title: Richard A. Clarke

text: Following the 2013 high-speed fatal car crash of journalist Michael Hastings, a vocal critic of the surveillance state and restrictions on the press freedom under the Obama Administration tenure, Clarke was quoted as saying, "There is reason to believe that intelligence agencies for major powers—including the United States—know how to remotely seize control of a car. So if there were a cyber attack on the car—and I'm not saying there was, I think whoever did it would probably get away with it."


title: Richard A. Clarke

text: In 2013, Clarke served on an advisory group for the Obama administration, as it sought to reform NSA spying programs following the revelations of documents released by Edward Snowden. The report mentioned in 'Recommendation 30' on page 37, "...that the National Security Council staff should manage an interagency process to review on a regular basis the activities of the US Government regarding attacks, that exploit a "previously unknown vulnerability in a computer application"." Clarke told Reuters on 11 April 2014 that the NSA had not known of Heartbleed.


title: Richard A. Clarke

text: In a 2017 interview, Clarke described Russia's recent cyberattack against Ukraine that spread worldwide, via the exPetr virus that posed as ransomware. He warned confidently that Russia would be back to interfere with the 2018 and 2020 U.S. elections as the vulnerabilities demonstrated in the 2016 election still exist.


title: Richard A. Clarke

text: In August 2021, Clarke was named as a member of American facial recognition company Clearview AI's advisory board.


title: Jon Dough

text: Jon Dough (born Chester "Chet" Joseph Anuszak; November 12, 1962 – August 27, 2006) was an American pornographic actor active between 1985 and 2006.


title: Jon Dough

text: Dough was born Chester Anuszak and grew up in Lancaster, Pennsylvania. When he was eight years old, his mother's boyfriend began sexually abusing him and his younger brother. At age 15, Dough was sent to live with his uncle. At the age of 18, Dough enrolled at Albright College in Reading, Pennsylvania. Four years later, he graduated with a degree in biology.


title: Jon Dough

text: Dough moved to Los Angeles, where he initially intended to seek work as a soap opera actor. However, a photoshoot with adult magazine "Hustler" quickly resulted in steady work in the adult industry.


title: Jon Dough

text: His first film was a short loop he made for Lance Kinkaid in 1985. In 1999, Vivian Valentine received a black eye after being hit by Dough during the filming of Anabolic Video's "Rough Sex"; however, she has said: "I have no regrets or bad feelings about it".


title: Jon Dough

text: Dough was a veteran of over 1,400 adult videos as a performer and 71 as a director, according to the IAFD. One of his most noteworthy achievements was participating in a gangbang with 101 women, as well as appearing in the first DVD produced by the porn publisher "Hustler".


title: Jon Dough

text: He appeared in an episode of "Louis Theroux's Weird Weekends" devoted to the San Fernando Valley's pornographic film industry, granting BBC Two presenter Louis Theroux several interviews on- and off-set.


title: Jon Dough

text: Dough's first marriage was to Deidre Holland, a pornographic actress, whom he later divorced. He married pornographic actress Monique DeMoan, with whom he had a daughter in August 2002.


title: Jon Dough

text: Dough died on August 27, 2006, in Chatsworth, California. Initial reports pointed to an overdose of pills, but the cause of death was later confirmed as suicide by hanging. He was 43 years old. DeMoan discovered Dough's body hanging inside a closet of their home. Dough had survived another suicide attempt a month prior but was rushed to the hospital and saved. DeMoan subsequently retired from the industry to raise their daughter in an undisclosed location. In a 2012 interview with Louis Theroux, she cited Dough's ongoing struggles with drugs and alcohol and growing disillusionment with a porn industry decimated by illegal internet tube sites as a catalyst for his worsening depression and eventual suicide.


title: Jon Dough

text: On the day Dough died, DeMoan was napping while Dough was in the living room and their daughter was next door visiting a friend. Upon waking up, DeMoan left the house for a short time and became concerned when Dough could still not be found after she returned home. She soon began calling friends and searching the neighborhood. After two hours of searching, she found his body in a dark walk-in closet in their home. While Dough was someone who typically kept his thoughts to himself, DeMoan says he did begin mentioning suicide in the weeks before his death.


title: Jon Dough

text: In the aftermath of Dough's death, DeMoan lamented that he had been "a hunk of a man - he's got everything going for him. Nothing seems to faze him," but drug and alcohol abuse eventually got the best of him. She said that even at the height of his struggles, he was always a dedicated father to his young daughter.


title: Jon Dough

text: Dough was best friends with fellow adult performer Randy Spears, who were next-door neighbours at one point. According to Spears, "We surfed together, rode motorcycles together, cooked out together, drank beer together, fooled around in our garages. We borrowed money from each other. We laughed, we cried. We talked each other into joy, and we talked each other down from emotional fences. I can't believe he's gone." Spears has described Dough as being "like a brother" to him. Following Dough's death, he set up a memorial fund on MySpace to raise funds for the funeral costs.


title: Calcio Padova

text: Calcio Padova, commonly referred to as Padova, is an Italian football club based in Padua, Veneto. Founded in 1910, Padova currently play in , having last been in Serie A in 1996. The team's official colours are white and red.


title: Calcio Padova

text: The team was refounded in 2014 after the sports title was awarded to Biancoscudati Padova for the 2014–15 Serie D season as a phoenix club. The old holder of the title was in the process of liquidation after it was expelled from 2014–15 Lega Pro. The original Padova was renamed Football Padova in order to allow the new iteration of Padova to use the original name of the club, Calcio Padova in 2015.


title: Calcio Padova

text: In the 1940s, the team was coached by Béla Guttmann. Padova's golden days were the late 1950s, when the team managed by Nereo Rocco, reached the heights of third place in 1958 thanks to the wing wizardry of Kurt Hamrin. Forwards Sergio Brighenti and Aurelio Milani would star as Padova remained a force in Serie A, before relegation in 1962. The rest of the 1960s would see the club in Serie B before going into a serious decline ahead of a 1980s revival.


title: Calcio Padova

text: The revival would see Padova return to Serie B in the early 1980s, and within a decade they would be serious promotion contenders. A play-off win over Cesena in 1994 saw the club return to Serie A after 32 years. After a dire start to the 1994–95 season, Padova looked like fulfilling most experts' predictions of a swift return to Serie B. They nonetheless found their form in the second half of the year and when they recorded a 1–0 win away to Juventus, they were six points clear of the drop zone. However, they eventually ended up contesting the relegation play-off against Genoa, due to a late Inter Milan goal assisted by a Rubén Sosa corner, which they won on penalties.


title: Calcio Padova

text: There would be no such luck the following year, as Padova were relegated, with further relegations in 1998 and 1999. Since 2001, they have resided in Serie C1 and Lega Pro Prima Divisione. The team returned in Serie B at the end of the 2008–2009 season.


title: Calcio Padova

text: In total, Calcio Padova participated in 11 Prima Divisione/Divisione Nazionale championships between 1914–15 and 1928–29 (best place being 3rd in 1922–23) and 16 Serie A championships between 1929–30 and 1995–96 (best place being 3rd in 1957–58); in Coppa Italia, the best place was runner-up in 1967. Padova won a Coppa Italia Serie C in 1980, and played also 34 Serie B championships (won in 1947–48) and 29 Serie C1/C2/Lega Pro Prima Divisione championships (won in 1936–37, 1980–81 and 2000–01). Padova finished runner-up the Anglo-Italian Cup of 1983.


title: Calcio Padova

text: In the 2013–14 Serie B season, Padova were relegated after finishing 20th, and on 15 July 2014, the team did not sign up to the 2014–15 Lega Pro championship. In April 2015, the company was put into liquidation.


title: Calcio Padova

text: The club was founded in the summer of 2014, with the name "Società Sportiva Dilettantistica a r.l. Biancoscudati Padova", after the non-inclusion of Calcio Padova in Lega Pro and Serie D.


title: Calcio Padova

text: The first official match was Biancoscudati Padova-Castellana (2–0), valid for the Coppa Italia Serie D, played 24 August 2014.


title: Calcio Padova

text: On 19 April 2015, by virtue of a 2–1 away victory against Legnago, the team secured promotion to Lega Pro.


title: Calcio Padova

text: On 6 July 2015, changed its name to "Calcio Padova Spa", after the old "Calcio Padova" changed its name to "Football Padova Spa – società in liquidazione".


title: Vladimir Zhoga

text: Vladimir Artyomovich Zhoga (, ; 26 May 1993 – 5 March 2022), also known by his "nom de guerre" Vokha (), was a Russian-Ukrainian separatist who commanded the Sparta Battalion, a pro-Russian separatist force that is involved in the Russo-Ukrainian War.


title: Vladimir Zhoga

text: Born in Donetsk, Ukraine, on 26 May 1993, Zhoga's family moved to Sloviansk soon after his birth, where he grew up. His parents separated early in his life. When he was fourteen, he started helping out his father, Artem Zhoga, who owned a small business. Until 2014, Zhoga had no interest in enlisting in the military, and instead tried to study at a technical school. He graduated from the Slavic Vocational Art Lyceum as a painter-plasterer.


title: Vladimir Zhoga

text: Zhoga described himself as apolitical until the Revolution of Dignity in 2014; he came to see the events as a "coup" and threat to his home. Within his circle of acquaintances, no one supported the Euromaidan, hardening his views. He still lived in Sloviansk by the Russo-Ukrainian War's outbreak. In 2014, Zhoga and his father Artem joined the Sparta Battalion, one of several pro-Russian separatist militias which emerged during the war in Donbas. The Sparta Battalion is regarded as one of the most effective separatist militias, and is ideologically aligned with Russian ultranationalism and irredentism. Both the unit as well as Zhoga himself were also described as being associated with neo-Nazism by some international media, though research by German anti-extremist news website "Belltower" could not identify a direct link between the Sparta Battalion and Nazism. The unit is loyal to the Donetsk People's Republic (DPR), one of the self-proclaimed breakaway states located in the Donbas. Zhoga was a close confidant and the personal driver of the Sparta Battalion's commander Arsen Pavlov as well as the eventual deputy head of the unit, while his father Artem rose to chief of staff. The Sparta Battalion fought in many important battles of the early part of the war in Donbas, and Zhoga served with the unit during the Siege of Sloviansk, the Second Battle of Donetsk Airport, and the Battle of Ilovaisk. He was wounded in combat at Sloviansk, Snizhne, and Donetsk Airport.


