title: Karelian Isthmus

text: The isthmus' terrain has been influenced dramatically by the Weichselian glaciation. Its highest point lies on the Lembolovo Heights moraine at about 205 m (670 ft). There are no mountains on the isthmus, but steep hills occur in some places.


title: Karelian Isthmus

text: The Vuoksi, the largest river, runs southeastwards from Lake Saimaa of Finland to Lake Ladoga, dividing the isthmus into two uneven parts. Saimaa Canal opened in 1856 links Lake Saimaa to the Bay of Vyborg passing through the city of Lappeenranta in South Karelia, Finland.


title: Karelian Isthmus

text: The Karelian Isthmus lies within the ecoregion of Scandinavian and Russian taiga. Geobotanically, it lies at the juncture of the Central European, Eastern European and Northern European floristic provinces of the Circumboreal Region of the Holarctic Kingdom.


title: Karelian Isthmus

text: The isthmus is mostly covered by coniferous forests formed by Scots pine ("Pinus sylvestris") and Norway spruce ("Picea abies"), with numerous lakes (e.g. Lake Sukhodolskoye and Lake Glubokoye) as well as small grass, fen and "Sphagnum" raised bogs. Forests cover approximately 11.700 km of the isthmus, more than three-fourths of its total square. Swampy areas occupy on average 5.5 percent of the territory. In the large contiguous area along the shore of Lake Ladoga in Vsevolozhsky District, in the southeastern part of the isthmus, bogs occur much more frequently than in other parts. The same was once true of the lowland along the Neva River, which has been drained. The soil is predominantly podsol, which contains massive boulders, especially in the north and northwest, where large granite rocky outcrops occur.


title: Karelian Isthmus

text: Pine forests (with "Pinus sylvestris") are the most widespread and occupy 51% of the forested area of the Karelian Isthmus, followed by spruce forests (with "Picea abies", 29%) and birch forests (with "Betula pendula" and "B. pubescens", 16%). Stands on more fertile soils and in more favorable locations are occasionally dominated by Norway maple, black alder, grey alder, common aspen, English oak, grey willow, dark-leaved willow, tea-leaved willow, small-leaved lime or European white elm. Common vegetation of various types of pine forests includes heather, crowberry, common juniper, eared willow, lingonberry, water horsetail, bracken, graminoids (i.e. grasses in the wider sense) "Avenella flexuosa" and "Carex globularis", mosses "Pleurozium schreberi", "Sphagnum angustifolium" and "S. russowii", and lichens "Cladonia" spp. Prominent in various spruce forests are wood horsetail, common wood sorrel, bilberry, lingonberry, graminoids "Avenella flexuosa", "Calamagrostis arundinacea", "Carex globularis", and mosses "Polytrichum commune" and "Sphagnum girgensohnii". Prominent vegetation of various birch forests include meadowsweet, common wood sorrel, bilberry and graminoids "Calamagrostis arundinacea" and "C. canescens".


title: Karelian Isthmus

text: 1184 species of wild vascular plants are recorded in the isthmus. See also the List of the vascular plants of the Karelian Isthmus. Red squirrel, moose, red fox, mountain hare and boar (reintroduced) are typical inhabitants of the forests.


title: Karelian Isthmus

text: The climate of the isthmus is moderately continental, with 650–800 mm (25–32 in) average precipitation per year, long snowy winters lasting from November through mid-April and occasionally reaching about -40 °C (-40 F), moderately cool summers and short frost-free period. Compared to other parts of the Leningrad Oblast, the winter here is usually milder due to the moderating influence of the Gulf of Finland, but longer.


title: Karelian Isthmus

text: The Karelian Isthmus is a popular place for hiking, cycling, skiing (Korobitsyno and Kavgolovo), climbing (near Kuznechnoye), canoeing (Losevo), fishing for consumption (of carp bream, northern pike, roach, European perch, ruffe, burbot and others), mushroom hunting (for porcini, red-capped scaber stalk, birch bolete, velvet bolete, slippery Jack, golden chanterelle, "Lactarius resimus", woolly milk-cap, ugly milk-cap, saffron milk-cap, "Lactarius rufus", various Russulas and others), berry picking (of bilberry, raspberry, woodland strawberry, cowberry, cranberry, cloudberry, bog bilberry and stone bramble). It is a popular summer resort for Saint Petersburg citizens since the late 19th century, served by trains of Finlyandsky Rail Terminal. The isthmus, especially the land along Saint Petersburg–Vyborg and Saint Petersburg–Priozersk railroads, hosts numerous dachas.


title: Karelian Isthmus

text: A 20–35 km wide stretch of land in Vyborgsky District and Republic of Karelia to the west of the Vyborg–Hiitola railway, as well as the islands and shores of the Gulf of Vyborg, belongs to the strictly guarded zone of the border control, reaching the shore of Lake Ladoga at Hiitola. In 1993–2006 the zone was formally 5 km wide, although in fact it has always been much wider. Visiting it is forbidden without a permit issued by the FSB (by KGB during the time of the Soviet Union).


title: Karelian Isthmus

text: Geologically the Karelian Isthmus lies on the southern edge of the Baltic Shield's crystalline bedrock. During the final part of the last Weichselian glaciation, deglaciation in the central parts of the Isthmus started as early as 14000 BP, when it formed the bottom of a large lake dammed by the surrounding ice sheet. During further deglaciation, at the time of the Baltic Ice Lake, an early high water stage of the Baltic Sea, when the ice sheet retreated to Salpausselkä, the upland area of the Isthmus remained a large island and many upland lakes emerged.


title: Karelian Isthmus

text: Prior to 12650 BP, the land was characterized by harsh Arctic conditions with permafrost and sparse vegetation. Steppe-tundra complexes developed after this point. Around 11000 BP climate began to warm and became humid, first pine and birch forests were established.


title: Karelian Isthmus

text: Around 9000 BP Ancylus Lake, another stage of the Baltic Sea, retreated, and many lowland lakes were also isolated in depressions formed earlier by glacial exaration and fluvioglacial activity. Lake Ladoga was separated from the sea as well. Due to land uplift, around 5000 BP the River Vuoksi started emptying into Lake Ladoga as a new outlet of Lake Saimaa. Lake Ladoga transgressed, flooding lowland lakes and the Vuoksi, and became connected with the sea at Heinjoki (now Veshchevo), to the east of present-day Vyborg. Around 3100–2400 BP the Neva River emerged, draining Lake Ladoga into the Baltic Sea. Ladoga level gradually sank from 15–18 m to its modern position of 4–5 m above sea-level, and lowland lakes were isolated again. However, the Vuoksi still had a significant direct outflow connection to the Bay of Vyborg, possibly as late as in the 12th century AD. The connection disappeared due to ongoing land uplift in the 2nd millennium AD.


title: Karelian Isthmus

text: In 1818 a canal, which was dug to drain spring flood waters from Lake Suvanto (now Lake Sukhodolskoye, a 40-km long narrow lake in the eastern part of the Isthmus) into Lake Ladoga, unexpectedly eroded and turned into the Taipaleenjoki (now Burnaya River). The Taipaleenjoki started draining Suvanto and decreased its level by 7 m. Originally waters of Lake Suvanto flowed into the Vuoksi River through a waterway at Kiviniemi (now Losevo), but as a result of the change, the waterway dried out. In 1857 the canal was dug there, but the stream reversed direction, revealed rapids and rendered navigation at Kiviniemi impossible. Since 1857 Suvanto and the Taipaleenjoki have constituted the southern armlet of the Vuoksi River, which has decreased the level of the original northern armlet emptying into Ladoga near Kexholm (now Priozersk) by 4 m, isolating it as a separate river basin.


title: Karelian Isthmus

text: The Karelian Isthmus is located in two regions of the Russian Federation, Saint Petersburg and the Leningrad Oblast. Saint Petersburg is represented by seven districts, the Leningrad Oblast by three.


title: Karelian Isthmus

text: Apart from the old towns of Vyborg and Priozersk, and churches on the Konevets island of Lake Ladoga, since the late 19th century a number of other archaeological sites have been discovered on the isthmus. Numerous archaeological remnants of the Mesolithic, Neolithic, Copper Age and Bronze Age occur all over the isthmus. The eastern part of the Karelian Isthmus hosts a number of medieval remnants. There are many grave pits of Karelians of the 10th–15th centuries with metal and ceramic artifacts along the northern armlet of the Vuoksi, near Lake Sukhodolskoye and in a few other places in Priozersky District. On the southern shore of Lake Sukhodolskoye small medieval burial mounds are abundant as well. A lot of large cult stones have been found along these bodies of water, as well as agglomerations of cairns. Remnants of several rural settlements were also discovered there as well as on the shore of Lake Ladoga. Remnants of the Tiuri (Tiversk) town (10th–15th centuries) were excavated on a former island in the northern Vuoksi armlet near the Tiuri village (now Vasilyevo). A few treasures of silver adornments and medieval Arabian and Western European coins have also been found, as the isthmus laid on the Volga trade route (at that time, the Vuoksi River had a distributary emptying into the Bay of Vyborg).


title: Karelian Isthmus

text: In the 11th century, Sweden and Novgorod Republic started to compete tax holding rights. The Treaty of Nöteborg of 1323 established a border between them along the rivers now known as the Sestra and the Volchya.


title: Karelian Isthmus

text: During 17th century Sweden gained the whole isthmus and also Ingria. In this time many Karelians escaped to Tver's Karelia.


title: Karelian Isthmus

text: From 1721–1812 the isthmus belonged to the Russian Empire, won in the Great Northern War that started with the Russian conquest of Ingria where the new imperial capital, Saint Petersburg, was founded (1703) in the southern end of the isthmus, in place of old Swedish town Nyenskans. Then in 1812, the northwestern half was transferred, as a part of Old Finland, to the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland, created in 1809 and in a personal union with Russia.


title: Karelian Isthmus

text: Due to its size, favorable climate, rich fishing waters and proximity to Saint Petersburg, the capital of the Russian Empire, the Karelian Isthmus became the wealthiest part of Finland once the industrial revolution had gained momentum in the 19th century. The railroads Saint Petersburg–Vyborg–Riihimäki (1870), Vyborg–Hiitola–Sortavala (1893), Saint Petersburg–Kexholm–Hiitola (1917) crossed the isthmus, contributing to its economic development. By the end of the 19th century the nearby areas along the Saint Petersburg–Vyborg section had become popular place of summer resort for wealthy Saint Petersburgers.


