title: Kilmarnock

text: of Beansburn, Bonnyton, and Riccarton. This led to such communities and villages around the town losing their identities due to the process of rehousing people who were dispersed to the new housing schemes. These large new housing areas lacked adequate shopping and recreational facilities, and most of them were not within convenient walking distance of the old town centre.


title: Kilmarnock

text: This expansion led to the town becoming a major centre in the west of Scotland. In 1945 an attempt by the Burgh Council of Kilmarnock to cope with increasing traffic was made by removing the statue of Sir James Shaw and re-developing the Cross into a roundabout. Shortly after, a one-way traffic system was introduced around the town centre which is still in use today as of June 2022.


title: Kilmarnock

text: By 1973, an outer-town bypass was formed to take away the heavy through traffic that had been travelling in and throughout the town. In 1974, the Foregate pedestrianised shopping area was opened, to be followed by a new bus station, a multistorey car park, a civic centre, and a re-shaped central precinct for the town: a fitting memorial to a form of municipal government which passed away in 1975, after serving Kilmarnock well in its 400 years as a burgh.


title: Kilmarnock

text: The name Kilmarnock comes from the Gaelic "cill" ("cell"), and the name of Saint Marnock or Mernoc who is also remembered in the name of Portmarnock in Ireland and Inchmarnock. It may come from the three Gaelic elements "mo", 'my', "Ernán" (name of the saint) and the diminutive "ag", giving "Church of My Little Ernán". According to tradition, the saint founded a church there in the 7th century. There are 12 Church of Scotland congregations in the town, plus other denominations. In 2005, the Reverend David W. Lacy, minister of the town's Henderson Church, was elected Moderator of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland.


title: Kilmarnock

text: The core of the early town appears to have lain around what is now the Laigh Kirk, Kilmarnock (Low Church), although the oldest parts of the current building are no earlier than the 17th century, extending north and northwest. In 1668 the town was largely destroyed by an accidental fire. About 120 families lost most of their possessions and were forced to live destitute in the fields surrounding the town. These tradespeople had no other way of making a living and had already been driven to the edge of poverty by having troops stationed with them as part of the anti-Covenanter measures. Parish churches throughout Scotland collected money for the relief of these homeless citizens.


title: Kilmarnock

text: A comparatively modest settlement until the Industrial Revolution, Kilmarnock extended considerably from around 1800 onwards, requiring the opening of King Street, Portland Street, and Wellington Street. Added later was John Finnie Street, which is regarded as "one of the finest Victorian planned streets in Scotland." The Sandbed Street Bridge is the oldest known surviving bridge in the area.


title: Kilmarnock

text: Kilmarnock, as part of the Kilmarnock and Loudoun parliamentary constituency, had long been considered a "safe seat" for the Scottish Labour Party, having been represented by a Labour MP since the establishment of the constituency in 1983. However, in the 2015 General Election, for the first time since 1983, the seat changed hands from Labour to the Scottish National Party with the election of Alan Brown. The Member of Parliament (MP) for the Kilmarnock and Loudoun constituency area in the Westminster parliament is Kilmarnock-born Alan Brown. Brown defeated Labour candidate Cathy Jamieson with an overwhelming majority with Brown receiving 30,000 votes with Jamieson only receiving 16,363. The member of the Scottish Parliament (MSP) for Kilmarnock is Willie Coffey.


title: Kilmarnock

text: In the Scottish Parliament, the town, as part of the Kilmarnock and Irvine Valley constituency, is represented by Willie Coffey who has represented the seat since the 2007 Scottish Parliamentary elections. Similar to the voting pattern shown at UK General Elections, in the Scottish Parliament elections, Kilmarnock had always been seen as a safe seat for Labour with an MSP representing the area since the parliament's re-establishment in 1999.


title: Kilmarnock

text: Kilmarnock is the home of the East Ayrshire Council Chambers and offices situated on the London Road.


title: Kilmarnock

text: In local council elections, Kilmarnock comprises four wards: Kilmarnock North, Kilmarnock East and Hurlford, Kilmarnock West and Crosshouse, and Kilmarnock South.


title: Kilmarnock

text: The leader in East Ayrshire is Douglas Reid of the SNP party, who has been leader since 2007. The chief executive is Fiona Lees. Following the 2017 East Ayrshire Council election, the SNP formed a minority government for East Ayrshire, following the result of a hung council. At present, the Scottish Labour party is the opposition in the East Ayrshire parliament with their leader, Maureen McKay alongside the Scottish Conservative Party, independent councillors and one councillor elected from local campaign group party, The Rubbish Party.


title: Kilmarnock

text: The economy of Kilmarnock has historically been centred around heavy manufacturing and goods based services. However, in recent years, and in trend with other towns and cities across Scotland, Kilmarnock's economic dependence has shifted from manufacturing and instead become more reliant on skills-based knowledge. Companies such as Vodafone (Teleperformance Call Centre) occupying a large part of the Rowallan Business Park Centre which is also home to Food Partners, a nationwide sandwich franchise. Local property redevelopment and regeneration company, The KLIN Group occupies the former Andrew Barclay Sons & Co offices in West Langland Street, Brodie Engineering operate two production factories for locomotives in the town centre and Utopia Computers, one of the UK's fastest growing computer companies also have their headquarters and main site situated in Kilmarnock in High Glencairn Street.


title: Kilmarnock

text: Kilmarnock's traditional industries were based around textiles and heavy engineering such as locomotives (Andrew Barclay Sons & Co) from 1837, and valves (Glenfield and Kennedy), which are still in production. The firm is now trading as Glenfield Valves and still operates a base from Kilmarnock.


title: Kilmarnock

text: Carpets manufactured in Kilmarnock were internationally known for their quality and intricacy since the late 19th century. Carpets were made by Blackwood & Morton in Kilmarnock from the early 20th century. Many locations around the world chose to install BMK Carpets. Carpet-making finally ceased in Kilmarnock in early 2005 following the closure of Stoddard Carpets and at this time, Stoddard Carpets was the oldest carpet manufacturing company still in operation at that time in Scotland.


title: Kilmarnock

text: Archibald Finnie and his family lived at Springhill House (now a nursing home) near the Grange Academy. They owned many coal mines, pits and other companies in Springside and other places. John Finnie Street is named after one of the family. Shoes were also a major product for some time: Saxone had a factory in the town on the site where the Galleon Leisure Centre now stands and was the largest shoe production factory in operation in Scotland with a staff base of 1,000 employees at the plants peak. Kilmarnock had one of the earliest tram railways in the world, running to Troon over the (recently restored) Laigh Milton viaduct. The Glasgow & South Western Railway set up their works here, producing nearly 400 locomotives by the time it was absorbed by the London, Midland & Scottish Railway in 1923. Some work continued, but heavy repairs were sent to St Rollox. Locomotive repairs finished in 1952, and the works closed in 1959. Nevertheless, locomotives are still made by Brodie Engineering, as well as the maintenance of existing diesel and electric multiple units. From 1949 self-propelled combine harvesters were built in Kilmarnock in a large Massey-Harris factory on the outskirts of the town. It later became Massey Ferguson, and closed in 1978. Glenfield and Kennedy still survives, albeit with a fraction of its former workforce, which at its height numbered in the thousands.


title: Kilmarnock

text: Kilmarnock is the original home of Scotch whisky brand Johnnie Walker which was originally known as "Walker's Kilmarnock Whisky" when the brand first started trading from the town in the mid-1800s. The Johnnie Walker brand is a legacy left by John ‘Johnnie’ Walker after he started to sell whisky in his grocer's shop in Ayrshire, Scotland. In 1908, when James Stevenson was the managing director, there was a re-branding of sorts. The whisky was renamed from Walker's Kilmarnock Whiskies to Johnnie Walker Whisky. In addition, the slogan, "Born 1820 – Still going Strong!" was created, along with the Striding Man, a figure used in their advertisements to this day. In 2009, to much public backlash as well as backlash from the Scottish Government, First Minister of Scotland Alex Salmond and local MP and MSP Cathy Jamieson and Willie Coffey, the owner of Johnnie Walker, Diageo, decided to close the bottling plant, originally by the end of 2011, ending the link between the whisky brand and the town. In September 2009, Diageo confirmed the plant in Kilmarnock would close, despite local protests. Production of Johnnie Walker in Kilmarnock ceased during March 2012, after 192 years. It is now made at a new Diageo bottling plant in the eastern coast of Scotland in Leven, Fife. Over the years, Kilmarnock has been the home to other well-known companies, Andrew Barclay Sons & Co., and Saxone Shoes. Saxone Shoes was bought by the British Sears group and became defunct when Sears sold it to Stylo. Andrew Barclay Son's & Co still manufactures in the town but is now owned by Wabtec (Wabtec Rail Scotland).


title: Kilmarnock

text: Kilmarnock is home to The HALO Urban Regeneration with a focus on digital learning, inspiration to innovative thinking and providing a conducive environment for spin-out, new-start, scale-ups, digital, manufacturing and cyber businesses. HALO is set to provide £205 million of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) to the Economy of Scotland. The window and door company, Scotia have their main headquarters in Kilmarnock, as well as a manufacturing and production plant.


title: Kilmarnock

text: The textile and manufacturing sectors across Scotland suffered significant decline in the post-war period and in particular from the 1960s, in the face of greater foreign competition. Kilmarnock was no exception, with the closure or significant reduction of many of its traditional large employers: Glenfield and Kennedy, Massey Ferguson, BMK and Saxone. Although significant attempts have been made to halt this decline and attract new employers, Kilmarnock saw a continuing net loss of jobs in the five years to 2005. Although traditionally a main shopping area for most of the surrounding districts, patterns have changed over the last 20 years; traditional centres such as Ayr have been joined by new developments at Braehead and East Kilbride. This difficult economic climate is most visible in the town centre, the eastern part of which has been extensively redeveloped, with important historic buildings such as King Street Church and the town hall being demolished and Duke Street (the link from Kilmarnock Cross to the Palace Theatre and out to the London Road) built over.


title: Kilmarnock

text: More recently Portland Street, which formed the northerly part of the main shopping area, lay abandoned for many years due to a decline in retail trade and in the face of possible comprehensive redevelopment. The street has now been redeveloped, but has not yet regained its former degree of popularity, with a Gala Bingo and a J D Wetherspoon's taking up much of one side of the street and the rest largely occupied by chain stores. In 2004, the "Rough Guide to Scotland" described the town as "shabby and depressed, saddled with some terrible shopping centres and a grim one-way system". The town, however, contains several parks such as Howard Park, Dean Park and Kay Park, and residential areas including London Road, Dundonald Road, McLelland Drive and Howard Park Drive. The town also boasts a collection of gift shops, cafes, bars and restaurants within the very desirable Bank Street area. There are retail parks at Queen's Drive and Glencairn Square.