title: Vladimir Zhoga

text: Following Pavlov's assassination in October 2016, Zhoga assumed command of the Sparta Battalion which had grown to 1,000 militants by this point. As the militia's leader, he became one of the best-known separatist leaders in Ukraine, and was described as a warlord by various newspapers. As part of the Sparta Battalion, Zhoga was accused of war crimes including the murder and torture of Ukrainian prisoners of war. He was eventually promoted to colonel. In June 2018, Zhoga had a motorcycle accident; he was injured and his passenger was killed. The Ukrainian news site "Glavcom" alleged that the accident had been an assassination attempt by a Russian soldier (codenamed "Ermine") who acted as advisor to the Sparta Battalion. The two had reportedly clashed on several occasions, as "Ermine" argued that Zhoga was too young to serve as militia leader. In contrast, Fashik Donetsky, an anti-separatist blogger from Donetsk, claimed that Zhoga had been drunk during the incident.


title: Vladimir Zhoga

text: At one point after the start of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Zhoga challenged Ukrainian professional boxer Wladimir Klitschko to a duel after the latter announced that he had volunteered for the Ukrainian Army. Zhoga was killed on 5 March 2022 in combat with the Armed Forces of Ukraine during the Battle of Volnovakha in the 2022 invasion. A pro-Russian source said he died while trying to evacuate civilians. Pro-Ukrainian sources dismissed this claim as a lie spread by the DPR leadership. Journalist Nicholas Potter argued that the portrayal of Zhoga as a victim was "cynical", considering that the Sparta Battalion was the aggressor in the battle.


title: Vladimir Zhoga

text: DPR leader Denis Pushilin posthumously awarded him the title Hero of the Donetsk People's Republic, while Russian President Vladimir Putin awarded him the title of Hero of the Russian Federation. "Komsomolskaya Pravda" war correspondent and propagandist Alexander Kots wrote a "glowing obituary" for Zhoga which was characterized by "Al Jazeera" as part of Russian propaganda efforts. Vladimir's father Artem succeeded him as commander of the Sparta Battalion.


title: DNA (Backstreet Boys album)

text: DNA is the ninth studio album (eighth in the US) by the Backstreet Boys. The album was first released in Japan on January 23, 2019, and everywhere else on January 25, 2019, through a collaboration with the group's own K-BAHN record label and RCA Records. The album features tracks written by Edei, Lauv, Andy Grammer, Stuart Crichton, Ryan Tedder and Shawn Mendes. This is the group's second album, after 2007's "Unbreakable", without involvement from longtime producers and friends Max Martin and Kristian Lundin. It also serves as the follow-up to their eighth studio album (seventh in the US) "In a World Like This (2013)". It was preceded by the singles "Don't Go Breaking My Heart", "Chances", "No Place", and is supported by the DNA World Tour, which is the band's most expansive in 18 years. The tour began on May 11, 2019, in Lisbon, Portugal, before visiting North America in July 2019. The album is their first on one of Sony Music's subsidiary companies after "In a World Like This" was released independently through BMG. It debuted at number one on the US "Billboard" 200, becoming the Backstreet Boys' third number-one album there and the first since "Black & Blue" in 2000.


title: DNA (Backstreet Boys album)

text: A press release stated that the group "analyzed their individual DNA profiles to see what crucial element each member represents in the group's DNA". Kevin Richardson said of the album: "We were able to bring all of our influences and styles into one coherent piece of work. These songs are a great representation of who we are as individuals and who we are as a group. It's our DNA. We're really proud of that." DNA is also short for "Digital and Analog" which is how the boys started recording in the 1990s.


title: DNA (Backstreet Boys album)

text: The group announced the name of the album and its release date on November 9, 2018. The same day, they also released the single "Chances" and announced the DNA World Tour in support of the album, which began in May 2019.


title: DNA (Backstreet Boys album)

text: "DNA" received mostly positive reviews from music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album has an average score of 67 based on 4 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: DNA (Backstreet Boys album)

text: "DNA" debuted at number one on the US "Billboard" 200 with 234,000 album-equivalent units, of which 227,000 were pure album sales. It is the Backstreet Boys' third number-one album and first in 19 years, the last being "Black & Blue" (2000). It also makes this their eighth consecutive top-ten album following "In a World Like This" (2013), and set the group's record of generating number-one albums for three consecutive decades (1990-2010).


title: DNA (Backstreet Boys album)

text: In Canada, the album debuted at number one with over 46,000 first week sales. On January 3, 2020 the album was certified platinum with over 80,000 sales. This is also the 5th highest-selling album in Canada in 2019 in terms of physical copies.


title: Nightfall (Asimov novelette and novel)

text: "Nightfall" is a 1941 science fiction short story by the American writer Isaac Asimov about the coming of darkness to the people of a planet ordinarily illuminated by sunlight at all times. It was adapted into a novel with Robert Silverberg in 1990. The short story has been included in 48 anthologies and has appeared in six collections of Asimov's stories. In 1968, the Science Fiction Writers of America voted "Nightfall" the best science fiction short story written prior to the 1965 establishment of the Nebula Awards and included it in "The Science Fiction Hall of Fame Volume One, 1929–1964".


title: Nightfall (Asimov novelette and novel)

text: Written from 17 March to 9 April 1941 and sold on 24 April, the short story was published in the September 1941 issue of "Astounding Science Fiction" under editor John W. Campbell. It was the 32nd story by Asimov, written while he was a graduate student in chemistry at Columbia University. Campbell asked Asimov to write the story after discussing with him a quotation from Ralph Waldo Emerson:


title: Nightfall (Asimov novelette and novel)

text: Campbell's opinion was to the contrary: "I think men would go mad". He and Asimov chose the title together.


title: Nightfall (Asimov novelette and novel)

text: Campbell bought the story at a bonus rate of cents per word and at more than 13,000 words, "Nightfall" was Asimov's longest story yet. Consequently Asimov received US$166 ($ in present-day dollars), more than twice any previous payment for a story. He later said that before "Nightfall" neither he nor anyone else other than perhaps Campbell considered him more than a "third rater"; his name appeared on the cover of "Astounding" for the first time, and the story made him one of the field's top writers. Asimov believed that the unusual plot of "Nightfall" distinguished it from others, but "The Last Question" was his own favorite story.


title: Nightfall (Asimov novelette and novel)

text: In 1988, Martin H. Greenberg suggested Asimov find someone who would take his 47-year-old short story and – keeping the story essentially as written – add a detailed beginning and a detailed ending to it. This resulted in the 1990 publication of the novel "Nightfall" by Isaac Asimov and Robert Silverberg. As Asimov relates in the Robert Silverberg chapter of his autobiography, "Eventually, I received the extended "Nightfall" manuscript from Bob [Silverberg]... Bob did a wonderful job and I could almost believe I had written the whole thing myself. He remained absolutely faithful to the original story[,] and I had very little to argue with."


title: Nightfall (Asimov novelette and novel)

text: The planet Lagash ("Kalgash" in the novel) is constantly illuminated by the six suns of its multiple star system. Areas of darkness exist in enclosed areas on Lagash, such as caves, tunnels, and windowless rooms, but because at least one sun is present in the sky at any given time, night never falls.


title: Nightfall (Asimov novelette and novel)

text: A skeptical journalist visits a university observatory to interview a group of scientists who warn that civilization on Lagash will soon come to an end. The researchers explain that they have discovered evidence of numerous ancient civilizations on the planet, all destroyed by fire, with each collapse occurring about 2,000 years apart. The religious writings of a doomsday cult claim that Lagash periodically passes through an enormous cave where mysterious "stars" appear. The stars are said to rain down fire from the heavens and rob people of their souls, reducing them to beast-like savages.


title: Nightfall (Asimov novelette and novel)

text: The scientists use this apparent myth, along with recent discoveries in gravitational research, to develop a theory about the repeated collapse of society. A mathematical analysis of Lagash's orbit around its primary sun reveals irregularities caused by the presence of a previously undiscovered moon that cannot be seen in the light of day. Calculations indicate that this "invisible" moon will soon obscure one of Lagash's suns when it is alone in the sky, resulting in a total eclipse that only occurs once every 2,000 years. Having evolved on a planet with no diurnal cycle, all Lagashians possess an intense, instinctive fear of the dark. Psychological experiments involving darkness have revealed that Lagashians may suffer permanent mental illness or even death after as little as 15 minutes of exposure, and the eclipse is projected to last for over half a day. This, coupled with the fact that the diameter of the umbra is at least as great as that of the planet, ensures that the entire world population will experience an unprecedented period of prolonged, widespread darkness.


title: Nightfall (Asimov novelette and novel)

text: The scientists theorize that earlier civilizations on Lagash were destroyed by people who went insane during previous eclipses and, desperate for any light source, started large fires that destroyed cities. Oral accounts of the resulting chaos from crazed survivors and their children were passed down through the ages and formed the basis for the doomsday cult's sacred texts. Present-day civilization is doomed for the same reasons, but the researchers hope that conducting detailed observations of the upcoming eclipse will help to break the cycle of societal collapse.


title: Nightfall (Asimov novelette and novel)

text: The scientists are unprepared, however, for the stars. Because of the perpetual daylight on Lagash, its inhabitants are unaware of the existence of stars apart from their own; Lagashian astronomers estimate that the entire universe is no more than a few light years in diameter and may hypothetically contain a small number of other suns. But Lagash is located in the center of a "giant cluster," and during the eclipse, the night sky—the first that any living person on Lagash has ever seen—is filled with the dazzling light of more than 30,000 newly visible stars.


title: Nightfall (Asimov novelette and novel)

text: Learning that the universe is far more vast—and Lagash far more insignificant—than they believed, coupled with the worldwide darkness produced by the eclipse, drives everyone, including the scientists, insane. Outside the observatory, in the direction of the city, the horizon begins glowing with the light of spreading fires as "the long night" returns to Lagash.


title: Nightfall (Asimov novelette and novel)

text: The system of Lagash has six stars named Alpha, Beta, etc. in the original short story, whereas each has a proper name in the novel. In the novel, Onos is the primary sun of Lagash and is located 10 light-minutes away, similar to the distance from Earth to the Sun. The other five suns are minor in comparison, but provide enough light to prevent the inhabitants of Lagash from defining "night". The only other distance given is that Tano and Sitha form a binary star system about 11 times as far away as Onos.