title: Karelian Isthmus

text: When Finland declared its independence in 1917, the isthmus (except for the territory roughly corresponding to present-day Vsevolozhsky District and some districts of Saint Petersburg) remained Finnish, part of the Viipuri province with its center in Viipuri, the fourth largest Finnish city. A considerable part of the remaining area populated by Ingrian Finns seceded from Bolshevist Russia as the Finland-backed Republic of North Ingria, but was reintegrated with Russia in the end of 1920 according to the conditions of the Treaty of Tartu. In 1928–1939 parts of the isthmus which belonged to Russia constituted the Kuivaisi National District with its center in Toksova, with Finnish as the official language, according to the policy of national delimitation in the Soviet Union. However, in 1936 the entire Finnish population of the parishes of Valkeasaari, Lempaala, Vuole and Miikkulainen along the Finnish border was deported by the Soviet government.


title: Karelian Isthmus

text: A number of defensive lines crossed the isthmus during the Soviet-Finnish hostilities in World War II, such as Mannerheim Line, VKT-line, VT-line, Main line (Finnish) and KaUR (Soviet), and fronts moved back and forth over it.


title: Karelian Isthmus

text: In November 1939, the Soviet Union staged the Shelling of Mainila and invaded Finland in what became known as the Winter War, which took a disproportionally heavy death toll on the Red Army. Only in February 1940 did the Soviet forces manage to penetrate the Mannerheim Line across the isthmus, the strength of which is often exaggerated. Finland ceded the Karelian Isthmus and Ladoga Karelia to the Soviet Union in the Peace of Moscow of 12 March. According to the protocol appended to the Moscow Peace Treaty, the fighting was ended at noon (Leningrad time) on 13 March and by 26 March the Finnish troops had been completely withdrawn. The entire Karelian population of the ceded areas of about 422 thousand people was evacuated to other parts of Finland (see Evacuation of Finnish Karelia). On 31 March most of the ceded territories were incorporated into Karelo-Finnish SSR by a decision of the Supreme Council of the Soviet Union (in the Karelian Isthmus the districts of Jääski, Kexholm and Vyborg). The districts of Kanneljärvi, Koivisto and Rautu as well as the town of Terijoki were, however, included into Leningrad Oblast.


title: Karelian Isthmus

text: In 1941, during World War II, Germany invaded the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa. Few days later Continuation War as it is known in Finland (it is considered to be a front of the Great Patriotic War in the Soviet Union and Russia) started. Finland initially regained the lost territory, reaching the Russian side of the border of 1939 and seen by the Russians as indirectly contributing to the Siege of Leningrad (see Finnish reconquest of the Karelian Isthmus (1941)). Some 260,000 Karelian evacuees returned home.


title: Karelian Isthmus

text: On 9 June 1944, strong Soviet forces opened the Vyborg Offensive and pushed the front from the pre-1939 border to Vyborg in ten days. The returned Karelians were evacuated to Finland again. In the Battle of Tali-Ihantala, 25 June–9 July, the Finns concentrated their military strength and brought the offensive to a halt at the River Vuoksi, in the northwesternmost part of the isthmus, at the closest point only 40 kilometres from the border of 1940. The Moscow Armistice ending the war was signed on 19 September 1944. The entire isthmus became Soviet, although most of it has never been captured by the Soviets in battles. This time the ceded territories of the Karelian Isthmus (including the districts of Jääski, Kexholm and Vyborg) were incorporated into Leningrad Oblast (unlike Ladoga Karelia, which remained within the Karelo-Finnish SSR). The border of the Moscow Peace Treaty (1940) was recognized by Finland again in the Peace of Paris, 1947.


title: Karelian Isthmus

text: As a result of the war, the population of the Karelian Isthmus has been almost completely replaced. After the war the isthmus was included into the Leningrad Oblast and people from other parts of the Soviet Union, mostly Russian, were settled here. The vast majority of the old Finnish toponyms in the conquered territories were renamed to invented Russian ones by the government around 1948. The Finnish toponyms of the territories included within Karelo-Finnish SSR and of the southern part of the isthmus (albeit assimilated) mostly remained. A lot of youth summer camps were built all over the isthmus during the time of the Soviet Union. Some of them still exist.


title: Karelian Isthmus

text: The western part of the Karelian Isthmus is an important transport corridor linking Scandinavia and Central Russia. Primorsk, terminus of the Baltic Pipeline System, which has recently become one of the most efficient Russian sea ports, is also located here.


title: Karelian Isthmus

text: The only motorway on the isthmus is the recently completed E18 "Scandinavia" (M10) going from Saint Petersburg through Vyborg and Vaalimaa.


title: Karelian Isthmus

text: Saimaa Canal (opened in 1856) is an important link connecting inland waterways of Finland with the Gulf of Finland.


title: Karelian Isthmus

text: The Karelian Isthmus is served by a number of railways; the trains arrive from Finlyandsky Rail Terminal and Ladozhsky Rail Terminal of Saint Petersburg:


title: Karelian Isthmus

text: The pulp-and-paper, timber and woodworking industries ("JSC Svetogorsk", pulp and paper mill in Svetogorsk, "Vyborgsky Pulp and Paper Mill" in Vyborg, "Priozersky Furniture and Woodworking Industrial Complex" and "Priozersky Woodworking Factory" in Priozersk, as well as other smaller enterprises all over the isthmus) are well developed in Vyborgsky and Priozersky Districts. The pulp and paper industry, however, affects the environment adversely. The predecessor of the Priozersk facilities, "Priozersky Pulp and Paper Mill", a major polluter of Lake Ladoga constructed in 1931, was closed down in 1986. Northern and western parts of the isthmus are also an important reserve of granite (quarries in Kuznechnoye, as well as a number of others along the Vyborg-Hiitola railroad).


title: Karelian Isthmus

text: "Vyborg Shipyard" is one of the largest shipbuilding companies in Northwestern Russia. "Roskar Battery Farm" in Pervomayskoye is a leading producer of chicken and eggs.


title: Karelian Isthmus

text: In Vsevolozhsky District state-owned "Morozov Plant" is located, which is an important producer of paints, adhesives, abrasives and other substances. In Kuzmolovsky, Vsevolozhsky District, near the station Kapitolovo of the Saint Petersburg–Hiitola railroad, a facility of the Saint Petersburg nuclear enterprise "Izotop" is located, which specializes in transportation of nuclear materials and radioactive waste. Bogs of Vsevolozhsky District along the shores of Lake Ladoga and the Neva River were major sources of peat for fuel. Now it is extracted in smaller quantities, mostly for agricultural purposes. The district is also an important supplier of sand. A plant of Ford Motor Company producing Ford Focus cars was opened in Vsevolozhsk in 2002.


title: Karelian Isthmus

text: The Karelian Isthmus is included within Leningrad Military District of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation. The isthmus hosts airfields in Levashovo, Pribylovo and Gromovo. Other airfields in Veshchevo and Kasimovo (Vartemyagi) have been abandoned. In the northern part of Vsevolozhsky District, to the south of the old Finnish border, Karelian Fortified Region (KaUR) is located, which was reconstructed as late as in the 1960s, but now seems to be abandoned as well. There is "Bobochinsky tank range" (195.975 km², founded in 1913) between Kamenka and Kirillovskoye and a number of military facilities in Vsevolozhsky District in the lowlands between Lake Ladoga and Saint Petersburg-Hiitola railroad, including "Rzhevsky artillery range" (founded in 1879), a huge area, , encircled by the Road of Life, the roads Rzhevka – Novoye Devyatkino and Novoye Devyatkino – Matoksa and the coast of Lake Ladoga (available to visitors since 2003). In 2006 a Voronezh early warning radar was built in Lekhtusi, Vsevolozhsky District. The port of Vysotsk is a base of the Baltic Fleet. 138th Guards Motor Rifle Brigade is located in Kamenka, and in the 56th District Training Centre in Sertolovo.


title: Karelian Isthmus

text: The population of the Karelian isthmus today is slightly less than 3.1 million inhabitants. Of these, about 2.4 million live in St. Petersburg and a little less than 700 thousand in the Leningrad region. The population is growing solely due to migration, as the mortality rate is much higher than the birth rate, but the migration attractiveness of St. Petersburg and the surrounding areas of the Leningrad region is very high. Thus, about 40% of the population of St. Petersburg and about 30% of the population of the Leningrad region live on the Karelian isthmus. There is strong growth in population in all the districts of the Karelian isthmus in addition to the Vyborg district and Priozersk district .


title: Prince Alexander von Fürstenberg

text: Prince Alexander von Fürstenberg (born Alexandre Egon Prinz von Fürstenberg; January 25, 1970) is an American businessman and socialite and the son of fashion designer Diane von Fürstenberg (née Halfin) and Prince Egon von Fürstenberg.


title: Prince Alexander von Fürstenberg

text: He is the son of fashion designers Diane von Fürstenberg (née Halfin) and Prince Egon von Fürstenberg. His mother is from a Belgian Jewish family, originally from present-day Moldova and Greece; and his father was half German and half Italian, the son of the German Prince Tassilo zu Fürstenberg of the House of Fürstenberg and his Italian first wife, Clara Agnelli, the elder sister of the chairman of FIAT, Gianni Agnelli. His parents divorced in 1972.


title: Prince Alexander von Fürstenberg

text: Prince Alexander and his sister Princess Tatiana von Fürstenberg were raised in New York City. Alex attended Brown University, where he earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1993.


title: Prince Alexander von Fürstenberg

text: Alexander von Fürstenberg began his career in 1993 as a trader on the Risk Arbitrage Desk of Allen and Company. He is now the Chief Investment Officer of Ranger Global Advisors, LLC, a family company he founded which focuses on opportunistic value-based investing. Previously, he was the Co-Managing Member and Chief Investment Officer of Arrow Capital Management, LLC, a private investment firm focused on global public equities. Since 2001, he has acted as Chief Investment Officer of Arrow Investments, Inc., a private investment office that serves the Diller-von Furstenberg family.


title: Prince Alexander von Fürstenberg

text: Fürstenberg led the restructuring of Diane von Fürstenberg Studio, LP, a global luxury lifestyle brand, taking it from $100 million in annual revenue to more than $200 million. He remains a partner and director in the company and also serves on the Board of Directors of IAC, a U.S.-based internet conglomerate.