title: Kilmarnock

text: According to the local press in November 2007, the new SNP council have drawn up a "Top Ten Hit List" on 'eyesore' buildings in the town and their owners, and have revealed plans to crack down hard on property owners who have left their buildings fall into disrepair. Action is being taken to do something with each of these sites. Many of the buildings in disrepair are irreplaceable listed buildings such as the former ABC cinema (previously the King's Theatre) on Titchfield Street. Plans to improve the derelict building at the top of John Finnie Street that was destroyed by a fire in the late 1980s have been submitted to include a council office retaining the original façade. Work is estimated to be completed in 2012. A four-star hotel recently opened next to Rugby Park, the home of Kilmarnock F.C., and new restaurants, such as "Merchants" and the "Jefferson Restaurant," have opened in the town centre.


title: Kilmarnock

text: Regeneration activities have been discussed for Kilmarnock town centre; in early 2006, an application to Historic Scotland's Conservation Area Regeneration Scheme was successful, and in July 2006 an application under the Heritage Lottery Fund's Townscape Heritage Initiative Scheme was pending. Work has finished on a quality housing development on the site of the former Kilmarnock Infirmary, north of the town centre. In the past there have been major efforts to improve the quality of life for residents in the town's worst housing estates, especially in parts of Shortlees, Longpark and Onthank. Much new quality housing has been constructed on the northern fringes of the town for commuters. With a journey time of 20 minutes from Kilmarnock to Glasgow (roughly half that of the existing train service), the M77 motorway, an upgrade in 2005 of the A77, has transformed the journey between Glasgow and Kilmarnock. Recent house price increases have reflected this.


title: Kilmarnock

text: In 1812, the Kilmarnock and Troon Railway opened, mainly to carry coal from the area to the harbour at Troon, but also carrying passengers. In 1904, Kilmarnock built its own tramway system, the Kilmarnock Corporation Tramways. An electric power station was built on the south bank of the River Irvine at Riccarton. Overhead power lines and tram lines were laid. With continued upgrading and expansion, the tram network at its peak went from Ayr Road in Riccarton at its southerly point, to Knockinlaw Road in Beansburn in the north. A recent development has been the regeneration of Kilmarnock Railway Station under the umbrella of the Kilmarnock Railway Station Heritage Trust. Additions to the station facilities include a Scottish gift shop, a vegan deli and an Active Travel HUB where members of the public can access advice on travelling more sustainability. The HUB also offers led walks and cycle rides. Despite an expensive upgrade in 2008, it was announced in December 2022 following a full cabinet meeting of East Ayrshire Council that the station clock at the Kilmarnock railway station was to be removed and landscaped "with immediate affect" due to continuous technical difficulties preventing the clock and its LED lighting from working properly.


title: Kilmarnock

text: At Kilmarnock Cross, the line had an easterly spur that stretched along London Road, through Crookedholm and terminating at Hurlford. There had been proposed extensions along Portland Road, up John Finnie Street, West Langlands Street and eventually towards Crosshouse, but by this time, increasing costs and the far more flexible motor bus had made inroads and the trams ceased operation in 1926 during the General Strike. The council decided not to restart the service and the infrastructure was soon dismantled. Today the town is served by Kilmarnock railway station, which operates services from the town to all major locations in Scotland connecting with Stranraer for the ferries to the Port of Belfast as well as Larne Harbour in Northern Ireland and as far as Carlisle and Newcastle in England.


title: Kilmarnock

text: Kilmarnock has road links to Glasgow through the M77 motorway from Fenwick to its junction with the M8 at the Kingston Bridge. A south side motorway connects this point to the M74 near Calderpark when the latest phase of development is complete, eliminating some of the heavy traffic formerly travelling on the A71 through Hurlford, Galston, Newmilns, Darvel and Strathaven to join the M74 at Stonehouse. Stagecoach Group is the main transport provider in the town; it operates bus services to most major towns in the west of Scotland. Kilmarnock has its own bus station. As an early market town, Kilmarnock lies on the intersection of 3 main roads: the A71 which runs from Edinburgh to Irvine, the A76 from Dumfries, and the A77/M77 from Stranraer to Glasgow.


title: Kilmarnock

text: Kilmarnock has no international airport, however, the town, as well as surrounding settlements in the area, is served by nearby Glasgow Prestwick Airport (14 mi).


title: Kilmarnock

text: Kilmarnock has one college, ten primary schools, three secondary schools and thirteen nursery schools. There is also a college in the town, Ayrshire College previously known as Kilmarnock College and prior to that Kilmarnock Technical College. The schools are managed by East Ayrshire Council.


title: Kilmarnock

text: The town's oldest secondary school Kilmarnock Academy dates back to the 1600s. The school in its present-day serves as a comprehensive school, which of three in Kilmarnock. It can trace its history back to the local burgh school founded in the 1630s and the first school to bear the name was established in 1807. Next to the school is the "Old Tech," formerly Kilmarnock Technical School, which opened in 1910 as part of the academy. It is also listed, but is no longer part of the school; it was closed in 1997 due to a reduction in student numbers, caused by a restructuring of educational resources in the area. The building remained closed, and reopened in 2006 as luxury housing, due to its prime location directly next to the Dick Institute, the town's primary library and museum, and the centre of town. In the art department at the school, there is a war memorial in memory of those who died in World War 1. Kilmarnock Academy is one of the few schools in the world to have educated two Nobel laureates: Alexander Fleming and John Boyd Orr (although only for four months, whereas his primary and secondary school career was at West Kilbride Public School). The foundation stone for Loanhead School in the town was laid in 1903 by Andrew Carnegie. The building was completed and opened in 1905, originally constructed to accommodate over 1,100 pupils who had completed and passed the qualifying exam for the school. Within a few years of the schools opening, the exam system was scrapped and the school became a primary school to which it remains to this day. Loanhead Primary School is a Category B listed building by Historic Environment Scotland and underwent a multi-mullion pound programme of investment between 2020−2021 to modernise the building and include provision for early years education within the town centre area of Kilmarnock.


title: Kilmarnock

text: St Joseph's Academy was founded in 1955 in its present location, built on what were the outskirts of Kilmarnock at the time. The adjacent New Farm Loch estate eventually grew and enveloped the school. The school comprised an extended single building, housing most of the subjects taught within. Due to a lack of space, an additional building, commonly referred to as 'A' Block, was erected in the 1970s. As the school was constructed on what was essentially fields, the St Joseph's campus included a large playing field, comprising a red blaes hockey pitch, running tracks, and space for 4 grass football pitches. St. Conval's High School was later annexed to St. Joseph's in October 1998 and became known as St. Joseph's Cumnock. In 2004 St. Joseph's Cumnock Campus was closed due to falling attendance figures, and the town's Catholic children now attend the new St. Joseph's Academy campus in Kilmarnock, which now serves the entire Secondary Catholic population of East Ayrshire. In the early 21st century, a programme was initiated by central government to upgrade secondary schools throughout the country using a mixture of public and private money. St Joseph's was one of the schools selected for demolition and reconstruction, along with nearby Grange Academy. In 2008, the rebuilt St Joseph's was opened, including the new St Andrew's Primary – an amalgamation of the former feeder St Columba's and St Matthew's Primaries.


title: Kilmarnock

text: In recent times, East Ayrshire Council have demolished some of the town's oldest schools, such as the original Grange Academy along with St. Joseph's Academy, which have fallen into a state of disrepair and some of which have been hindered by falling pupil intakes. In September 2008, the new Grange Campus was completed and incorporated Grange Academy, Annanhill Primary, and Park School. The opening of the campus was delayed from August. The old Park School, Grange Academy and Annanhill Primary School buildings have been demolished.


title: Kilmarnock

text: The town is host to Kilmarnock F.C., a member of the Scottish Premiership and the oldest professional football club in Scotland. Their home ground is Rugby Park. The location of the stadium came about by the works of Ross Quigley, whom at the time was one of the first directors of the club. The etymology of the ground is that when founded, the club played both football and rugby. Rugby Park was one of the first football grounds in Scotland to have floodlights installed. In recent years the stadium has been modernised, firstly to bring it in line with the all-seating regulations, then rebuilt totally to make a new ground. It has also hosted international football matches and music concerts, most recently Elton John in June 2005 and Rod Stewart in June 2016. The club's foundation dates back to the very earliest days of organised football in Scotland, when a group of local cricketers looking for a sporting pursuit to occupy them outwith the cricket season formed a football club in 1869. Originally they played rugby rules, but the difficulty in organising fixtures and the growing influence of Queen's Park soon persuaded them to adopt the association code instead. These origins are reflected to this day by the name of the club's home ground – Rugby Park.


title: Kilmarnock

text: Although not amongst the founder members of the Scottish Football Association in 1873, Kilmarnock F.C. did send a letter of stating their willingness to join and did so in time to compete in the inaugural Scottish Cup tournament in 1873–74. Their 2–0 defeat against Renton in the first round on 18 October 1873 is thought to have been the first match ever played in the competition. Kilmarnock joined the Scottish League in 1895 and after winning consecutive Second Division titles were elected to the top flight for the first time in 1899. The club's greatest success was in 1965 under the management of Willie Waddell. On the final day of the season, they travelled to face Hearts at Tynecastle requiring a victory by two goals to nil (due to the competition being decided by goal average at that period if teams were equal on points) to win the league at their opponents' expense. A 2–0 win saw Kilmarnock crowned Scottish League champions for the first, and to date only, time. This capped a period of strong consistency which had seen them occupy runners-up spot in four of the previous five seasons.


title: Kilmarnock

text: After a period of decline in the 1980s which saw the club relegated to the Second Division, Killie have returned to prominence, holding top division status since being promoted in 1993 and lifting the Scottish Cup for the third time in 1997 after a 1–0 victory over Falkirk in the final. In March 2012, Kilmarnock won the Scottish League Cup for the first time under the management of their manager Kenny Sheils, beating Celtic 1–0. Kilmarnock have qualified for European competitions on nine occasions, their best performance coming in the 1966–67 Fairs Cup when they progressed to the semi-finals, eventually being eliminated by Leeds United. The club have played in all three European competitions (European Cup, Cup Winners' Cup and the UEFA Cup).