title: Nightfall (Asimov novelette and novel)

text: From what can be drawn from the text, Onos, the star appearing brightest and largest in Lagash's sky, is the star that Lagash orbits. Onos, in turn, orbits around the binary system Trey and Patru, the other binary system Tano and Sitha, and the red dwarf star Dovim. In addition to these stars, the only other celestial object mentioned is Lagash's moon, dubbed Lagash Two by the scientists of Lagash. Lagash Two follows an eccentric orbit around Lagash and every 2049 years it eclipses Dovim, during a period when from one part of Lagash, Dovim is the only star that would be visible.


title: Nightfall (Asimov novelette and novel)

text: The characters of "Nightfall" travel to three separate locations on Lagash. Most of the book is set in Saro City, which is situated near a large forest with trees, bushes, and graben (scavenger animals). As stated in the book's introduction, the weather in the book is often appropriate to the mood swings of the characters in the book, and the region of Saro City receives rains that last several days. The first major weather fluctuation mentioned in the book is the sandstorm that Siferra 89 avoided by hiding under a tarpaulin with her crew. The other weather event was the monsoon-like rains that occurred after Sheerin 501 returned from a consultation in Jonglor, which is described as a northern city. Siferra 89 travels to Beklimot, which is described as half a world away from Jonglor. Beklimot is located on the Sagikan Peninsula, near mountains. Beklimot is in a sandy, arid desert region.


title: Nightfall (Asimov novelette and novel)

text: In 1976, Analog Records, as their only release, presented a further dramatization of "Nightfall" on a rpm vinyl record, produced by James Cutting and recorded at American Learning Center. After the story, it includes a dialog between Isaac Asimov and Ben Bova.


title: Nightfall (Asimov novelette and novel)

text: In 1988, "Nightfall", a low-budget movie, was produced based upon the story. The movie was shot on location at the Arcosanti Project, using the resident community members as background actors. Another film version, "Nightfall", was made in 2000.


title: Flow measurement

text: Flow measurement is the quantification of bulk fluid movement. Flow can be measured in a variety of ways. The common types of flowmeters with industrial applications are listed below:


title: Flow measurement

text: Flow measurement methods other than positive-displacement flowmeters rely on forces produced by the flowing stream as it overcomes a known constriction, to indirectly calculate flow. Flow may be measured by measuring the velocity of fluid over a known area. For very large flows, tracer methods may be used to deduce the flow rate from the change in concentration of a dye or radioisotope.


title: Flow measurement

text: Both gas and liquid flow can be measured in physical quantities of kind volumetric or mass flow rates, with units such as liters per second or kilograms per second, respectively. These measurements are related by the material's density. The density of a liquid is almost independent of conditions. This is not the case for gases, the densities of which depend greatly upon pressure, temperature and to a lesser extent, composition.


title: Flow measurement

text: When gases or liquids are transferred for their energy content, as in the sale of natural gas, the flow rate may also be expressed in terms of energy flow, such as gigajoule per hour or BTU per day. The energy flow rate is the volumetric flow rate multiplied by the energy content per unit volume or mass flow rate multiplied by the energy content per unit mass. Energy flow rate is usually derived from mass or volumetric flow rate by the use of a flow computer.


title: Flow measurement

text: In engineering contexts, the volumetric flow rate is usually given the symbol formula_1, and the mass flow rate, the symbol formula_2.


title: Flow measurement

text: Gases are compressible and change volume when placed under pressure, are heated or are cooled. A volume of gas under one set of pressure and temperature conditions is not equivalent to the same gas under different conditions. References will be made to "actual" flow rate through a meter and "standard" or "base" flow rate through a meter with units such as "acm/h" (actual cubic meters per hour), "sm/sec" (standard cubic meters per second), "kscm/h" (thousand standard cubic meters per hour), "LFM" (linear feet per minute), or "MMSCFD" (million standard cubic feet per day).


title: Flow measurement

text: Gas "mass" flow rate can be directly measured, independent of pressure and temperature effects, with thermal mass flowmeters, Coriolis mass flowmeters, or mass flow controllers.


title: Flow measurement

text: For liquids, various units are used depending upon the application and industry, but might include gallons (U.S. or imperial) per minute, liters per second, bushels per minute or, when describing river flows, cumecs (cubic meters per second) or acre-feet per day. In oceanography a common unit to measure volume transport (volume of water transported by a current for example) is a sverdrup (Sv) equivalent to 10 m/s.


title: Flow measurement

text: A primary flow element is a device inserted into the flowing fluid that produces a physical property that can be accurately related to flow. For example, an orifice plate produces a pressure drop that is a function of the square of the volume rate of flow through the orifice. A vortex meter primary flow element produces a series of oscillations of pressure. Generally, the physical property generated by the primary flow element is more convenient to measure than the flow itself. The properties of the primary flow element, and the fidelity of the practical installation to the assumptions made in calibration, are critical factors in the accuracy of the flow measurement.


title: Flow measurement

text: A positive displacement meter may be compared to a bucket and a stopwatch. The stopwatch is started when the flow starts and stopped when the bucket reaches its limit. The volume divided by the time gives the flow rate. For continuous measurements, we need a system of continually filling and emptying buckets to divide the flow without letting it out of the pipe. These continuously forming and collapsing volumetric displacements may take the form of pistons reciprocating in cylinders, gear teeth mating against the internal wall of a meter or through a progressive cavity created by rotating oval gears or a helical screw.


title: Flow measurement

text: Because they are used for domestic water measurement, piston meters, also known as rotary piston or semi-positive displacement meters, are the most common flow measurement devices in the UK and are used for almost all meter sizes up to and including 40 mm ( in). The piston meter operates on the principle of a piston rotating within a chamber of known volume. For each rotation, an amount of water passes through the piston chamber. Through a gear mechanism and, sometimes, a magnetic drive, a needle dial and odometer type display are advanced.


title: Flow measurement

text: An oval gear meter is a positive displacement meter that uses two or more oblong gears configured to rotate at right angles to one another, forming a T shape. Such a meter has two sides, which can be called A and B. No fluid passes through the center of the meter, where the teeth of the two gears always mesh. On one side of the meter (A), the teeth of the gears close off the fluid flow because the elongated gear on side A is protruding into the measurement chamber, while on the other side of the meter (B), a cavity holds a fixed volume of fluid in a measurement chamber. As the fluid pushes the gears, it rotates them, allowing the fluid in the measurement chamber on side B to be released into the outlet port. Meanwhile, fluid entering the inlet port will be driven into the measurement chamber of side A, which is now open. The teeth on side B will now close off the fluid from entering side B. This cycle continues as the gears rotate and fluid is metered through alternating measurement chambers. Permanent magnets in the rotating gears can transmit a signal to an electric reed switch or current transducer for flow measurement. Though claims for high performance are made, they are generally not as precise as the sliding vane design.


title: Flow measurement

text: Gear meters differ from oval gear meters in that the measurement chambers are made up of the gaps between the teeth of the gears. These openings divide up the fluid stream and as the gears rotate away from the inlet port, the meter's inner wall closes off the chamber to hold the fixed amount of fluid. The outlet port is located in the area where the gears are coming back together. The fluid is forced out of the meter as the gear teeth mesh and reduce the available pockets to nearly zero volume.


title: Flow measurement

text: Helical gear flowmeters get their name from the shape of their gears or rotors. These rotors resemble the shape of a helix, which is a spiral-shaped structure. As the fluid flows through the meter, it enters the compartments in the rotors, causing the rotors to rotate. The length of the rotor is sufficient that the inlet and outlet are always separated from each other thus blocking a free flow of liquid. The mating helical rotors create a progressive cavity which opens to admit fluid, seals itself off and then opens up to the downstream side to release the fluid. This happens in a continuous fashion and the flowrate is calculated from the speed of rotation.


title: Flow measurement

text: This is the most commonly used measurement system for measuring water supply in houses. The fluid, most commonly water, enters in one side of the meter and strikes the nutating disk, which is eccentrically mounted. The disk must then "wobble" or nutate about the vertical axis, since the bottom and the top of the disk remain in contact with the mounting chamber. A partition separates the inlet and outlet chambers. As the disk nutates, it gives direct indication of the volume of the liquid that has passed through the meter as volumetric flow is indicated by a gearing and register arrangement, which is connected to the disk. It is reliable for flow measurements within 1 percent.


title: Flow measurement

text: The turbine flowmeter (better described as an axial turbine) translates the mechanical action of the turbine rotating in the liquid flow around an axis into a user-readable rate of flow (gpm, lpm, etc.). The turbine tends to have all the flow traveling around it.


title: Flow measurement

text: The turbine wheel is set in the path of a fluid stream. The flowing fluid impinges on the turbine blades, imparting a force to the blade surface and setting the rotor in motion. When a steady rotation speed has been reached, the speed is proportional to fluid velocity.


title: Flow measurement

text: Turbine flowmeters are used for the measurement of natural gas and liquid flow. Turbine meters are less accurate than displacement and jet meters at low flow rates, but the measuring element does not occupy or severely restrict the entire path of flow. The flow direction is generally straight through the meter, allowing for higher flow rates and less pressure loss than displacement-type meters. They are the meter of choice for large commercial users, fire protection, and as master meters for the water distribution system. Strainers are generally required to be installed in front of the meter to protect the measuring element from gravel or other debris that could enter the water distribution system. Turbine meters are generally available for 4 to 30 cm (–12 in) or higher pipe sizes. Turbine meter bodies are commonly made of bronze, cast Iron, or ductile iron. Internal turbine elements can be plastic or non-corrosive metal alloys. They are accurate in normal working conditions but are greatly affected by the flow profile and fluid conditions.


title: Flow measurement

text: Fire meters are a specialized type of turbine meter with approvals for the high flow rates required in fire protection systems. They are often approved by Underwriters Laboratories (UL) or Factory Mutual (FM) or similar authorities for use in fire protection. Portable turbine meters may be temporarily installed to measure water used from a fire hydrant. The meters are normally made of aluminum to be lightweight, and are usually 7.5 cm (3 in) capacity. Water utilities often require them for measurement of water used in construction, pool filling, or where a permanent meter is not yet installed.


