title: LGBT rights in the Middle East

text: Majal is a NGO in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) that was established in Bahrain in 2016 and it focuses on "amplifying underrepresented voices." Majal "translates to opportunity or to give away" in Arabic. The organization centers the rights of different marginalized groups throughout MENA including the LGBT community. Majal provides various platforms that focus on distributing information, resources and having community led discussion to highlight the experiences of marginalized groups. Ahwaa is a platform on Majal that provides LGBT people in MENA a digital space to have discussions through game mechanics. The space uses avatars that protects users from disclosing their identities in an effort to reduce discrimination and persecution and to promote conversations regarding gender identity and sexual orientation. When users exhibit positive contributions and are supported by their peers, they gain more access to the platform. This system protects users from individuals that are using the platform to cause harm to others.


title: LGBT rights in the Middle East

text: This section is by no means exhaustive, and does not cover every particular law pertaining to LGBT rights. This is partly due to the non-existence of these laws in some Middle Eastern States, and also due to the laws being available in Arabic.


title: LGBT rights in the Middle East

text: Beyond the sphere of legislative politics, individuals who practice behaviors that can be considered LGBTQ and/or people who directly identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, trans, or queer often face profound social consequences due to this designation falling outside of the cultural "normal". These consequences can include negative repercussions in one's family life and social marginalization, as well as direct violence and even honor killings. Discrimination towards LGBTQ people is therefore not only a legal matter but a social and cultural phenomenon that must be understood beyond just the letter of the law as it is codified. Due to the power dynamics specific to societies in the Middle East today, one must therefore look not only to law but also to social norms and cultural practices in order to understand the state of LGBTQ rights in the region. As put by Sabiha Allouche, Senior Teaching Fellow at the University of London SOAS, the traditional "formulation of the legal sphere" throughout the history of queer advocacy in the West is "not necessarily applicable to contexts where penal codes often intertwine with further regulatory systems, including religion, customs, traditions, and kin-based patterns of governance." The elitism and jargon endemic to the NGO-ization of human rights advocacy in the region can actually impede the endeavors of these organization, in that NGO-ization causes the work of local activists to be perceived as systematic colonial intervention from the west.


title: LGBT rights in the Middle East

text: As happens in European and North American nations, interpretations of religious doctrine are commonly used as justifications for violence and exclusion of gay people from society. Christian populations in the Middle East persecute gay people as well, demonstrating that cultural customs may play a role as much as religion. The centrality of heterosexual family structures to social and religious rituals can also lead to heightened scrutiny from people in one's own family.


title: LGBT rights in the Middle East

text: Due to the illegality and stigma around people who identify as LGBT, there is a dearth in the quantity of credible data collected regarding violence and discrimination that LGBT individuals face on a daily basis. However, a report written by Outright International submitted to UNHRC regarding violence and discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity in Iraq has found that despite LGBT rights being protected by the law, there exists no feasible legal recourse for victims of such hate crimes.


title: LGBT rights in the Middle East

text: A Pew Research Center survey conducted in found that over 80% of people polled rejected homosexuality as "morally unacceptable". Those who do identify with the LGBTQ community live in hiding due to the fear of backlash and punishment. While some are comfortable to attend LGBTQ themed events, many will wear masks to cover their identities.


title: LGBT rights in the Middle East

text: On 22 February 2022, Ubisoft announced to withdraw the Six Invitational 2022 tournament from being held in the UAE, days after its LGBTQ+ personnel, players and fan base protested against the selection of the country for the event. The event was officially moved from the UAE due to the acute criticism of its treatment of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender people. The Rainbow Six Siege tournament is held thrice every year; a game that features LGBTQ+ characters.


title: LGBT rights in the Middle East

text: Below is a table of attitudes towards homosexuals as neighbours in the Arab World, according to a World Values Survey from 2017 to 2020.


title: Slavery in China

text: Slavery in China has taken various forms throughout history. Slavery was abolished as a legally recognized institution, including in a 1909 law fully enacted in 1910, although the practice continued until at least 1949. Illegal acts of forced labor and sexual slavery in China continue to occur in the twenty-first century, but those found guilty of such crimes are punished harshly. The Chinese term for slave ("nuli") can also be roughly translated into 'debtor', 'dependent', or 'subject'. Slaves in China were a very small part of the population and could include war prisoners, kidnapping victims or people who had been sold.


title: Slavery in China

text: In Chinese society, slaves were grouped under a category of people known as the "jianmin", which means "base" or "mean". Direct equivalents of chattel slavery did not exist in ancient China. During the Shang dynasty and Zhou dynasty, slaves generally consisted of war captives or criminals, although peasants lived in a similar condition of perpetual servitude and were unable to leave their land or own it. Some people deliberately became slaves to escape imperial taxation, but they were still considered to be higher in status than traditional slaves, and inhabited a position somewhere between a slave and a commoner. From the Qin dynasty to Tang dynasty, slavery expanded beyond criminals and war captives. The Qin used large scale slave labor for public works such as land reclamation, road construction, and canal building. Slavery declined during the economic boom of the Song dynasty in the 12th century. Advances in fertilizer, hydraulic, and agricultural technologies allowed the plantation of commercial crops such as medical herbs, mulberry, and cotton. The small land to population ratio enticed slaves to run away and seek better employment. During the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty and Manchu-led Qing dynasty, slavery of Chinese increased. These Chinese slaves to Mongols or Manchus were called bondsmen and became personal retainers of their imperial overlords. Some attained high positions and led other Chinese slaves. In the 19th century, due to concerted efforts to end the African slave trade, large numbers of Chinese laborers known as coolies were exported to replace slave labor. They were transported in cargo ships with conditions and practices nearly identical to the former African slave trade. Visitors to late 19th century China found little difference between the poor free and the slaves, both of which were treated as hired laborers.


title: Slavery in China

text: A handful of emperors and officials throughout Chinese history have made efforts to limit or outlaw slavery. None were successful. In 100 BC, the Confucian scholar Dong Zhongshu advised Emperor Wu of Han to limit the amount of land and slaves that people could own. In 9 AD, Wang Mang ordered the nationalization of large estates and their redistribution to farmers. Part of his reform was changing the institution of slavery so that they would become tax payers, since some impoverished farmers sold themselves or their children into slavery. In the 13th century AD, the jurist Ma Duanlin promulgated a policy limiting the number of slaves owned by officials and commoners to 30. In the 14th century, the Hongwu Emperor ordered an end to all slavery, but in practice slavery continued without heed to his commands. In the 18th century, the Yongzheng Emperor made similar attempts to abolish slavery. In 1909, the Qing officially abolished slavery, but due to internal turmoil and its demise, the institution persisted until 1949 when the People's Republic of China was founded.


title: Slavery in China

text: The Shang dynasty engaged in frequent raids of surrounding states, obtaining captives who would be killed in ritual sacrifices. Scholars disagree as to whether these victims were also used as a source of slave labor.


title: Slavery in China

text: The Warring States period (475–221 BC) saw a decline in slavery from previous centuries, although it was still widespread during the period. Since the introduction of private ownership of land in the state of Lu in 594 BC, which brought a system of taxation on private land, and saw the emergence of a system of landlords and peasants, the system of slavery began to later decline over the following centuries, as other states followed suit.


title: Slavery in China

text: The Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) confiscated property and enslaved families as punishment. Large numbers of slaves were used by the Qin government to construct large-scale infrastructure projects, including road building, canal construction and land reclamation. Slave labor was quite extensive during this period.


title: Slavery in China

text: Beginning with the Han dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD), one of Emperor Gao's first acts was to manumit agricultural workers enslaved during the Warring States period, although domestic servants retained their status. The Han Dynasty promulgated laws to limit the possession of slaves: each king or duke was allowed a maximum of 200 slaves, an imperial princess was allowed a maximum of 100 slaves, other officials were limited to 30 slaves each.


title: Slavery in China

text: Deriving from earlier Legalist laws, the Han dynasty set in place rules penalizing criminals doing three years of hard labor or sentenced to castration by having their families seized and kept as property by the government.


title: Slavery in China

text: In the year AD 9, the Emperor Wang Mang (r. 9–23 AD) usurped the Chinese throne and, to deprive landowning families of their power, instituted a series of sweeping reforms, including the abolition of slavery and radical land reform. Slavery was reinstated in AD 12 before his assassination in AD 23.


title: Slavery in China

text: During the Three Kingdoms period (220–280 AD), a number of statuses intermediate between freedom and slavery developed, but none of them are thought to have exceeded 1 percent of the population.


title: Slavery in China

text: Tang law forbade enslaving free people, but allowed enslavement of criminals, foreigners, and orphans. Free people could however willingly sell themselves. The primary source of slaves was southern tribes, and young slave girls were the most desired. Although various officials such as Kong Kui, the governor of Guangdong, banned the practice, the trade continued. Other peoples sold to Chinese included Turk, Persian and Korean women, who were sought after by the wealthy. The slave girls of Yue were eroticized in Tang dynasty poem 越婢脂肉滑. The term Yue(越) referred to southern China.


title: Slavery in China

text: Chan and Zen Buddhist monastic slavery grew in the Tang dynasty as monasteries became increasingly wealthy and acquired more land. Monks were not generally required to work the fields they owned, with cultivation of farmland left in the hands of free laymen employed by the temples and temple slaves, although temple slaves were a far more significant share of the labor force, with 150,000 such slaves being emancipated during the Huichang Persecution of Buddhism. Some temple slaves were criminals, orphans (who were allowed to enter the monastery in adulthood), or previous tenants of land donated to the monasteries. However, a majority were laborers left unemployed during consolidations of estates by the monasteries who sold themselves to earn a livelihood. Temple slaves were permitted to marry each other, but not free peasants.


title: Slavery in China

text: The Song dynasty's (960–1279 AD) warfare against northern and western neighbors produced many captives on both sides, but reforms were introduced to ease the transition from bondage to freedom.


title: Slavery in China

text: The Hongwu Emperor of the Ming dynasty (1368–1644 AD) sought to abolish all forms of slavery but in practice, slavery continued through the Ming dynasty.


title: Slavery in China

text: The Javans sent 300 black slaves as tribute to the Ming dynasty in 1381. When the Ming dynasty crushed the Miao Rebellions in 1460, they castrated 1,565 Miao boys, which resulted in the deaths of 329 of them. They turned the survivors into eunuch slaves. The Guizhou Governor who ordered the castration of the Miao was reprimanded and condemned by Emperor Yingzong of Ming for doing it once the Ming government heard of the event. Since 329 of the boys died, they had to castrate even more. On 30 Jan 1406, the Ming Yongle Emperor expressed horror when the Ryukyuans castrated some of their own children to become eunuchs to give them to Yongle. Yongle said that the boys who were castrated were innocent and didn't deserve castration, and he returned the boys to Ryukyu and instructed them not to send eunuchs again.