title: Kilmarnock

text: There are two golf courses in the town, Annanhill Golf Course and Caprington Golf Course, which has both an 18-hole course and a 9-hole course. Both these courses are council owned and run by East Ayrshire Council. The local leisure complexes include the Galleon Centre: with a 25-metre swimming pool, baby pool, ice rink, squash courts, sauna, gym, games hall, bar area, bowling green and the New Northwest Centre (formerly the Hunter Centre) which contains a community gym and various local medical facilities. The new Ayrshire Athletics Centre was constructed in the Queens Drive area which includes a 400m running track outside of the main building.


title: Kilmarnock

text: Kilmarnock boasts a large number of listed buildings. The Dick Institute, opened in April 1901, was severely damaged by fire only eight years after it opened. Some of the museums collections were lost in the fire. It reopened two years after the fire in 1911. The Dick Institute was used as an Auxiliary Hospital in 1917 during World War One. It is now shared by the Arts and Museums Service, and the Libraries, Registration and Information Service. The two Art Galleries and three Museum Galleries house permanent and temporary displays of Fine Art, Contemporary Art and Craft, Local and Industrial History and Natural Sciences. The Lending Library, Audio Library, Junior Library, Reference Library, and Learning Centre are all housed on the ground floor.


title: Kilmarnock

text: The first collection of work by Scottish poet Robert Burns, "Poems, chiefly in Scots" was published here in 1786. It was published at the current site of the Burn's Mall, dedicated to his work. This edition is known as the "Kilmarnock Edition" or "Kilmarnock volume". The ancestors of William Wallace held the Barony of Ricarton, where the suburb of Riccarton is now located, and, according to local tradition, Wallace was born at Ellerslie near Kilmarnock.


title: Kilmarnock

text: John Bowring, polyglot and fourth governor of Hong Kong, was Member of Parliament for Kilmarnock in 1835. In the castle of Kilmarnock, Dean Castle, there is an exhibition of armour and weapons, and the Van Raalte collection of musical instruments.


title: Kilmarnock

text: Kilmarnock was voted the "UK's Friendliest Shopping Town" in 2006. In 2010, BBC Scotland filmed residents on the town's Onthank and Longpark area for the TV programme "The Scheme" which broadcast in 2010 for two episodes so far, out of a planned four. "The Scheme" caused much controversy within residents of the community, who believed that the BBC only showed the "worst parts", leading to others believing that they were "pretty much the same". The series has been the subject of media criticism, with the series being labelled as "poverty porn" and described as giving a "misleading impression" of life on the estate. The final two episodes of the series were never broadcast due to legal issues.


title: Kilmarnock

text: In 2015, Kilmarnock was named 'Scotland's Most Improved Town' at the Scottish Urban Regeneration Forum awards. The panel recognised the improvements made to the town centre of Kilmarnock due to a £43 million investment, and local authority intervention to restore derelict buildings including the former Johnnie Walker bond building and the Opera House.


title: Kilmarnock

text: Scottish singers The Proclaimers titled a song "The Joyful Kilmarnock Blues" on their first album, "This Is the Story", released in 1987.


title: Kilmarnock

text: The song "The Ballroom Blitz" by the band The Sweet was inspired by an event at the town's Grand Hall music venue, when, in 1973, the band were performing at the venue and were driven off the stage by a barrage of bottles thrown from the crowd. The song went onto achieve worldwide fame and success, reaching the top ten on both the UK Singles Charts and the Billboard Hot 100 singles charts, with many still talking about the concept behind the song.


title: Kilmarnock

text: Below is a list of those who have either been born, lived in or have been associated with the town of Kilmarnock at some point of their life:


title: Kilmarnock

text: Kilmarnock – as part of East Ayrshire Council – is twinned with five cities and has received awards from the Council of Europe for its work in twinning.


title: Kilmarnock

text: The former Kilmarnock and Loudoun District Council is also twinned with Sukhum, Abkhazia (Russian-occupied Georgia) on the Black Sea coast.


title: Copy-on-write

text: Copy-on-write (COW), sometimes referred to as implicit sharing or shadowing, is a resource-management technique used in computer programming to efficiently implement a "duplicate" or "copy" operation on modifiable resources. If a resource is duplicated but not modified, it is not necessary to create a new resource; the resource can be shared between the copy and the original. Modifications must still create a copy, hence the technique: the copy operation is deferred until the first write. By sharing resources in this way, it is possible to significantly reduce the resource consumption of unmodified copies, while adding a small overhead to resource-modifying operations.


title: Copy-on-write

text: Copy-on-write finds its main use in sharing the virtual memory of operating system processes, in the implementation of the fork system call. Typically, the process does not modify any memory and immediately executes a new process, replacing the address space entirely. Thus, it would be wasteful to copy all of the process's memory during a fork, and instead the copy-on-write technique is used.


title: Copy-on-write

text: Copy-on-write can be implemented efficiently using the page table by marking certain pages of memory as read-only and keeping a count of the number of references to the page. When data is written to these pages, the operating-system kernel intercepts the write attempt and allocates a new physical page, initialized with the copy-on-write data, although the allocation can be skipped if there is only one reference. The kernel then updates the page table with the new (writable) page, decrements the number of references, and performs the write. The new allocation ensures that a change in the memory of one process is not visible in another's.


title: Copy-on-write

text: The copy-on-write technique can be extended to support efficient memory allocation by having a page of physical memory filled with zeros. When the memory is allocated, all the pages returned refer to the page of zeros and are all marked copy-on-write. This way, physical memory is not allocated for the process until data is written, allowing processes to reserve more virtual memory than physical memory and use memory sparsely, at the risk of running out of virtual address space. The combined algorithm is similar to demand paging.


title: Copy-on-write

text: The string class provided by the C++ standard library was specifically designed to allow copy-on-write implementations in the initial C++98 standard, but not in the newer C++11 standard:


title: Copy-on-write

text: In the PHP programming language, all types except references are implemented as copy-on-write. For example, strings and arrays are passed by reference, but when modified, they are duplicated if they have non-zero reference counts. This allows them to act as value types without the performance problems of copying on assignment or making them immutable.


title: Copy-on-write

text: In the Qt framework, many types are copy-on-write ("implicitly shared" in Qt's terms). Qt uses atomic compare-and-swap operations to increment or decrement the internal reference counter. Since the copies are cheap, Qt types can often be safely used by multiple threads without the need of locking mechanisms such as mutexes. The benefits of COW are thus valid in both single- and multithreaded systems.


title: Copy-on-write

text: COW may also be used as the underlying mechanism for snapshots, such as those provided by logical volume management, file systems such as Btrfs and ZFS, and database servers such as Microsoft SQL Server. Typically, the snapshots store only the modified data, and are stored close to the original, so they are only a weak form of incremental backup and cannot substitute for a full backup.


title: Tenofovir disoproxil

text: Tenofovir disoproxil, sold under the trade name Viread among others, is a medication used to treat chronic hepatitis B and to prevent and treat HIV/AIDS. It is generally recommended for use with other antiretrovirals. It may be used for prevention of HIV/AIDS among those at high risk before exposure, and after a needlestick injury or other potential exposure. It is sold both by itself and together in combinations such as emtricitabine/tenofovir, efavirenz/emtricitabine/tenofovir, and elvitegravir/cobicistat/emtricitabine/tenofovir. It does not cure HIV/AIDS or hepatitis B. It is available by mouth as a tablet or powder.


title: Tenofovir disoproxil

text: Common side effects include nausea, rash, diarrhea, headache, pain, depression, and weakness. Severe side effects include high blood lactate and an enlarged liver. There are no absolute contraindications. It is often recommended during pregnancy and appears to be safe. It is a nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitor and works by decreasing the ability of the viruses to replicate.


title: Tenofovir disoproxil

text: Tenofovir was patented in 1996 and approved for use in the United States in 2001. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. It is available in the United States as a generic medication as of 2017.


title: Tenofovir disoproxil

text: Tenofovir disoproxil is used for HIV-1 infection and chronic hepatitis B treatment. For HIV-1 infection, tenofovir is indicated in combination with other antiretroviral agents for people 2 years of age and older. For chronic hepatitis B patients, tenofovir is indicated for patients 12 years of age and older.


title: Tenofovir disoproxil

text: Tenofovir can be used for HIV prevention in people who are at high risk for infection through sexual transmission or injecting drug use. A Cochrane review examined the use of tenofovir for prevention of HIV before exposure and found that both tenofovir alone and the tenofovir/emtricitabine combination decreased the risk of contracting HIV for high risk patients. The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) also conducted a study in partnership with the Thailand Ministry of Public Health to ascertain the effectiveness of providing people who inject drugs illicitly with daily doses of tenofovir as a prevention measure. The results revealed a 48.9% reduced incidence of the virus among the group of subjects who received the drug in comparison to the control group who received a placebo.


title: Tenofovir disoproxil

text: Tenofovir disoproxil is generally well tolerated with low discontinuation rates among the HIV and chronic hepatitis B population. There are no contraindications for use of this drug. The most commonly reported side effects due to use of tenofovir disoproxil were dizziness, nausea, and diarrhea. Other adverse effects include depression, sleep disturbances, headache, itching, rash, and fever. The US boxed warning cautions potential onset of lactic acidosis or liver damage due to use of tenofovir disoproxil.


title: Tenofovir disoproxil

text: Long term use of tenofovir disoproxil is associated with nephrotoxicity and bone loss. Presentation of nephrotoxicity can appear as Fanconi syndrome, acute kidney injury, or decline of glomerular filtration rate (GFR). Discontinuation of tenofovir disoproxil can potentially lead to reversal of renal impairment. Nephrotoxicity may be due to proximal tubules accumulation of Tenofovir disoproxil leading to elevated serum concentrations.


title: Tenofovir disoproxil

text: Tenofovir interacts with didanosine and HIV-1 protease inhibitors. Tenofovir increases didanosine concentrations and can result in adverse effects such as pancreatitis and neuropathy. Tenofovir also interacts with HIV-1 protease inhibitors such as atazanavir, by decreasing atazanavir concentrations while increasing tenofovir concentrations. In addition, since tenofovir is excreted by the kidney, medications that impair renal function can also cause problems.


title: Tenofovir disoproxil

text: Tenofovir disoproxil is a nucleotide analog reverse-transcriptase inhibitor (NtRTI). It selectively inhibits viral reverse transcriptase, a crucial enzyme in retroviruses such as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), while showing limited inhibition of human enzymes, such as DNA polymerases α, β, and mitochondrial DNA polymerase γ. In vivo tenofovir disoproxil fumarate is converted to tenofovir, an acyclic analog of deoxyadenosine 5'-monophosphate (dAMP).