title: Flow measurement

text: The Woltman meter (invented by Reinhard Woltman in the 19th century) comprises a rotor with helical blades inserted axially in the flow, much like a ducted fan; it can be considered a type of turbine flowmeter. They are commonly referred to as helix meters, and are popular at larger sizes.


title: Flow measurement

text: A single jet meter consists of a simple impeller with radial vanes, impinged upon by a single jet. They are increasing in popularity in the UK at larger sizes and are commonplace in the EU.


title: Flow measurement

text: Paddle wheel flowmeters consist of three primary components: the paddle wheel sensor, the pipe fitting and the display/controller. The paddle wheel sensor consists of a freely rotating wheel/impeller with embedded magnets which are perpendicular to the flow and will rotate when inserted in the flowing medium. As the magnets in the blades spin past the sensor, the paddle wheel meter generates a frequency and voltage signal which is proportional to the flow rate. The faster the flow the higher the frequency and the voltage output.


title: Flow measurement

text: The paddle wheel meter is designed to be inserted into a pipe fitting, either 'in-line' or insertion style. These are available with wide range of fittings styles, connection methods and materials such as PVDF, polypropylene, and stainless steel. Similar to turbine meters, the paddle wheel meter require a minimum run of straight pipe before and after the sensor.


title: Flow measurement

text: Flow displays and controllers are used to receive the signal from the paddle wheel meter and convert it into actual flow rate or total flow values. The processed signal can be used to control the process, generate an alarm, send signals to external etc.


title: Flow measurement

text: Paddle wheel flowmeters (also known as Pelton wheel sensors) offer a relatively low cost, high accuracy option for many flow system applications, typically with water or water-like fluids.


title: Flow measurement

text: A multiple jet or multijet meter is a velocity type meter which has an impeller which rotates horizontally on a vertical shaft. The impeller element is in a housing in which multiple inlet ports direct the fluid flow at the impeller causing it to rotate in a specific direction in proportion to the flow velocity. This meter works mechanically much like a single jet meter except that the ports direct the flow at the impeller equally from several points around the circumference of the element, not just one point; this minimizes uneven wear on the impeller and its shaft. Thus these types of meters are recommended to be installed horizontally with its roller index pointing skywards.


title: Flow measurement

text: The Pelton wheel turbine (better described as a radial turbine) translates the mechanical action of the Pelton wheel rotating in the liquid flow around an axis into a user-readable rate of flow (gpm, lpm, etc.). The Pelton wheel tends to have all the flow traveling around it with the inlet flow focused on the blades by a jet. The original Pelton wheels were used for the generation of power and consisted of a radial flow turbine with "reaction cups" which not only move with the force of the water on the face but return the flow in opposite direction using this change of fluid direction to further increase the efficiency of the turbine.


title: Flow measurement

text: Flow through a large penstock such as used at a hydroelectric power plant can be measured by averaging the flow velocity over the entire area. Propeller-type current meters (similar to the purely mechanical Ekman current meter, but now with electronic data acquisition) can be traversed over the area of the penstock and velocities averaged to calculate total flow. This may be on the order of hundreds of cubic meters per second. The flow must be kept steady during the traverse of the current meters. Methods for testing hydroelectric turbines are given in IEC standard 41. Such flow measurements are often commercially important when testing the efficiency of large turbines.


title: Flow measurement

text: There are several types of flowmeter that rely on Bernoulli's principle. The pressure is measured either by using laminar plates, an orifice, a nozzle, or a Venturi tube to create an artificial constriction and then measure the pressure loss of fluids as they pass that constriction, or by measuring static and stagnation pressures to derive the dynamic pressure.


title: Flow measurement

text: A Venturi meter constricts the flow in some fashion, and pressure sensors measure the differential pressure before and within the constriction. This method is widely used to measure flow rate in the transmission of gas through pipelines, and has been used since Roman Empire times. The coefficient of discharge of Venturi meter ranges from 0.93 to 0.97. The first large-scale Venturi meters to measure liquid flows were developed by Clemens Herschel, who used them to measure small and large flows of water and wastewater beginning at the very end of the 19th century.


title: Flow measurement

text: An orifice plate is a plate with a hole through it, placed perpendicular to the flow; it constricts the flow, and measuring the pressure differential across the constriction gives the flow rate. It is basically a crude form of Venturi meter, but with higher energy losses. There are three type of orifice: concentric, eccentric, and segmental.


title: Flow measurement

text: The Dall tube is a shortened version of a Venturi meter, with a lower pressure drop than an orifice plate. As with these flowmeters the flow rate in a Dall tube is determined by measuring the pressure drop caused by restriction in the conduit. The pressure differential is typically measured using diaphragm pressure transducers with digital readout. Since these meters have significantly lower permanent pressure losses than orifice meters, Dall tubes are widely used for measuring the flow rate of large pipeworks. Differential pressure produced by a Dall tube is higher than Venturi tube and nozzle, all of them having same throat diameters.


title: Flow measurement

text: A pitot tube is used to measure fluid flow velocity. The tube is pointed into the flow and the difference between the stagnation pressure at the tip of the probe and the static pressure at its side is measured, yielding the dynamic pressure from which the fluid velocity is calculated using Bernoulli's equation. A volumetric rate of flow may be determined by measuring the velocity at different points in the flow and generating the velocity profile.


title: Flow measurement

text: Averaging pitot tubes (also called impact probes) extend the theory of pitot tube to more than one dimension. A typical averaging pitot tube consists of three or more holes (depending on the type of probe) on the measuring tip arranged in a specific pattern. More holes allow the instrument to measure the direction of the flow velocity in addition to its magnitude (after appropriate calibration). Three holes arranged in a line allow the pressure probes to measure the velocity vector in two dimensions. Introduction of more holes, e.g. five holes arranged in a "plus" formation, allow measurement of the three-dimensional velocity vector.


title: Flow measurement

text: Cone meters are a newer differential pressure metering device first launched in 1985 by McCrometer in Hemet, CA. The cone meter is a generic yet robust differential pressure (DP) meter that has shown to be resistant to effects of asymmetric and swirling flow. While working with the same basic principles as Venturi and orifice type DP meters, cone meters don't require the same upstream and downstream piping. The cone acts as a conditioning device as well as a differential pressure producer. Upstream requirements are between 0–5 diameters compared to up to 44 diameters for an orifice plate or 22 diameters for a Venturi. Because cone meters are generally of welded construction, it is recommended they are always calibrated prior to service. Inevitably heat effects of welding cause distortions and other effects that prevent tabular data on discharge coefficients with respect to line size, beta ratio and operating Reynolds numbers from being collected and published. Calibrated cone meters have an uncertainty up to ±0.5%. Un-calibrated cone meters have an uncertainty of ±5.0%


title: Flow measurement

text: Linear resistance meters, also called laminar flowmeters, measure very low flows at which the measured differential pressure is linearly proportional to the flow and to the fluid viscosity. Such flow is called viscous drag flow or laminar flow, as opposed to the turbulent flow measured by orifice plates, Venturis and other meters mentioned in this section, and is characterized by Reynolds numbers below 2000. The primary flow element may consist of a single long capillary tube, a bundle of such tubes, or a long porous plug; such low flows create small pressure differentials but longer flow elements create higher, more easily measured differentials. These flowmeters are particularly sensitive to temperature changes affecting the fluid viscosity and the diameter of the flow element, as can be seen in the governing Hagen–Poiseuille equation.


title: Flow measurement

text: A "variable area meter" measures fluid flow by allowing the cross sectional area of the device to vary in response to the flow, causing some measurable effect that indicates the rate.


title: Flow measurement

text: A rotameter is an example of a variable area meter, where a weighted "float" rises in a tapered tube as the flow rate increases; the float stops rising when area between float and tube is large enough that the weight of the float is balanced by the drag of fluid flow. A kind of rotameter used for medical gases is the Thorpe tube flowmeter. Floats are made in many different shapes, with spheres and spherical ellipses being the most common. Some are designed to spin visibly in the fluid stream to aid the user in determining whether the float is stuck or not. Rotameters are available for a wide range of liquids but are most commonly used with water or air. They can be made to reliably measure flow down to 1% accuracy.


title: Flow measurement

text: Another type is a variable area orifice, where a spring-loaded tapered plunger is deflected by flow through an orifice. The displacement can be related to the flow rate.


title: Flow measurement

text: Optical flowmeters use light to determine flow rate. Small particles which accompany natural and industrial gases pass through two laser beams focused a short distance apart in the flow path in a pipe by illuminating optics. Laser light is scattered when a particle crosses the first beam. The detecting optics collects scattered light on a photodetector, which then generates a pulse signal. As the same particle crosses the second beam, the detecting optics collect scattered light on a second photodetector, which converts the incoming light into a second electrical pulse. By measuring the time interval between these pulses, the gas velocity is calculated as formula_5 where formula_6 is the distance between the laser beams and formula_7 is the time interval.


title: Flow measurement

text: Laser-based optical flowmeters measure the actual speed of particles, a property which is not dependent on thermal conductivity of gases, variations in gas flow or composition of gases. The operating principle enables optical laser technology to deliver highly accurate flow data, even in challenging environments which may include high temperature, low flow rates, high pressure, high humidity, pipe vibration and acoustic noise.


title: Flow measurement

text: Optical flowmeters are very stable with no moving parts and deliver a highly repeatable measurement over the life of the product. Because distance between the two laser sheets does not change, optical flowmeters do not require periodic calibration after their initial commissioning. Optical flowmeters require only one installation point, instead of the two installation points typically required by other types of meters. A single installation point is simpler, requires less maintenance and is less prone to errors.


title: Flow measurement

text: Commercially available optical flowmeters are capable of measuring flow from 0.1 m/s to faster than 100 m/s (1000:1 turn down ratio) and have been demonstrated to be effective for the measurement of flare gases from oil wells and refineries, a contributor to atmospheric pollution.


title: Flow measurement

text: Open channel flow describes cases where flowing liquid has a top surface open to the air; the cross-section of the flow is only determined by the shape of the channel on the lower side, and is variable depending on the depth of liquid in the channel. Techniques appropriate for a fixed cross-section of flow in a pipe are not useful in open channels. Measuring flow in waterways is an important open-channel flow application; such installations are known as stream gauges.