title: Prince Alexander von Fürstenberg

text: Fürstenberg is Director and Secretary of the Diller-von Furstenberg Family Foundation, which is managed by him, his mother, Diane von Fürstenberg, his stepfather, Barry Diller, the former Chief Executive of IAC/InterActiveCorp, and his sister, Princess Tatiana von Fürstenberg.


title: Prince Alexander von Fürstenberg

text: The Diller–von Furstenberg Family Foundation is involved in a number of charitable pursuits in education, community reform, environmental advocacy, disease research, childcare, arts and humanities and human rights. The foundation is also responsible for two significant endowments to the High Line, a New York City park built on the foundations of a decommissioned high line railway. Fürstenberg serves on the Board of Directors of Our Time, Board of Friends of the High Line, and the National Advisory Council of ACRIA.


title: Prince Alexander von Fürstenberg

text: As a teen he lived in the Carlyle Hotel, two floors below duty-free shops owner Robert Warren Miller and his family; that is where he met Miller's youngest daughter Alexandra, who was three years his junior. They married on October 28, 1995, in a Catholic ceremony at the Church of St. Ignatius Loyola in New York City. They had two children, Talita Natasha (b. May 7, 1999) and Tassilo Egon Maximilian (b. August 26, 2001), who is named for his paternal great-grandfather. In 2002, they separated and were later divorced. He later announced his engagement to designer Alison "Ali" Kay, who gave birth to their son Leon in July 2012. Ali Kay gave birth to a second son Vito in June 2020 and on September 19, 2020, Kay's 36th birthday, the couple civilly married.


title: Generative art

text: Generative art refers to art that in whole or in part has been created with the use of an autonomous system. An autonomous system in this context is generally one that is non-human and can independently determine features of an artwork that would otherwise require decisions made directly by the artist. In some cases the human creator may claim that the generative system represents their own artistic idea, and in others that the system takes on the role of the creator.


title: Generative art

text: "Generative art" often refers to algorithmic art (algorithmically determined computer generated artwork) and synthetic media (general term for any algorithmically-generated media), but artists can also make it using systems of chemistry, biology, mechanics and robotics, smart materials, manual randomization, mathematics, data mapping, symmetry, tiling, and more.


title: Generative art

text: The use of the word "generative" in the discussion of art has developed over time. The use of "Artificial DNA" defines a generative approach to art focused on the construction of a system able to generate unpredictable events, all with a recognizable common character. The use of autonomous systems, required by some contemporary definitions, focuses a generative approach where the controls are strongly reduced. This approach is also named "emergent". Margaret Boden and Ernest Edmonds have noted the use of the term "generative art" in the broad context of automated computer graphics in the 1960s, beginning with artwork exhibited by Georg Nees and Frieder Nake in 1965: A. Michael Noll did his initial computer art, combining randomness with order, in 1962, and exhibited it along with works by Bell Julesz in 1965.


title: Generative art

text: The first such exhibition showed the work of Nees in February 1965, which some claim was titled "Generative Computergrafik". While Nees does not himself remember, this was the title of his doctoral thesis published a few years later. The correct title of the first exhibition and catalog was "computer-grafik". "Generative art" and related terms was in common use by several other early computer artists around this time, including Manfred Mohr and Ken Knowlton. Vera Molnár (born 1924) is a French media artist of Hungarian origin. Molnar is widely considered to be a pioneer of generative art, and is also one of the first women to use computers in her art practice. The term "Generative Art" with the meaning of dynamic artwork-systems able to generate multiple artwork-events was clearly used the first time for the "Generative Art" conference in Milan in 1998.


title: Generative art

text: The term has also been used to describe geometric abstract art where simple elements are repeated, transformed, or varied to generate more complex forms. Thus defined, generative art was practiced by the Argentinian artists Eduardo Mac Entyre and Miguel Ángel Vidal in the late 1960s. In 1972 the Romanian-born Paul Neagu created the Generative Art Group in Britain. It was populated exclusively by Neagu using aliases such as "Hunsy Belmood" and "Edward Larsocchi." In 1972 Neagu gave a lecture titled 'Generative Art Forms' at the Queen's University, Belfast Festival.


title: Generative art

text: In 1970 the School of the Art Institute of Chicago created a department called "". As described by Sonia Landy Sheridan the focus was on art practices using the then new technologies for the capture, inter-machine transfer, printing and transmission of images, as well as the exploration of the aspect of time in the transformation of image information. Also noteworthy is John Dunn, first a student and then a collaborator of Sheridan.


title: Generative art

text: In 1989 Celestino Soddu defined the Generative Design approach to Architecture and Town Design in his book "Citta' Aleatorie".


title: Generative art

text: In 1989 Franke referred to "generative mathematics" as "the study of mathematical operations suitable for generating artistic images."


title: Generative art

text: From the mid-1990s Brian Eno popularized the terms generative music and generative systems, making a connection with earlier experimental music by Terry Riley, Steve Reich and Philip Glass.


title: Generative art

text: From the end of the 20th century, communities of generative artists, designers, musicians and theoreticians began to meet, forming cross-disciplinary perspectives.


title: Generative art

text: The first meeting about generative Art was in 1998, at the inaugural International Generative Art conference at Politecnico di Milano University, Italy.


title: Generative art

text: On-line discussion has centered around the eu-gene mailing list, which began late 1999, and has hosted much of the debate which has defined the field. These activities have more recently been joined by the Generator.x conference in Berlin starting in 2005.


title: Generative art

text: In 2012 the new journal GASATHJ, Generative Art Science and Technology Hard Journal was founded by Celestino Soddu and Enrica Colabella jointing several generative artists and scientists in the Editorial Board.


title: Generative art

text: Some have argued that as a result of this engagement across disciplinary boundaries, the community has converged on a shared meaning of the term. As Boden and Edmonds put it in 2011:


title: Generative art

text: In the call of the Generative Art conferences in Milan (annually starting from 1998), the definition of Generative Art by Celestino Soddu:


title: Generative art

text: Discussion on the eu-gene mailing list was framed by the following definition by Adrian Ward from 1999:


title: Generative art

text: Johann Kirnberger's "Musikalisches Würfelspiel" ("Musical Dice Game") of 1757 is considered an early example of a generative system based on randomness. Dice were used to select musical sequences from a numbered pool of previously composed phrases. This system provided a balance of order and disorder. The structure was based on an element of order on one hand, and disorder on the other.


title: Generative art

text: The fugues of J.S. Bach could be considered generative, in that there is a strict underlying process that is followed by the composer. Similarly, serialism follows strict procedures which, in some cases, can be set up to generate entire compositions with limited human intervention.


title: Generative art

text: Composers such as John Cage, Farmers Manual, and Brian Eno have used generative systems in their works.


title: Generative art

text: The artist Ellsworth Kelly created paintings by using chance operations to assign colors in a grid. He also created works on paper that he then cut into strips or squares and reassembled using chance operations to determine placement.


title: Generative art

text: Artists such as Hans Haacke have explored processes of physical and social systems in artistic context.


title: Generative art

text: François Morellet has used both highly ordered and highly disordered systems in his artwork. Some of his paintings feature regular systems of radial or parallel lines to create Moiré Patterns. In other works he has used chance operations to determine the coloration of grids. Sol LeWitt created generative art in the form of systems expressed in natural language and systems of geometric permutation. Harold Cohen's AARON system is a longstanding project combining software artificial intelligence with robotic painting devices to create physical artifacts.


title: Generative art

text: Steina and Woody Vasulka are video art pioneers who used analog video feedback to create generative art. Video feedback is now cited as an example of deterministic chaos, and the early explorations by the Vasulkas anticipated contemporary science by many years.


title: Generative art

text: Software systems exploiting evolutionary computing to create visual form include those created by Scott Draves and Karl Sims.


title: Generative art

text: "Autopoiesis" by Ken Rinaldo includes fifteen musical and robotic sculptures that interact with the public and modify their behaviors based on both the presence of the participants and each other.


title: Generative art

text: Jean-Pierre Hebert and Roman Verostko are founding members of the Algorists, a group of artists who create their own algorithms to create art.


title: Generative art

text: A. Michael Noll, of Bell Telephone Laboratories, Incorporated, programmed computer art using mathematical equations and programmed randomness, starting in 1962.


title: Generative art

text: The French artist Jean-Max Albert, beside environmental sculptures like "Iapetus", and "O=C=O", developed a project dedicated to the vegetation itself, in terms of biological activity. The "Calmoduline Monument" project is based on the property of a protein, calmodulin, to bond selectively to calcium. Exterior physical constraints (wind, rain, etc.) modify the electric potential of the cellular membranes of a plant and consequently the flux of calcium. However, the calcium controls the expression of the calmoduline gene. The plant can thus, when there is a stimulus, modify its « typical » growth pattern. So the basic principle of this monumental sculpture is that to the extent that they could be picked up and transported, these signals could be enlarged, translated into colors and shapes, and show the plant's « decisions » suggesting a level of fundamental biological activity.


title: Generative art

text: Mark Napier is a pioneer in data mapping, creating works based on the streams of zeros and ones in ethernet traffic, as part of the "Carnivore" project. Martin Wattenberg pushed this theme further, transforming "data sets" as diverse as musical scores (in "Shape of Song", 2001) and Wikipedia edits (History Flow, 2003, with Fernanda Viegas) into dramatic visual compositions.


title: Generative art

text: The Canadian artist San Base developed a "Dynamic Painting" algorithm in 2002. Using computer algorithms as "brush strokes," Base creates sophisticated imagery that evolves over time to produce a fluid, never-repeating artwork.


title: Generative art

text: Italian composer Pietro Grossi, pioneer of computer music since 1986, he extended his experiments to images, (same procedure used in his musical work) precisely to computer graphics, writing programs with specific auto-decisions, and developing the concept of "HomeArt", presented for the first time in the exhibition "New Atlantis: the continent of electronic music" organized by the Venice Biennale in 1986.


title: Generative art

text: For some artists, graphic user interfaces and computer code have become an independent art form in themselves. Adrian Ward created Auto-Illustrator as a commentary on software and generative methods applied to art and design.


title: Generative art

text: In 1987 Celestino Soddu created the artificial DNA of Italian Medieval towns able to generate endless 3D models of cities identifiable as belonging to the idea.


title: Generative art

text: In 2010, Michael Hansmeyer generated architectural columns in a project called "Subdivided Columns – A New Order (2010)". The piece explored how the simple process of repeated subdivision can create elaborate architectural patterns. Rather than designing any columns directly, Hansmeyer designed a process that produced columns automatically. The process could be run again and again with different parameters to create endless permutations. Endless permutations could be considered a hallmark of generative design.