title: Slavery in China

text: Later Ming rulers, as a way of limiting slavery because of their inability to prohibit it, passed a decree that limited the number of slaves that could be held per household and extracted a severe tax from slave owners.


title: Slavery in China

text: The Qing dynasty (1644–1912 AD) initially oversaw an expansion in slavery and states of bondage such as the booi aha. They possessed about two million slaves upon their conquest of China. However, like previous dynasties, the Qing rulers soon saw the advantages of phasing out slavery, and gradually introduced reforms turning slaves and serfs into peasants. Laws passed in 1660 and 1681 forbade landowners from selling slaves with the land they farmed and prohibited physical abuse of slaves by landowners. The Kangxi Emperor freed all the Manchus' hereditary slaves in 1685. The Yongzheng Emperor's "Yongzheng emancipation" between 1723 and 1730 sought to free all slaves to strengthen his authority through a kind of social leveling that created an undifferentiated class of free subjects under the throne, freeing the vast majority of slaves.


title: Slavery in China

text: The abolition of slavery in several countries following British diplomatic pressure led to increasing demands for cheap Chinese laborers, known as "coolies". Mistreatment ranged from the near-slavery conditions maintained by some crimps and traders in the mid-1800s Hawaii and Cuba to the relatively dangerous tasks given to the Chinese during the construction of the Central Pacific Railroad in the United States.


title: Slavery in China

text: Among his other reforms, Taiping Rebellion leader Hong Xiuquan abolished slavery and prostitution in the territory under his control in the 1850s and 1860s.


title: Slavery in China

text: In addition to sending Han exiles convicted of crimes to Xinjiang to be slaves of Banner garrisons there, the Qing also practiced reverse exile, exiling Inner Asian (Mongol, Russian and Muslim criminals from Mongolia and Inner Asia) to China proper where they would serve as slaves in Han Banner garrisons in Guangzhou. Russian, Oirats and Muslims (Oros. Ulet. Hoise jergi weilengge niyalma) such as Yakov and Dmitri were exiled to the Han banner garrison in Guangzhou.


title: Slavery in China

text: In 1019, Jurchen pirates raided Japan for slaves. Only 270 or 259 Japanese on 8 ships were returned when Goryeo managed to intercept them. The Jurchen pirates slaughtered Japanese men while seizing Japanese women as prisoners. Fujiwara Notada, the Japanese governor was killed. In total, 1,280 Japanese were taken prisoner, 374 Japanese were killed and 380 Japanese owned livestock were killed for food. Only 259 or 270 were returned by Koreans from the 8 ships. The woman Uchikura no Ishime's report was copied down. Traumatic memories of the Jurchen raids on Japan in the 1019 Toi invasion, the Mongol invasions of Japan in addition to Japan viewing the Jurchens as "Tatar" "barbarians" after copying China's barbarian-civilized distinction, may have played a role in Japan's antagonistic views against Manchus and hostility towards them in later centuries such as when the Tokugawa Ieyasu viewed the unification of Manchu tribes as a threat to Japan. The Japanese mistakenly thought that Hokkaido (Ezochi) had a land bridge to Tartary (Orankai) where Manchus lived and thought the Manchus could invade Japan. The Tokugawa Shogunate bakufu sent a message to Korea via Tsushima offering help to Korea against the 1627 Manchu invasion of Korea. Korea refused it.


title: Slavery in China

text: The Yuan dynasty (1271–1368 AD) expanded slavery and implemented harsher terms of service. In the process of the Mongol invasion of China proper, many Han Chinese were enslaved by the Mongol rulers. According to Japanese historians Sugiyama Masaaki (杉山正明) and Funada Yoshiyuki (舩田善之), there were also a certain number of Mongolian slaves owned by Han Chinese during the Yuan. Moreover, there is no evidence that Han Chinese suffered particularly cruel abuse.


title: Slavery in China

text: Korean women were viewed as having white and delicate skin (肌膚玉雪發雲霧) by Hao Jing 郝經 (1223–1275), a Yuan scholar, and it was highly desired and prestigious to own Korean female servants among the "Northerner" nobility in the Yuan dynasty as mentioned in Toghon Temür's (shùndì 順帝) Xù Zīzhì Tōngjiàn (續資治通鑒): (京師達官貴人，必得高麗女，然後為名家) and the Caomuzi (草木子) by Ye Ziqi (葉子奇) which was cited by the Jingshi ouji (京師偶記引) by Chai Sang (柴桑).


title: Slavery in China

text: Throughout the 1930s and 1940s the Yi people (also known as Nuosu) of China terrorized Sichuan to rob and enslave non-Nuosu including Han people. The descendants of the Han slaves, known as the White Yi (白彝), outnumbered the Black Yi (黑彝) aristocracy by ten to one. There was a saying that can be translated as: "The worst insult to a Nuosu is to call him a "Han"." (To do so implied that the Nuosu's ancestors were slaves.)


title: Slavery in China

text: Slavery is not institutionalized in modern China, however there are still people working in slave-like conditions under illegal circumstances.


title: Slavery in China

text: Slaves could either be bought and sold to their masters or inherit their role through birth. The majority of the Chinese slave market consisted of adolescents and young adults. Chinese law stated that families could only sell their children under the condition that doing so would save the rest of their family from starvation. Despite this law, the restrictions of human sales were rarely enforced. On some occasions, slaves were born into the family house by an existing slave thereby becoming a slave under that household by birth.


title: Slavery in China

text: If a slave was bought from their birth family and sold, a slave contract was created by the selling agency or agent (more commonly known as "people sellers" or "ren fanzi"). The contract stated the name of the person offering the slave, the name of the person buying the slave, the name of the selling agent, the name of the guarantor, the age of the slave and how many years the slave was to work for the new family, which was typically around 10–15 years. It also stated how much money was being exchanged for the slave. Most contracts for slave girls had a clause that the master was to choose a mate for the girl following the end of her time working. After the agreement was made, the slave was then transported, cleaned, trained, inspected and brought to their new master's home to start work. These contracts were often known as "white contracts", meaning contracts meant for common goods as opposed to "red contracts" which were reserved for more important matters such as land.


title: Slavery in China

text: Slaves had very poor living conditions with little time to themselves and a small living space often shared with other slaves. They were confined to small mud or brick huts known as "uk jai" Punishment and abuse were regular occurrences for slaves in China and could sometimes result in extreme permanent injuries or even death in some cases. Abuse was rarely reported or looked into. The only instances where slave abuse was questioned was if the family or masters were under investigation by the police for another offence. After a master dies, his slaves are distributed evenly among the rest of the family members like all other property.


title: Slavery in China

text: Due to the strict patriarchal system in China's history, boys were bought and sold for one of two reasons: to become an heir to a family with no son or to become a slave. Males were always in high demand due to their ability to become heirs and their higher physical capabilities. Therefore they were four to five times more expensive than female slaves and were only owned by the elite families that could afford them; daughters and even land were sold before males of the family. Male slaves ("sai man)" were given the hardest and most demanding tasks. After their servitude, male slaves were either released from the main house to survive on their own, or they could have marriages arranged for them if their masters considered them to be extremely loyal or hard working. Those who were chosen to be married would be provided with an 'unlucky' woman, usually a person with disabilities or the daughter of another slave. If a male slave had a son, his slave status was inherited and the son remained the property of his father's master.


title: Slavery in China

text: Women slaves were distinguished by their marital status rather than what kind of work they did. Married women who were slaves were similar to employees; they were paid wages and were free to leave the family house when they were not working. Unmarried women (called "binü" or "yatou") however were unpaid and forced to remain on duty at all times. Married women were acknowledged by their married surname, while unmarried women were given names by their masters. The children of a woman slave did not necessarily inherit her slave status, but there was a high possibility of becoming a slave themselves to avoid starvation. Often times, women who found work outside of their family found themselves vulnerable to kidnapping, trafficking, and sexual violence.


title: Slavery in China

text: "Slavery exists in China, especially in Canton and Peking ... I have known a male slave. He is named Wang and is a native of Kansu, living in Kuei-chou in the house of his original master's son, and with his own family of four persons acknowledged to me that he was a slave, "Nu-p'u". He was a person of considerable ability, but did not appear to care about being free. Female slaves are very common all over China, and are generally called . . .


title: Slavery in China

text: YA-TOU 丫頭. Slave girl, a female slave. Slave girls are very common in China; nearly every Chinese family owns one or more slave girls generally bought from the girl's parents, but sometimes also obtained from other parties.


title: Slavery in China

text: It is a common thing for well-to-do people to present a couple of slave girls to a daughter as part of her marriage dowery. Nearly all prostitutes are slaves. It is, however, customary with respectable people to release their slave girls when marriageable. Some people sell their slave girls to men wanting a wife for themselves or for a son of theirs.


title: Slavery in China

text: I have bought three different girls; two from Szű-chuan for a few taels each, less than fifteen dollars. One I released in Tientsin, another died in Hongkong; the other I gave in marriage to a faithful servant of mine. Some are worth much money at Shanghai."


title: Slavery in China

text: Concubinage in China was a regular part of Chinese history. A slave who had sexual relations willingly or unwillingly with her master was considered to be a second wife rather than a slave, regardless of whether the master himself thought of her as such. A slave could also become a concubine if she was sold or given to another master as a gift. According to Chinese law, a man could have only one legal wife ("qi"), but could have as many concubines ("qie") as he desired. On some occasions, the wife would select a concubine for her husband for the goal of getting a son and heir to the family line. Whether a child was born from the wife or a concubine, the wife was considered to be the mother.


title: Moothon

text: Moothon (), also known internationally as The Elder One, is a 2019 Indian Malayalam-language drama film written and directed by Geetu Mohandas, and jointly produced by S. Vinod Kumar, Anurag Kashyap, Ajay G. Rai and Alan McAlex. Featuring a bilingual narrative in Jeseri dialect of Malayalam and Hindi, the film stars Nivin Pauly, Shashank Arora, Sobhita Dhulipala, Melissa Raju Thomas, Sanjana Dipu and Roshan Mathew. Hindi-language dialogues were written by Anurag Kashyap. The film premiered at the 2019 Toronto International Film Festival and received a positive critical response. It was included in The Hindu's top 25 Malayalam films of the decade and is widely regarded as one of the defining movies of the New Wave Movement.