title: Tenofovir disoproxil

text: Tenofovir lacks a hydroxyl group in the position corresponding to the 3' carbon of the dAMP, preventing the formation of the 5′ to 3′ phosphodiester linkage essential for DNA chain elongation. Once incorporated into a growing DNA strand, tenofovir causes premature termination of DNA transcription, preventing viral replication.


title: Tenofovir disoproxil

text: Tenofovir disoproxil is a prodrug that is quickly absorbed from the gut and cleaved to release tenofovir. Inside cells, tenofovir is phosphorylated to tenofovir diphosphate (which is analogous to a "tri"phosphate, as tenofovir itself already has one phosphonate residue), the active compound that inhibits reverse transcriptase via chain termination.


title: Tenofovir disoproxil

text: In fasting persons, bioavailability is 25%, and highest blood plasma concentrations are reached after one hour. When taken with fatty food, highest plasma concentrations are reached after two hours, and the area under the curve is increased by 40%. It is an inhibitor of cytochrome P450 1A2.


title: Tenofovir disoproxil

text: Tenofovir is mainly excreted via the kidneys, both by glomerular filtration and by tubular secretion using the transport proteins OAT1, OAT3 and ABCC4.


title: Tenofovir disoproxil

text: Tenofovir may be measured in plasma by liquid chromatography. Such testing is useful for monitoring therapy and to prevent drug accumulation and toxicity in people with kidney or liver problems.


title: Tenofovir disoproxil

text: Tenofovir is a derivative of adenine and this was the chemical starting point for its first published synthesis which was included in patents to the compound. During drug development, attention switched to the phosphonate ester derivative, tenofovir disoproxil, which was the subject of extensive process chemistry to provide a viable manufacturing route.


title: Tenofovir disoproxil

text: Adenine is first reacted with a chiral version of propylene carbonate with "R" absolute configuration, using sodium hydroxide as base. Under these conditions, the reaction is regioselective, with alkylation occurring exclusively in the imidazole ring and at the less-hindered carbon of the dioxolane. In the second step, the hydroxyl group is reacted with a phosphonic acid derivative, using "tert"-butyllithium as base to ensure selective O-alkylation, with the formation of an ether bond. Tenofovir is formed when the diethyl phosphonate group is converted to its acid using trimethylsilyl chloride in the presence of sodium bromide, a further refinement of the original manufacturing route. The synthesis of the alternative ester in tenofovir disoproxil is completed by alkylation with the appropriate chloromethyl ether derivative and this may be purified as its fumarate salt.


title: Tenofovir disoproxil

text: Tenofovir was initially synthesized by Antonín Holý at the Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry of the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences in Prague. The patent filed in 1986 makes no mention of the potential use of the compound for the treatment of HIV infection but claims activity against herpes simplex virus.


title: Tenofovir disoproxil

text: In 1985, De Clercq and Holý described the activity of PMPA against HIV in cell culture. Shortly thereafter, a collaboration with the biotechnology company Gilead Sciences led to the investigation of PMPA's potential as a treatment for HIV infected patients. In 1997 researchers from Gilead and the University of California, San Francisco demonstrated that tenofovir exhibits anti-HIV effects in humans when dosed by subcutaneous injection.


title: Tenofovir disoproxil

text: The initial form of tenofovir used in these studies had limited potential for widespread use because it poorly penetrated cells and was not absorbed when given by mouth. Gilead developed a pro-drug version of tenofovir, tenofovir disoproxil. This version of tenofovir is often referred to simply as "tenofovir". In this version of the drug, the two negative charges of the tenofovir phosphonic acid group are masked, thus enhancing oral absorption.


title: Tenofovir disoproxil

text: Tenofovir disoproxil was approved in the U.S. in 2001, for the treatment of HIV, and in 2008, for the treatment of chronic hepatitis B.


title: Tenofovir disoproxil

text: Tenofovir disoproxil can be taken by mouth and is sold under the brand name Viread, among others. Tenofovir disoproxil is a pro-drug form of tenofovir phosphonate, which is liberated intracellularly and converted to tenofovir disphophate. It is marketed by Gilead Sciences (as the fumarate, abbreviated TDF).


title: Tenofovir disoproxil

text: Tenofovir disoproxil is also available in pills which combine a number of antiviral drugs into a single dose. Well-known combinations include Atripla (tenofovir disoproxil/emtricitabine/efavirenz), Complera (tenofovir disoproxil/emtricitabine/rilpivirine), Stribild (tenofovir disoproxil/emtricitabine/elvitegravir/cobicistat), and Truvada (tenofovir disoproxil/emtricitabine).


title: Tenofovir disoproxil

text: Gilead has created a second pro-drug form of the active drug, tenofovir diphosphate, called tenofovir alafenamide. It differs from tenofovir disoproxil due to its activation in the lymphoid cells. This allows the active metabolites to accumulate in those cells, leading to lower systemic exposure and potential toxicities.


title: Living Media

text: Living Media India Limited, d.b.a. India Today Group, is an Indian media conglomerate based in New Delhi, India. It has interests in magazines, newspapers, books, radio, television, printing and the Internet.


title: Living Media

text: India Today Group was founded in 1975 and its first publication was "India Today" which was a fortnightly news magazine. Aroon Purie is the current chairman and editor-in-chief and Dinesh Bhatia is the current CEO of India Today Group.


title: Jane Shore

text: Elizabeth "Jane" Shore (née Lambert) (c. 1445 – c. 1527) was one of the many mistresses of King Edward IV of England. She became the best-known to history through being later accused of conspiracy by the future King Richard III, and compelled to do public penance. She was also a sometime mistress of other noblemen, including Edward's stepson, Thomas Grey, 1st Marquess of Dorset, and William Hastings, 1st Baron Hastings but ended her life in bourgeois respectability.


title: Jane Shore

text: Born in London in about 1445, Elizabeth Lambert was the daughter of a prosperous merchant, John Lambert (d.1487), and his wife Amy (d.1488), who was the daughter of a well-off grocer named Robert Marshall. The name "Jane", which has sometimes been attached to her, was the invention of a 17th-century playwright (Heywood), because during the course of the sixteenth century, her real first name was omitted, then forgotten by authors. The tradition must go further back, however, as on 28 August 1599 was licensed the "History of the Life and Death of Master Shore and Jane Shore his Wife".


title: Jane Shore

text: Spending time in her father's shop at a young age may have brought the young Elizabeth into contact with ladies of high rank. C.J.S. Thompson's highly romanticised biography, "The Witchery of Jane Shore, the Rose of London: The Romance of a Royal Mistress" (1933) claimed that she was able to observe their behaviour and gain an understanding of the manners of those higher ranking than herself. She was thought to have been highly intelligent, and as a result received an education that was not usually associated with a person of her class. Thompson also claimed that her beauty earned her the title of "The Rose of London" – although this is not mentioned in contemporary sources. According to Thomas More, writing when Shore was elderly, she had been fair of body though not tall; she was attractive to men more through her personality than her physical beauty, being intelligent, literate, merry and playful.


title: Jane Shore

text: She attracted many suitors, among them William Hastings, 1st Baron Hastings, friend and confidant of Edward IV. It is likely Hastings fell in love with Elizabeth Lambert before her marriage; his affection for her is apparent later in life by his continual protection of her.


title: Jane Shore

text: Such extreme attention made John Lambert desirous of finding his daughter a suitable husband. Such an opportunity presented itself with William Shore (d. 1494), a goldsmith and banker and common visitor to the Lambert home. He was approximately 14 or 15 years older than Jane. Though handsome and well-to-do, he never really won her affections. Their marriage was annulled in March 1476 after she petitioned for the annulment of her marriage on the grounds that her husband was impotent, which prevented her from fulfilling her desire to have children. Pope Sixtus IV commissioned three bishops to decide the case, and they granted the annulment.


title: Jane Shore

text: According to the Patent Rolls for 4 December 1476, it was during this same year that Shore began her liaison with Edward IV, after his return from France. Edward did not discard her as he did many of his mistresses, and was completely devoted to her. She had a large amount of influence over the king, but would not use it for her own personal gain. This was exemplified by her practice of bringing those out of favour before the king to help them gain pardon. Shore, according to the official records, was not showered with gifts, unlike many of Edward's previous mistresses. Their relationship lasted until Edward's death in 1483.


title: Jane Shore

text: Shore's two other lovers were Edward IV's eldest stepson, Thomas Grey, 1st Marquess of Dorset, and William Hastings, 1st Baron Hastings. Grey's wife was the wealthy heiress Cecily Bonville, 7th Baroness Harington, who also happened to be Hastings' stepdaughter. Shore was instrumental in bringing about the alliance between Hastings and the Woodvilles, which was formed while Richard, Duke of Gloucester, was Protector, before he took the throne as King Richard III. She was accused of carrying messages between Hastings and Edward IV's widow, Elizabeth Woodville. It was because of her role in this alliance that Shore was charged with conspiracy, along with Hastings and the Woodvilles, against the Protector's government.


title: Jane Shore

text: Shore's punishment included open penance at Paul's Cross for her promiscuous behaviour by Richard, but this may have been motivated by the suspicion that she had harboured Grey when he was a fugitive or as a result of Richard's antagonism towards any person who represented his older brother's court. A clash of personalities between the lighthearted Shore and stern Richard also generated a mutual dislike between the two. Shore accordingly went in her chemise through the streets one Sunday with a taper (thin candle) in her hand, attracting a lot of male attention along the way.


title: Jane Shore

text: After her public penitence, Shore resided in Ludgate prison. While there, she captivated the King's Solicitor General, Thomas Lynom. After he expressed an interest in Shore to Richard, the king tried to dissuade him for his own good. This is evinced by a letter to John Russell from Richard, where the King asked the chancellor to try to prevent the marriage, but if Lynom were determined on the marriage, to release Shore from prison and put her in the charge of her father until Richard's next arrival in London when the marriage could take place. They were married and had one daughter. It is believed that Shore lived the remainder of her life in bourgeois respectability. Lynom lost his position as King's Solicitor when Henry VII defeated Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth in August 1485, but he was able to stay on as a mid-level bureaucrat in the new reign, becoming a gentleman who sat on the commissions in the Welsh Marches and clerk controller to Arthur, Prince of Wales, at Ludlow Castle. Thomas More attested that even in old age an attentive observer might discern in her shriveled countenance traces of her former beauty.