title: Flow measurement

text: The level of the water is measured at a designated point behind weir or in flume using various secondary devices (bubblers, ultrasonic, float, and differential pressure are common methods). This depth is converted to a flow rate according to a theoretical formula of the form formula_8 where formula_1 is the flow rate, formula_10 is a constant, formula_11 is the water level, and formula_12 is an exponent which varies with the device used; or it is converted according to empirically derived level/flow data points (a "flow curve"). The flow rate can then be integrated over time into volumetric flow. Level to flow devices are commonly used to measure the flow of surface waters (springs, streams, and rivers), industrial discharges, and sewage. Of these, weirs are used on flow streams with low solids (typically surface waters), while flumes are used on flows containing low or high solids contents.


title: Flow measurement

text: The cross-sectional area of the flow is calculated from a depth measurement and the average velocity of the flow is measured directly (Doppler and propeller methods are common). Velocity times the cross-sectional area yields a flow rate which can be integrated into volumetric flow. There are two types of area velocity flowmeter: (1) wetted; and (2) non-contact. Wetted area velocity sensors have to be typically mounted on the bottom of a channel or river and use Doppler to measure the velocity of the entrained particles. With depth and a programmed cross-section this can then provide discharge flow measurement. Non-contact devices that use laser or radar are mounted above the channel and measure the velocity from above and then use ultrasound to measure the depth of the water from above. Radar devices can only measure surface velocities, whereas laser-based devices can measure velocities sub-surface.


title: Flow measurement

text: A known amount of dye (or salt) per unit time is added to a flow stream. After complete mixing, the concentration is measured. The dilution rate equals the flow rate.


title: Flow measurement

text: Acoustic Doppler velocimetry (ADV) is designed to record instantaneous velocity components at a single point with a relatively high frequency. Measurements are performed by measuring the velocity of particles in a remote sampling volume based upon the Doppler shift effect.


title: Flow measurement

text: Thermal mass flowmeters generally use combinations of heated elements and temperature sensors to measure the difference between static and flowing heat transfer to a fluid and infer its flow with a knowledge of the fluid's specific heat and density. The fluid temperature is also measured and compensated for. If the density and specific heat characteristics of the fluid are constant, the meter can provide a direct mass flow readout, and does not need any additional pressure temperature compensation over their specified range.


title: Flow measurement

text: Technological progress has allowed the manufacture of thermal mass flowmeters on a microscopic scale as MEMS sensors; these flow devices can be used to measure flow rates in the range of nanoliters or microliters per minute.


title: Flow measurement

text: Thermal mass flowmeter (also called thermal dispersion or thermal displacement flowmeter) technology is used for compressed air, nitrogen, helium, argon, oxygen, and natural gas. In fact, most gases can be measured as long as they are fairly clean and non-corrosive. For more aggressive gases, the meter may be made out of special alloys (e.g. Hastelloy), and pre-drying the gas also helps to minimize corrosion.


title: Flow measurement

text: Today, thermal mass flowmeters are used to measure the flow of gases in a growing range of applications, such as chemical reactions or thermal transfer applications that are difficult for other flowmetering technologies. Some other typical applications of flow sensors can be found in the medical field like, for example, CPAP devices, anesthesia equipment or respiratory devices. This is because thermal mass flowmeters monitor variations in one or more of the thermal characteristics (temperature, thermal conductivity, and/or specific heat) of gaseous media to define the mass flow rate.


title: Flow measurement

text: In many late model automobiles, a Mass Airflow (MAF) sensor is used to accurately determine the mass flow rate of intake air used in the internal combustion engine. Many such mass flow sensors use a heated element and a downstream temperature sensor to indicate the air flowrate. Other sensors use a spring-loaded vane. In either case, the vehicle's electronic control unit interprets the sensor signals as a real-time indication of an engine's fuel requirement.


title: Flow measurement

text: Another method of flow measurement involves placing a bluff body (called a shedder bar) in the path of the fluid. As the fluid passes this bar, disturbances in the flow called vortices are created. The vortices trail behind the cylinder, alternatively from each side of the bluff body. This vortex trail is called the Von Kármán vortex street after von Kármán's 1912 mathematical description of the phenomenon. The frequency at which these vortices alternate sides is essentially proportional to the flow rate of the fluid. Inside, atop, or downstream of the shedder bar is a sensor for measuring the frequency of the vortex shedding. This sensor is often a piezoelectric crystal, which produces a small, but measurable, voltage pulse every time a vortex is created. Since the frequency of such a voltage pulse is also proportional to the fluid velocity, a volumetric flow rate is calculated using the cross-sectional area of the flowmeter. The frequency is measured and the flow rate is calculated by the flowmeter electronics using the equation formula_13


title: Flow measurement

text: where formula_14 is the frequency of the vortices, formula_15 the characteristic length of the bluff body, formula_16 is the velocity of the flow over the bluff body, and formula_17 is the Strouhal number, which is essentially a constant for a given body shape within its operating limits.


title: Flow measurement

text: Sonar flowmeters are non-intrusive clamp-on devices that measure flow in pipes conveying slurries, corrosive fluids, multiphase fluids and flows where insertion type flowmeters are not desired. Sonar flowmeters have been widely adopted in mining, metals processing, and upstream oil and gas industries where traditional technologies have certain limitations due to their tolerance to various flow regimes and turn down ratios.


title: Flow measurement

text: Sonar flowmeters have the capacity of measuring the velocity of liquids or gases non-intrusively within the pipe and then leverage this velocity measurement into a flow rate by using the cross-sectional area of the pipe and the line pressure and temperature. The principle behind this flow measurement is the use of underwater acoustics.


title: Flow measurement

text: Likewise, sonar flow measurement uses the same techniques and algorithms employed in underwater acoustics, but applies them to flow measurement of oil and gas wells and flow lines.


title: Flow measurement

text: Modern innovations in the measurement of flow rate incorporate electronic devices that can correct for varying pressure and temperature (i.e. density) conditions, non-linearities, and for the characteristics of the fluid.


title: Flow measurement

text: Magnetic flowmeters, often called "mag meter"s or "electromag"s, use a magnetic field applied to the metering tube, which results in a potential difference proportional to the flow velocity perpendicular to the flux lines. The potential difference is sensed by electrodes aligned perpendicular to the flow and the applied magnetic field. The physical principle at work is Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. The magnetic flowmeter requires a conducting fluid and a nonconducting pipe liner. The electrodes must not corrode in contact with the process fluid; some magnetic flowmeters have auxiliary transducers installed to clean the electrodes in place. The applied magnetic field is pulsed, which allows the flowmeter to cancel out the effect of stray voltage in the piping system.


title: Flow measurement

text: A Lorentz force velocimetry system is called Lorentz force flowmeter (LFF). An LFF measures the integrated or bulk Lorentz force resulting from the interaction between a liquid metal in motion and an applied magnetic field. In this case, the characteristic length of the magnetic field is of the same order of magnitude as the dimensions of the channel. It must be addressed that in the case where localized magnetic fields are used, it is possible to perform local velocity measurements and thus the term Lorentz force velocimeter is used.


title: Flow measurement

text: There are two main types of ultrasonic flowmeters: Doppler and transit time. While they both utilize ultrasound to make measurements and can be non-invasive (measure flow from outside the tube, pipe or vessel), they measure flow by very different methods.


title: Flow measurement

text: Ultrasonic transit time flowmeters measure the difference of the transit time of ultrasonic pulses propagating in and against the direction of flow. This time difference is a measure for the average velocity of the fluid along the path of the ultrasonic beam. By using the absolute transit times both the averaged fluid velocity and the speed of sound can be calculated. Using the two transit times formula_18 and formula_19 and the distance between receiving and transmitting transducers formula_15 and the inclination angle formula_21 one can write the equations:


title: Flow measurement

text: where formula_24 is the average velocity of the fluid along the sound path and formula_25 is the speed of sound.


title: Flow measurement

text: With wide-beam illumination transit time ultrasound can also be used to measure volume flow independent of the cross-sectional area of the vessel or tube.


title: Flow measurement

text: Ultrasonic Doppler flowmeters measure the Doppler shift resulting from reflecting an ultrasonic beam off the particulates in flowing fluid. The frequency of the transmitted beam is affected by the movement of the particles; this frequency shift can be used to calculate the fluid velocity. For the Doppler principle to work, there must be a high enough density of sonically reflective materials such as solid particles or air bubbles suspended in the fluid. This is in direct contrast to an ultrasonic transit time flowmeter, where bubbles and solid particles reduce the accuracy of the measurement. Due to the dependency on these particles, there are limited applications for Doppler flowmeters. This technology is also known as acoustic Doppler velocimetry.


title: Flow measurement

text: One advantage of ultrasonic flowmeters is that they can effectively measure the flow rates for a wide variety of fluids, as long as the speed of sound through that fluid is known. For example, ultrasonic flowmeters are used for the measurement of such diverse fluids as liquid natural gas (LNG) and blood. One can also calculate the expected speed of sound for a given fluid; this can be compared to the speed of sound empirically measured by an ultrasonic flowmeter for the purposes of monitoring the quality of the flowmeter's measurements. A drop in quality (change in the measured speed of sound) is an indication that the meter needs servicing.


title: Flow measurement

text: Using the Coriolis effect that causes a laterally vibrating tube to distort, a direct measurement of mass flow can be obtained in a coriolis flowmeter. Furthermore, a direct measure of the density of the fluid is obtained. Coriolis measurement can be very accurate irrespective of the type of gas or liquid that is measured; the same measurement tube can be used for hydrogen gas and bitumen without recalibration.


title: Flow measurement

text: A beam of laser light impinging on a moving particle will be partially scattered with a change in wavelength proportional to the particle's speed (the Doppler effect). A laser Doppler velocimeter (LDV), also called a laser Doppler anemometer (LDA), focuses a laser beam into a small volume in a flowing fluid containing small particles (naturally occurring or induced). The particles scatter the light with a Doppler shift. Analysis of this shifted wavelength can be used to directly, and with great precision, determine the speed of the particle and thus a close approximation of the fluid velocity.


title: Flow measurement

text: A number of different techniques and device configurations are available for determining the Doppler shift. All use a photodetector (typically an avalanche photodiode) to convert the light into an electrical waveform for analysis. In most devices, the original laser light is divided into two beams. In one general LDV class, the two beams are made to intersect at their focal points where they interfere and generate a set of straight fringes. The sensor is then aligned to the flow such that the fringes are perpendicular to the flow direction. As particles pass through the fringes, the Doppler-shifted light is collected into the photodetector. In another general LDV class, one beam is used as a reference and the other is Doppler-scattered. Both beams are then collected onto the photodetector where optical heterodyne detection is used to extract the Doppler signal.