title: Generative art

text: Writers such as Tristan Tzara, Brion Gysin, and William Burroughs used the cut-up technique to introduce randomization to literature as a generative system. Jackson Mac Low produced computer-assisted poetry and used algorithms to generate texts; Philip M. Parker has written software to automatically generate entire books. Jason Nelson used generative methods with speech-to-text software to create a series of digital poems from movies, television and other audio sources.


title: Generative art

text: In the late 2010s, authors began to experiment with neural networks trained on large language datasets. David Jhave Johnston's "ReRites" is an early example of human-edited AI-generated poetry.


title: Generative art

text: Generative systems may be modified while they operate, for example by using interactive programming environments such as SuperCollider, Fluxus and TidalCycles, including patching environments such as Max/MSP, Pure Data and vvvv. This is a standard approach to programming by artists, but may also be used to create live music and/or video by manipulating generative systems on stage, a performance practice that has become known as live coding. As with many examples of software art, because live coding emphasizes human authorship rather than autonomy, it may be considered in opposition to generative art.


title: Generative art

text: In the most widely cited theory of generative art, in 2003 Philip Galanter describes generative art systems in the context of complexity theory. In particular the notion of Murray Gell-Mann and Seth Lloyd's effective complexity is cited. In this view both highly ordered and highly disordered generative art can be viewed as simple. Highly ordered generative art minimizes entropy and allows maximal data compression, and highly disordered generative art maximizes entropy and disallows significant data compression. Maximally complex generative art blends order and disorder in a manner similar to biological life, and indeed biologically inspired methods are most frequently used to create complex generative art. This view is at odds with the earlier information theory influenced views of Max Bense and Abraham Moles where complexity in art increases with disorder.


title: Generative art

text: Galanter notes further that given the use of visual symmetry, pattern, and repetition by the most ancient known cultures generative art is as old as art itself. He also addresses the mistaken equivalence by some that rule-based art is synonymous with generative art. For example, some art is based on constraint rules that disallow the use of certain colors or shapes. Such art is not generative because constraint rules are not constructive, i.e. by themselves they don't assert what is to be done, only what cannot be done.


title: Generative art

text: In their 2009 article, Margaret Boden and Ernest Edmonds agree that generative art need not be restricted to that done using computers, and that some rule-based art is not generative. They develop a technical vocabulary that includes Ele-art (electronic art), C-art (computer art), D-art (digital art), CA-art (computer assisted art), G-art (generative art), CG-art (computer based generative art), Evo-art (evolutionary based art), R-art (robotic art), I-art (interactive art), CI-art (computer based interactive art), and VR-art (virtual reality art).


title: Generative art

text: The discourse around generative art can be characterized by the theoretical questions which motivate its development. McCormack et al. propose the following questions, shown with paraphrased summaries, as the most important:


title: Generative art

text: Another question is of postmodernism—are generative art systems the ultimate expression of the postmodern condition, or do they point to a new synthesis based on a complexity-inspired world-view?


title: Linear particle accelerator

text: A linear particle accelerator (often shortened to linac) is a type of particle accelerator that accelerates charged subatomic particles or ions to a high speed by subjecting them to a series of oscillating electric potentials along a linear beamline. The principles for such machines were proposed by Gustav Ising in 1924, while the first machine that worked was constructed by Rolf Widerøe in 1928 at the RWTH Aachen University.


title: Linear particle accelerator

text: Linacs have many applications: they generate X-rays and high energy electrons for medicinal purposes in radiation therapy, serve as particle injectors for higher-energy accelerators, and are used directly to achieve the highest kinetic energy for light particles (electrons and positrons) for particle physics.


title: Linear particle accelerator

text: The design of a linac depends on the type of particle that is being accelerated: electrons, protons or ions. Linacs range in size from a cathode ray tube (which is a type of linac) to the linac at the SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory in Menlo Park, California.


title: Linear particle accelerator

text: In 1924, Gustav Ising published the first description of a linear particle accelerator using a series of accelerating gaps. Particles would proceed down a series of tubes. At a regular frequency, an accelerating voltage would be applied across each gap. As the particles gained speed while the frequency remained constant, the gaps would be spaced farther and farther apart, in order to ensure the particle would see a voltage applied as it reached each gap. Ising never successfully implemented this design.


title: Linear particle accelerator

text: Rolf Wideroe discovered Ising's paper in 1927, and as part of his PhD thesis, built an 88-inch long, two gap version of the device. Where Ising had proposed a spark gap as the voltage source, Wideroe used a 25kV vacuum tube oscillator. He successfully demonstrated that he had accelerated sodium and potassium ions to an energy of 50 thousand electron volts (50 keV), twice the energy they would have received if accelerated only once by the tube. By successfully accelerating a particle multiple times using the same voltage source, Wideroe demonstrated the utility of radio frequency acceleration.


title: Linear particle accelerator

text: This type of linac was limited by the voltage sources that were available at the time, and it was not until after World War II that Luis Alvarez was able to use newly developed high frequency oscillators to design the first resonant cavity drift tube linac. An Alvarez linac differs from the Wideroe type in that the RF power is applied to the entire resonant chamber through which the particle travels, and the central tubes are only used to shield the particles during the decelerating portion of the oscillator's phase. Using this approach to acceleration meant that Alvarez's first linac was able to achieve proton energies of 31.5 MeV in 1947, the highest that had ever been reached at the time.


title: Linear particle accelerator

text: The initial Alvarez type linacs had no strong mechanism for keeping the beam focused, and were limited in length and energy as a result. The development of the strong focusing principle in the early 1950s led to the installation of focusing quadrupole magnets inside the drift tubes, allowing for longer and thus more powerful linacs. Two of the earliest examples of Alvarez linacs with strong focusing magnets were built at CERN and Brookhaven National Laboratory.


title: Linear particle accelerator

text: In 1947, at about the same time that Alvarez was developing his linac concept for protons, William Hansen constructed the first travelling-wave electron accelerator at Stanford University. Electrons are sufficiently lighter than protons that they achieve speeds close to the speed of light early in the acceleration process. As a result, "accelerating" electrons increase in energy, but can be treated as having a constant velocity from an accelerator design standpoint. This allowed Hansen to use an accelerating structure consisting of a horizontal waveguide loaded by a series of discs. The 1947 accelerator had an energy of 6 MeV. Over time, electron acceleration at the SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory would extend to a size of and an output energy of 50 GeV.


title: Linear particle accelerator

text: As linear accelerators were developed with higher beam currents, using magnetic fields to focus proton and heavy ion beams presented difficulties for the initial stages of the accelerator. Because the magnetic force is dependent on the particle velocity, it was desirable to create a type of accelerator which could simultaneously accelerate and focus low-to-mid energy hadrons. In 1970, Soviet physicists I. M. Kapchinsky and Vladimir Teplyakov proposed the radio-frequency quadrupole (RFQ) type of accelerating structure. RFQs use vanes or rods with precisely designed shapes in a resonant cavity to produce complex electric fields. These fields provide simultaneous acceleration and focusing to injected particle beams.


title: Linear particle accelerator

text: Beginning in the 1960s, scientists at Stanford and elsewhere began to explore the use of superconducting radio frequency cavities for particle acceleration. Superconducting cavities made of niobium alloys allowed for much more efficient acceleration, as a substantially higher fraction of the input power could be applied to the beam, rather than lost to heat. Some of the earliest superconducting linacs included the Superconducting Linear Accelerator (for electrons) at Stanford and the Argonne Tandem Linear Accelerator System (for protons and heavy ions) at Argonne National Laboratory.


title: Linear particle accelerator

text: When a charged particle is placed in an electromagnetic field it experiences a force given by the Lorentz force law:


title: Linear particle accelerator

text: (in SI units) where formula_2 is the charge on the particle, formula_3 is the electric field, formula_4 is the particle velocity, and formula_5 is the magnetic field. The cross product in the magnetic field term means that static magnetic fields cannot be used for particle acceleration, as the magnetic force acts perpendicularly to the direction of particle motion.


title: Linear particle accelerator

text: As electrostatic breakdown limits the maximum constant voltage which can be applied across a gap to produce an electric field, most accelerators use some form of radiofrequency (RF) acceleration. In RF acceleration, the particle traverses a series of accelerating regions, driven by a source of voltage in such a way that the particle sees an accelerating field as it crosses each region. In this type of acceleration, particles must necessarily travel in "bunches" corresponding to the portion of the oscillator's cycle where the electric field is pointing in the intended direction of acceleration.


title: Linear particle accelerator

text: If a single oscillating voltage source is used to drive a series of gaps, those gaps must be placed increasingly far apart as the speed of the particle increases. This is to ensure that the particle "sees" the same phase of the oscillator's cycle as it reaches each gap. As particles asymptotically approach the speed of light, the gap separation becomes constant - additional applied force increases the energy of the particles, but does not significantly alter their speed.


title: Linear particle accelerator

text: In order to ensure particles do not escape the accelerator, it is necessary to provide some form of focusing to redirect particles moving away from the central trajectory back towards the intended path. With the discovery of strong focusing, quadrupole magnets are used to actively redirect particles moving away from the reference path. As quadrupole magnets are focusing in one transverse direction and defocusing in the perpendicular direction, it is necessary to use groups of magnets to provide an overall focusing effect in both directions.


title: Linear particle accelerator

text: Focusing along the direction of travel, also known as "phase stability", is an inherent property of RF acceleration. If the particles in a bunch all reach the accelerating region during the rising phase of the oscillating field, then particles which arrive early will see slightly less voltage than the "reference" particle at the center of the bunch. Those particles will therefore receive slightly less acceleration and eventually fall behind the reference particle. Correspondingly, particles which arrive after the reference particle will receive slightly more acceleration, and will catch up to the reference as a result. This automatic correction occurs at each accelerating gap, so the bunch is refocused along the direction of travel each time it is accelerated.


title: Linear particle accelerator

text: As shown in the animation, the oscillating voltage applied to alternate cylindrical electrodes has opposite polarity (180° out of phase), so adjacent electrodes have opposite voltages. This creates an oscillating electric field "(E)" in the gap between each pair of electrodes, which exerts force on the particles when they pass through, imparting energy to them by accelerating them. The particle source injects a group of particles into the first electrode once each cycle of the voltage, when the charge on the electrode is opposite to the charge on the particles. The electrodes are made the correct length so that the accelerating particles take exactly one-half cycle to pass through each electrode. Each time the particle bunch passes through an electrode, the oscillating voltage changes polarity, so when the particles reach the gap between electrodes the electric field is in the correct direction to accelerate them. Therefore, the particles accelerate to a faster speed each time they pass between electrodes; there is little electric field inside the electrodes so the particles travel at a constant speed within each electrode.


