title: Judgment Day (2002)

text: Trish Stratus concluded her feud with Stacy Keibler after defeating Keibler in the bra and panties match on the May 25 episode of "Velocity". She was then challenged by a returning Molly Holly, who returned with a drastic attitude change and new look. Holly's return took place on April 1, when she attacked Stratus. On the June 3 episode of "Raw", Stratus successfully defended the WWE Women's Championship against Terri Runnels in a lingerie match. Holly then appeared to the ring with brass knuckles only for Stratus to nail her in the head with the title belt then took her undergarments off and threw them in Holly's face. The following week on "Raw", after Holly defeated Stratus in a non-title match, she took Stratus's undergarments and choked her out with it. At King of the Ring, Stratus lost the match and the title to Holly after Holly executed a belly to belly suplex and pinned her with a handful of tights for leverage.


title: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1

text: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 (A/H5N1) is a subtype of the influenza A virus which can cause illness in humans and many other animal species. A bird-adapted strain of H5N1, called HPAI A(H5N1) for highly pathogenic avian influenza virus of type A of subtype H5N1, is the highly pathogenic causative agent of H5N1 flu, commonly known as avian influenza ("bird flu"). It is enzootic (maintained in the population) in many bird populations, especially in Southeast Asia. One strain of HPAI A(H5N1) is spreading globally after first appearing in Asia. It is epizootic (an epidemic in nonhumans) and panzootic (affecting animals of many species, especially over a wide area), killing tens of millions of birds and spurring the culling of hundreds of millions of others to stem its spread. Many references to "bird flu" and H5N1 in the popular media refer to this strain.


title: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1

text: According to the World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, H5N1 pathogenicity is gradually continuing to rise in endemic areas, but the avian influenza disease situation in farmed birds is being held in check by vaccination, and there is "no evidence of sustained human-to-human transmission" of the virus. Eleven outbreaks of H5N1 were reported worldwide in June 2008, in five countries (China, Egypt, Indonesia, Pakistan and Vietnam) compared to 65 outbreaks in June 2006, and 55 in June 2007. The global HPAI situation significantly improved in the first half of 2008, but the FAO reports that imperfect disease surveillance systems mean that occurrence of the virus remains underestimated and underreported. As of May 2020, the WHO reported a total of 861 confirmed human cases which resulted in the deaths of 455 people since 2003.


title: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1

text: Several H5N1 vaccines have been developed and approved, and stockpiled by a number of countries, including the United States (in its National Stockpile), Britain, France, Canada, and Australia, for use in an emergency.


title: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1

text: Research has shown that a highly contagious strain of H5N1, one that might allow airborne transmission between mammals, can be reached in only a few mutations, raising concerns about a pandemic and bioterrorism.


title: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1

text: HPAI A(H5N1) is considered an avian disease, although there is some evidence of limited human-to-human transmission of the virus. A risk factor for contracting the virus is handling of infected poultry, but transmission of the virus from infected birds to humans has been characterized as inefficient. Still, around 60% of humans known to have been infected with the Asian strain of HPAI A(H5N1) have died from it, and H5N1 may mutate or reassort into a strain capable of efficient human-to-human transmission. In 2003, world-renowned virologist Robert G. Webster published an article titled "The world is teetering on the edge of a pandemic that could kill a large fraction of the human population" in "American Scientist". He called for adequate resources to fight what he sees as a major world threat to possibly billions of lives. On September 29, 2005, David Nabarro, the newly appointed Senior United Nations System Coordinator for Avian and Human Influenza, warned the world that an outbreak of avian influenza could kill anywhere between 5 million and 150 million people. Experts have identified key events (creating new clades, infecting new species, spreading to new areas) marking the progression of an avian flu virus towards becoming pandemic, and many of those key events have occurred more rapidly than expected.


title: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1

text: Due to the high lethality and virulence of HPAI A(H5N1), its endemic presence, its increasingly large host reservoir, and its significant ongoing mutations, in 2006, the H5N1 virus has been regarded to be the world's largest pandemic threat, and billions of dollars are being spent researching H5N1 and preparing for a potential influenza pandemic. At least 12 companies and 17 governments are developing prepandemic influenza vaccines in 28 different clinical trials that, if successful, could turn a deadly pandemic infection into a nondeadly one. Full-scale production of a vaccine that could prevent any illness at all from the strain would require at least three months after the virus's emergence to begin, but it is hoped that vaccine production could increase until one billion doses were produced by one year after the initial identification of the virus.