title: Flow measurement

text: Even though ideally the flowmeter should be unaffected by its environment, in practice this is unlikely to be the case. Often measurement errors originate from incorrect installation or other environment dependent factors. In situ methods are used when flowmeter is calibrated in the correct flow conditions. The result of a flowmeter calibration will result in two related statistics: a performance indicator metric and a flow rate metric.


title: Flow measurement

text: For pipe flows a so-called transit time method is applied where a radiotracer is injected as a pulse into the measured flow. The transit time is defined with the help of radiation detectors placed on the outside of the pipe. The volume flow is obtained by multiplying the measured average fluid flow velocity by the inner pipe cross-section. This reference flow value is compared with the simultaneous flow value given by the flow measurement to be calibrated.


title: Flow measurement

text: The procedure is standardised (ISO 2975/VII for liquids and BS 5857-2.4 for gases). The best accredited measurement uncertainty for liquids and gases is 0.5%.


title: Flow measurement

text: The radiotracer dilution method is used to calibrate open channel flow measurements. A solution with a known tracer concentration is injected at a constant known velocity into the channel flow. Downstream the tracer solution is thoroughly mixed over the flow cross-section, a continuous sample is taken and its tracer concentration in relation to that of the injected solution is determined. The flow reference value is determined by using the tracer balance condition between the injected tracer flow and the diluting flow.


title: Flow measurement

text: The procedure is standardised (ISO 9555-1 and ISO 9555-2 for liquid flow in open channels). The best accredited measurement uncertainty is 1%.


title: Dave Willis

text: Dave Willis (born May 1, 1970) is an American voice actor, writer, animator, producer and musician. He is best known as the co-creator of the Adult Swim animated series "Aqua Teen Hunger Force" and "Squidbillies", the former of which he voices the characters of Meatwad and Carl Brutananadilewski. He is also known for voicing Barry Dylan in the FXX series "Archer" and Leto Otel in "".


title: Dave Willis

text: Willis has worked on various Adult Swim shows that are created primarily by Williams Street, an animation-centered, Atlanta-based production division of Cartoon Network.


title: Dave Willis

text: Willis got hired at Ghost Planet Industries after giving the producers a very formal letter of recommendation written in crayon, seemingly by a young child. They liked his sense of humor and hired Willis as a writer for "Cartoon Planet" in 1995 and then as a writer for "Space Ghost Coast to Coast" ("SGC2C" for short) soon after. In early 2000, he helped write and produce the two "Brak Presents the Brak Show Starring Brak" specials.


title: Dave Willis

text: Willis was working on "Space Ghost Coast to Coast" where he first met Matt Maiellaro, with whom Willis would later create many independent short films and eventually create the popular Adult Swim cartoon "Aqua Teen Hunger Force". "Aqua Teen Hunger Force" first premiered unannounced in the early hours of December 30, 2000 and later officially debuted on Adult Swim in the Fall of 2001. In 2005, he co-created the show "Squidbillies". His works mostly fall into the genre of surreal humour.


title: Dave Willis

text: In 2010, Willis created "Cheyenne Cinnamon and the Fantabulous Unicorn of Sugar Town Candy Fudge", a new television pilot for Adult Swim. The pilot aired on March 29, 2010, and was not picked up for a full series. In 2010, Willis co-wrote "New Kidney in Town", an episode of "Family Guy".


title: Dave Willis

text: Willis was born in Wichita Falls, Texas, and was raised mostly in Conyers, Georgia. He graduated from Wake Forest University and was station manager at Wake Radio. He resides in Atlanta with his wife and two children, Max and Sadie.


title: Riot Act

text: The Riot Act (1 Geo.1 St.2 c.5), sometimes called the Riot Act 1714 or the Riot Act 1715, was an act of the Parliament of Great Britain which authorised local authorities to declare any group of 12 or more people to be unlawfully assembled and order them to disperse or face punitive action. The act's full title was "An Act for preventing tumults and riotous assemblies, and for the more speedy and effectual punishing the rioters", and it came into force on 1 August 1715. It was repealed in England and Wales by section 10(2) and Part III of Schedule 3 of the Criminal Law Act 1967. Acts similar to the Riot Act passed into the laws of British colonies in Australia, Canada, and United States, some of which remain today.


title: Riot Act

text: The phrase "read the riot act" has passed into common usage for a stern reprimand or warning of consequences.


title: Riot Act

text: The Riot Act 1714 was introduced during a time of civil disturbance in Great Britain, including the Sacheverell riots of 1710, the Coronation riots of 1714 and the 1715 riots in England. The preamble makes reference to "many rebellious riots and tumults [that] have been [taking place of late] in diverse parts of this kingdom", adding that those involved "presum[e] so to do, for that the punishments provided by the laws now in being are not adequate to such heinous offences".


title: Riot Act

text: The act created a mechanism for certain local officials to make a proclamation ordering the dispersal of any group of more than twelve people who were "unlawfully, riotously, and tumultuously assembled together". If the group failed to disperse within one hour, then anyone remaining gathered was guilty of a felony without benefit of clergy, punishable by death.


title: Riot Act

text: The proclamation could be made in an incorporated town or city by the mayor, bailiff or "other head officer", or a justice of the peace. Elsewhere it could be made by a justice of the peace or the sheriff, undersheriff or parish constable. It had to be read out to the gathering concerned, and had to follow precise wording detailed in the act; several convictions were overturned because parts of the proclamation had been omitted, in particular "God save the King".


title: Riot Act

text: In a number of jurisdictions, such as Britain, Canada and New Zealand, wording such as this was enshrined and codified in the law itself. While the expression "reading the Riot Act" is cemented in common idiom with its figurative usage, it originated fairly and squarely in statute itself. In New Zealand's Crimes Act 1961, section 88, repealed since 1987, was specifically given the heading of "Reading the Riot Act".


title: Riot Act

text: If a group of people failed to disperse within one hour of the proclamation, the act provided that the authorities could use force to disperse them. Anyone assisting with the dispersal was specifically indemnified against any legal consequences in the event of any of the crowd being injured or killed.


title: Riot Act

text: Because of the broad authority that the act granted, it was used both for the maintenance of civil order and for political means. A particularly notorious use of the act was the Peterloo Massacre of 1819 in Manchester.


title: Riot Act

text: The act also made it a felony punishable by death without benefit of clergy for "any persons unlawfully, riotously and tumultuously assembled together" to cause (or begin to cause) serious damage to places of religious worship, houses, barns, and stables.


title: Riot Act

text: In the event of buildings being damaged in areas that were not incorporated into a town or city, the residents of the hundred were made liable to pay damages to the property owners concerned. Unlike the rest of the act, this required a civil action. In the case of incorporated areas, the action could be brought against two or more named individuals. This provision encouraged residents to attempt to quell riots in order to avoid paying damages.


title: Riot Act

text: At times, it was unclear to both rioters and authorities as to whether the reading of the Riot Act had occurred. One example of this is evident in the massacre of St George's Fields of 1768. At the trials following the incident, there was confusion among witnesses as to when the Riot Act had actually been read.


title: Riot Act

text: In the 1768 massacre of St George's Fields, large numbers of subjects gathered outside King's Bench Prison in Southwark, south London, to protest against the incarceration of John Wilkes. Officials feared that the crowd would forcibly release Wilkes, and troops arrived to guard the prison. After some time, as well as provocation by the rioters, the troops opened fire on the crowd. There were several fatalities, including non-participants of the riot who were struck by stray bullets. Some scholars believe that this massacre set the legal precedent for the justified use of force in future riots.


title: Riot Act

text: There was also confusion regarding the use of troops as it pertained to the one-hour mark. Rioters often believed that the military could not use force until one hour had passed since the reading of the proclamation. This is evident in the actions of the rioters at the massacre of St George's Fields, particularly their provocative behaviour towards the soldiers.


title: Riot Act

text: The Riot Act caused confusion during the Gordon Riots of 1780, when the authorities felt uncertain of their power to take action to stop the riots without a reading of the Riot Act. After the riots, Lord Mansfield observed that the Riot Act did not take away the pre-existing power of the authorities to use force to stop a violent riot; it only created the additional offence of failing to disperse after a reading of the Riot Act.


title: Riot Act

text: The Riot Act was read prior to the Peterloo Massacre of 1819 and the Cinderloo Uprising of 1821, as well as before the Bristol Riots at Queen's Square in 1831. Both are held to be related to the Unreformed House of Commons, which was righted in the Reform Act 1832.


title: Riot Act

text: Lieutenant-Governor Sir Francis Bond Head and his administrators read the act during the Upper Canada Rebellion of 1837. The malcontented Canadians were assuaged by the eventual introduction of responsible government in Canada.


title: Riot Act

text: The death penalty created by sections one, four and five of the act was reduced to transportation for life by section one of the Punishment of Offences Act 1837.


title: Riot Act

text: The Riot Act eventually drifted into disuse. The last time it was definitely read in England was in Birkenhead, Cheshire, on 3 August 1919, during the second police strike, when large numbers of police officers from Birkenhead, Liverpool and Bootle joined the strike.Troops were called in to deal with the rioting and looting that had begun, and a magistrate read out the Riot Act. None of the rioters subsequently faced the charge of a statutory felony. Earlier in the same year, at the battle of George Square on 31 January, in Glasgow, the city's sheriff was in the process of reading the Riot Act to a crowd of 20,000–25,000 when the sheet of paper he was reading from was ripped out of his hands by one of the rioters.


title: Riot Act

text: The Riot Act passed into the law of those countries that were then colonies of Great Britain, including the North American colonies that would become the United States and Canada.


title: Riot Act

text: In many common-law jurisdictions, a lesser disturbance such as an affray or an unruly gathering may be deemed an unlawful assembly by the local authorities, and ordered to disperse. Failure to obey such an order would typically be prosecuted as a summary offence.


title: Riot Act

text: Acts similar to the Riot Act have been enacted in some Australian states. For example, in Victoria the Unlawful Assemblies and Processions Act 1958 allowed a magistrate to disperse a crowd with the words (or words to the effect of):


title: Riot Act

text: Anyone remaining after 15 minutes may be charged and imprisoned for one month (first offence) or three months (repeat offence). The act does not apply to crowds gathered for the purpose of an election.