title: Moothon

text: The story is about a 14-year-old child, Mulla from Lakshadweep who travels to Mumbai in search of Moothon (elder brother), Akbar, who left the island for Mumbai many years ago. Mulla is a child living in Lakshadweep islands under the care of Moosa, a fisherman. He is seen to be wearing baggy clothes and doesn't go to school due to bullying. The bullies make him wear lipstick and a veil, and he hates feminine clothes. He laments his brother, who disappeared from the island, and tries to search for him. Moosa tells him to drop the issue and to stop imitating his brother's mannerisms and tells that Mulla can't become like Moothon by wearing his clothes.


title: Moothon

text: He suspects that Moothon left due to an affair with Aamina and tries to get her number. Moosa responds that the only Aamina he knows is a fish. However, he manages to get her number. One day, while getting bullied, his friends help him strike back. However, Mulla gets slapped by Moosa for this, and he leaves the island by taking a boat under the cover of darkness and proceeds to get hit by a large wave in the ocean, capsizing the boat. He hallucinates a mermaid rescuing him, but in fact, he gets rescued by a ship.


title: Moothon

text: The ship authorities send him to a police station, and there is a communication barrier as he doesn't know Hindi. From there, he is sent to a govt-funded orphanage. He is hesitant in taking a bath together with the boys, and from there, he befriends Raju. The warden tries to molest him, but he manages to escape from him due to Raju's intervention. Raju tells about his mother Rosi and where he could find her. Mulla escapes from there in search of Raju's mother. Mulla finds Raju's mother to be a prostitute, who helps him. She provides him shelter and introduces him to a tea seller, who gives him a livelihood selling tea. The neighborhood boys bully him and steal his money, which he had been saving for calling Aamina.


title: Moothon

text: While resting on the street after work, he gets kidnapped by Bhai, a local goon involved in child trafficking and drug dealing. He tries to escape, but is caught by the street boys working for bhai. Bhai plans on selling him, and Bhai's sidekick Salim sets up a deal. Bhai himself is from the islands and understands his language. Bhai orders him to deliver a package. However, on seeing a cop, he flees, dropping the package. However, smartphones drop out of the package. Mulla comes back to Bhai's haunt and tries to steal cash to take his phone. Seeing this, Bhai is enraged and slaps him. He reveals that he was trying to find his "moothon" Akbar and that he is, in fact his sister, Mulla. Bhai is shocked on hearing the revelation, and understands that Mulla is, in fact his sister, although Bhai does not reveal this to Mulla. Bhai warns Mulla to stay inside until he comes back. One of the boys from the street enters the house looking for Mulla while she was bathing and finds out that Mulla is, in fact, a girl.


title: Moothon

text: In the flashback, Bhai lives in his islands as Akbar. He lives in Lakshwadweep and is a performer of the Muslim ritual Kuthu Ratheeb, along with Moosa. They are professional ritual dancers. During a performance, he makes eye contact with a young man named Ameer, who had just returned from Bombay. Ameer is Aamina's brother. Aamina is close with Akbar's family. Ameer is a mute, and he had learnt sign language from Bombay, though only Akbar happens to understand it at least partly. Ameer is romantically interested in Akbar, however, Akbar is at first ambivalent about expressing his feelings. Ameer invites Akbar to his home when Aamina and her mother are away. Akbar goes to Ameer that night. Their relationship upsets Akbar's family, Moosa beats and warns Ameer to stay away from Akbar. Ameer gets engaged, but he wants to leave the island with Akbar and settle in Mumbai. But Akbar initially disapproves of the plan leaving Ameer, who commits suicide.


title: Moothon

text: At present, Akbar, knowing that his boss is looking for her, approaches Aamina, who now works as cabaret dancer in Mumbai. Akbar asks her to take care of Mulla, but she refuses. So he leaves Mulla to his transgender friend Lateef. The don threatens to kill Akbar and his assistant Salim, if he did not receive the money lost for the dropped package. But Akbar claims a bigger assignment to pay the debt. He is assigned with 20 other thugs to transfer a huge amount of money to a middleman, but fails to do so as he is ambushed by another gang in a car chase, due to backstabbing by a gang member. Mulla runs away from Lateef, who tells her to dress as a girl, and goes back to Bhai's shelter only to realise that Bhai has been caught by the police.


title: Moothon

text: Salim uses this opportunity to sell the girl. Lateef gets Akbar out of jail, and upon release, he beats up Salim asking Mulla's whereabouts. Salim takes Akbar to the place where he sold the girl, and Akbar is shocked on seeing something and gets shot at the same instance. Later the boy from the street who woos Mulla knocks on the door of a brothel, and Mulla opens the door with long hair and girly clothes and a smile.


title: Moothon

text: The screenplay was written by Geetu Mohandas originally under the title "Insha' Allah: In Pursuit of Akbar". The story was about a teenager who is in search of his elder brother Akbar. For the script, Geetu won the Global Filmmaking Award at the 2016 Sundance Film Festival, along with four other filmmakers. In January 2016, she announced that it would be made into a feature film in Malayalam and Hindi languages, and filming would commence post monsoon that year.


title: Moothon

text: In January 2017, the cast and crew were revealed along with a poster. The title was changed to "Moothon" (meaning: elder brother, in Malayalam). Produced jointly by Aanand L. Rai for Colour Yellow Productions and Ajay G. Rai and Alan McAlex for JAR Pictures, the film will be distributed by Eros International. Anurag Kashyap wrote the Hindi dialogues. Nivin Pauly plays the leading role along with Shashank Arora as the negative lead. Geetu has mentioned in her interviews that Nivin was not the first person to come to her mind to play the protagonist, after completing the screenplay. She toggled with many names, and eventually, the role fell into Nivin's lap. Geetu has reiterated that in this movie, she was not looking for actors but wanted to cast the person in the actor. Her husband Rajeev Ravi handles the cinematography. The film marks Geetu's feature directorial debut in Malayalam. Geetu call the film an "adventure drama", even though she does not believe in confining it into a clear-cut genre, saying "it can always turn into something else".


title: Moothon

text: Filming in Mumbai was concluded by second week of May 2017. Filming resumed in Lakshadweep in May 2018. It was completed on 14 May 2018.


title: Moothon

text: The film premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival in September 2019, with the cast and crew in attendance. It was screened at the Mumbai Film Festival on October 18, 2019. Pauly has stated during an interview that the filmmakers planned for "Moothon" released theatrically on 8 November 2019. The film dubbed in Telugu with same title and released on Aha


title: Moothon

text: Moothon generally received positive reviews from the critics. Sify rated the movie 4 on 5 stars and said,"Moothon treads on an unconventional terrain for Malayalam and opens a fascinating world for the viewer. Don’t miss this one!" "The News Minute" rated the movie 4 on 5 stars and said, "Geetu Mohandas-Nivin Pauly deliver a brilliant film" "The Times of India" rated the movie 4 on 5 stars and said, "Moothon is what happens when a powerful story meets a competent director who ropes in some of the best artists and technicians, knowing exactly what to get from them, and how. Moothon is a brave film."


title: Moothon

text: "The New Indian Express" reviewed, "A welcome change for Malayalam film industry overdosed by feel-good films" "The Indian Express" rated the movie 3 on 5 stars and said, "Nivin Pauly delivers in this dark existential drama." Behindwood rated the movie 3.25 stars on 5 and reviewed, "Moothon is packed with top-notch performances. Nivin Pauly beautifully straddles the contrasting sides of Akbar's character while Roshan Matthew memorably plays the sensitivity of Aamir. Shashank Arora deserves a special mention as Sameer. Moothon is a visceral, grim yet optimistic exploration of human nature."


title: Moothon

text: Dennis Harvey from "Variety" wrote that "The film benefits from strong performances, particularly by the male leads in the flashback. It also sports flavorful cinematography (Rajeev Ravi) and production design (Abid T.P.). But a story with this much woe on its plate needs to slow down more often to let us fully absorb the cruel turns of fate, and “The Elder One” is often in a confounding rush". "The Hindu" wrote about the movie as, "Although it does not play out smoothly all through, Moothon has enough depth in it for us to dive deep, and come back with material to ponder. Geetu Mohandas makes a brave statement with her first film in Malayalam." "HuffPost" wrote, "Nivin Pauly Is Spot On, But Let Down By Inconsistent Writing." Baradwaj Rangan of Film Companion South wrote "One part of me wished this ambitious film had stuck to one story in one timeline, but in a strange way, this in-between mood is what makes the events stand out".


title: Barry Orton

text: Randal Berry Orton (May 28, 1958 – March 19, 2021) was an American professional wrestler and actor. He was the son of professional wrestler Bob Orton, brother of professional wrestler Bob Orton Jr., and uncle of professional wrestler Randy Orton.


title: Barry Orton

text: Randal Berry Orton was born in Amarillo, Texas, the son of professional wrestler Bob Orton and his wife Rita. He was named after professional wrestler Wild Red Berry. The family moved to Kansas City, Missouri, three days after his birth. He was a musician and performed in nightclubs, playing in many prominent club bands over the country. Disappointed by a "near miss" record deal in 1976, Orton switched to professional wrestling.


title: Barry Orton

text: Orton made his professional wrestling debut in 1976, trained by Bob Orton, Bob Roop, and Tully Blanchard. During his career in wrestling he competed in the WWF as Barry O (1985–1988, 1990–1991), ICW, WOW, the NWA, the IWF and Stampede Wrestling (where, while appearing as the masked Zodiac, he managed Jason the Terrible) he was mainly used as an enhancement talent. In 1984, Orton wrestled for around three months under a mask as the Assassin #3 with Jody Hamilton. Orton was a replacement for Hercules Hernandez who had recently been unmasked by Jimmy Valiant. In a 2005 interview with Slam! Sports, Orton said "I was always struggling because I wanted to be a musician. I never saw myself as a professional wrestler."


title: Barry Orton

text: His career was affected in 1986 when he was driving under the influence and his female passenger died. The WWF would not allow him to wrestle until the matter was settled, and Orton went to Stampede Wrestling in Calgary as the masked Zodiac. Then in 1988 he worked for New Japan Pro-Wrestling as Barry Gasper teaming with Bob Orton as Billy Gasper. He returned to WWF in 1990 and also worked for Universal Wrestling Federation (Herb Abrams), Herb Abrams's promotion for a couple of appearances. Orton retired from wrestling in 1991.


title: Barry Orton

text: Orton came out of retirement in 2011 for one night for Pro Wrestling Guerilla participating in a battle royal which was won by Roddy Piper.