title: Linear particle accelerator

text: The particles are injected at the right time so that the oscillating voltage differential between electrodes is maximum as the particles cross each gap. If the peak voltage applied between the electrodes is formula_6 volts, and the charge on each particle is formula_2 elementary charges, the particle gains an equal increment of energy of formula_8 electron volts when passing through each gap. Thus the output energy of the particles is


title: Linear particle accelerator

text: At speeds near the speed of light, the incremental velocity increase will be small, with the energy appearing as an increase in the mass of the particles. In portions of the accelerator where this occurs, the tubular electrode lengths will be almost constant. Additional magnetic or electrostatic lens elements may be included to ensure that the beam remains in the center of the pipe and its electrodes. Very long accelerators may maintain a precise alignment of their components through the use of servo systems guided by a laser beam.


title: Linear particle accelerator

text: Various new concepts are in development as of 2021. The primary goal is to make linear accelerators cheaper, with better focused beams, higher energy or higher beam current.


title: Linear particle accelerator

text: Induction linear accelerators use the electric field induced by a time-varying magnetic field for acceleration - like the betatron. The particle beam passes through a series of ring-shaped ferrite cores standing one behind the other, which are magnetized by high-current pulses and in turn each generate an electrical field strength pulse along the axis of the beam direction. Induction linear accelerators are considered for short high current pulses from electrons, but also from heavy ions. The concept goes back to the work of Nicholas Christofilos. Its realization is highly dependent on progress in the development of more suitable Ferrite materials. With electrons, pulse currents of up to 5 kiloamps at energies up to 5 MeV and pulse durations in the range of 20 to 300 nanoseconds were achieved.


title: Linear particle accelerator

text: In previous electron linear accelerators, the accelerated particles are used only once and then fed into an absorber "(beam dump)", in which their residual energy is converted into heat. In an "Energy Recovery Linac" (ERL; literally: "Energy recovery linear accelerator"), instead, the accelerated in resonators and, for example, in undulators. The electrons used are fed back through the accelerator, out of phase by 180 degrees. They therefore pass through the resonators in the decelerating phase and thus return their remaining energy to the field. The concept is comparable to the hybrid drive of motor vehicles, where the kinetic energy released during braking is made available for the next acceleration by charging a battery.


title: Linear particle accelerator

text: The Brookhaven National Laboratory  and the Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin with the project "bERLinPro"  reported on corresponding development work . The Berlin experimental accelerator uses superconducting niobium cavity resonators of the type mentioned above. In 2014, three free-electron lasers based on "Energy Recovery Linacs were" in operation "worldwide" : in the Jefferson Lab (USA), in the Budker Institute of Nuclear Physics (Russia) and at JAEA (Japan).  At the University of Mainz , an ERL called MESA is under construction and should (as of 2019) go into operation in 2022.


title: Linear particle accelerator

text: The concept of the Compact Linear Collider (CLIC) (original name "CERN Linear Collider" , with the same abbreviation) for electrons and positrons provides a traveling wave accelerator for energies of the order of 1 tera-electron volt (TeV). Instead of the otherwise necessary numerous klystron amplifiers to generate the acceleration power, a second, parallel electron linear accelerator of lower energy is to be used, which works with superconducting cavities in which standing waves are formed. High-frequency power is extracted from it at regular intervals and transmitted to the main accelerator. In this way, the very high acceleration field strength of 80 MV / m should be achieved.


title: Linear particle accelerator

text: In cavity resonators, the dielectric strength limits the maximum acceleration that can be achieved within a certain distance. This limit can be circumvented using accelerated waves in plasma to generate the accelerating field in Kielfeld accelerators: A laser or particle beam excites an oscillation in a plasma, which is associated with very strong electric field strengths. This means that significantly (factors of 100s to 1000s ) more compact linear accelerators can possibly be built. Experiments involving high power lasers in metal vapour plasmas suggest that a beam line length reduction from some tens of metres to a few cm is quite possible.


title: Linear particle accelerator

text: The LIGHT program (Linac for Image-Guided Hadron Therapy) hopes to create a design capable of accelerating protons to 200MeV or so for medical use over a distance of a few tens of metres, by optimising and nesting existing accelerator techniques The current design (2020) uses the highest practical bunch frequency (currently ~ 3 GHz) for a Radio-frequency quadrupole (RFQ) stage from injection at 50kVdC to ~5MeV bunches, a Side Coupled Drift Tube Linac (SCDTL) to accelerate from 5Mev to ~ 40MeV and a Cell Coupled Linac (CCL) stage final, taking the output to 200-230MeV. Each stage is optimised to allow close coupling and synchronous operation during the beam energy build-up.


title: Linear particle accelerator

text: The project aim is to make proton therapy a more accessible mainstream medicine as an alternative to existing radio therapy.


title: Linear particle accelerator

text: The higher the frequency of the acceleration voltage selected, the more individual acceleration thrusts per path length a particle of a given speed experiences, and the shorter the accelerator can therefore be overall. That is why accelerator technology developed in the pursuit of higher particle energies, especially towards higher frequencies.


title: Linear particle accelerator

text: The linear accelerator concepts (often called accelerator structures in technical terms) that have been used since around 1950 work with frequencies in the range from around to a few gigahertz (GHz) and use the electric field component of electromagnetic waves.


title: Linear particle accelerator

text: When it comes to energies of more than a few MeV, accelerators for ions are different from those for electrons. The reason for this is the large mass difference between the particles. Electrons are already close to the speed of light, the absolute speed limit, at a few MeV; with further acceleration, as described by relativistic mechanics, almost only their energy and momentum increase. On the other hand, with ions of this energy range, the speed also increases significantly due to further acceleration.


title: Linear particle accelerator

text: The acceleration concepts used today for "ions" are always based on electromagnetic standing waves that are formed in suitable resonators. Depending on the type of particle, energy range and other parameters, very different types of resonators are used; the following sections only cover some of them. "Electrons" can also be accelerated with standing waves above a few MeV. An advantageous alternative here, however, is a progressive wave, a traveling wave. The phase velocity the traveling wave must be roughly equal to the particle speed. Therefore, this technique is only suitable when the particles are almost at the speed of light, so that their speed only increases very little.


title: Linear particle accelerator

text: The development of high-frequency oscillators and power amplifiers from the 1940s, especially the klystron, was essential for these two acceleration techniques . The first larger linear accelerator with standing waves - for protons - was built in 1945/46 in the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory under the direction of Luis W. Alvarez. The frequency used was .  The first electron accelerator with traveling waves of around was developed a little later at Stanford University by W.W. Hansen and colleagues.


title: Linear particle accelerator

text: In the two diagrams, the curve and arrows indicate the force acting on the particles. Only at the points with the correct direction of the electric field vector, i.e. the correct direction of force, can particles absorb energy from the wave. (An increase in speed cannot be seen in the scale of these images.)


title: Linear particle accelerator

text: The linear accelerator could produce higher particle energies than the previous electrostatic particle accelerators (the Cockcroft-Walton accelerator and Van de Graaff generator) that were in use when it was invented. In these machines, the particles were only accelerated once by the applied voltage, so the particle energy in electron volts was equal to the accelerating voltage on the machine, which was limited to a few million volts by insulation breakdown. In the linac, the particles are accelerated multiple times by the applied voltage, so the particle energy is not limited by the accelerating voltage.


title: Linear particle accelerator

text: High power linacs are also being developed for production of electrons at relativistic speeds, required since fast electrons traveling in an arc will lose energy through synchrotron radiation; this limits the maximum power that can be imparted to electrons in a synchrotron of given size.


title: Linear particle accelerator

text: Linacs are also capable of prodigious output, producing a nearly continuous stream of particles, whereas a synchrotron will only periodically raise the particles to sufficient energy to merit a "shot" at the target. (The burst can be held or stored in the ring at energy to give the experimental electronics time to work, but the average output current is still limited.) The high density of the output makes the linac particularly attractive for use in loading storage ring facilities with particles in preparation for particle to particle collisions. The high mass output also makes the device practical for the production of antimatter particles, which are generally difficult to obtain, being only a small fraction of a target's collision products. These may then be stored and further used to study matter-antimatter annihilation.


title: Linear particle accelerator

text: Linac-based radiation therapy for cancer treatment began with the first patient treated in 1953 in London, UK, at the Hammersmith Hospital, with an 8 MV machine built by Metropolitan-Vickers and installed in 1952, as the first dedicated medical linac. A short while later in 1954, a 6 MV linac was installed in Stanford, USA, which began treatments in 1956.


title: Linear particle accelerator

text: Medical linear accelerators accelerate electrons using a tuned-cavity waveguide, in which the RF power creates a standing wave. Some linacs have short, vertically mounted waveguides, while higher energy machines tend to have a horizontal, longer waveguide and a bending magnet to turn the beam vertically towards the patient. Medical linacs use monoenergetic electron beams between 4 and 25 MeV, giving an X-ray output with a spectrum of energies up to and including the electron energy when the electrons are directed at a high-density (such as tungsten) target. The electrons or X-rays can be used to treat both benign and malignant disease. The LINAC produces a reliable, flexible and accurate radiation beam. The versatility of LINAC is a potential advantage over cobalt therapy as a treatment tool. In addition, the device can simply be powered off when not in use; there is no source requiring heavy shielding – although the treatment room itself requires considerable shielding of the walls, doors, ceiling etc. to prevent escape of scattered radiation. Prolonged use of high powered (>18 MeV) machines can induce a significant amount of radiation within the metal parts of the head of the machine after power to the machine has been removed (i.e. they become an active source and the necessary precautions must be observed).


title: Linear particle accelerator

text: In 2019 a Little Linac model kit, containing 82 building blocks, was developed for children undergoing radiotherapy treatment for cancer. The hope is that building the model will alleviate some of the stress experienced by the child before undergoing treatment by helping them to understand what the treatment entails. The kit was developed by Professor David Brettle, Institute of Physics and Engineering in Medicine (IPEM) in collaboration with manufacturers Best-Lock Ltd. The model can be seen at the Science Museum, London.