title: Riot Act

text: The same act allows a magistrate to appoint citizens as "special [police] constables" to disperse a crowd, and provides indemnity for the hurting or killing of unlawfully assembled people in an attempt to disperse them. The Act was significantly amended in 2007.


title: Riot Act

text: Belize, another former British colony, also still retains the principle of the Riot Act; it was last read on 21 January 2005, during the 2005 Belize unrest. While there is no specific form of words provided for such proclamations, they must be made "in the King's name".


title: Riot Act

text: The provisions are formed in sections 231, 246 and 247 of the country's criminal code, providing particularly that:


title: Riot Act

text: Any person who does not disperse within one hour of the proclamation being read is liable to receive a maximum penalty of five years imprisonment.


title: Riot Act

text: In Canada, the Riot Act has been incorporated in a modified form into the "Criminal Code", a federal statute. Sections 32 and 33 of the Code deal with the power of police officers to suppress riots. The Code defines a riot as an "unlawful assembly" that has "begun to disturb the peace tumultuously". When twelve or more persons are "unlawfully and riotously assembled together", the proclamation can be read by a number of public officials, such as justices of the peace, provincial court judges, mayors, and sheriffs. The proclamation can also be read during prison riots: Quebec and Manitoba have designated senior correctional staff as Justices of the Peace for the purpose of reading the proclamation, while other provinces will ask a local justice of the peace to travel to the prison to read the proclamation.


title: Riot Act

text: Unlike the original Riot Act, the "Criminal Code" requires the assembled people to disperse within thirty minutes. When the proclamation has not been read, the punishment for rioting is up to two years of imprisonment. When the proclamation has been read and then ignored, the penalty increases, up to life imprisonment. The maximum penalty of life imprisonment also applies to someone who wilfully uses force to hinder the reading of the proclamation, or to those fail to disperse and who have reasonable grounds to believe the proclamation would have been made had the official not been hindered by force.


title: Riot Act

text: The proclamation was read during the Winnipeg general strike of 1919 and the 1958 riot over racial discrimination against First Nations in Prince Rupert, British Columbia. One recent reading was during Vancouver's Stanley Cup riot in June 2011. Despite the reading of the proclamation, rioters were almost always charged under s 65 due to the difficulty of proving the elements of the offence in s 68. Many rioters also faced charges related to assaulting peace officers, mischief, theft, arson and assault.


title: Riot Act

text: In St Kitts on the 29th of January 1935 the act was read at BUCKLEY’S ESTATE located on the western outskirts of Basseterre during the "Sugar Workers Rebellion"


title: Riot Act

text: In New Zealand the Riot Act was incorporated into sections 87 and 88 of the Crimes Act 1961. The proclamation is worded as follows:


title: Riot Act

text: At the federal level, the principle of the Riot Act was incorporated into the first Militia Act (1 Stat. 264) of 2 May 1792. The act's long title was "An act to provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections and repel invasions". Section 3 of the Militia Act gave power to the president to issue a proclamation to "command the insurgents to disperse, and retire peaceably to their respective abodes, within a limited time", and authorized him to use the militia if they failed to do so. Substantively identical language is currently codified in title 10 of the United States Code, Chapter 13, Section 254.


title: Riot Act

text: Prohibitions against inciting riots were further codified in United States federal law under "18 U.S. Code § 2101 – Riots", as part of the Civil Rights Act of 1968, passed by the United States Congress.


title: Riot Act

text: Because the authorities were required to read the proclamation that referred to the Riot Act before they could enforce it, the expression "to read the Riot Act" entered into common language as a phrase meaning "to reprimand severely", with the added sense of a stern warning. The phrase remains in common use in the English language.


title: Biotite

text: Biotite is a common group of phyllosilicate minerals within the mica group, with the approximate chemical formula . It is primarily a solid-solution series between the iron-endmember annite, and the magnesium-endmember phlogopite; more aluminous end-members include siderophyllite and eastonite. Biotite was regarded as a mineral "species" by the International Mineralogical Association until 1998, when its status was changed to a mineral "group". The term "biotite" is still used to describe unanalysed dark micas in the field. Biotite was named by J.F.L. Hausmann in 1847 in honor of the French physicist Jean-Baptiste Biot, who performed early research into the many optical properties of mica.


title: Biotite

text: Members of the biotite group are sheet silicates. Iron, magnesium, aluminium, silicon, oxygen, and hydrogen form sheets that are weakly bound together by potassium ions. The term "iron mica" is sometimes used for iron-rich biotite, but the term also refers to a flaky micaceous form of haematite, and the field term Lepidomelane for unanalysed iron-rich Biotite avoids this ambiguity. Biotite is also sometimes called "black mica" as opposed to "white mica" (muscovite) – both form in the same rocks, and in some instances side by side.


title: Biotite

text: Like other mica minerals, biotite has a highly perfect basal cleavage, and consists of flexible sheets, or lamellae, which easily flake off. It has a monoclinic crystal system, with tabular to prismatic crystals with an obvious pinacoid termination. It has four prism faces and two pinacoid faces to form a pseudohexagonal crystal. Although not easily seen because of the cleavage and sheets, fracture is uneven. It appears greenish to brown or black, and even yellow when weathered. It can be transparent to opaque, has a vitreous to pearly luster, and a grey-white streak. When biotite crystals are found in large chunks, they are called "books" because they resemble books with pages of many sheets. The color of biotite is usually black and the mineral has a hardness of 2.5–3 on the Mohs scale of mineral hardness.


title: Biotite

text: Biotite dissolves in both acid and alkaline aqueous solutions, with the highest dissolution rates at low pH. However, biotite dissolution is highly anisotropic with crystal edge surfaces ("h k"0) reacting 45 to 132 times faster than basal surfaces (001).


title: Biotite

text: In thin section, biotite exhibits moderate relief and a pale to deep greenish brown or brown color, with moderate to strong pleochroism. Biotite has a high birefringence which can be partially masked by its deep intrinsic color. Under cross-polarized light, biotite exhibits extinction approximately parallel to cleavage lines, and can have characteristic bird's eye maple extinction, a mottled appearance caused by the distortion of the mineral's flexible lamellae during grinding of the thin section. Basal sections of biotite in thin section are typically approximately hexagonal in shape and usually appear isotropic under cross-polarized light.


title: Biotite

text: Like other micas, biotite has a crystal structure described as "TOT-c", meaning that it is composed of parallel "TOT" layers weakly bonded to each other by cations ("c"). The "TOT" layers in turn consist of two tetrahedral sheets ("T") strongly bonded to the two faces of a single octahedral sheet ("O"). It is the relatively weak ionic bonding between "TOT" layers that gives biotite its perfect basal cleavage.


title: Biotite

text: The tetrahedral sheets consist of silica tetrahedra, which are silicon ions surrounded by four oxygen ions. In biotite, one in four silicon ions is replaced by an aluminium ion. The tetrahedra each share three of their four oxygen ions with neighboring tetrahedra to produce a hexagonal sheet. The remaining oxygen ion (the "apical" oxygen ion) is available to bond with the octahedral sheet.


title: Biotite

text: The octahedral sheet in biotite is a trioctahedral sheet having the structure of a sheet of the mineral brucite, with magnesium or ferrous iron being the usual cations. Apical oxygens take the place of some of the hydroxyl ions that would be present in a brucite sheet, bonding the tetrahedral sheets tightly to the octahedral sheet.


title: Biotite

text: Tetrahedral sheets have a strong negative charge, since their bulk composition is AlSiO. The trioctahedral sheet has a positive charge, since its bulk composition is M(OH) (M represents a divalent ion such as ferrous iron or magnesium) The combined TOT layer has a residual negative charge, since its bulk composition is M(AlSiO)(OH). The remaining negative charge of the TOT layer is neutralized by the interlayer potassium ions.


title: Biotite

text: Because the hexagons in the T and O sheets are slightly different in size, the sheets are slightly distorted when they bond into a TOT layer. This breaks the hexagonal symmetry and reduces it to monoclinic symmetry. However, the original hexahedral symmetry is discernible in the pseudohexagonal character of biotite crystals.


title: Biotite

text: Members of the biotite group are found in a wide variety of igneous and metamorphic rocks. For instance, biotite occurs in the lava of Mount Vesuvius and in the Monzoni intrusive complex of the western Dolomites. Biotite in granite tends to be poorer in magnesium than the biotite found in its volcanic equivalent, rhyolite. Biotite is an essential phenocryst in some varieties of lamprophyre. Biotite is occasionally found in large cleavable crystals, especially in pegmatite veins, as in New England, Virginia and North Carolina USA. Other notable occurrences include Bancroft and Sudbury, Ontario Canada. It is an essential constituent of many metamorphic schists, and it forms in suitable compositions over a wide range of pressure and temperature. It has been estimated that biotite comprises up to 7% of the exposed continental crust.


title: Biotite

text: An igneous rock composed almost entirely of dark mica (biotite or phlogopite) is known as a "glimmerite" or "biotitite".


title: Biotite

text: The largest documented single crystals of biotite were approximately sheets found in Iveland, Norway.


title: Biotite

text: Biotite is used extensively to constrain ages of rocks, by either potassium-argon dating or argon–argon dating. Because argon escapes readily from the biotite crystal structure at high temperatures, these methods may provide only minimum ages for many rocks. Biotite is also useful in assessing temperature histories of metamorphic rocks, because the partitioning of iron and magnesium between biotite and garnet is sensitive to temperature.


title: Paper Plane (cocktail)

text: The Paper Plane is an IBA official cocktail. Developed around 2007 by Sasha Petraske and Sam Ross of Milk & Honey for their former colleague Toby Maloney's Chicago bar The Violet Hour. The recipe is a riff on a Last Word, which is a riff on the classic Corpse Reviver #2. The cocktail consists of equal parts Bourbon whiskey, Aperol, Amaro Nonino, and lemon juice. The cocktail's name is a reference to the M.I.A. track "Paper Planes," which was apparently a guilty pleasure of Petraske's.


title: John Bosa

text: John Wilfred Bosa (born January 10, 1964) is a former American football defensive end who played three seasons for the Miami Dolphins of the National Football League (NFL). He played football for Keene High School in Keene, New Hampshire and received a full athletic scholarship to play football for the Boston College Eagles.