title: Barry Orton

text: In the 1990s, Orton made a transition from wrestling into movies, appearing in minor roles. He went to New York and began studying classical theatre, spending a year there studying with Robert Patterson. In 1991, he appeared in the role of 'Wild Thing' in the local Vegas TV show 'Vegas Rocks', which led to a local commercial along with a part in Honeymoon in Vegas. He starred in a film called 'Tweak the Heat', based on crystal meth awareness.


title: Barry Orton

text: Orton was married four times; all four marriages ended in divorce. He had two children, both of them daughters, from his third marriage.


title: Barry Orton

text: During his life, Orton used the drugs valium and methamphetamine. He also carried a .44 Magnum handgun which he would threaten to use to kill himself. Upon a friend's request, Orton went to a therapist and eventually beat his drug addiction.


title: Barry Orton

text: In 1992, Orton appeared on the talk show, The Phil Donahue Show, along with Superstar Billy Graham, Bruno Sammartino and others to voice their concern about sexual harassment in the wrestling industry. Vince McMahon was also on the show to defend himself and the company. Because of his vocal opinions against the WWF and the sexual harassment that was involved, he became blacklisted. Some were instructed not to talk to him, while many others were afraid to. Orton started going by a different name, Barrymore Barlow. Although he was not employed by the WWF at the time, he was a key figure in the lawsuit that was filed against the company. According to Orton, in 1978 on a trip between shows while employed by a faction of the NWA, Orton was traveling with a booker for the company, Terry Garvin. While on the drive, Garvin repeatedly asked to perform oral sex on him, offers that were repeatedly refused. At the time Orton did not speak up about the incident. However, when stories later broke that Garvin (who went on to work for the WWF front office) was involved in sexually harassing young ring boys working for the WWF, Orton came forward with his own story to back up the claims made against Garvin. Orton also brought up hearing from another ring boy while he was still employed by the WWF. According to Orton, the boy claimed that Garvin was doing things to make the boy uncomfortable.


title: John Miles (musician)

text: John Miles (born John Errington; 23 April 1949 – 5 December 2021) was a British rock singer, guitarist and keyboard player best known for his 1976 top 3 UK hit single "Music" and his frequent appearances at Night of the Proms. He won the "Outstanding Musical Achievement" award at the 2017 Progressive Music Awards. He released 10 albums from 1976 to 1999 and was also the touring musician for Tina Turner in 1987.


title: John Miles (musician)

text: Miles was born John Errington in Jarrow, South Tyneside, to Alec and Doris, attending St. Peters School before passing his eleven-plus exam and joining Jarrow Grammar School. While still a pupil at Jarrow Grammar School, Miles started guitar lessons in nearby Hebburn and was encouraged by his grammar school music teacher, Jimmy Joseph, to take up a career in music; however, his first job after leaving school was making lavatory signs. Miles played in several local bands, including The Derringers, The New Atlantians and The Urge before joining The Influence, which also included Paul Thompson, later the drummer with Roxy Music, and Vic Malcolm, later lead guitarist with Geordie. This outfit released the single "I Want to Live" (Orange Records, 1969). Following this, he formed The John Miles Set, with Bob Marshall and Dave Symonds before starting his solo career in 1971. His first single recorded as a solo artist was "Come Away Melinda" in 1972. There were other releases, including those written by Australian writing duo Vanda & Young: "The World Belongs to Yesterday" (1972), "Yesterday Was Just the Beginning of My Life" (1972) and "One Minute Every Hour" (1973). It was while on a break on a Saturday stint at Peter Stringfellow's Leeds club that he first started writing what became "Music". In 1972, the band appeared on the television series "Opportunity Knocks."


title: John Miles (musician)

text: Miles signed a recording contract with the Decca UK label in 1975 and issued four albums; "Rebel" (1976) - No. 9 on the UK chart, "Stranger in the City" (1977) - No. 37 UK, "Zaragon" (1978) - No. 43 UK and "More Miles Per Hour" (1979) - No. 46 UK. However, Miles had the most success with singles and released a total of eighteen during this era, with four reaching the UK top 40. In addition to "Music", he also charted in the UK with "Highfly" (1975) - No. 17, "Remember Yesterday" (1976) - No. 32, and "Slow Down" (1977) - No. 10. In 1975, the readers of the "Daily Mirror" voted Miles as Best Newcomer. Not long after "Music"'s release, Miles was described by "Melody Maker" as:


title: John Miles (musician)

text: "Music" won Miles an Ivor Novello Award for "Best Middle of the Road Song" in 1977. Most of his songs were co-written with the bassist in his backing group, Bob Marshall.


title: John Miles (musician)

text: At the peak of his success, in 1976 and 1977, Miles made several appearances on the weekly pop TV show "Supersonic" and "Top of the Pops". The debut album did receive some attention in the US. Two singles from the debut album reached the US "Billboard" Hot 100 chart, "Highfly" peaked at No. 68, followed by "Music" which stalled at No. 88. In Canada, "Highfly" reached No. 74, and "Slow Down" reached No. 68. However, "Music" reached No. 1 on the Dutch and Belgian charts and No. 4 on the Swiss charts. "Slow Down" was his biggest US chart hit, peaking at No. 2 on the disco chart, and at No. 34 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 in June 1977. It was later featured in the 1979 film "Players", starring Ali MacGraw and Dean Paul Martin. The album "Zaragon" reached No. 3 on the Swedish and Portuguese charts. In his US tour to promote "Zaragon", "Billboard" stated that:


title: John Miles (musician)

text: The relative success in the US charts led to Miles supporting Elton John on his tour. Miles and his band would go on to tour with other famous artists, such as Fleetwood Mac, Aerosmith, Jethro Tull and the Rolling Stones. In 1978, Miles was invited to appear on the BBC "Sight and Sound in Concert" programme which was simultaneously on BBC Radio 1 and BBC 2 on 11 March 1978.


title: John Miles (musician)

text: Unfortunately the early success of "Rebel" tailed off so much that Ian Gilbey in "Electronics & Music Maker" wrote:


title: John Miles (musician)

text: From 1985, Miles participated almost every year in the Night of the Proms, a series of concerts held yearly in Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany, Luxembourg, Poland, Denmark and the United States. Regularly there were also shows in Spain, France, Austria, Switzerland and Sweden. The concerts consist of a combination of pop music and popular classical music (often combined) and various well-known musicians and groups usually participate.


title: John Miles (musician)

text: Miles always performed "Music", regarded as the anthem of the show, and also sang other songs with other artists. In 2009, the album "The Best of John Miles at the Night of the Proms" was released, which included "Music" and cover versions including "All by Myself", "Bohemian Rhapsody" and "It Was a Very Good Year".


title: John Miles (musician)

text: Miles also toured with Tina Turner from 1987, playing keyboards, guitar and supporting vocals on every one of her tours, and played on several of her albums. He also appeared on Jimmy Page's 1988 album "Outrider" and subsequent tour (his wide-ranging vocals allowed him to cover both Robert Plant and Paul Rodgers from Page's two previous bands), and played Hammond organ on Joe Cocker's album "Night Calls" (1992), with whom he toured for two years. In 1990, Miles participated in the UK heat of "" with the song "Where I Belong", which came second.


title: John Miles (musician)

text: Miles was also a frequent guest vocalist on albums by the Alan Parsons Project, being featured on "Tales of Mystery and Imagination" (1976), "Pyramid" (1978), "Stereotomy" (1985), and "Gaudi" (1987), as well as on the Eric Woolfson album "Freudiana" (1990). He appeared on Andrea Bocelli's track "Funiculi Funicula" on his 1997 album "Romanza".


title: John Miles (musician)

text: His first DVD, "John Miles – Live in Concert" was released in 2002. In 2007, Miles performed in Gelsenkirchen, Germany with German band Pur and sang two songs. On one of those songs, "Abenteuerland", Miles sang with Pur in German. The concert is available on the DVD, "Pur&Friends-Live-auf-Schalke-2007". In October 2008, Miles began touring once again with Tina Turner until May 2009.


title: John Miles (musician)

text: The Olympiapark in Munich gave Miles a symbolic key to the park in 2015 as the performer who had opened the door the most times, and the moment was recorded on the Munich Olympic Walk of Stars.


title: John Miles (musician)

text: In 2017, Miles was awarded an outstanding contribution to music award at the Progressive Rock awards.


title: John Miles (musician)

text: In 2019, Miles starred in a flashmob performance of "Music" organized by Südwestrundfunk (SWR; Southwest Broadcasting), a regional public broadcasting corporation serving the southwest of Germany. It was held in the marketplace of Landau and involved more than 100 people including the members of the State Youth Orchestra of Rhineland Palatinate and 20 camera operators.


title: John Miles (musician)

text: In 2020, Miles recorded a new version of "Music" remotely with the Antwerp Philharmonic 'Quarantine' Orchestra due to the cancellation of the Night of the Proms due to Covid.


title: John Miles (musician)

text: In 1998, Miles entered the world of stage musicals by creating the score for the adaption of Robert Westall's "The Machine Gunners" by Tom Kelly and Ken Reay. This was followed in 1999 with further collaboration with Tom Kelly on "Tom and Catherine", the life story of the romantic writer Catherine Cookson and her husband Tom. Their next work was "Dan Dare The Musical" in 2003, with Miles writing the score for "Cuddy's Miles" by Arthur McKenzie and David Whitaker, which was about the Jarrow Marches with the character Cuddy being Miles grandfather Cuthbert. In 2016, Miles and Kelly collaborated on "Dolly Mixtures", a musical based on the story of eight women who set-up a variety act when one of their husbands was diagnosed with cancer – later going on to raise £100,000 in the 1970s and 1980s.


title: John Miles (musician)

text: Miles died after a short illness on 5 December 2021 at the age of 72 and was survived by his wife of nearly 50 years, Eileen, two children and two grandchildren. His son, John Miles Jr., is also a musician and played with groups such as Milk Inc., Sylver, the Urge and Fixate.


title: Thioacetone

text: Thioacetone is an organosulfur compound belonging to the -thione group called thioketones, with a chemical formula (CH)CS. It is an unstable orange or brown substance that can be isolated only at low temperatures. Above , thioacetone readily converts to a polymer and a trimer, trithioacetone. It has an extremely potent, unpleasant odor, and is considered one of the worst-smelling chemicals known.


title: Thioacetone

text: Thioacetone was first obtained in 1889 by Baumann and Fromm, as a minor impurity in their synthesis of trithioacetone.


title: Thioacetone

text: Thioacetone is usually obtained by cracking the cyclic trimer trithioacetone, [(CH)CS]. The trimer is prepared by pyrolysis of allyl isopropyl sulfide or by treating acetone with hydrogen sulfide in the presence of a Lewis acid. The trimer cracks at to give the thione.