title: Linear particle accelerator

text: The expected shortages of Mo-99, and the technetium-99m medical isotope obtained from it, have also shed light onto linear accelerator technology to produce Mo-99 from non-enriched Uranium through neutron bombardment. This would enable the medical isotope industry to manufacture this crucial isotope by a sub-critical process. The aging facilities, for example the Chalk River Laboratories in Ontario, Canada, which still now produce most Mo-99 from highly enriched uranium could be replaced by this new process. In this way, the sub-critical loading of soluble uranium salts in heavy water with subsequent photo neutron bombardment and extraction of the target product, Mo-99, will be achieved.


title: Juventud Guerrera

text: Eduardo Aníbal González Hernández (born November 23, 1974) is a Mexican professional wrestler, better known by his ring name Juventud "Juvi" Guerrera.


title: Juventud Guerrera

text: Guerrera is best known for his appearances with the Mexican professional wrestling promotions AAA and Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre (CMLL) and with the American professional wrestling promotions Extreme Championship Wrestling (ECW), World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE), World Championship Wrestling (WCW), and Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA). Championships held by Guerrera over the course of his career include the AAA Cruiserweight Championship, IWGP Junior Heavyweight Championship, WCW/WWE Cruiserweight Championship, WCW World Tag Team Championship, and WWA International Cruiserweight Championship. "Juventud Guerrera" is Spanish for "Youth Warrior".


title: Juventud Guerrera

text: Early in his career, Guerrera was a mainstay in the Asistencia Asesoría y Administración (AAA) promotion. He had a very lengthy feud with Rey Mysterio Jr. in which they traded the AAA Welterweight Title back and forth. The pair also had several tag team matches in which Guerrera would team with his father Fuerza, while Rey Jr. would tag with uncle and trainer Rey Misterio Sr.


title: Juventud Guerrera

text: Guerrera first gained American exposure in Extreme Championship Wrestling alongside fellow luchadores Rey Misterio Jr., Psicosis, Konnan and La Parka, all of whom were also wrestling for Konnan's Promo Azteca in Mexico at the time. He debuted in ECW at Big Apple Blizzard Blast in February 1996. When Konnan left for WCW later that year, Guerrera and the rest followed.


title: Juventud Guerrera

text: In WCW, Guererra made his debut on August 26, 1996, edition of "Monday Nitro" in a victory over Billy Kidman. He would compete throughout 1996 and 1997 under a mask, like the one he wore in Mexico and ECW.


title: Juventud Guerrera

text: Beginning in 1998, Guerrera pinned Último Dragón to win the Cruiserweight Championship on the inaugural edition of "Thunder" on January 8, 1998. However, he would then lose the title to Rey Misterio Jr. one week later on the following edition of "Thunder". At SuperBrawl VIII, Guerrera challenged Chris Jericho for the title in a mask vs. title match, in which Guerrera lost forcing him to unmask. After unmasking Guerrera, Jericho would often berate Guerrera for his looks by referring to him as "Quasi-juice" which was in reference to "Quasimodo", the disfigured lead character in "The Hunchback of Notre Dame". Later in the year, Guerrera defeated Jericho at Road Wild to capture his second Cruiserweight Championship. He retained the belt at Fall Brawl against Silver King, before losing to Billy Kidman the following night on "Nitro".


title: Juventud Guerrera

text: Later on, Guerrera became an announcer on "Thunder" in order to remain on-screen while rehabilitating an injury. On November 29, 1999, Guerrera defeated Jushin Thunder Liger to win the IWGP Junior Heavyweight Championship on "Nitro." The next week, he would lose the title back to Liger, as Psicosis substituted for Guerrera due to injury (in reality, Guerrera and Jerry Flynn were arrested for DUI, thus no-showed). After his injury healed, he joined former rival Rey Mysterio Jr., Konnan, Billy Kidman, and others to form The Filthy Animals. During the group's run, Guerrera and Mysterio Jr. became the World Tag Team Champions.


title: Juventud Guerrera

text: In October 2000, during a WCW tour of Australia, Guerrera was arrested at the hotel in which the wrestlers were staying, after an incident in which he was discovered naked and screaming in a hallway, and then attacking police officers who had arrived to detain him. According to the 2004 book "The Death of WCW", Guerrera was reportedly under the influence of PCP at the time. Guerrera was expelled from the remainder of the tour and later released by WCW, and was ordered to pay nearly $1,800 in fines.


title: Juventud Guerrera

text: After being released from WCW, Guerrera went on to wrestle for many other promotions including AAA, Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre, World Wrestling All-Stars, Frontier Wrestling Alliance, and Xtreme Pro Wrestling (XPW). He also made a brief appearance in Pro Wrestling Noah as one of 12 participants in a championship tournament to crown the first GHC Junior Heavyweight Champion and lost to Yoshinobu Kanemaru at the tournament finals in Nagoya on June 24, 2001. While in CMLL, he frequently re-teamed with fellow WCW alumnus Rey Mysterio, who had left WCW due to its purchase by the World Wrestling Federation, in CMLL before Mysterio's signing with WWE. After Mysterio signed with WWE in 2002, Guerrera joined the upstart promotion Total Nonstop Action Wrestling.


title: Juventud Guerrera

text: In TNA, Guerrera was joined by fellow AAA wrestlers Mr. Águila, Héctor Garza, Abismo Negro, Heavy Metal to form a group first known as Team AAA, then later renamed to Team Mexico to compete in TNA's World X Cup Matches. Guerrera would also take part in the 2003 Super X Cup, where he advanced all the way to the finals before being ultimately defeated by Chris Sabin. When TNA's working relationship with AAA came to an end, Team Mexico disbanded and Guererra was released from TNA to continue working for Lucha Libre promotions.


title: Juventud Guerrera

text: In the spring of 2005, Guerrera signed with World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE), He debuted on television, entertaining the WWE Universe simply as Juventud, on June 18, 2005, defeating Funaki on "SmackDown!"s sister show "Velocity". On the June 23 episode of "SmackDown", Juventud, Super Crazy and Psicosis (collectively called "The Mexicools") interrupted a match between Chavo Guerrero and Paul London by riding to the ring on a lawn mower and attacking both wrestlers. The following week by week of The Mexicools interrupting matches and beating down seemingly random WWE Superstars and cutting promos. Juventud quickly established himself as the mouthpiece/leader of the group and began using his old nickname "The Juice".


title: Juventud Guerrera

text: At the Great American Bash on July 24, The Mexicools defeated the newly reunited Blue World Order (Big Stevie Cool, Da Blue Guy, and Hollywood Nova) in a six-man tag team match. After more weeks of interruptions and sneak attacks, The Mexicools were sent down to "Velocity". The group feuded with "Velocity" main-stay and then-Cruiserweight Champion Nunzio and his tag partner Vito. Each member of The Mexicools picked up numerous pinfall victories over the champion during this time.


title: Juventud Guerrera

text: At the October 4 "SmackDown!" tapings for "Velocity", Juventud (along with Super Crazy and Psicosis) faced Brian Kendrick, Paul London, Scotty 2 Hotty, and Funaki in an over-the-top battle royal with the stipulation that the winner would receive a title shot at the Cruiserweight Championship at No Mercy. After finally eliminating London, Juventud won the battle royal and the title shot. At the event on October 9, he defeated Nunzio following a Juvi Driver to capture the Cruiserweight Championship, his first title in WWE and, due to the title being originally from WCW, his fourth Cruiserweight Title reign. Juventud later went on to lose the title back to Nunzio at a live event in Italy. On November 25, Juventud regained the title on an edition of "SmackDown!" from England. Guerrera lost the Cruiserweight title to Kid Kash at Armageddon on December 18, 2005.


title: Juventud Guerrera

text: On January 6, 2006, WWE announced that Guerrera was released from the company. His final match aired that evening on "SmackDown!", a Cruiserweight Title rematch against Kid Kash which Juventud lost. During this match, Juventud would use many high flying moves including a 450° splash, a move WWE outright banned due to an earlier match Juventud had with Paul London where he botched the move, and resulting in London suffering several fractured bones in his face.


title: Juventud Guerrera

text: Three months later after being released from WWE, Guerrera returned to Mexico to compete with Lucha Libre AAA Worldwide (AAA). Guerrera returned to the promotion on April 30 and formed a new stable known as the "Mexican Powers" alongside Psicosis II, Extreme Tiger, Joe Líder and Crazy Boy, although Psicosis II and Extreme Tiger would later leave the group. During a TNA vs. AAA Mexico show, Juventud was one of the Mexican wrestlers who aided The Latin American Xchange and attacked A.J. Styles. This footage was later shown on the October 5, 2006, episode of "TNA Impact!".


title: Juventud Guerrera

text: In August 2008, Juventud held a press conference to announce his departure from AAA to compete on the Mexican independent circuit. In September, he formed "The Sexicools", a parody of his Mexicools group, with Intocable and Toscano. Despite rumors, Guererra did not jump to AAA's rival CMLL.


title: Juventud Guerrera

text: On March 15, 2009, Guerrera made a surprise return to AAA at the annual Rey de Reyes event. Juventud helped Charly Manson and D-Generation-Mex win their match and joined D-Generation-Mex. Shortly after his return to the company, Guerrera suffered bruising and a broken nose in a backstage fight with Konnan and Jack Evans. The fight started after Guerrera accused Konnan of defecating in his bag, which Konnan denied (but it was X-Pac who did it as revenge for exposing X-Pac suicide attempt), and then Evans, with whom Guerrera had had a match that evening, allegedly grabbed Guerrera from behind, provoking the fight.


title: Juventud Guerrera

text: Since the incident in AAA, Guerrera has wrestled for Nu-Wrestling Evolution where he won their cruiserweight championship in a triple threat match involving PAC and Matt Cross. He has since defended it in many triple threat matches usually with PAC and Súper Nova and a few single matches with Súper Nova (all of which he has won so far). Juventud Guerrera lost the title on February 6, 2013, in Milan, being defeated by Giuseppe "King" Danza in 50 seconds.


title: Juventud Guerrera

text: In 2010, he made a special surprise appearance at Dragon Gate teaming with Dragon Kid in a match against BxB Hulk and Masato Yoshino. Juventud ended up losing the match for his team when he tapped out to Masato Yoshino. On May 20, 2011, he made a surprise appearance at Xtreme Italian Wrestling in a match against Thunder Storm and win the XIW Italian Championship. On September 6, 2014, Juventud made his in-ring debut for Pure Action Championship Wrestling, winning the promotion's Cruiserweight Championship at their final show, Brawl In The Falls III.