title: John Bosa

text: John was selected by the Dolphins in the first round (16th overall) of the 1987 NFL Draft. His elder son, Joey Bosa, played college football at Ohio State University and was selected third overall in the 2016 NFL Draft by the San Diego Chargers. His younger son, Nick Bosa, also played college football at Ohio State and was selected second overall in the 2019 NFL Draft by the San Francisco 49ers. With that, the Bosas became the second family to have three members drafted in the first round of an NFL Draft behind Archie, Peyton, and Eli Manning.


title: Antiquities of the Jews

text: Antiquities of the Jews (; , "Ioudaikē archaiologia") is a 20-volume historiographical work, written in Greek, by historian Flavius Josephus in the 13th year of the reign of Roman emperor Flavius Domitian which was around AD 93 or 94. "Antiquities of the Jews" contains an account of the history of the Jewish people for Josephus' gentile patrons. In the first ten volumes, Josephus follows the events of the Hebrew Bible beginning with the creation of Adam and Eve.


title: Antiquities of the Jews

text: The second ten volumes continues the history of the Jewish people beyond the biblical text and up to the Jewish War, or the First Jewish–Roman War, 66 to 73 CE. This work, along with Josephus's other major work, "The Jewish War" ("De Bello Iudaico"), provides valuable background material for historians wishing to understand 1st-century AD Judaism and the early Christian period.


title: Antiquities of the Jews

text: Josephus' "Antiquities of the Jews" is a vital source for the history of the Intertestamental period and the Jewish war against Rome. "Antiquities of the Jews" is separated into twenty volumes:


title: Antiquities of the Jews

text: In the preface of "Antiquities of the Jews", Josephus provides his motivation for composing such a large work. He writes:


title: Antiquities of the Jews

text: Now I have undertaken the present work, as thinking it will appear to all the Greeks worthy of their study; for it will contain all our antiquities, and the constitution of our government, as interpreted out of the Hebrew Scriptures.


title: Antiquities of the Jews

text: Josephan scholar Louis Feldman highlights several of the misconceptions about the Jewish people that were being circulated in Josephus' time. In particular, the Jews were thought to lack great historical figures and a credible history of their people. They were also accused of harboring hostility toward non-Jews, and were thought to be generally lacking in loyalty, respect for authority, and charity. With these harsh accusations against the Jews fluttering about the Roman empire, Josephus, set out to provide a Hellenized version of the Jewish history. Such a work is often called an "apologia," as it pleads the case of a group of people or set of beliefs to a larger audience.


title: Antiquities of the Jews

text: In order to accomplish this goal, Josephus omitted certain accounts in the Jewish narrative and even added a Hellenistic "glaze" to his work. For example, the "Song of the Sea" sung by Moses and the people of Israel after their deliverance at the Red Sea is completely omitted in Josephus' text. He does mention, however, that Moses composed a song to God in hexameter—a rather unusual (and Greek) metrical scheme for an ancient Hebrew. Josephus also writes that Abraham taught science to the Egyptians, who in turn taught the Greeks, and that Moses set up a senatorial priestly aristocracy, which like Rome resisted monarchy. Thus, in an attempt to make the Jewish history more palatable to his Greco-Roman audience, the great figures of the biblical stories are presented as ideal philosopher-leaders.


title: Antiquities of the Jews

text: In another example, apparently due to his concern with pagan antisemitism, Josephus omitted the entire episode of the golden calf from his account of the Israelites at Mount Sinai. It has been suggested that he was afraid that the biblical account might be employed by Alexandrian antisemites to lend credence to their allegation that the Jews worshiped an ass's head in the Temple (cf. Apion 2:80, 114, 120; Tacitus, Histories 5:4). He also made discredited allegations that the Ancient Egyptians forced the Jewish slaves to build the pyramids, writing “They [the Egyptian taskmasters] set them also to build pyramids.”.


title: Antiquities of the Jews

text: Josephus also adds a short account of his personal life, "Vita", as an appendix to the "Judean Antiquities".


title: Antiquities of the Jews

text: Antiquities of the Jews contains a good deal of valuable, sometimes unique, historical material. This applies, for example, to the history of the Hellenistic states, Parthia, Armenia, the Nabatean kingdom, and the Roman Empire. It is no accident that in the Middle Ages and in modern times this book of Josephus was considered one of the most important sources in ancient Roman history, along with the works of Titus Livius, Tacitus, Suetonius, and one of the most erudite Christian authors of the 4th–5th centuries, Jerome called Josephus Flavius "Titus Livius of the Greeks". The "Jewish Encyclopedia" speculates that much of Josephus's writings on Herod the Great and his sons draw from the work of Nicolaus of Damascus, a personal friend of Herod's, whose writings remain largely missing; once Nicolaus's narrative on Herod Archelaus ends, Josephus's narrative becomes less detailed. Josephus admitted being familiar with Nicolaus's work but also rebuked Nicolaus for exaggerating Herod's royal claims and benevolence, where Josephus treated Herod as a tyrant.


title: Antiquities of the Jews

text: The extant copies of this work contain two passages about Jesus and James the Just. The long one has come to be known as the "Testimonium Flavianum". Scholars usually agree on the authenticity of the second passage, while the first one is considered to be authentic, but to have been subjected to Christian interpolation.


title: Antiquities of the Jews

text: The earliest Greek manuscript of Books 11–20 of the "Antiquities" dates from the eleventh century, the Ambrosianus 370 (F 128); preserved in the Biblioteca Ambrosiana in Milan. However, the manuscript tradition is complex and many manuscripts are incomplete.


title: Antiquities of the Jews

text: The works of Josephus Flavius were popular in late antiquity. Then appeared the translation of "Antiquities of the Jews" into Latin. It is attributed to either Jerome or his contemporary Tyrannius Rufinus. In medieval Europe, "Antiquities of the Jews" circulated widely, mainly in Latin translation.


title: Antiquities of the Jews

text: This work of Joseph Flavius was translated into Old Bulgarian at the Preslav Literary School in the beginning of the 10th century during the time of Simeon the Great.


title: Antiquities of the Jews

text: In the 9th–10th centuries, the so-called "Josippon", written in Hebrew, appeared in Italy. It described the events of world and Jewish history from the time of the construction of the Tower of Babel to the capture of Jerusalem by the Romans in 70 AD. Essentially, this chronicle was an abbreviated translation of "Jewish Antiquities" and "The Jewish War", but Joseph ben Gorion was named the author. Josippon gained no less popularity than Antiquities of the Jews. With the advent of printing, it was published even before this major work of Josephus Flavius in 1476.


title: Antiquities of the Jews

text: In 1602, Thomas Lodge published an English translation of both the "Antiquities" and the "Wars". This volume amounted to over 800 pages.


title: Antiquities of the Jews

text: The first printed edition of "Antiquities of the Jews" in Greek appeared in 1544. Other publications followed—1611 and 1634 (Cologne), 1687 (Oxford), 1691 (Leipzig), 1700 (Oxford), 1726 (Leiden), and so on. Already in the 15th–16th centuries, "Jewish Antiquities" was translated into French, Italian, German and Spanish. The book was published both in modern languages and in Latin. The first Russian translation of "Jewish Antiquities" appeared in 1781. First Italian translation dates to 1549 in Venice.


title: Antiquities of the Jews

text: One of the best known translations of this work was provided by William Whiston in 1737, which has been in print continuously since then. The Loeb Classical Library published a 1926 translation by Henry St. John Thackeray and Ralph Marcus, normally preferred academically. A cross-reference apparatus for the Works of Josephus and the Biblical canon also exists.


title: The Hollywood Vampires

text: The Hollywood Vampires was a celebrity drinking club formed by Alice Cooper in the 1970s. The hazing to get into the club was to outdrink all the members. According to Cooper in the documentary "Prime Cuts": "The Speakeasy and Tramps were the place to be in London. There was a little loft at the Rainbow Bar and Grill in LA (W. Hollywood), they only had that for the club."


title: The Hollywood Vampires

text: Cooper listed himself, Keith Moon, Ringo Starr, Micky Dolenz and Harry Nilsson as the club's principal members: "It was that crowd, every night those same people. Every once in a while John Lennon would come into town or Keith Emerson and they would be honorable members of the night. They still have a plaque there at the Rainbow, where it says 'The Lair of the Hollywood Vampires'."


title: The Hollywood Vampires

text: Although Brian Wilson and Iggy Pop often fraternized with members of the club, it remains unclear if they were formally inducted.


title: The Hollywood Vampires

text: In 2015, Cooper formed a supergroup named after the club with Johnny Depp and Joe Perry. They released their debut studio album, "Hollywood Vampires", on September 11.


title: Marriage in Pakistan

text: Marriage in Pakistan () pertains to wedding traditions established and adhered by Pakistani men and women. Despite their local and regional variations, marriages in Pakistan generally follow Islamic marital jurisprudence., they are very similar to north Indian weddings traditionally and culturally. Socially, marriages are not only seen as a union between a husband and a wife, but also an alliance between their respective families. These traditions extend to other countries around in the world where Overseas Pakistani communities exist.


title: Marriage in Pakistan

text: Searching for a potential groom or bride () is the first step of traditional Pakistani marriages. Beyond age 20, both men and women are considered potential grooms and brides. Most marriages in Pakistan are traditional arranged marriages, semi-arranged marriages or love marriages.


title: Marriage in Pakistan

text: Once a decision has been made by either the man or woman or both, one or more representatives of the potential groom's family pay a visit to the potential bride's family. In arranged marriages, the first visit is purely for the parties to become acquainted with one another and does not include a formal proposal. Following the first visit, both the man and woman have their say in whether or not they would like a follow up to this visit. Once both parties are in agreement, a proposal party () is held at the bride's home, where the groom's parents and family elders formally ask the bride's parents for her hand in marriage. In semi-arranged marriages, the first or second visit may include a formal proposal, since both the man and woman have already agreed to marriage prior - the proposal is more or less a formality. In love marriages, the man directly proposes to the woman. Once the wedding proposal is accepted, beverages and refreshments are served. Depending on individual family traditions, the bride-to-be may also be presented with gifts such as jewelry and a variety of gifts. Some religious families may also recite Surah Al-Fatihah.