title: Thioacetone

text: Unlike its oxygen analogue acetone, which does not polymerise easily, thioacetone spontaneously polymerizes even at very low temperatures, pure or dissolved in ether or ethylene oxide, yielding a white solid that is a varying mixture of a linear polymer and the cyclic trimer trithioacetone. Infrared absorption of this product occurs mainly at 2950, 2900, 1440, 1150, 1360, and 1375 cm due to the geminal methyl pairs, and at 1085 and 643 cm due to the C–S bond. The 1H NMR spectra shows a single peak at x = 8.1.


title: Thioacetone

text: The mean molecular weight of the polymer varies from 2000 to 14000 depending on the preparation method, temperature, and presence of the thioenol tautomer. The polymer melts in the range of about 70 °C to 125 °C. Polymerization is promoted by free radicals and light.


title: Thioacetone

text: The cyclic trimer of thioacetone (trithioacetone) is a white or colorless compound with a melting point of , near room temperature. It also has a disagreeable odor.


title: Thioacetone

text: Thioacetone has an intensely foul odor. Like many low molecular weight organosulfur compounds, the smell is potent and can be detected even when highly diluted. In 1889, an attempt to distill the chemical in the German city of Freiburg was followed by cases of vomiting, nausea and unconsciousness in an area with a radius of around the laboratory due to the smell. In an 1890 report, British chemists at the Whitehall Soap Works in Leeds noted that dilution seemed to make the smell worse and described the smell as "fearful".


title: Thioacetone

text: Thioacetone is considered a dangerous chemical due to its extremely foul odor and ability to render people unconscious, induce vomiting, and be detected over long distances.


title: Thioacetone

text: In 1967, Esso researchers repeated the experiment of cracking trithioacetone, at a laboratory south of Oxford, UK. They reported their experience as follows:


title: Cysticercosis

text: Cysticercosis is a tissue infection caused by the young form of the pork tapeworm.<ref name="WHO Taeniasis/cysticercosis fact sheet"></ref> People may have few or no symptoms for years. In some cases, particularly in Asia, solid lumps of between one and two centimetres may develop under the skin. After months or years these lumps can become painful and swollen and then resolve. A specific form called neurocysticercosis, which affects the brain, can cause neurological symptoms. In developing countries this is one of the most common causes of seizures.


title: Cysticercosis

text: Cysticercosis is usually acquired by eating food or drinking water contaminated by tapeworms' eggs from human feces. Among foods egg-contaminated vegetables are a major source. The tapeworm eggs are present in the feces of a person infected with the adult worms, a condition known as taeniasis. Taeniasis, in the strict sense, is a different disease and is due to eating cysts in poorly cooked pork. People who live with someone with the pork tapeworm have a greater risk of getting cysticercosis. The diagnosis can be made by aspiration of a cyst. Taking pictures of the brain with computer tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are most useful for the diagnosis of disease in the brain. An increased number of a type of white blood cell, called eosinophils, in the cerebral spinal fluid and blood is also an indicator.


title: Cysticercosis

text: Infection can be effectively prevented by personal hygiene and sanitation: this includes cooking pork well, proper toilets and sanitary practices, and improved access to clean water. Treating those with taeniasis is important to prevent spread. Treating the disease when it does not involve the nervous system may not be required. Treatment of those with neurocysticercosis may be with the medications praziquantel or albendazole. These may be required for long periods. Steroids, for anti-inflammation during treatment, and anti-seizure medications may also be required. Surgery is sometimes done to remove the cysts.


title: Cysticercosis

text: The pork tapeworm is particularly common in Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa, and Latin America. In some areas it is believed that up to 25% of people are affected. In the developed world it is very uncommon. Worldwide in 2015 it caused about 400 deaths. Cysticercosis also affects pigs and cows but rarely causes symptoms as most are slaughtered before symptoms arise. The disease has occurred in humans throughout history. It is one of the neglected tropical diseases.


title: Cysticercosis

text: Cysticerci can develop in any voluntary muscle. Invasion of muscle can cause inflammation of the muscle, with fever, eosinophilia, and increased size, which initiates with muscle swelling and later progress to atrophy and scarring. In most cases, it is asymptomatic since the cysticerci die and become calcified.


title: Cysticercosis

text: The term neurocysticercosis is generally accepted to refer to cysts in the parenchyma of the brain. It presents with seizures and, less commonly, headaches. Cysticerca in brain parenchyma are usually 5–20 mm in diameter. In subarachnoid space and fissures, lesions may be as large as 6 cm in diameter and lobulated. They may be numerous and life-threatening.


title: Cysticercosis

text: Cysts located within the ventricles of the brain can block the outflow of cerebrospinal fluid and present with symptoms of increased intracranial pressure.


title: Cysticercosis

text: Racemose neurocysticercosis refers to cysts in the subarachnoid space. These can occasionally grow into large lobulated masses causing pressure on surrounding structures.


title: Cysticercosis

text: In some cases, cysticerci may be found in the eyeball, extraocular muscles, and under the conjunctiva ("subconjunctiva"). Depending on the location, they may cause visual difficulties that fluctuate with eye position, retinal edema, hemorrhage, a decreased vision or even a visual loss.


title: Cysticercosis

text: Subcutaneous cysts are in the form of firm, mobile nodules, occurring mainly on the trunk and extremities. Subcutaneous nodules are sometimes painful.


title: Cysticercosis

text: The cause of human cysticercosis is the egg form of "Taenia solium" (often abbreviated as "T. solium" and also called pork tapeworm), which is transmitted through the oral-fecal route. The eggs enter the intestine where they develop into larvae. The larvae enter the bloodstream and invade host tissues, where they further develop into larvae called cysticerci. The cysticercus larva completes development in about 2 months. It is semitransparent, opalescent white, and elongate oval in shape and may reach a length of 0.6 to 1.8 cm.


title: Cysticercosis

text: The traditional method of demonstrating either tapeworm eggs or proglottids in stool samples diagnoses only taeniasis, carriage of the tapeworm stage of the life cycle. Only a small minority of patients with cysticercosis will harbor a tapeworm, rendering stool studies ineffective for diagnosis. Ophthalmic cysticercosis can be diagnosed by visualizing parasite in eye by fundoscopy.


title: Cysticercosis

text: In cases of human cysticercosis, diagnosis is a sensitive problem and requires biopsy of the infected tissue or sophisticated instruments. "Taenia solium" eggs and proglottids found in feces, ELISA, or polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis diagnose only taeniasis and not cysticercosis. Radiological tests, such as X-ray, CT scans which demonstrate "ring-enhancing brain lesions", and MRIs, can also be used to detect diseases. X-rays are used to identify calcified larvae in the subcutaneous and muscle tissues, and CT scans and MRIs are used to find lesions in the brain.


title: Cysticercosis

text: Antibodies to cysticerci can be demonstrated in serum by enzyme linked immunoelectrotransfer blot (EITB) assay and in CSF by ELISA. An immunoblot assay using lentil-lectin (agglutinin from Lens culinaris) is highly sensitive and specific. However, individuals with intracranial lesions and calcifications may be seronegative. In the CDC's immunoblot assay, cysticercosis-specific antibodies can react with structural glycoprotein antigens from the larval cysts of "Taenia solium". However, this is mainly a research tool not widely available in clinical practice and nearly unobtainable in resource limited settings.


title: Cysticercosis

text: The diagnosis of neurocysticercosis is mainly clinical, based on a compatible presentation of symptoms and findings of imaging studies.


title: Cysticercosis

text: Neuroimaging with CT or MRI is the most useful method of diagnosis. CT scan shows both calcified and uncalcified cysts, as well as distinguishing active and inactive cysts. Cystic lesions can show ring enhancement and focal enhancing lesions. Some cystic lesions, especially the ones in ventricles and subarachnoid space may not be visible on CT scan, since the cyst fluid is isodense with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Thus diagnosis of extraparenchymal cysts usually relies on signs like hydrocephalus or enhanced basilar meninges. In such cases CT scan with intraventricular contrast or MRI can be used. MRI is more sensitive in detection of intraventricular cysts.


title: Cysticercosis

text: CSF findings include pleocytosis, elevated protein levels and depressed glucose levels; but these may not be always present.


title: Cysticercosis

text: Cysticercosis is considered as “tools-ready disease” according to WHO. International Task Force for Disease Eradication in 1992 reported that cysticercosis is potentially eradicable. It is feasible because there are no animal reservoirs besides humans and pigs. The only source of "Taenia solium" infection for pigs is from humans, a definite host. Theoretically, breaking the life cycle seems easy by doing intervention strategies from various stages in the life cycle.


title: Cysticercosis

text: The intervention strategies to eradicate cysticercosis includes surveillance of pigs in foci of transmission and massive chemotherapy treatment of humans. In reality, control of "T. solium" by a single intervention, for instance, by treating only human population will not work because the existing infected pigs can still carry on the cycle. The proposed strategy for eradication is to do multilateral intervention by treating both human and porcine populations. It is feasible because treating pigs with oxfendazole has been shown to be effective and once treated, pigs are protected from further infections for at least 3 months.


title: Cysticercosis

text: Even with the concurrent treatment of humans and pigs, complete elimination is hard to achieve. In one study conducted in 12 villages in Peru, both humans and pigs were treated with praziquantel and oxfendazole, with the coverage of more than 75% in humans and 90% in pigs The result shows a decrease in prevalence and incidence in the intervention area; however the effect did not eliminate "T. solium". The possible reason includes the incomplete coverage and re-infection. Even though "T. solium "could be eliminated through mass treatment of human and porcine population, it is not sustainable. Moreover, both tapeworm carriers of humans and pigs tend to spread the disease from endemic to non-endemic areas resulting in periodic outbreaks of cysticercosis or outbreaks in new areas.


title: Cysticercosis

text: Given the fact that pigs are part of a life cycle, vaccination of pigs is another feasible intervention to eliminate cysticercosis. Research studies have been focusing on vaccine against cestode parasites, since many immune cell types are found to be capable of destroying cysticercus. Many vaccine candidates are extracted from antigens of different cestodes such as "Taenia solium", "T. crassiceps", "T. saginata", "T. ovis" and target oncospheres and/or cysticerci. In 1983, Molinari et al. reported the first vaccine candidate against porcine cysticercosis using antigen from cysticercus cellulosae drawn out from naturally infected. Recently, vaccines extracted from genetically engineered 45W-4B antigens have been successfully tested to pigs in an experimental condition. This type of vaccine can protect against cysticercosis in both Chinese and Mexican type of "T. solium". However, it has not been tested in endemic field conditions, which is important because the realistic condition in the field differ greatly from experimental condition, and this can result in a great difference in the chances of infection and immune reaction.