title: Juventud Guerrera

text: On October 12, 2016, Juventud made his debut for Lucha Ilimitado at a show in Yakima, Washington. He teamed with Psicosis in a losing effort against Hijo del Santo & El Santo Jr. Later that night, Juventud & Psicosis attacked Rey Mysterio Jr. and Jeff Hardy (who had just finished a match against one another).


title: Juventud Guerrera

text: On April 23, 2017, at WCPW Pro Wrestling World Cup – Mexican Qualifying Round Guerrera defeated El Hijo de Dos Caras in the semi-finals, Guerrera was defeated in the finals by Rey Mysterio.


title: Juventud Guerrera

text: On February 23, 2012, Guerrera returned to AAA, and losing to his old rival El Hijo del Perro Aguyao in a four-way match, which also included Cibernético and Máscara Año 2000 Jr. On March 18 at "Rey de Reyes", Guerrera and Joe Líder, reforming the Mexican Powers, defeated the teams of Extreme Tiger and Fénix, Halloween and Nicho el Millonario, and Chessman and Teddy Hart in a four-way tag team match. As a result, Guerrera and Líder were granted a shot at the AAA World Tag Team Championship, but were defeated on May 6 by the defending champions, Abyss and Chessman. On May 19 at "Noche de Campeones", Guerrera defeated Jack Evans, Psicosis and Teddy Hart in a four-way hardcore match to win the AAA Cruiserweight Championship. On August 5 at "Triplemanía XX", Guerrera teamed with Chessman for one night to take part in a "Parejas Suicidas" steel cage match. However, both Guerrera and Chessman managed to escape the cage and avoid having to face each other in a Hair vs. Hair match. On December 2 at "Guerra de Titanes", Guerrera lost the AAA Cruiserweight Championship to Daga in a six-way ladder match. Guerrera returned to AAA on August 30, 2013, joining the recently reformed Mexican Powers stable. He, however, ended up turning on the stable on October 18 at "Héroes Inmortales VII", costing Crazy Boy and Joe Líder the AAA World Tag Team Championship. He then formed a new "rudo" stable named Anarquía with Eterno and Steve Pain. Guerrera was seemingly written out of AAA on April 19, 2014, when Daga took over the leadership of Anarquía.


title: Juventud Guerrera

text: On April 20, 2018, Juventud made his comeback with Kevin Kross and Teddy Hart, directly attacking Dr. Wagner Jr. and Hernandez after the main event for the AAA Mega Championship. The trio called themselves MAD.


title: Juventud Guerrera

text: On July 28, 2021, Guerrera was announced for a match against Chris Jericho at All Elite Wrestling's August 4, 2021 "Homecoming" event in which the latter is required to perform a finishing maneuver from the top rope. The match is the third of the "Five Labors" Jericho must successfully complete in order to face MJF in a grudge match. Juventud lost to Jericho and was attacked by Wardlow. Despite having lost his mask to Jericho decades earlier in WCW, Guerrera wore a traditional lucha libre mask during the match.


title: Juventud Guerrera

text: González Hernández is divorced and has a son. González is the son of Fuerza Guerrera, and he had problems with his father since the 90s, when he decided to wrestle in the USA. On October 9, 2018, his brother, Hijo de Fuerza Guerrera, and sister, Fuerza Guerrera were announced as professional wrestling heirs to their father. After the presentation, Guerrera criticized the decision of his siblings becoming pro wrestlers, since neither of them had interest in pro wrestling before. He further claimed that they haven't passed the test to become professional wrestlers.


title: Lists of oldest cricketers

text: Note: Twenty-seven first-class cricketers are known to have attained centenarian status ("see relevant section below").


title: Lists of oldest cricketers

text: Note: The above lists include players who have played Test cricket within the past 24 months and have not formally announced their retirement.


title: Lists of oldest cricketers

text: Note: John Traicos debuted for Zimbabwe at the age of , but had already played three Tests for South Africa 22 years prior.


title: Lists of oldest cricketers

text: Note: The oldest debutant, James Southerton, was also the first Test cricketer to die (on 16 June 1880). Miran Bakhsh was known as Miran Bux during his playing career.


title: Lists of oldest cricketers

text: Note: The Test career of Wilfred Rhodes spanned a record 30 years, 315 days. England's youngest Test cricketer and another Yorkshireman, Brian Close (born 24 February 1931), lies second in this regard. He made his debut against New Zealand in 1949 and was recalled, after an absence of almost nine years, to oppose West Indies in 1976 (his career lasting 26 years, 356 days).


title: Lists of oldest cricketers

text: Note: Although born in New South Wales, Australia, Syd Ward and John Wheatley appear to have been raised in New Zealand. George Harman, who acquired two Rugby Union caps for Ireland, died in Cornwall. Charles Braithwaite was born in England. Fred Gibson moved to England in 1944. Neil McCorkell was born in England, but lived in South Africa from 1951. The prominent Antiguan cricketer, Sir Sydney Walling, who died aged 102 years, 88 days in October 2009, never appeared in matches accorded first-class status.


title: Lists of oldest cricketers

text: The oldest person, and only septuagenarian, to play first-class cricket was Raja Maharaj Singh, aged 72, his sole appearance being for the Bombay Governor's XI against a Commonwealth XI in November 1950. Thirteen players have played first-class cricket in their sixties, most of them in England in the 19th century.


title: Lists of oldest cricketers

text: England women's cricketer Eileen Whelan (later Eileen Ash), born 30 October 1911, was the first female Test cricketer to attain centenarian status; she died on 3 December 2021, aged 110 years 34 days.


title: Lists of oldest cricketers

text: The first Twenty20 International took place on 17 February 2005 when Australia played New Zealand. The oldest living T20I cricketers are:


title: Computer literacy

text: Computer literacy is defined as the knowledge and ability to use computers and related technology efficiently, with skill levels ranging from elementary use to computer programming and advanced problem solving. Computer literacy can also refer to the comfort level someone has with using computer programs and applications. Another valuable component is understanding how computers work and operate. An individual's level of computer literacy is measured on the scale of how skilled they are when it comes to using computers and other related tools to achieve a goal. Computer literacy may be distinguished from computer programming, which primarily focuses on the design and coding of computer programs rather than the familiarity and skill in their use. Various countries, including the United Kingdom and the United States, have created initiatives to improve national computer literacy rates.


title: Computer literacy

text: Computer literacy differs from digital literacy, which is the ability to communicate or find information on digital platforms. Comparatively, computer literacy measures the ability to use computers and to maintain a basic understanding of how they operate.


title: Computer literacy

text: A person's computer literacy is commonly measured through questionnaires, which test their ability to write and modify text, trouble-shoot minor computer operating issues, and organize and analyze information on a computer.


title: Computer literacy

text: To increase their computer literacy, computer users should distinguish which computer skills they want to improve, and learn to be more purposeful and accurate in their use of these skills. By learning more about computer literacy, users can discover more computer functions that are worth using.


title: Computer literacy

text: Arguments for the use of computers in classroom settings, and thus for the promotion of computer literacy, are primarily vocational or practical. Computers are essential in the modern-day workplace. The instruction of computer literacy in education is intended to provide students with employable skills.


title: Computer literacy

text: Rapid changes in technology make it difficult to predict the next five years of computer literacy. Computer literacy projects have support in many countries because they conform to general political and economic principles of those countries' public and private organizations. The Internet offers great potential for the effective and widespread dissemination of knowledge and for the integration of technological advances. Improvements in computer literacy facilitate this.


title: Computer literacy

text: The term "computer literacy" is usually attributed to Arthur Luehrmann, a physicist at Dartmouth College who was a colleague of Kemeny and Kurtz who introduced the BASIC programming language in 1964. Luehrmann became a tireless advocate of computers in teaching. At an April 1972 American Federation of Information Processing Societies (AFIPS) conference, Luehrmann gave a talk titled "Should the computer teach the student, or vice-versa?" The paper is available online. In it he notes:


title: Computer literacy

text: In 1978, Andrew Molnar was director of the Office of Computing Activities at the National Science Foundation in the United States. Shortly after its formation, computer literacy was discussed in several academic articles. In 1985 the Journal of Higher Education asserted that being computer literate involved mastering word processing, spreadsheet programs, and retrieving and sharing information on a computer.


title: Computer literacy

text: Plan Calcul was a French governmental program in the 1960s to promote a national or European computer industry that was accompanied with a vast educational effort in programming and computer science.


title: Computer literacy

text: The Computing for All plan was a French government initiative to introduce computers to all the country's pupils in 1985.


title: Computer literacy

text: In the United Kingdom, a number of prominent video game developers emerged in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The ZX Spectrum, released in 1982, helped to popularize home computing, coding and gaming in Britain and Europe.


title: Computer literacy

text: The BBC Computer Literacy Project, using the BBC Micro computer, ran from 1980 to 1989. This initiative educated a generation of coders in schools and at home, before the development of mass market PCs in the 1990s. 'Bedroom computer innovation' led to the development of early web-hosting companies aimed at businesses and individuals in the 1990s.


title: Computer literacy

text: The BBC Computer Literacy Project 2012 was an initiative to develop students' marketable information technology and computer science skills.


title: Computer literacy

text: It was reported in 2017 that roughly 11.5 million United Kingdom citizens did not have basic computer literacy skills. In response, the United Kingdom government published a 'digital skills strategy' in 2017.


title: Computer literacy

text: First released in 2012, the Raspberry Pi is a series of low-cost single-board computers originally intended to promote the teaching of basic computer science in schools in the UK. Later, they became far more popular than anticipated, and have been used in a wide variety of applications. The Raspberry Pi Foundation promotes the teaching of elementary computer science in UK schools and in developing countries.


title: Computer literacy

text: In 1978, the National Science Foundation put out a call to educate young people in computer programming. To introduce students to computing, the U.S. government, private foundations and universities combined to fund and staff summer programs for high school students.


title: Computer literacy

text: Students in the United States are introduced to tablet computers in preschool or kindergarten. Tablet computers are preferred for their small size and touchscreens. The touch user interface of a tablet computer is more accessible to the under-developed motor skills of young children. Early childhood educators use student-centered instruction to guide young students through various activities on the tablet computer. This typically includes Internet browsing and the use of applications, familiarizing the young student with a basic level of computer proficiency.


