invent new tools and ways of keeping warm and finding new sources of food (for example, adapting to ocean fishing based on prior fishing skills used in lakes and streams that became frozen).


title: Evolution of human intelligence

text: Around 80,000–100,000 years ago, three main lines of "Homo sapiens" diverged, bearers of mitochondrial haplogroup L1 (mtDNA) / A (Y-DNA) colonizing Southern Africa (the ancestors of the Khoisan/Capoid peoples), bearers of haplogroup L2 (mtDNA) / B (Y-DNA) settling Central and West Africa (the ancestors of Niger–Congo and Nilo-Saharan speaking peoples), while the bearers of haplogroup L3 remained in East Africa.


title: Evolution of human intelligence

text: The "Great Leap Forward" leading to full behavioral modernity sets in only after this separation. Rapidly increasing sophistication in tool-making and behaviour is apparent from about 80,000 years ago, and the migration out of Africa follows towards the very end of the Middle Paleolithic, some 60,000 years ago. Fully modern behaviour, including figurative art, music, self-ornamentation, trade, burial rites etc. is evident by 30,000 years ago. The oldest unequivocal examples of prehistoric art date to this period, the Aurignacian and the Gravettian periods of prehistoric Europe, such as the Venus figurines and cave painting (Chauvet Cave) and the earliest musical instruments (the bone pipe of Geissenklösterle, Germany, dated to about 36,000 years ago).


title: Evolution of human intelligence

text: The human brain has evolved gradually over the passage of time; a series of incremental changes occurred as a result of external stimuli and conditions. It is crucial to keep in mind that evolution operates within a limited framework at a given point in time. In other words, the adaptations that a species can develop are not infinite and are defined by what has already taken place in the evolutionary timeline of a species. Given the immense anatomical and structural complexity of the brain, its evolution (and the congruent evolution of human intelligence), can only be reorganized in a finite number of ways. The majority of said changes occur either in terms of size or in terms of developmental timeframes.


title: Evolution of human intelligence

text: The cerebral cortex is divided into four lobes (frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal) each with specific functions. The cerebral cortex is significantly larger in humans than in any other animal and is responsible for higher thought processes such as: reasoning, abstract thinking, and decision making. Another characteristic that makes humans special and sets them apart from any other species is our ability to produce and understand complex, syntactic language. The cerebral cortex, particularly in the temporal, parietal, and frontal lobes, are populated with neural circuits dedicated to language. There are two main areas of the brain commonly associated with language, namely: Wernicke's area and Broca's area. The former is responsible for the understanding of speech and the latter for the production of speech. Homologous regions have been found in other species (i.e. Area 44 and 45 have been studied in chimpanzees) but they are not as strongly related to or involved in linguistic activities as in humans.


title: Evolution of human intelligence

text: A big portion of the scholarly literature focus on the evolution, and subsequent influence, of culture. This is in part because the leaps human intelligence has taken are far greater than those that would have resulted if our ancestors had simply responded to their environments, inhabiting them as hunter-gatherers.


title: Evolution of human intelligence

text: The social brain hypothesis was proposed by British anthropologist Robin Dunbar, who argues that human intelligence did not evolve primarily as a means to solve ecological problems, but rather as a means of surviving and reproducing in large and complex social groups. Some of the behaviors associated with living in large groups include reciprocal altruism, deception and coalition formation. These group dynamics relate to Theory of Mind or the ability to understand the thoughts and emotions of others, though Dunbar himself admits in the same book that it is not the flocking itself that causes intelligence to evolve (as shown by ruminants).


title: Evolution of human intelligence

text: Dunbar argues that when the size of a social group increases, the number of different relationships in the group may increase by orders of magnitude. Chimpanzees live in groups of about 50 individuals whereas humans typically have a social circle of about 150 people, which is also the typical size of social communities in small societies and personal social networks; this number is now referred to as Dunbar's number. In addition, there is evidence to suggest that the success of groups is dependent on their size at foundation, with groupings of around 150 being particularly successful, potentially reflecting the fact that communities of this size strike a balance between the minimum size of effective functionality and the maximum size for creating a sense of commitment to the community. According to the social brain hypothesis, when hominids started living in large groups, selection favored greater intelligence. As evidence, Dunbar cites a relationship between neocortex size and group size of various mammals.


title: Evolution of human intelligence

text: Phylogenetic studies of brain sizes in primates show that while diet predicts primate brain size, sociality does not predict brain size when corrections are made for cases in which diet affects both brain size and sociality. The exceptions to the predictions of the social intelligence hypothesis, which that hypothesis has no predictive model for, are successfully predicted by diets that are either nutritious but scarce or abundant but poor in nutrients. Researchers have found that frugivores tend to exhibit larger brain size than folivores. One potential explanation for this finding is that frugivory requires "extractive foraging", or the process of locating and preparing hard-shelled foods, such as nuts, insects, and fruit. Extractive foraging requires higher cognitive processing, which could help explain larger brain size. However, other researchers argue that extractive foraging was not a catalyst in the evolution of primate brain size, demonstrating that some non primates exhibit advanced foraging techniques. Other explanations for the positive correlation between brain size and frugivory highlight how the high-energy, frugivore diet facilitates fetal brain growth and requires spatial mapping to locate the embedded foods.


title: Evolution of human intelligence

text: Meerkats have far more social relationships than their small brain capacity would suggest. Another hypothesis is that it is actually intelligence that causes social relationships to become more complex, because intelligent individuals are more difficult to learn to know.


title: Evolution of human intelligence

text: There are also studies that show that Dunbar's number is not the upper limit of the number of social relationships in humans either.


title: Evolution of human intelligence

text: The hypothesis that it is brain capacity that sets the upper limit for the number of social relationships is also contradicted by computer simulations that show simple unintelligent reactions to be sufficient to emulate "ape politics" and by the fact that some social insects such as the paper wasp do have hierarchies in which each individual has its place (as opposed to herding without social structure) and maintains their hierarchies in groups of approximately 80 individuals with their brains smaller than that of any mammal.