title: Jane Shore

text: It was recently discovered a quoted inscription in an old book which may throw some further light on the matter. On the north wall of the chancel of St. Mary's, Whittlesea, is a marble mural monument to Thomas Hake, 1590. Its two panels are now blank, but it is probable that they had figures. The text, however, is still extant and perfectly readable:


title: Jane Shore

text: "Celastia seqvor terrestria sperno | Here Lyeth Bvried the Bodye of Thomas Hake, Esqvier | sonne and heire of Symon Hake of Depinge in | the countie of Lyncolne Esqvier and of Alice | his wife dovghter of Thomas Lynham Esqvier | somtyme President of Walles which Thomas | Hake died the first of March An° Dni 1590. | Who married Anne Dovghter of Roger Wylson of Govsner in the covntie of Lancaster Gent. | and of Jane his wife Dovghter of John Wallis which | Thomas and Anne had yssve 5 sonnes and 3 dovgh- | ters which died all yonge Bvt William Hake the | yongest ther only sonne and heire now livinge"Thomas Lynham, Esquire, sometime member of the Council of Wales and the Marches, had a daughter named Alice who married Simon Hake (or Hacke). They had at least one son, Thomas (d. 1 March 1590), and he had many children, though only one surviving, William, who erected the memorial.


title: Jane Shore

text: For a bibliography see James L. Harner, "Jane Shore in Literature: A Checklist" in "Notes and Queries", v. 226, December 1981, p. 496.


title: Shell game

text: The shell game (also known as thimblerig, three shells and a pea, the old army game) is often portrayed as a gambling game, but in reality, when a wager for money is made, it is almost always a confidence trick used to perpetrate fraud. In confidence trick slang, this swindle is referred to as a "short-con" because it is quick and easy to pull off. The shell game is related to the cups and balls conjuring trick, which is performed purely for entertainment purposes without any purported gambling element.


title: Shell game

text: In the shell game, three or more identical containers (which may be cups, shells, bottle caps, or anything else) are placed face-down on a surface. A small ball is placed beneath one of these containers so that it cannot be seen, and they are then shuffled by the operator in plain view. One or more players are invited to bet on which container holds the ball – typically, the operator offers to double the player's stake if they guess right. Where the game is played honestly, the operator can win if he shuffles the containers in a way which the player cannot follow.


title: Shell game

text: In practice, however, the shell game is notorious for its use by confidence tricksters who will typically rig the game using sleight of hand to move or hide the ball during play and replace it as required. Fraudulent shell games are also known for the use of psychological tricks to convince potential players of the legitimacy of the game – for example, by using shills or by allowing a player to win a few times before beginning the scam.


title: Shell game

text: The shell game dates back at least to Ancient Greece. It can be seen in several paintings of the European Middle Ages. A book published in England in 1670 (Hull Elections – Richard Perry and his fiddler wife) mentions the thimblerig game. In the 1790s, it was called "thimblerig" as it was originally played using sewing thimbles. Later, walnut shells were used, and today the use of bottle caps or matchboxes is common.


title: Shell game

text: The swindle became very popular throughout the nineteenth century, and games were often set up in or around traveling fairs. A thimblerig team (comprising operator and confederates) was depicted in William Powell Frith's 1858 painting, "The Derby Day". In Frith's 1895, "My Autobiography and Reminiscences" the painter-turned-memorialist leaves an account of his encounter with a thimble-rig team (operator and accomplices):


title: Shell game

text: "My first visit to Epsom was in the May of 1856 – Blink Bonnie's year. My first Derby had no interest for me as a race, but as giving me the opportunity of studying life and character it is ever to be gratefully remembered. Gambling-tents and thimble-rigging, prick in the garter and the three-card trick, had not then been stopped by the police. So convinced was I that I could find the pea under the thimble that I was on the point of backing my guess rather heavily, when I was stopped by Augustus Egg, whose interference was resented by a clerical-looking personage, in language much opposed to what would have been anticipated from one of his cloth. 'You,' said Egg, addressing the divine, 'you are a confederate, you know; my friend is not to be taken in.' 'Look here,' said the clergyman, 'don't you call names, and don't call me names, or I shall knock your d –– d head off.' 'Will you?' said Egg, his courage rising as he saw two policemen approaching. 'Then I call the lot of you – the Quaker there, no more a Quaker than I am, and that fellow that thinks he looks like a farmer – you are a parcel of thieves!' 'So they are, sir,' said a meek-looking lad who joined us; 'they have cleaned me out.' 'Now move off; clear out of this!' said the police; and the gang walked away, the clergyman turning and extending his arms in the act of blessing me and Egg."


title: Shell game

text: Fear of jail and the need to find new "flats" (victims) kept these "sharps" (shell men or "operators") traveling from one town to the next, never staying in one place very long. One of the most infamous confidence men of the nineteenth century, Jefferson Randolph Smith, known as Soapy Smith, led organized gangs of shell men throughout the mid-western United States, and later in Alaska.


title: Shell game

text: Today, the game is still being played for money in many major cities around the world, usually at locations with a high tourist concentration (for example: La Rambla in Barcelona, Gran Via in Madrid, Westminster Bridge in London, Kurfürstendamm in Berlin, Bahnhofsviertel in Frankfurt am Main and public spaces in Paris, Benidorm, New York City, Chicago, and Los Angeles). The swindle is classified as a confidence trick game, and illegal to play for money in most countries.


title: Shell game

text: The game also inspired a pricing game on the game show "The Price Is Right", in which contestants attempt to win a larger prize by pricing smaller prizes to earn attempts at finding a ball hidden under one of four shells designed to resemble walnut shells. While the ball is not shown during the game, and the host shuffles the shells before the start of the game, contestants can win by either winning all four attempts or winning enough attempts (via big "chips" to mark the shells), and picking the one that has the ball. The shuffling is only allowed before the pricing part of the game begins, and once the first small prize is announced, no further shuffling is permitted. Federal game show regulations are designed to ensure the game is legally a game that can be won.


title: American game show winnings records

text: A game show is a type of radio, television, or internet program in which contestants, television personalities or celebrities, sometimes as part of a team, play a game which involves answering trivia questions or solving puzzles, usually for prizes. Game shows are usually distinguishable from reality television competition shows, in which the competition consumes an entire season of episodes; in a game show, prizes can typically be won in a single match (in some cases, particularly in the ones that offer record-setting prizes, contestants can play multiple matches and accumulate a larger total). Beginning with the first five-figure and six-figure game show jackpots in the mid-1950s, a succession of contestants on various quiz shows of the era each set records. Teddy Nadler of "The $64,000 Challenge", the highest-scoring contestant of the 1950s era, was not surpassed until 1980, when Thom McKee won $312,700 on "Tic-Tac-Dough." Between 1999 and 2001, during a brief boom in high-stakes game shows, the record was broken six times. Both the 1955–1958 and 1999–2001 eras of rapidly set and broken records were driven primarily by one-upmanship between the networks each trying to secure bragging rights and ratings by inflating their prize offerings, rather than the merits of the contestants themselves. American daytime television has historically had smaller prize budgets for game shows that air in that daypart.


title: American game show winnings records

text: , the top three winners in American game show history all earned the majority of their winnings from the quiz show "Jeopardy!", which has aired since 1984 and has had no hard earnings limit since 2003. Ken Jennings is the highest-earning American game show contestant of all time, having accumulated a total of $5,223,414. He took the record back from Brad Rutter as the highest-earning contestant (a record Rutter had held since 2014) by virtue of his victory on January 14, 2020, in the "Jeopardy! The Greatest of All Time" tournament.


title: American game show winnings records

text: Most daytime game show top prizes were limited to $25,000 during the 1960s and 1970s, a restriction made for both budgetary concerns and to assuage criticism that arose from the 1950s quiz show scandals. The limits were usually imposed by the networks themselves; CBS, for example, had a limit of $25,000 that stayed intact until the mid-1980s. ABC also had a limit, which was eventually dropped. NBC, however, opted not to employ such a limit and allowed show producers to set them if they saw fit.


title: American game show winnings records

text: The single day record for shows in daytime television was set by Michael Larson in 1984, who won $110,237 () on "Press Your Luck." Larson achieved this record by memorizing the show's board patterns, repeatedly hitting the board's squares that awarded contestants money and an additional spin, which would, in turn, replace the spin he had just used, effectively allowing him to spin the board in the second round as long as he wanted. Because of this, his game had to be split into two episodes (which aired June 8 and June 11), as his turn caused the game to go well over the show's half-hour allotted time. At the time of the show's airing, CBS only allowed contestants to win up to $50,000 on a game show (contestants would retire after winning $25,000); the winnings limit increased to $75,000 in November and $100,000 in 1986 (and later $125,000 by 1990) before being permanently eliminated in 2006. In March 2003, Game Show Network produced a documentary about the event featuring Ed Long and Janie Litras-Dakan, the contestants Larson handily defeated in 1984.


title: American game show winnings records

text: In 2006, Larson was succeeded by Vickyann Chrobak-Sadowski, who set the record by winning $147,517 on the 35th-season premiere of "The Price Is Right", winning a Dodge Caravan playing "Push Over", $1,000 cash and both showcases. In 2013, Chrobak-Sadowski was succeeded by Sheree Heil, who set the record by winning $170,345 on "The Price Is Right" "Best of 2013" special aired December 30, 2013 by winning an Audi R8 playing "Gas Money", $10,000 cash and Prada shoes. In 2016, Heil was succeeded by Christen Freeman, who set the record by winning $210,000 on October 28, during the show's "Big Money Week" special. As "Cliff Hangers" was the episode's Big Money game, game rules were modified to offer a top prize of $250,000, which was reduced by $10,000 for every step the mountain climber took. In addition to her One Bid prize and an additional $1,000 won during the Showcase Showdown, Freeman's grand total was $212,879, setting a new daytime record.


title: American game show winnings records

text: The current single-day record holder is Michael Stouber, who won a total of $262,743 on the October 14, 2019, episode of "The Price Is Right." Stouber's appearance occurred during a special "Big Money Week" promotion in which games normally played for standard prizes had increased values or special cash awards offered. Stouber played the pricing game Plinko, normally played for a top prize of $50,000. On this special episode, the top prize was increased to $1,000,000, with the middle slot's value increased from $10,000 to $200,000. Stouber won a total of $202,000 during the game, plus his showcase and an accumulating jackpot of prizes (worth $29,657).


title: American game show winnings records

text: During the early quiz show boom of the mid-1950s, Richard McCutcheon set the first major winnings record by winning the title prize on "The $64,000 Question" on September 13, 1955, matched shortly thereafter by Joyce Brothers on December 3, despite producers attempting to give her questions they thought she could not answer. Ethel Park Richardson set the next winnings record of $100,000 on "The Big Surprise" on December 10.