title: Cysticercosis

text: Even though vaccines have been successfully generated, the feasibility of its production and usage in rural free ranging pigs still remains a challenge. If a vaccine is to be injected, the burden of work and the cost of vaccine administration to pigs will remain high and unrealistic. The incentives of using vaccines by pig owners will decrease if the vaccine administration to pigs takes time by injecting every single pig in their livestock. A hypothetical oral vaccine is proposed to be more effective in this case as it can be easily delivered to the pigs by food.


title: Cysticercosis

text: The vaccine constituted by 3 peptide synthetically produced (S3Pvac) has proven its efficacy in natural conditions of transmission. The S3PVAC vaccine so far, can be considered as the best vaccine candidate to be used in endemic areas such as Mexico (20). S3Pvac consists of three protective peptides: KETc12, KETc1 and GK1, whose sequences belong to native antigens that are present in the different developmental stages of "T. solium" and other cestode parasites.


title: Cysticercosis

text: Non-infected pigs from rural villages in Mexico were vaccinated with S3Pvac and the vaccine reduced 98% the number of cysticerci and 50% the number of prevalence. The diagnostic method involves necropsy and tongue inspection of pigs. The natural challenge conditions used in the study proved the efficacy of the S3Pvac vaccine in transmission control of "T. solium" in Mexico. The S3Pvac vaccine is owned by the National Autonomous University of Mexico and the method of high scale production of the vaccine has already been developed. The validation of the vaccine in agreement with the Secretary of Animal Health in Mexico is currently in the process of completion. It is also hoped that the vaccine will be well-accepted by pig owners because they also lose their income if pigs are infected cysticercosis. Vaccination of pigs against cysticercosis, if successful, can potentially have a great impact on transmission control since there is no chance of re-infection once pigs receive vaccination.


title: Cysticercosis

text: Cysticercosis can also be prevented by routine inspection of meat and condemnation of measly meat by the local government and by avoiding partially cooked meat products. However, in areas where food is scarce, cyst-infected meat might be considered as wasted since pork can provide high quality protein. At times, infected pigs are consumed within the locality or sold at low prices to traffickers who take the uninspected pigs at urban areas for sale.


title: Cysticercosis

text: Asymptomatic cysts, such as those discovered incidentally on neuroimaging done for another reason, may never lead to symptomatic disease and in many cases do not require therapy. Calcified cysts have already died and involuted. Seizures can also occur in individuals with only calcified cysts.


title: Cysticercosis

text: Neurocysticercosis may present as hydrocephalus and acute onset seizures, thus the immediate therapy is emergent reduction of intracranial pressure and anticonvulsant medications. Once the seizures have been brought under control, antihelminthic treatments may be undertaken. The decision to treat with antiparasitic therapy is complex and based on the stage and number of cysts present, their location, and the persons specific symptoms.


title: Cysticercosis

text: Adult "Taenia solium" are easily treated with niclosamide, and is most commonly used in taeniasis. However cysticercosis is a complex disease and requires careful medication. Praziquantel (PZQ) is the drug of choice. In neurocysticercosis praziquantel is widely used. Albendazole appears to be more effective and a safe drug for neurocysticercosis. In complicated situation a combination of praziquantel, albendazole and steroid (such as corticosteroids to reduce the inflammation) is recommended. In the brain the cysts can be usually found on the surface. Most cases of brain cysts are found by accident, during diagnosis for other ailments. Surgical removals are the only option of complete removal even if treated successfully with medications.


title: Cysticercosis

text: Antiparasitic treatment should be given in combination with corticosteroids and anticonvulsants to reduce inflammation surrounding the cysts and lower the risk of seizures. When corticosteroids are given in combination with praziquantel, cimetidine is also given, as corticosteroids decrease action of praziquantel by enhancing its first pass metabolism. Albendazole is generally preferable over praziquantel due to its lower cost and fewer drug interactions.


title: Cysticercosis

text: Surgical intervention is much more likely to be needed in cases of intraventricular, racemose, or spinal neurocysticercosis. Treatments includes direct excision of ventricular cysts, shunting procedures, and removal of cysts via endoscopy.


title: Cysticercosis

text: In eye disease, surgical removal is necessary for cysts within the eye itself as treating intraocular lesions with anthelmintics will elicit an inflammatory reaction causing irreversible damage to structural components. Cysts outside the globe can be treated with anthelmintics and steroids. Treatment recommendations for subcutaneous cysticercosis includes surgery, praziquantel and albendazole.


title: Cysticercosis

text: In general, subcutaneous disease does not need specific therapy. Painful or bothersome cysts can be surgically removed.


title: Cysticercosis

text: "Taenia solium" is found worldwide, but is more common where pork is part of the diet. Cysticercosis is most prevalent where humans live in close contact with pigs. Therefore, high prevalences are reported in Mexico, Latin America, West Africa, Russia, India, Pakistan, North-East China, and Southeast Asia. In Europe it is most widespread among Slavic people. However, reviews of the epidemiological in Western and Eastern Europe shows there are still considerable gaps in our understanding of the disease also in these regions.


title: Cysticercosis

text: The frequency has decreased in developed countries owing to stricter meat inspection, better hygiene and better sanitation of facilities.


title: Cysticercosis

text: In Latin America, an estimated 75 million persons live in endemic areas and 400,000 people have symptomatic disease. Some studies suggest that the prevalence of cysticercosis in Mexico is between 3.1 and 3.9 percent. Other studies have found the seroprevalence in areas of Guatemala, Bolivia, and Peru as high as 20 percent in humans, and 37 percent in pigs. In Ethiopia, Kenya and the Democratic Republic of Congo around 10% of the population is infected, in Madagascar 16%. The distribution of cysticercosis coincides with the distribution of "T. solium". Cysticercosis is the most common cause of symptomatic epilepsy worldwide.


title: Cysticercosis

text: Prevalence rates in the United States have shown immigrants from Mexico, Central and South America, and Southeast Asia account for most of the domestic cases of cysticercosis.


title: Cysticercosis

text: In 1990 and 1991, four unrelated members of an Orthodox Jewish community in New York City developed recurrent seizures and brain lesions, which were found to have been caused by "T. solium". Researchers who interviewed the families suspect the infection was acquired from domestic workers who were carriers of the tapeworm.


title: Cysticercosis

text: Worldwide as of 2010 it caused about 1,200 deaths, up from 700 in 1990. Estimates from 2010 were that it contributed to at least 50,000 deaths annually.


title: Cysticercosis

text: In US during 1990–2002, 221 cysticercosis deaths were identified. Mortality rates were highest for Latinos and men. The mean age at death was 40.5 years (range 2–88). Most patients, 84.6%, were foreign born, and 62% had emigrated from Mexico. The 33 US-born persons who died of cysticercosis represented 15% of all cysticercosis-related deaths. The cysticercosis mortality rate was highest in California, which accounted for 60% of all cysticercosis deaths.


title: Cysticercosis

text: The earliest reference to tapeworms were found in the works of ancient Egyptians that date back to almost 2000 BC. The description of measled pork in the "History of Animals" written by Aristotle (384–322 BC) showed that the infection of pork with tapeworm was known to ancient Greeks at that time. It was also known to Jewish and later to early Muslim physicians and has been proposed as one of the reasons for pork being forbidden by Jewish and Islamic dietary laws. Recent examination of evolutionary histories of hosts and parasites and DNA evidence show that over 10,000 years ago, ancestors of modern humans in Africa became exposed to tapeworm when they scavenged for food or preyed on antelopes and bovids, and later passed the infection on to domestic animals such as pigs.


title: Cysticercosis

text: Cysticercosis was described by Johannes Udalric Rumler in 1555; however, the connection between tapeworms and cysticercosis had not been recognized at that time. Around 1850, Friedrich Küchenmeister fed pork containing cysticerci of "T. solium" to humans awaiting execution in a prison, and after they had been executed, he recovered the developing and adult tapeworms in their intestines. By the middle of the 19th century, it was established that cysticercosis was caused by the ingestion of the eggs of "T. solium".


title: James F. Byrnes

text: James Francis Byrnes ( ; May 2, 1882 – April 9, 1972) was an American judge and politician from South Carolina. A member of the Democratic Party, he served in U.S. Congress and on the U.S. Supreme Court, as well as in the executive branch, most prominently as the 49th U.S. Secretary of State under President Harry S. Truman. Byrnes was also the 104th governor of South Carolina, making him one of the very few politicians to have served in the highest levels of all three branches of the American federal government while also being active in state government.


title: James F. Byrnes

text: Born and raised in Charleston, South Carolina, Byrnes pursued a legal career with the help of his cousin, Governor Miles Benjamin McSweeney. Byrnes won election to the U.S. House of Representatives and served from 1911 to 1925. He became a close ally of President Woodrow Wilson and a protégé of Senator Benjamin Tillman. He sought election to the U.S. Senate in 1924 but narrowly lost a runoff election to Coleman Livingston Blease, who had the backing of the Ku Klux Klan, a white-supremacist domestic-terrorist organization. Byrnes then moved his law practice to Spartanburg, South Carolina and prepared for a political comeback. He narrowly defeated Blease in the 1930 Democratic primary and joined the Senate in 1931.


title: James F. Byrnes

text: Historian George E. Mowry called Byrnes "the most influential Southern member of Congress between John Calhoun and Lyndon Johnson". In the Senate, Byrnes supported the policies of his longtime friend, President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Byrnes championed the New Deal and sought federal investment in South Carolina water projects. He also supported Roosevelt's foreign policy, calling for a hard line against the Axis powers. He also opposed some of the labor laws proposed by Roosevelt, such as the Fair Labor Standards Act, which established a minimum wage that hurt his state's competitive advantage of very low factory wages. Roosevelt appointed Byrnes to the Supreme Court in 1941 but asked him to join the executive branch after America's entry into World War II. During the war, Byrnes led the Office of Economic Stabilization and the Office of War Mobilization. He was a candidate to replace Henry A. Wallace as Roosevelt's running mate in the 1944 election, but instead Harry S. Truman was nominated by the 1944 Democratic National Convention.


title: James F. Byrnes

text: After Roosevelt's death, Byrnes served as a close adviser to Truman and became U.S. Secretary of State in July 1945. In that capacity, Byrnes attended the Potsdam Conference and the Paris Peace Treaties, 1947; however, relations between Byrnes and Truman soured, and Byrnes resigned from the Cabinet in January 1947. He returned to elective politics in 1950 by winning election as the governor of South Carolina. As governor, he opposed the Supreme Court decision in "Brown v. Board of Education" and sought to establish "separate but equal" as a realistic alternative to the desegregation of schools. Though he remained a Democrat himself, he endorsed most Republican presidential nominees after 1948 and supported Strom Thurmond's switch to the Republican Party in 1964.