title: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1

text: H5N1 may cause more than one influenza pandemic, as it is expected to continue mutating in birds regardless of whether humans develop herd immunity to a future pandemic strain. Influenza pandemics from its genetic offspring may include influenza A virus subtypes other than H5N1. While genetic analysis of the H5N1 virus shows that influenza pandemics from its genetic offspring can easily be far more lethal than the Spanish flu pandemic, planning for a future influenza pandemic is based on what can be done and there is no higher Pandemic Severity Index level than a Category 5 pandemic which, roughly speaking, is any pandemic as bad as the Spanish flu or worse; and for which "all" intervention measures are to be used.


title: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1

text: In general, humans who catch a humanized influenza A virus (a human flu virus of type A) usually have symptoms that include fever, cough, sore throat, muscle aches, conjunctivitis, and, in severe cases, breathing problems and pneumonia that may be fatal. The severity of the infection depends in large part on the state of the infected persons' immune systems and whether they had been exposed to the strain before (in which case they would be partially immune). No one knows if these or other symptoms will be the symptoms of a humanized H5N1 flu.


title: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1

text: The avian influenza hemagglutinin binds alpha 2-3 sialic acid receptors, while human influenza hemagglutinins bind alpha 2-6 sialic acid receptors. This means when the H5N1 strain infects humans, it will replicate in the lower respiratory tract, and consequently will cause viral pneumonia. There is as yet no human form of H5N1, so all humans who have caught it so far have caught avian H5N1.


title: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1

text: The reported mortality rate of highly pathogenic H5N1 avian influenza in a human is high; WHO data indicate 60% of cases classified as H5N1 resulted in death. However, there is some evidence the actual mortality rate of avian flu could be much lower, as there may be many people with milder symptoms who do not seek treatment and are not counted.


title: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1

text: In one case, a boy with H5N1 experienced diarrhea followed rapidly by a coma without developing respiratory or flu-like symptoms. There have been studies of the levels of cytokines in humans infected by the H5N1 flu virus. Of particular concern is elevated levels of tumor necrosis factor-alpha, a protein associated with tissue destruction at sites of infection and increased production of other cytokines. Flu virus-induced increases in the level of cytokines is also associated with flu symptoms, including fever, chills, vomiting and headache. Tissue damage associated with pathogenic flu virus infection can ultimately result in death. The inflammatory cascade triggered by H5N1 has been called a 'cytokine storm' by some, because of what seems to be a positive feedback process of damage to the body resulting from immune system stimulation. H5N1 induces higher levels of cytokines than the more common flu virus types.


title: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1

text: Clinical signs of H5N1 in birds range from mild—decrease in egg production, nasal discharge, coughing and sneezing—to severe, including loss of coordination, energy, and appetite; soft-shelled or misshapen eggs; purple discoloration of the wattles, head, eyelids, combs, and hocks; and diarrhea. Sometimes the first noticeable sign is sudden death.


title: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1

text: The first known strain of HPAI A(H5N1) (called A/chicken/Scotland/59) killed two flocks of chickens in Scotland in 1959, but that strain was very different from the highly pathogenic strain of H5N1. The dominant strain of HPAI A(H5N1) in 2004 evolved from 1999 to 2002 creating the Z genotype. It has also been called "Asian lineage HPAI A(H5N1)".


title: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1

text: Asian lineage HPAI A(H5N1) is divided into two antigenic clades. "Clade 1 includes human and bird isolates from Vietnam, Thailand, and Cambodia and bird isolates from Laos and Malaysia. Clade 2 viruses were first identified in bird isolates from China, Indonesia, Japan, and South Korea before spreading westward to the Middle East, Europe, and Africa. The clade 2 viruses have been primarily responsible for human H5N1 infections that have occurred during late 2005 and 2006, according to WHO. Genetic analysis has identified six subclades of clade 2, three of which have a distinct geographic distribution and have been implicated in human infections: Map