title: American game show winnings records

text: Richardson's record would stand for more than a year, before being surpassed by Charles Van Doren on January 21, 1957, who was playing "Twenty One". Van Doren, who won $129,000 total, was almost immediately passed by on February 10 by 11-year-old Leonard Ross. Ross, through earlier winnings on "The Big Surprise" and a new appearance on "The $64,000 Question", reached $164,000. Ross's total was surpassed by ten-year-old Robert Strom,"" on "The $64,000 Question" on April 16. Strom would go on to win $242,600 in various game show appearances by mid-1958. Finally, Teddy Nadler collected winnings on "The $64,000 Question" and "The $64,000 Challenge" through 1957 and 1958"" sufficient to eclipse Strom's winnings on August 24, 1958, on the way to $264,000 ().


title: American game show winnings records

text: Nadler's record would stand for more than two decades, because in the fall of 1958, allegations that many big-money quiz shows were fixed were corroborated; several of the programs under scrutiny were almost immediately cancelled. Herb Stempel, who had won $69,500 on "Twenty One", openly admitted that his defeat by Charles Van Doren had been scripted. Van Doren, by comparison, insisted he had wanted to do the show honestly and refused to speak on the topic for decades afterward, until writing an essay on the subject for "The New Yorker" in 2008. Joyce Brothers's winnings, which added up to $128,000 after a follow-up win on "The $64,000 Challenge", were ultimately upheld as legitimate, and she went on to a prolonged career as a psychologist and media personality. Nadler, a middle-school dropout, failed a civil service exam trying to get a temporary job with the United States Census Bureau in 1960. His breadth of knowledge was never questioned; Nadler was not implicated for any role in the quiz show scandals. In a 1970 Nadler interview and article, people connected with the shows Nadler was on stated that he "had been shown some questions before air time, but it didn't matter when he saw them – he knew the answers anyway." Nadler died on May 23, 1984, at the age of 74.


title: American game show winnings records

text: The quiz show scandals caused sweeping changes in television game show production. These changes, which lasted decades, included the imposition of limits on future prize amounts, limits on the number of times game champions could return, and a change in emphasis in most game shows away from "recall of factual knowledge" as the means to win. As with much programming of the early 1960s, game shows of the era were criticized for dumbing down; "Let's Make a Deal", a breakout hit game show that debuted in 1963, was belittled as "mindless" and "demeaning to traders and audiences alike". The establishment of the original version of "Jeopardy!", with its low stakes (no contestant won more than $12,000 including tournament play during the show's original 11-year daytime run) and five-game limit, helped ease the stigma against the quiz show.


title: American game show winnings records

text: A reboot of "Tic-Tac-Dough," which by 1980 was running in syndication, "did" allow its returning champion to play until defeated, and had no winnings cap. When "Tic Tac Dough" games ended in ties, potential game winnings would carry over to the next game, and both champion and challenger would return. With this play structure, U.S. Naval officer named Thom McKee began a winning streak on "Tic Tac Dough" that carried from the spring of 1980 into the 1980–1981 season. McKee passed Nadler's record in tapings recorded over the summer of that year as revealed in a leak to the press. McKee won $312,700 () in cash and prizes in 43 games, which included eight cars (on "Tic Tac Dough" a contestant received a new car after every fifth game won). McKee's record on "Tic Tac Dough" was not surpassed by another player, and this was in part because when WCBS-TV in New York purchased the right to air the syndicated "Tic Tac Dough" in 1983, CBS (the station's owner) realized that airing a game show without a winnings cap on a station it owned was a violation of its own Broadcast Standards and Practices. CBS requested to the producers of "Tic Tac Dough" that a winnings limit of $50,000 be imposed, and the show complied with this request.


title: American game show winnings records

text: While Thom McKee was the biggest solo game show winner until 1999, nine couples on "The $1,000,000 Chance of a Lifetime" shared the show's top prize of $1,000,000 awarded in a combination of prizes and a long-term annuity, during that show's run in syndication from January 1986 to May 1987.


title: American game show winnings records

text: In 1999, McKee's winnings total was passed by Michael Shutterly, who became the biggest winner in the first season of "Who Wants to Be a Millionaire" in the United States. Shutterly was the first contestant on the show to get to the 15th and final question but elected to walk instead with $500,000 which made him the biggest winner in American game show history at the time. Shutterly had previously won $49,200 as a four-day champion on "Jeopardy!" in 1988, making his career winnings total $549,200. On November 19, during the second season of "Millionaire" in the United States, the show crowned its first million-dollar winner when John Carpenter won the show's top prize without using any lifelines, save for a phone call on the final question, which he used to inform his father that he was going to win the million dollars. After Carpenter answered the final question, which concerned Richard Nixon's appearance on "Laugh-In" in 1968, host Regis Philbin proclaimed Carpenter the show's (and worldwide format's) first top-prize winner. Carpenter's record remained intact until the following year.


title: American game show winnings records

text: The ratings success of "Millionaire" sparked a brief glut of high-stakes game shows from the other networks, each attempting to outdo the other. In early 2000, Rahim Oberholtzer, a contestant on the revival of NBC's "Twenty One," won four games in his appearances on the show, along with $120,000 in the show's "Perfect 21" bonus round, for a total of $1,120,000. For surpassing Carpenter's mark, then-host Maury Povich proclaimed Oberholtzer "the TV Game Show King". Late in its run, the Fox game show "Greed" brought back some of its previous winners to try for an extra $1,000,000. Curtis Warren, who was part of the first "team" to win $1,000,000 on the show (of which his share was $400,000, plus $10,000 for winning a terminator round), was one of the contestants brought back to do so on February 11, 2000. Warren was given a question about TV shows that had been made into movies, with eight choices (of which he had to identify the four correct answers). He successfully did so, giving himself $1,410,000 and the record for the time being. Warren's record was even shorter lived than Oberholtzer's had been, lasting only four days. Three days before Warren's win, David Legler, who also appeared on "Twenty One," began a run as champion on the show. Four days after Warren's win, the run continued, with Legler having earned a grand total of $1,765,000 in six wins to surpass Warren's record and become the third contestant in two months to top $1,000,000 on a game show.


title: American game show winnings records

text: Legler held the record for well over a year, outlasting "Twenty One" and "Greed" themselves; by July 2000, the million-dollar game show boom had gone bust and both "Greed" and "Twenty One" (along with several others) were cancelled, leaving "Millionaire" as the last surviving million-dollar game show on American television from that boom; it would not be until April 2001 (with the arrival of the similarly short-lived "Weakest Link") that another would be attempted. By the start of 2001, the producers of "Millionaire" decided that it had been too long (71 episodes over a five-month period) since their top prize had been won and instituted an accumulating jackpot which added $10,000 to the grand prize amount for each episode it was not won. Kevin Olmstead claimed the top prize on April 10, 2001, winning a jackpot of $2,180,000. Olmstead became the first contestant to top $2,000,000 in total winnings on a game show and supplanted Legler as the all-time leader. In 2004, ABC launched an ultra high-stakes version of "Millionaire" entitled "Who Wants to Be a Super Millionaire" with a $10,000,000 top prize. Two separate "Super Millionaire" series aired, one in February and a second in May. However, despite the higher stakes and the potential for someone to top the all-time record for winnings, the largest prize awarded was $1,000,000, won by Robert Essig.


title: American game show winnings records

text: Million-dollar game shows continue to air, in somewhat lower frequency, into the present day, as several other game shows with prizes in excess of $1,000,000 (including "Deal or No Deal") came and went. In 2008, "Wheel of Fortune" increased its top prize to $1,000,000, making it the second syndicated game show to have a top prize of that value. To date, three contestants have won "Wheel"s million-dollar prize. "Millionaire" would eventually end its syndicated run in 2019; at the time it ended, it had not awarded the top prize in regular play since Nancy Christy became the first woman to top $1,000,000 in overall winnings in May 2003, making her the second-to-last million-dollar winner in the show's history.


title: American game show winnings records

text: A rule change imposed by "Jeopardy!" for the 2003–04 season set the stage for a new generation of game show winnings records. For Season 20, the show eliminated its long-standing rule limiting a champion's consecutive wins to five. In doing so, "Jeopardy!" joined "Tic Tac Dough" from two decades earlier in allowing unlimited appearances by a returning champion on a quiz show. This set up the potential for winning streaks like those seen in the big-money 1950s quiz shows.


title: American game show winnings records

text: On October 15, 2003, a month into the new season, Pennsylvania college student Sean Ryan became the first champion to play (and win) a sixth game. On January 14, 2004, Tom Walsh became the first seven-game winner. But nearing the end of the season on June 2, 2004, software engineer Ken Jennings of Salt Lake City, Utah became the new champion on "Jeopardy!" The episode was the first in a long winning streak for the software engineer first breaking Ryan's and Walsh's accomplishments. With no limit to his appearances, Jennings began to break many game show records. As his streak continued deeper into the 21st season, Jennings was inching closer and closer to Olmstead's all-time record. On November 3, 2004, Jennings topped Olmstead's "Millionaire" winnings with his 65th consecutive win, finishing the day with $45,099 and a new cumulative total of $2,197,000 (). Jennings won nine more games before his streak came to an end on November 30, 2004, at the hands of contestant Nancy Zerg. He had extended his record total to $2,520,700 at the time of his defeat, after which he was awarded an additional $2,000 for finishing in second place per "Jeopardy!" rules.


title: American game show winnings records

text: Shortly after Jennings's defeat, "Jeopardy!" decided to see how he would fare in tournament play. On February 9, 2005, the show launched its Ultimate Tournament of Champions, inviting back 144 other past champions to compete over the next three months in a five-round single-elimination tournament with a $2,000,000 grand prize. The field included the highest-winning five-time champions and winners of some previous tournaments, though not all invitees were able to participate. Jennings received a bye into the finals of the tournament, where he faced semi-final winners Jerome Vered and Brad Rutter in a three-game, cumulative total match. Vered had set a single-day scoring record during his appearance on the show in 1992, while Rutter had won the 2001 Tournament of Champions and the 2002 Million Dollar Masters tournament and was the show's highest-earning contestant of all-time before Jennings. In the tournament's three-day final, Rutter defeated Jennings and Vered to win the tournament and $2,000,000, supplanting Jennings as the all-time highest earning American game show contestant in the process. Including the $1.27 million he had won in his previous "Jeopardy!" appearances (five regular season games, a Tournament of Champions win, the Million Dollar Masters win, and three matches in the earlier rounds of the Ultimate Tournament of Champions which were worth $115,000), Rutter's total stood at $3,270,102, while Jennings was now second with $3,022,700 having gained an additional $500,000 for his second-place finish in the tournament.