title: James F. Byrnes

text: Byrnes was born at 538 King Street in Charleston, South Carolina, and was reared in Charleston. Byrnes's father, James Francis Byrnes, died shortly after Byrnes was born. His Irish-American mother, Elizabeth McSweeney Byrnes, was a dressmaker. In the 1880s, a widowed aunt and her three children came to live with them; one of the children was Frank J. Hogan, later president of the American Bar Association. At 14, Byrnes left St. Patrick's Catholic School to work in a law office, and became a court stenographer. Notably, he transcribed the 1903 trial of South Carolina Lieutenant Governor James H. Tillman (nephew of Senator and former governor "Pitchfork Ben" Tillman), for murdering a newspaper editor. In 1906, he married the former Maude Perkins Busch of Aiken, South Carolina; they had no children. He was the godparent of James Christopher Connor. At this time, Byrnes converted from the Catholic Church to Episcopalianism.


title: James F. Byrnes

text: In 1900, Byrnes's cousin, Governor Miles B. McSweeney, appointed him as a clerk for Judge Robert Aldrich of Aiken. As he needed to be 21 to take this position, Byrnes, his mother, and McSweeney changed his date of birth to that of his older sister, Leonora. He later apprenticed to a lawyer, then a common practice, read for the law, and was admitted to the bar in 1903. In 1908, he was appointed solicitor for the second circuit of South Carolina and served until 1910. Byrnes was a protégé of "Pitchfork Ben" Tillman and often had a moderating influence on the fiery segregationist Senator.


title: James F. Byrnes

text: In 1910, he narrowly won the Democratic primary for US Representative from South Carolina's 2nd congressional district, which was then tantamount to election. He was formally elected in the general election, and was re-elected six times, serving from 1911 to 1925.


title: James F. Byrnes

text: Byrnes proved a brilliant legislator, working behind the scenes to form coalitions, and avoiding the high-profile oratory that characterized much of Southern politics. He became a close ally of US President Woodrow Wilson, who often entrusted important political tasks to the capable young Representative, rather than to more experienced lawmakers. In the 1920s, he was a champion of the "Good Roads Movement", which attracted motorists and politicians to large-scale road building programs.


title: James F. Byrnes

text: In 1924, Byrnes declined renomination to the House and instead sought nomination for the Senate seat held by incumbent Nathaniel B. Dial though both were former allies of the now-deceased "Pitchfork Ben" Tillman. Anti-Tillmanite and extreme racist demagogue Coleman Blease, who had challenged Dial in 1918, also ran again. Blease led the primary with 42 percent. Byrnes was second with 34 percent. Dial finished third with 22 percent.


title: James F. Byrnes

text: Byrnes was opposed by the Ku Klux Klan, which preferred Blease. Byrnes had been raised as a Roman Catholic, and the Klan spread rumors that he was still a secret Catholic. Byrnes countered by citing his support by Episcopal clergy. Three days before the run-off vote, 20 Catholics who said that they had been altar boys with Byrnes published a professed endorsement of him. That group's leader was a Blease ally, and the "endorsement" was circulated in anti-Catholic areas. Blease won the runoff 51% to 49%.


title: James F. Byrnes

text: After his House term ended in 1925, Byrnes was out of office. He moved his law practice to Spartanburg, in the industrializing Piedmont region. Between his law practice and investment advice from friends such as Bernard Baruch, Byrnes became a wealthy man, but he never excluded himself from a return to politics. He cultivated the Piedmont textile workers, who were key Blease supporters. In 1930, he challenged Blease again. Blease again led the primary, with 46 percent to 38 percent for Byrnes, but this time, Byrnes won the runoff 51 to 49 percent.


title: James F. Byrnes

text: During his time in the Senate, Byrnes was regarded as the most influential South Carolinian since John C. Calhoun. He had long been friends with Franklin Roosevelt, whom he supported for the Democratic nomination in 1932, and made himself Roosevelt's spokesman on the Senate floor, where he guided much of the early New Deal legislation to passage. He won an easy re-election in 1936, promising:


title: James F. Byrnes

text: I admit I am a New Dealer, and if [the New Deal] takes money from the few who have controlled the country and gives it back to the average man, I am going to Washington to help the President work for the people of South Carolina and the country.


title: James F. Byrnes

text: Since the colonial era, South Carolina's politicians had dreamed of an inland waterway system that would not only aid commerce but also control flooding. By the 1930s, Byrnes took up the cause for a massive dam-building project, Santee Cooper, that would not only accomplish those tasks but also electrify the entire state with hydroelectric power. With South Carolina financially strapped by the Great Depression, Byrnes managed to get the federal government to authorize a loan for the entire project, which was completed and put into operation in February 1942. The loan was later paid back to the federal government with full interest and at no cost to South Carolina taxpayers. Santee Cooper has continued to be a model for public-owned electrical utilities worldwide.


title: James F. Byrnes

text: In 1937, Byrnes supported Roosevelt on the highly-controversial court packing plan, but he voted against the 1938 Fair Labor Standards Act, as a minimum wage would potentially make the textile mills in his state uncompetitive. He opposed Roosevelt's efforts to purge conservative Democrats in the 1938 primary elections. On foreign policy, Byrnes was a champion of Roosevelt's positions of helping the United Kingdom against Nazi Germany in 1939 to 1941 and of maintaining a hard diplomatic line against Japan. In this context he denounced isolationist Charles Lindbergh on several occasions.


title: James F. Byrnes

text: Byrnes played a key role in blocking anti-lynching legislation, notably the Castigan-Wagner bill of 1935 and the Gavagan bill of 1937. Byrnes said that "rape is responsible, directly and indirectly, for most of the lynching in America."


title: James F. Byrnes

text: Byrnes despised his fellow South Carolina Senator "Cotton Ed" Smith, who strongly opposed the New Deal. He privately sought to help his friend Burnet R. Maybank, then the Mayor of Charleston, defeat Smith in the 1938 Senate primary. During the primary, however, Olin Johnston, who was limited to one term as governor, decided to run for the Senate. Because Johnston was also a pro-Roosevelt New Dealer, he would have divided the New Deal vote with Maybank and ensured a victory for Smith. Johnston was also supportive of the New Deal's labor legislation, but Byrnes's support was limited, and a series of labor strikes in the fall of 1937 made Byrnes withdraw consideration for potentially endorsing Johnston. Taking advice from Byrnes, Maybank decided to run for governor instead, and Byrnes made the reluctant decision to support Smith. Byrnes envisioned that Smith would retire in 1944 and that Maybank would successfully run for Smith's Senate seat and build a strong political machine in the state with him.


title: James F. Byrnes

text: On, June 12, 1941, Roosevelt nominated Byrnes as an associate justice of the United States Supreme Court, and he was confirmed that same day. He served on the Court for only 15 months, from July 8, 1941 until October 3, 1942. His Supreme Court tenure is the shortest of any non-incumbent justice.


title: James F. Byrnes

text: Byrnes left the Supreme Court to head Roosevelt's Office of Economic Stabilization, which dealt with the vitally-important issues of prices and taxes. How powerful the new office would become depended entirely on Byrnes's political skills, and Washington insiders soon reported that he was fully in charge. In May 1943, he became head of the Office of War Mobilization, a new agency that supervised the Office of Economic Stabilization. Under the leadership of Byrnes, the program managed newly constructed factories across the country that used raw materials, civilian and military production, and transportation for United States Armed Forces personnel and was credited with providing the employment that was needed to bring an official end to the Great Depression. Thanks to his political experience, his probing intellect, his close friendship with Roosevelt, and in no small part his own personal charm, Byrnes was soon exerting influence over many facets of the war effort that were not technically under his departmental jurisdiction. Many in Congress and the press began referring to Byrnes as the "Assistant President."


title: James F. Byrnes

text: Many expected that Byrnes would be the Democratic nominee in 1944 for vice president in Franklin D. Roosevelt's 1944 reelection campaign, replacing Henry A. Wallace, who was strongly felt by party officials to be too eccentric to replace an ailing president who would likely die before his next term ended. Roosevelt refused to endorse anybody other than Wallace. He had a personal preference for US Supreme Court justice William O. Douglas. Byrnes was on Roosevelt's list but was hardly his first choice. In a July meeting at the White House, the party bosses pressed hard for Senator Harry S. Truman of Missouri, and Roosevelt issued a statement saying he would support either Truman or Douglas. Byrnes was regarded as too conservative for organized labor; some big city bosses opposed him as an ex-Catholic who would offend Catholics; and blacks were wary of his opposition to racial integration. In short, Byrnes never had a serious chance at being nominated for vice-president, and the nomination went instead to Truman. Roosevelt brought Byrnes to the Yalta Conference in early 1945 in which he seemed to favor Soviet plans. Written in shorthand, his notes comprise one of the most complete records of the "Big Three" Yalta meetings. At the same time, Byrnes did not participate in the foreign ministers' meetings or the direct meetings between Roosevelt, Winston Churchill, and Joseph Stalin. After the Conference, he was influential in convincing the U.S. Congress and the general public to accept the terms of the agreement.


title: James F. Byrnes

text: Upon his succession to the presidency after Roosevelt's death, on April 12, 1945, Truman relied heavily on Byrnes's counsel, Byrnes having been a mentor to Truman from the latter's earliest days in the Senate. Indeed, Byrnes was one of the first people seen by Truman on the first day of his presidency. It was Byrnes who shared information with the new president on the atomic bomb project (until then, Truman had known nothing about the Manhattan Project). When Truman met Roosevelt's coffin in Washington, he asked Byrnes and former Vice President Wallace, the two other men who might well have succeeded Roosevelt, to join him at the train station. Truman originally intended for both men to play leading roles in his administration to signal continuity with Roosevelt's policies. Truman quickly fell out with Wallace but retained a good working relationship with Byrnes and increasingly turned to him for support.


title: James F. Byrnes

text: Truman appointed Byrnes as US Secretary of State on July 3, 1945. Despite personally objecting to any guarantees of retaining Emperor Shōwa, Byrnes remained ambiguous on that point in a draft reply to Japan's offer of surrender of August 10. As Secretary of State, he was first in line to the Presidency since there was no Vice President during Truman's first term. He played a major role at the Potsdam Conference, the Paris Peace Conference, and other major postwar conferences. According to historian Robert Hugh Ferrell, Byrnes knew little more about foreign relations than Truman. He made decisions after consulting a few advisors, such as Donald S. Russell and Benjamin V. Cohen. Byrnes and his small group paid little attention to the State Department experts and similarly ignored Truman.