title: Computer literacy

text: A concern raised within this topic of discussion is that primary and secondary education teachers are often not equipped with the skills to teach basic computer literacy.


title: Computer literacy

text: In the United States job market, computer illiteracy severely limits employment options. Non-profit organizations such as Per Scholas attempt to reduce the divide by offering free and low-cost computers to children and their families in under-served communities in South Bronx, New York, Miami, Florida, and in Columbus, Ohio.


title: Computer literacy

text: Computer literacy world averages, as determined by The World Economic Forum found that the OECD countries are not as computer literate as one would expect since 25% of individuals do not know how to use a computer, at least 45% rate poorly, and only 30% rate as moderately to strongly computer literate.


title: Art director

text: Art director is the title for a variety of similar job functions in theater, advertising, marketing, publishing, fashion, film and television, the Internet, and video games.


title: Art director

text: It is the charge of a sole art director to supervise and unify the vision of an artistic production. In particular, they are in charge of its overall visual appearance and how it communicates visually, stimulates moods, contrasts features, and psychologically appeals to a target audience. The art director makes decisions about visual elements, what artistic style(s) to use, and when to use motion.


title: Art director

text: One of the biggest challenges art directors face is translating desired moods, messages, concepts, and underdeveloped ideas into imagery. In the brainstorming process, art directors, colleagues and clients explore ways the finished piece or scene could look. At times, the art director is responsible for solidifying the vision of the collective imagination while resolving conflicting agendas and inconsistencies between contributors' ideas.


title: Art director

text: Despite the title, an advertising art director is not necessarily the head of an art department. In modern advertising practice, an art director typically works with a copywriter as a creative team. In advertising, an art director makes sure the client's message is conveyed to their desired audience. They are responsible for the advertising's visual aspects, while working with other team members such as the graphic designer. They work together to devise an overall concept (also known as the "creative" or "big idea") for the commercial, mailer, brochure, or other advertisements. The copywriter is responsible for the textual content, and the art director for the visual aspects. But the art director may come up with the headline or other copy, and the copywriter may suggest a visual or aesthetic approach. Each usually welcomes suggestions and constructive criticism from the other, as such collaboration often improves the work.


title: Art director

text: Although a good art director is expected to have graphic design judgment and technical knowledge of production, it may "not" be necessary for an art director to hand-render comprehensive layouts, or even be able to draw, now that virtually all but the most preliminary work is done on computer.


title: Art director

text: Except in the smallest organizations, the art director/copywriter team is overseen by a creative director, senior media creative or chief creative director. In a large organization, an art director may oversee other art directors and a team of junior designers, image developers and/or production artists, and coordinate with a separate production department. In a smaller organization, the art director may fill all these roles, including overseeing printing and other production.


title: Art director

text: An art director, in the hierarchical structure of a film art department, works directly below the production designer, in collaboration with the set decorator and the set designers. A large part of their duties include the administrative aspects of the art department. They are responsible for assigning tasks to personnel such as the art department coordinator and the construction coordinator, keeping track of the art department budget and scheduling, and overall quality control. They are often also a liaison to other departments, especially construction, special effects, property, transportation (graphics), and locations departments. The art director also attends all production meetings and tech scouts in order to provide information to the set designers in preparation for all departments to have a visual floor plan of each location visited.


title: Art director

text: The term "art director" was first used in 1914 by Wilfred Buckland when this title was used to denote the head of the art department (hence the Academy Award for Best Art Direction), which also included the set decorator. Now the award includes the production designer and set decorator. On the movie "Gone with the Wind", David O. Selznick felt that William Cameron Menzies had such a significant role in the look of the film that the title art director was not sufficient, and so he gave Menzies the title of production designer. This title is now commonly used as the title for the head of the art department, although the title actually implies control over every visual aspect of a film, including costumes.


title: Art director

text: On films with smaller art departments, such as small independent films and short films, the terms "production designer" and "art director" are often synonymous, and the person taking on the role may be credited as either.


title: Art director

text: Art directors in publishing typically work with the publication's editors. Together, they work on a concept for sections and pages of a publication. Individually, the art director is mostly responsible for the visual look and feel of the publication, and the editor has ultimate responsibility for the publication's verbal and textual contents.


title: Religious significance of Jerusalem

text: The city of Jerusalem is sacred to many religious traditions, including the Abrahamic religions of Judaism, Christianity and Islam which consider it a holy city. Some of the most sacred places for each of these religions are found in Jerusalem and the one shared between all three is the Temple Mount.


title: Religious significance of Jerusalem

text: Jerusalem has been the holiest city in Judaism and the ancestral and spiritual homeland of the Jewish people since the 10th century BC. During classical antiquity, Jerusalem was considered the center of the world, where God resided.


title: Religious significance of Jerusalem

text: The city of Jerusalem is given special status in Jewish religious law. In particular, Jews outside Jerusalem pray facing its direction, and the maaser sheni, revai and First Fruits must be eaten in Jerusalem. Any expansion of the city for these purposes must be approved by the Sanhedrin. Also, when the Temple in Jerusalem was standing, Jerusalem observed special laws regarding the Four Species on Sukkot, and the Shofar on Rosh Hashanah.


title: Religious significance of Jerusalem

text: Jerusalem has long been embedded into Jewish religious consciousness. Jews have studied and personalized the struggle by King David to capture Jerusalem and his desire to build the Jewish temple there, as described in the Book of Samuel and the Book of Psalms. Many of King David's yearnings about Jerusalem have been adapted into popular prayers and songs.


title: Religious significance of Jerusalem

text: Jerusalem appears in the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible) 669 times and Zion (which usually means Jerusalem, sometimes the Land of Israel) appears 154 times. The first section, the Torah, only mentions Moriah, the mountain range believed to be the location of the binding of Isaac and the Temple Mount in Jerusalem, and in later parts of the Tanakh the city is written explicitly. The Tanakh (or Old Testament), is a text sacred to both Judaism and Christianity. In Judaism it is considered the Written Law, the basis for the Oral Law (Mishnah, Talmud and Shulkhan Arukh) studied, practiced and treasured by Jews and Judaism for three millennia. The Talmud elaborates in great depth the Jewish connection with the city.


title: Religious significance of Jerusalem

text: According to the Hebrew Bible, the First Temple, at the site known as the Temple Mount today, was built by King Solomon and finished in 950 BC, and Mount Moriah is where Abraham almost sacrificed his son and talked to God. When the Babylonians captured the city in 580 BC, they destroyed the temple and sent the Jews into exile. That is, all worshiping was practiced in the temple and only the temple. From the Babylonian capture, Judaism was codified. The Tanakh (Old Testament) laid the foundation for both Christianity and Islam.


title: Religious significance of Jerusalem

text: In Christian faith, Jerusalem's place in the life of Jesus gives it great importance, in addition to its place in the Old Testament. Jerusalem is the place where Jesus was brought as a child, to be "presented" at the Temple (Luke 2:22) and to attend festivals (Luke 2:41). According to the Gospels, Jesus preached and healed in Jerusalem, especially in the Temple courts. There is also an account of Jesus' "cleansing" of the Temple, chasing various traders out of the sacred precincts (Mark 11:15). At the end of each of the Gospels, there are accounts of Jesus' Last Supper in an "upper room" in Jerusalem, his arrest in Gethsemane, his trial, his crucifixion at Golgotha, his burial nearby and his resurrection and ascension. Jerusalem is generally considered the cradle of Christianity.


title: Religious significance of Jerusalem

text: The earliest Christians were outcast and used the Ichthys fish symbol as a way to know if someone was Christian. This would prevent prosecution or death from the Romans. Christianity became more popular over time, but made a huge expansion when the Roman Emperor Constantine claimed Christianity as his religion and thus the religion of the Roman Empire. Jerusalem is mostly important to Christianity because it is where Jesus Christ was brought occasionally as a child, preached to the poor in his adult life, crucified at the end of his life, and resurrected by God. The Church of the Holy Sepulchre is said to have been built over the location where Jesus was crucified and where the tomb was buried. The Church of the Holy Sepulchre is generally considered the most important church in Christendom.


title: Religious significance of Jerusalem

text: In Christianity, the Jewish connection with the city is considered as the account of God's relationship with His chosen people—the original covenant—and the essential prelude to the events narrated in the New Testament, including both universal commandments (e.g. the Ten Commandments) and obsolete or Judaism-specific ones. In medieval times, Christians thought Jerusalem was the center of the world (Latin: "umbilicus mundi", Greek: "Omphalos"), and was so represented in the so-called T and O maps. Byzantine hymns speak of the Cross being "planted in the center of the earth," and the imagery is tied to the concept of the Death and resurrection of Jesus being for the benefit of all mankind. Medieval maps of Europe usually placed the east ("orient")—Jerusalem—at the top, and this arrangement led to the use of the term "to orient" to mean to align a map with actual compass directions.


title: Religious significance of Jerusalem

text: In Sunni Islam, Jerusalem is the third-holiest city after Mecca and Medina. Muslims believe that Muhammad was transported to Jerusalem during his Night Journey ("Isra and Mi'raj"). The Qur'an describes how the prophet was taken by the miraculous steed Buraq from the Great Mosque of Mecca to the Al-Aqsa Mosque ('"the farthest place of prayer") where he prayed, and then to visit heaven in a single night in the year 621. Although the city of Jerusalem is not mentioned by any of its names in the Qur'an, it is mentioned in later Islamic literature as the place of Muhammad's Night Journey. The story of Muhammad's ascension from Al-Aqsa Mosque was understood as relating to the Temple in Jerusalem (referred to as "Bayt Al-Maqdis"). The Al-Aqsa Mosque is specified of being in Jerusalem in numerous hadith (prophetic traditions):


title: Religious significance of Jerusalem

text: The spiritual importance of Jerusalem in Islam is further emphasized due to its status as the first Qibla (direction of prayer). Islamic tradition holds that Muhammad led prayers towards Jerusalem until the 16th or 17th month after his migration from Mecca to Medina, when Allah directed him to instead turn towards the Kaaba in Mecca. Another part of Jerusalem's significance and holiness to Muslims derives from its strong association with Abraham, David, Solomon, and Jesus. They are all regarded as Prophets of Islam and their stories are mentioned in the Qur'an.


title: Religious significance of Jerusalem

text: Today, the Temple Mount is dominated by three monumental structures from the early Umayyad period – the Dome of the Rock (691 CE), the Dome of the Chain (691-692 CE) and the al-Aqsa Mosque (705-715 CE).