title: American game show winnings records

text: Jennings slowly began to chip away at Rutter's record, first by winning $714.29 in 2006 as part of the Mob on NBC's "1 vs. 100." A year later, Jennings won the "Grand Slam" tournament on Game Show Network and the $100,000 top prize by defeating Ogi Ogas in the final round. Finally, on October 10, 2008, Jennings passed Rutter by winning $500,000 on "Are You Smarter Than a 5th Grader?"; he extended the record by winning $300,000 in The IBM Challenge, where he and Rutter took on IBM supercomputer Watson in a special "Jeopardy!" event in 2011. Rutter won $200,000 in the challenge, in which both he and Jennings pledged half of their winnings to charity. Rutter then added $100,000 more when he appeared on "Million Dollar Mind Game", raising his total to $3,570,102, second only to Jennings's $3,923,414.29.


title: American game show winnings records

text: NBC's "The Million Second Quiz" artificially inflated its grand prize to allow for Andrew Kravis, the winner of the ten-day tournament, to claim a record for most money won on a single game show in regular play. Kravis had only won $2,326,346 during actual play ($326,346 during the game, plus the $2,000,000 grand prize) but was awarded $2,600,000 solely so the show could lay claim to the record. Factoring overall winnings, which includes a $50,500 win on "Wheel of Fortune" and two consolation prizes for losing on "Jeopardy!" and "Who Wants to Be a Millionaire", Kravis's total sits in fourth as of 2020.


title: American game show winnings records

text: In 2014, Jennings and Rutter were both invited to play in the "Jeopardy!" Battle of the Decades, a tournament conducted by the producers of "Jeopardy!" to celebrate its thirtieth season in syndication. Both men advanced to the two-day tournament final with Roger Craig (who had set the previous single-day winnings record of $77,000 in 2010) filling the third position. Needing a win to reclaim his record, Rutter took the top prize in the tournament after Jennings, who needed to answer the second day's Final Jeopardy clue correctly to win (after making a sufficient wager), failed to do so. Rutter won the top prize of $1,000,000 while Jennings won the $100,000 second prize. Jennings appeared on "Millionaire" in November 2014 and won $100,000, missing out his opportunity to surpass Rutter's record if he could have won the grand prize. He was then a contestant on the ABC primetime show "500 Questions" in 2016; however, as he only lasted four questions, he was unable to add to his total. Both Jennings and Rutter competed in the "Jeopardy!" All-Star Games in 2019. Under the format of that tournament, teams of three competed in a relay to win a $1,000,000 top prize split between them. Thus, either Jennings or Rutter would be able to add up to $333,333.33 to their total as captain of their respective team if they won. It would not have been enough for Jennings to surpass Rutter. But it was Rutter's team who won the tournament, with Jennings's team finishing second and splitting $300,000.


title: American game show winnings records

text: A month after the "Jeopardy!" All-Star Games came to an end, James Holzhauer became the new "Jeopardy!" champion. The episode, which was broadcast on April 4, 2019, was the first in a 32-game winning streak where he joined Jennings and Rutter as the only contestants in "Jeopardy!" history to win at least $1,000,000 (as of the episode broadcast on April 23) and $2,000,000 (as of the episode broadcast on May 24). He also surpassed Roger Craig's "Jeopardy!" single-day winnings (on multiple occasions), pushing the record to $131,127 on the episode broadcast on April 17. Holzhauer ultimately won $2,464,216 during his "Jeopardy!" run, plus an additional $250,000 for winning the Tournament of Champions, which combined with his prize of $58,333.33 from his appearance on "The Chase" in 2014, places him third in total game show earnings.


title: American game show winnings records

text: In January 2020, Jennings, Holzhauer and Rutter all were invited back to "Jeopardy!" for "The Greatest of All Time", a special multi-game prime time miniseries on ABC that carried a minimum $250,000 appearance fee and a $1,000,000 top prize. In the series of two-legged ties, in which the first to win three such ties won the competition, Jennings (3) defeated Holzhauer (1) and Rutter (0), to win the top prize and reclaim the overall American game show earnings lead.


title: Ottonian dynasty

text: The Ottonian dynasty () was a Saxon dynasty of German monarchs (919–1024), named after three of its kings and Holy Roman Emperors named Otto, especially its first Emperor Otto I. It is also known as the Saxon dynasty after the family's origin in the German stem duchy of Saxony. The family itself is also sometimes known as the Liudolfings (), after its earliest known member Count Liudolf (d. 866) and one of its most common given names. The Ottonian rulers were successors of the Germanic king Conrad I, who was the only Germanic king to rule in East Francia after the Carolingian dynasty and before this dynasty.


title: Ottonian dynasty

text: The Ottonians are associated with the notable military success that transformed the political situation in contemporary Western Europe: "It was the success of the Ottonians in molding the raw materials bequeathed to them into a formidable military machine that made possible the establishment of Germany as the preeminent kingdom in Europe from the tenth through the mid-thirteenth century." They are also associated with a notable cultural movement (especially new literary traditions) known as the Ottonian Renaissance.


title: Ottonian dynasty

text: After the end of Ottonian rule in 1024, the Salian dynasty went on to occupy the Imperial throne for just over a century, until 1125.


title: Ottonian dynasty

text: In the 9th century, the Saxon count Liudolf held large estates on the Leine river west of the Harz mountain range and in the adjacent Eichsfeld territory of Thuringia. His ancestors probably acted as "ministeriales" in the Saxon stem duchy, which had been incorporated into the Carolingian Empire after the Saxon Wars of Charlemagne. Liudolf married Oda, a member of the Frankish House of Billung. About 852 the couple together with Bishop Altfrid of Hildesheim founded Brunshausen Abbey, which, once relocated to Gandersheim, rose to a family monastery and burial ground.


title: Ottonian dynasty

text: Liudolf already held the high social position of a Saxon "dux", documented by the marriage of his daughter Liutgard with Louis the Younger, son of the Carolingian king Louis the German in 869. Liudolf's sons Bruno and Otto the Illustrious ruled over large parts of Saxon Eastphalia, moreover, Otto acted as lay abbot of the Imperial abbey of Hersfeld with large estates in Thuringia. He married Hedwiga, a daughter of the Babenberg duke Henry of Franconia. Otto possibly accompanied King Arnulf on his 894 campaign to Italy; the marriage of his daughter Oda with Zwentibold, Arnulf's illegitimate son, documents the efforts of the Carolingian ruler to win the mighty Saxon dynasty over as an ally. According to the Saxon chronicler Widukind of Corvey, Otto upon the death of the last Carolingian king Louis the Child in 911 was already a candidate for the East Frankish crown, which however passed to the Franconian duke Conrad I.


title: Ottonian dynasty

text: Upon Otto's death in 912, his son Henry the Fowler succeeded him as Duke of Saxony. Henry had married Matilda of Ringelheim, a descendant of the legendary Saxon ruler Widukind and heiress to extended estates in Westphalia.


title: Ottonian dynasty

text: Although never Emperor, Henry the Fowler was arguably the founder of the imperial dynasty. While East Francia under the rule of the last Carolingian kings was ravaged by Hungarian invasions, he was chosen to be "primus inter pares" among the German dukes. Elected "Rex Francorum" in May 919, Henry abandoned the claim to dominate the whole disintegrating Carolingian Empire and, unlike his predecessor Conrad I, succeeded in gaining the support of the Franconian, Bavarian, Swabian and Lotharingian dukes. In 933 he led a German army to victory over the Hungarian forces at the Battle of Riade and campaigned both the land of the Polabian Slavs and the Duchy of Bohemia. Because he had assimilated so much power through his conquest, he was able to transfer power to his second son Otto I.


title: Ottonian dynasty

text: Otto I, Duke of Saxony upon the death of his father in 936, was elected king within a few weeks. He continued the work of unifying all of the German tribes into a single kingdom, greatly expanding the powers of the king at the expense of the aristocracy. Through strategic marriages and personal appointments, he installed members of his own family in the kingdom's most important duchies. This, however, did not prevent his relatives from entering into civil war: both Otto's brother Duke Henry of Bavaria and his son Duke Liudolf of Swabia revolted against his rule. Otto was able to suppress their uprisings, in consequence, the various dukes, who had previously been co-equals with the king, were reduced to royal subjects under the king's authority. His decisive victory over the Magyars at the Battle of Lechfeld in 955 ended the Hungarian invasions of Europe and secured his hold over his kingdom.


title: Ottonian dynasty

text: The defeat of the pagan Magyars earned King Otto the reputation as the savior of Christendom and the epithet "the Great". He transformed the Church in Germany into a kind of proprietary church and major royal power base to which he donated charity and for the creation of which his family was responsible. By 961, Otto had conquered the Kingdom of Italy, which was a troublesome inheritance that none wanted, and extended his kingdom's borders to the north, east, and south. In control of much of central and southern Europe, the patronage of Otto and his immediate successors caused a limited cultural renaissance of the arts and architecture. He confirmed the 754 Donation of Pepin and, with recourse to the concept of "translatio imperii" in the succession of Charlemagne, proceeded to Rome to have himself crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope John XII in 962. He even reached a settlement with the Byzantine emperor John I Tzimiskes by marrying his son and heir Otto II to John's niece Theophanu. In 968 he established the Archbishopric of Magdeburg at his long-time residence.


title: Ottonian dynasty

text: Co-ruler with his father since 961 and crowned emperor in 967, Otto II ascended the throne at the age of 18. By excluding the Bavarian line of Ottonians from the line of succession, he strengthened Imperial authority and secured his own son's succession to the Imperial throne. During his reign, Otto II attempted to annex the whole of Italy into the Empire, bringing him into conflict with the Byzantine emperor and with the Saracens of the Fatimid Caliphate. His campaign against the Saracens ended in 982 with a disastrous defeat at the Battle of Stilo. Moreover, in 983 Otto II experienced a Great Slav Rising against his rule.


title: Ottonian dynasty

text: Otto II died in 983 at the age of 28 after a ten-year reign. Succeeded by his three-year-old son Otto III as king, his sudden death plunged the Ottonian dynasty into crisis. During her regency for Otto III, the Byzantine princess Theophanu abandoned her late husband's imperialistic policy and devoted herself entirely to furthering her own agenda in Italy.