title: James F. Byrnes

text: Because Byrnes had been part of the US delegation at Yalta, Truman assumed that he had accurate knowledge of what had transpired. It would be many months before Truman discovered that not to be the case. Nevertheless, Byrnes advised that the Soviets were breaking the Yalta Agreement and that Truman needed to be resolute and uncompromising with them.


title: James F. Byrnes

text: Byrnes and British Foreign Secretary Ernest Bevin issued a joint statement announcing that they were combining the U.S. zone of Germany and the British zone of Germany into one new territory called "West Germany." General Lucius D. Clay, who had been a top aide to Byrnes in 1944, heavily influenced Byrnes' famous September 1946 speech in Stuttgart, Germany. The speech, "Restatement of Policy on Germany," marked the formal transition in American occupation policy away from the Morgenthau Plan of economic dismantlement to one of economic reconstruction.


title: James F. Byrnes

text: Truman was rapidly moving toward a hardline position on Soviet intentions in Eastern Europe and Iran, but Byrnes was much more conciliatory. The distance between them grew and ties of personal friendship weakened. In late 1945, Byrnes argued with Soviet Foreign Minister Viacheslav Molotov over Soviet pressures on Bulgaria and Romania. Byrnes sent Mark Ethridge, a liberal journalist, to investigate; Ethridge found conditions were indeed bad. Ethridge wrote a damning report, but Byrnes ignored it and instead endorsed a Soviet offer. Truman read Ethridge's report and decided that Byrnes's softline approach was a failure and that the US needed to stand up to the Kremlin.


title: James F. Byrnes

text: Personal relations between the two men grew strained, particularly when Truman felt that Byrnes was attempting to set foreign policy by himself and to inform the President only afterward. An early instance of the friction was the Moscow Conference in December 1945. Truman considered the "successes" of the conference to be "unreal" and was highly critical of Byrnes's failure to protect Iran, which was not mentioned in the final communiqué. "I had been left in the dark about the Moscow conference," Truman told Byrnes bluntly. In a subsequent letter to Byrnes, Truman took a harder line in reference to Iran: "Without these supplies furnished by the United States, Russia would have been ignominiously defeated. Yet now Russia stirs up rebellion and keeps troops on the soil of her friend and ally— Iran. .. Unless Russia is faced with an iron fist and strong language another war is in the making. Only one language do they understand... I do not think we should play compromise any longer... I am tired of babying the Soviets". That led to the Iran crisis of 1946 in which Byrnes took an increasingly hardline position in opposition to Stalin, culminating in a speech in Germany on September 6, 1946. The "Restatement of Policy on Germany," also known as the "Speech of Hope", set the tone of future US policy by repudiating the Morgenthau Plan, an economic program that would permanently deindustrialize Germany. Byrnes was named "TIME" Man of the Year. Truman and others believed that Byrnes had grown resentful that he had not been Roosevelt's running mate and successor and so was showing disrespect to Truman. Whether or not that was true, Byrnes felt compelled to resign from the Cabinet in 1947 with some feelings of bitterness.


title: James F. Byrnes

text: Byrnes was not yet ready to give up public service. At 68, he was elected Governor of South Carolina in the 1950 gubernatorial election and served from 1951 to 1955. Supporting segregation in education, the Democratic governor stated in his inaugural address:


title: James F. Byrnes

text: Byrnes was initially seen as a relative moderate on race issues. Recognizing that the South could not continue with its entrenched segregationist policies much longer but fearing that Congress would impose sweeping change upon the South, he opted for a course of change from within. To that end, he sought to fulfill at last the "separate but equal" policy that the South had put forward in Supreme Court civil rights cases, particularly in regard to public education. Byrnes poured state money into improving black schools, buying new textbooks and new buses, and hiring additional teachers. He also sought to curb the power of the Ku Klux Klan by passing a law that prohibited adults from wearing a mask in public on any day other than Halloween; he knew that many Klansmen feared exposure and would not appear in public in their robes unless their faces were hidden as well. Byrnes hoped to make South Carolina an example for other Southern states to follow in modifying their "Jim Crow" policies. Nonetheless, the NAACP sued South Carolina to force the state to desegregate its schools. Byrnes requested Kansas, a Midwestern state that also segregated its schools, to provide an "amicus curiae" brief in supporting the right of a state to segregate its schools. That gave the NAACP's lawyer, Thurgood Marshall, the idea to shift the suit from South Carolina over to Kansas, which led directly to "Brown v. Board of Education", a decision that Byrnes vigorously criticized.


title: James F. Byrnes

text: The South Carolina Constitution then barred governors from immediate re-election and so Byrnes retired from active political life after the 1954 election.


title: James F. Byrnes

text: In his later years, Byrnes foresaw that the American South could play a more important role in national politics. To hasten that development, he sought to end the region's nearly-automatic support of the Democratic Party, which Byrnes believed had grown too liberal and took the "Solid South" for granted at election time but otherwise ignored the region and its needs.


title: James F. Byrnes

text: Byrnes endorsed Dwight Eisenhower in 1952, segregationist candidate Harry Byrd in 1956, Richard Nixon in 1960 and 1968, and Barry Goldwater in 1964. He gave his private blessing to US Senator Strom Thurmond of South Carolina to bolt the Democratic Party in 1964 and to declare himself a Republican, but Byrnes himself remained a Democrat.


title: James F. Byrnes

text: In 1965, Byrnes spoke out against the "punishment" and the "humiliation" of South Carolina US Representative Albert Watson, who had been stripped of his congressional seniority by the House Democratic Caucus after endorsing Goldwater for president. Byrnes openly endorsed Watson's retention in Congress as a Republican in a special election held in 1965 against Democrat Preston Callison. Watson secured $20,000 and the services of a Republican field representative in what he termed "quite a contrast" to his treatment from Democratic House colleagues.


title: James F. Byrnes

text: Following Byrnes's death at the age of 89, he was interred in the churchyard at Trinity Episcopal Church in Columbia, South Carolina.


title: James F. Byrnes

text: In 1948, Byrnes and his wife established the James F. Byrnes Foundation Scholarships, and since then, more than 1,000 young South Carolinians have been assisted in obtaining a college education. His papers are in Clemson University's Special Collections Library.


title: SQUID

text: A SQUID (superconducting quantum interference device) is a very sensitive magnetometer used to measure extremely subtle magnetic fields, based on superconducting loops containing Josephson junctions.


title: SQUID

text: SQUIDs are sensitive enough to measure fields as low as 5×10 T with a few days of averaged measurements. Their noise levels are as low as 3 fT·Hz. For comparison, a typical refrigerator magnet produces 0.01 tesla (10 T), and some processes in animals produce very small magnetic fields between 10 T and 10 T. SERF atomic magnetometers, invented in the early 2000s are potentially more sensitive and do not require cryogenic refrigeration but are orders of magnitude larger in size (~1 cm) and must be operated in a near-zero magnetic field.


title: SQUID

text: There are two main types of SQUID: direct current (DC) and radio frequency (RF). RF SQUIDs can work with only one Josephson junction (superconducting tunnel junction), which might make them cheaper to produce, but are less sensitive.


title: SQUID

text: The DC SQUID was invented in 1964 by Robert Jaklevic, John J. Lambe, James Mercereau, and Arnold Silver of Ford Research Labs after Brian Josephson postulated the Josephson effect in 1962, and the first Josephson junction was made by John Rowell and Philip Anderson at Bell Labs in 1963. It has two Josephson junctions in parallel in a superconducting loop. It is based on the DC Josephson effect. In the absence of any external magnetic field, the input current formula_1 splits into the two branches equally. If a small external magnetic field is applied to the superconducting loop, a screening current, formula_2, begins to circulate the loop that generates the magnetic field canceling the applied external flux, and creates an additional Josephson phase which is proportional to this external magnetic flux. The induced current is in the same direction as formula_1 in one of the branches of the superconducting loop, and is opposite to formula_1 in the other branch; the total current becomes formula_5 in one branch and formula_6 in the other. As soon as the current in either branch exceeds the critical current, formula_7, of the Josephson junction, a voltage appears across the junction.


title: SQUID

text: Now suppose the external flux is further increased until it exceeds formula_8, half the magnetic flux quantum. Since the flux enclosed by the superconducting loop must be an integer number of flux quanta, instead of screening the flux the SQUID now energetically prefers to increase it to formula_9. The current now flows in the opposite direction, opposing the difference between the admitted flux formula_9 and the external field of just over formula_8. The current decreases as the external field is increased, is zero when the flux is exactly formula_9, and again reverses direction as the external field is further increased. Thus, the current changes direction periodically, every time the flux increases by additional half-integer multiple of formula_9, with a change at maximum amperage every half-plus-integer multiple of formula_9 and at zero amps every integer multiple.


title: SQUID

text: If the input current is more than formula_7, then the SQUID always operates in the resistive mode. The voltage, in this case, is thus a function of the applied magnetic field and the period equal to formula_9. Since the current-voltage characteristic of the DC SQUID is hysteretic, a shunt resistance, formula_17 is connected across the junction to eliminate the hysteresis (in the case of copper oxide based high-temperature superconductors the junction's own intrinsic resistance is usually sufficient). The screening current is the applied flux divided by the self-inductance of the ring. Thus formula_18 can be estimated as the function of formula_19 (flux to voltage converter) as follows:


title: SQUID

text: The discussion in this Section assumed perfect flux quantization in the loop. However, this is only true for big loops with a large self-inductance. According to the relations, given above, this implies also small current and voltage variations. In practice the self-inductance formula_22 of the loop is not so large. The general case can be evaluated by introducing a parameter


title: SQUID

text: The RF SQUID was invented in 1965 by Robert Jaklevic, John J. Lambe, Arnold Silver, and James Edward Zimmerman at Ford. It is based on the AC Josephson effect and uses only one Josephson junction. It is less sensitive compared to DC SQUID but is cheaper and easier to manufacture in smaller quantities. Most fundamental measurements in biomagnetism, even of extremely small signals, have been made using RF SQUIDS.


title: SQUID

text: The RF SQUID is inductively coupled to a resonant tank circuit. Depending on the external magnetic field, as the SQUID operates in the resistive mode, the effective inductance of the tank circuit changes, thus changing the resonant frequency of the tank circuit. These frequency measurements can be easily taken, and thus the losses which appear as the voltage across the load resistor in the circuit are a periodic function of the applied magnetic flux with a period of formula_9. For a precise mathematical description refer to the original paper by Erné et al.