title: Ottonian dynasty

text: When Otto III came of age, he concentrated on securing the rule in the Italian domains, installing his confidants Bruno of Carinthia and Gerbert of Aurillac as Popes. In 1000 he made a pilgrimage to the Congress of Gniezno in Poland, establishing the Archdiocese of Gniezno and confirming the royal status of the Piast ruler Bolesław I the Brave. Expelled from Rome in 1001, Otto III died at age 21 the next year, without an opportunity to reconquer the city.


title: Ottonian dynasty

text: The childless Otto III was succeeded by Henry II, a son of Duke Henry II of Bavaria and his wife Gisela of Burgundy, thereby a member of the Bavarian line of the Ottonians. Duke of Bavaria since 995, he was crowned king on 7 June 1002. Henry II spent the first years of his rule consolidating his political power on the borders of the German kingdom. He waged several campaigns against Bolesław I of Poland and then moved successfully to Italy where he was crowned emperor by Pope Benedict VIII on 14 February 1014. He reinforced his rule by endowing and founding numerous dioceses, such as the Bishopric of Bamberg in 1007, intertwining the secular and ecclesiastical authority over the Empire. Henry II was canonized by Pope Eugene III in 1146.


title: Ottonian dynasty

text: As his marriage with Cunigunde of Luxembourg remained childless, the Ottonian dynasty became extinct with the death of Henry II in 1024. The crown passed to Conrad II of the Salian dynasty, great-grandson of Liutgarde, a daughter of Otto I, and the Salian duke Conrad the Red of Lorraine. When King Rudolph III of Burgundy died without heirs on 2 February 1032, Conrad II successfully claimed also this kingship on the basis of an inheritance Emperor Henry II had extorted from the former in 1006, having invaded Burgundy to enforce his claim after Rudolph attempted to renounce it in 1016.


title: Ottonian dynasty

text: Historians have written extensively about how the Ottonian kings and emperors ruled their lands. For some historians, following in the wake of Karl Leyser, Ottonian government was primarily conducted through oral and ritual means, in which the written word took a back seat. Other historians, such as David Bachrach, have argued strongly for the continuing use of writing in administering the Ottonians' far-flung lands. Attention has recently focused on how the rulers took advantage of their royal estates, known as the fisc.


title: Ridge Racer

text: "Ridge Racer" is a spiritual successor to "Sim Drive" (1992), a racing simulation game met with a limited release in Japanese arcades. Originally meant as an F1 racing game, similar to Namco's own "Pole Position" and "Final Lap" series, it was instead replaced with racing on mountain roads, a popular trend for Japanese car enthusiasts at the time. The PlayStation version was a launch title for the console and an astounding success for Namco, prompting the creation of several sequels for arcades and home platforms. After Namco merged with Bandai in 2005, the series would become exclusive to consoles and later mobile phones. Several games in the franchise were released as launch titles for consoles.


title: Ridge Racer

text: Earlier "Ridge Racer" games received critical acclaim for their graphics, gameplay, and musical score, many citing it as a contributing factor to the success of the PlayStation in its early years. Later entries were criticized for straying too far from the source material and lack of content, with "Ridge Racer Vita" (2011) being listed among the worst video games ever made. The series is considered influential to the racing game genre.


title: Ridge Racer

text: The basic gameplay of the "Ridge Racer" series has remained relatively consistent throughout each installment. The objective is to race against computer-controlled opponents to finish each track in first place — the player begins the game in last place, and have a limited number of laps around the track to complete where they can overtake opponents. Some entries have a time limit that the player must race against, with each completed lap extending the timer; if the timer reaches zero, the game ends regardless of which lap the player was on. Later entries remove the timer and instead requires the player to finish the race in a minimum-assigned place to advance to the next course.


title: Ridge Racer

text: Unlike other racing games, which usually feature closed circuits, "Ridge Racer" instead has races laid out on streets, beaches, cities and mountains, taking place in the fictional coastal metropolis "Ridge City" — circuit tracks are included in some entries. Nearly every entry in the series features the original tracks from "Ridge Racer" and "Ridge Racer 2", sometimes modified to accompany for certain mechanics. Players can drift their car around corners to maintain speed, as most of the tracks were based on real-world locations that were not intended for race speeds. "Ridge Racer Unbounded" (2012) removes the drifting mechanic in favor of vehicular combat, similar to the "Burnout" franchise.


title: Ridge Racer

text: The playable cars each have their own stats and mechanics, such as a faster speed or improved drifting. Many of these are also named after older Namco video games, including "Dig Dug", "Xevious", "NebulasRay", "Rolling Thunder", "Bosconian" and "Solvalou". The PlayStation sequel "" introduces the concept of racing teams for the series, all being named after "Dig Dug", "Mappy", "Pac-Man", "Xevious" and "Galaga". Similar to Namco's own "Tekken" series, several games feature classic Namco arcade games as short minigames that play during loading screens, a mechanic that was later trademarked by Namco — the PlayStation home port of the original "Ridge Racer" features "Galaxian", while "Ridge Racers" features "New Rally-X". Completing these minigames will award the player with new tracks or cars, sometimes unlocking a full emulated version of the minigame to play.


title: Ridge Racer

text: Starting with "Rage Racer", each game offers cars with fictional automakers and model names. Certain manufacturers specialize in a particular component of their cars' performance, such as top speed, grip, and acceleration:


title: Ridge Racer

text: The original "Ridge Racer" was very well received by critics for its 3D graphics, audio, and the drifting mechanics. It also received an admirable port to the PlayStation, where it became one of the best selling titles in the console's early lifetime. It is also considered as playing a part in giving Sony's system an edge over rival Sega's Saturn during 1994–1995.


title: Ridge Racer

text: Its sequels during the 1990s were also highly successful, in particular "Ridge Racer Type 4", often considered the series' best. Its sequel "Ridge Racer V" received more mediocre reviews, but the subsequent PSP title achieved very high praise. The series' 'idol' mascot Reiko Nagase, who has appeared in most games since 1996's "Rage Racer", has often been rated among the most recognizable female characters in video games.


title: Ridge Racer

text: In 1999, "Next Generation" listed the "Ridge Racer" series as number 11 on their "Top 50 Games of All Time", commenting that "there are certainly better car simulations, but when it comes to fun, "Ridge Racer", the game that helped make PlayStation cool, is the one we come back to".


title: Ridge Racer

text: 2006's "Ridge Racer 7" is considered to have been the series' peak before declining in popularity - the Vita title was negatively received for various reasons, whilst the latest console game, "Ridge Racer Unbounded", was marked with a departure from the drifting style and mechanics of what the series is known for, experimenting with a more destructive style similar to the "Burnout" series, although "Ridge Racer 3D", a launch title for the 3DS, was better received compared to "Vita" and "Unbounded". The game was never as popular as its previous main titles and never had a Japanese release either.


title: Hostel Daze

text: Hostel Daze is an Indian Hindi-language comedy-drama streaming television miniseries created by Saurabh Khanna and written by Abhishek Yadav. Directed Raghav Subbu, it stars Adarsh Gourav, Luv, Shubham Gaur, Nikhil Vijay and Ahsaas Channa in lead roles. "Hostel Daze" premiered on Amazon Prime Video on 13 December 2019. The series contains three seasons, with a total of 15 episodes of approximately 30 minutes each. Season 2 premiered on 23rd July 2021 and season 3 premiered on 16th November 2022.


title: Hostel Daze

text: The series follows four hostel friends in their first year: Jhantoo (Nikhil Vijay), Chirag (Luv), and Jaat (Shubham Gaur) are new students in campus and become roommates.


title: Hostel Daze

text: Jessica Xalxo, writing for RollingStone India observed: "Instead of confronting the very real issues that students are faced with, Hostel Daze trivializes them to the point of tradition, normalization and acceptance. And in its portrayal of the truth lies an endorsement that feels both endemic and dangerous, beyond the trappings of the genre."


title: RBS 15

text: The RBS 15 (Robotsystem 15) is a long-range fire-and-forget surface-to-surface and air-to-surface anti-ship missile. The later version Mk. III has the ability to attack land targets as well. The missile was developed by the Swedish company Saab Bofors Dynamics.


title: RBS 15

text: The Swedish Navy earlier made the RB 08 anti-ship missiles with the Halland-class destroyers in the early 1960s. The main effect of Sweden's defence resolution of 1958 for the Swedish navy was restructuring into a lighter force consisting of fast attack craft (FAC) vessels and a halt to destroyer procurement. This posed a problem as the existing RB 08 missile required launch rails and a missile magazine in the destroyers, taking up space that was not available in smaller ships. Adding to the problems, each missile had to be individually prepared for launch and only two missiles could be on the launch rails at the same time. In comparison, the P-15 Termit (NATO codename Styx) missile used by the Soviet Union from the late 1950s (which was the expected adversary of RBS 15) stored the missiles in individual containers on deck with the missiles immediately available for launch. Tests were carried out on Plejad class FACs with a single bow-mounted RB 08 in the late 1960s, but they came to nothing.


title: RBS 15

text: Saab's next attempt at anti-ship missiles to equip the Norrköping class FACs of the Swedish navy was in 1978 under the project name "RB 04 Turbo", a development of the air force RB 04E missile with a turbofan engine, changed wing configuration and start rockets to take off from land. The initial proposal was rejected as inferior to the Harpoon missile. The project, under the leadership of Hans Ahlinder, then worked out a proposal for a missile with greater capabilities than the Harpoon, and superior performance to the American missile. To indicate that it was a new weapon the project name was changed from "RB 04 Turbo" to "RBS 15".


title: RBS 15

text: The first weapon contract was signed in 1979; at the last minute the Swedish government did not buy the Harpoon anti-ship missile, opting for an indigenous design. The first missiles were delivered to the Navy in June 1984, and the ship version RBS 15 Mk. I was introduced.


title: RBS 15

text: The Swedish Navy ordered the missile in 1984 to develop a coastal defense version of the RBS 15F. The missile was taken into Swedish Navy service as the 'Rb 15 by the Swedish Navy and became operational in 1985. The Swedish Air Force received their missiles a couple of years later. The original RBS 15 Mk. I was produced from 1985 to 1990.


title: RBS 15

text: Work on a further developed version, the RBS 15 Mk. II, began in the early 1980s, but it took until 1994 to get a development contract for the upgraded anti-ship missile. The Mk. II has the same range (70+ km), but the mid-course and terminal guidance system, as well as the radar and IR signature were upgraded. The Mk. II has been produced since 1998.