title: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1

text: A 2007 study focused on the EMA subclade has shed further light on the EMA mutations. "The 36 new isolates reported here greatly expand the amount of whole-genome sequence data available from recent avian influenza (H5N1) isolates. Before our project, GenBank contained only 5 other complete genomes from Europe for the 2004–2006 period, and it contained no whole genomes from the Middle East or northern Africa. Our analysis showed several new findings. First, all European, Middle Eastern, and African samples fall into a clade that is distinct from other contemporary Asian clades, all of which share common ancestry with the original 1997 Hong Kong strain. Phylogenetic trees built on each of the 8 segments show a consistent picture of 3 lineages, as illustrated by the HA tree shown in Figure 1. Two of the clades contain exclusively Vietnamese isolates; the smaller of these, with 5 isolates, we label V1; the larger clade, with 9 isolates, is V2. The remaining 22 isolates all fall into a third, clearly distinct clade, labeled EMA, which comprises samples from Europe, the Middle East, and Africa. Trees for the other 7 segments display a similar topology, with clades V1, V2, and EMA clearly separated in each case. Analyses of all available complete influenza (H5N1) genomes and of 589 HA sequences placed the EMA clade as distinct from the major clades circulating in People's Republic of China, Indonesia, and Southeast Asia."


title: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1

text: H5N1 isolates are identified like this actual HPAI A(H5N1) example, A/chicken/Nakorn-Patom/Thailand/CU-K2/04(H5N1):


title: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1

text: Other examples include: A/duck/Hong Kong/308/78(H5N3), A/avian/NY/01(H5N2), A/chicken/Mexico/31381-3/94(H5N2), and A/shoveler/Egypt/03(H5N2).


title: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1

text: As with other avian flu viruses, H5N1 has strains called "highly pathogenic" (HP) and "low-pathogenic" (LP). Avian influenza viruses that cause HPAI are highly virulent, and mortality rates in infected flocks often approach 100%. LPAI viruses have negligible virulence, but these viruses can serve as progenitors to HPAI viruses. The strain of H5N1 responsible for the deaths of birds across the world is an HPAI strain; all other strains of H5N1, including a North American strain that causes no disease at all in any species, are LPAI strains. All HPAI strains identified to date have involved H5 and H7 subtypes. The distinction concerns pathogenicity in poultry, not humans. Normally, a highly pathogenic avian virus is not highly pathogenic to either humans or nonpoultry birds. This deadly strain of H5N1 is unusual in being deadly to so many species, including some, like domestic cats, never previously susceptible to any influenza virus.


title: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1

text: H5N1 is a subtype of the species "Influenza A virus" of the genus "Alphainfluenzavirus" of the family "Orthomyxoviridae". Like all other influenza A subtypes, the H5N1 subtype is an RNA virus. It has a segmented genome of eight negative sense, single-strands of RNA, abbreviated as PB2, PB1, PA, HA, NP, NA, MP and NS.


title: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1

text: HA codes for hemagglutinin, an antigenic glycoprotein found on the surface of the influenza viruses and is responsible for binding the virus to the cell that is being infected. NA codes for neuraminidase, an antigenic glycosylated enzyme found on the surface of the influenza viruses. It facilitates the release of progeny viruses from infected cells.


title: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1

text: The hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) RNA strands specify the structure of proteins that are most medically relevant as targets for antiviral drugs and antibodies. HA and NA are also used as the basis for the naming of the different subtypes of influenza A viruses. This is where the "H" and "N" come from in "H5N1".


title: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1

text: Influenza A viruses are significant for their potential for disease and death in humans and other animals. Influenza A virus subtypes that have been confirmed in humans, in order of the number of known human pandemic deaths that they have caused, include:


title: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1

text: Low pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 (LPAI H5N1) also called "North American" H5N1 commonly occurs in wild birds. In most cases, it causes minor sickness or no noticeable signs of disease in birds. It is not known to affect humans at all. The only concern about it is that it is possible for it to be transmitted to poultry and in poultry mutate into a highly pathogenic strain.


title: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1

text: "In the past, there was no requirement for reporting or tracking LPAI H5 or H7 detections in wild birds so states and universities tested wild bird samples independently of USDA. Because of this, the above list of previous detections might not be all inclusive of past LPAI H5N1 detections. However, the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) recently changed its requirement of reporting detections of avian influenza. Effective in 2006, all confirmed LPAI H5 and H7 AI subtypes must be reported to the OIE because of their potential to mutate into highly pathogenic strains. Therefore, USDA now tracks these detections in wild birds, backyard flocks, commercial flocks and live bird markets."


title: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1

text: Influenza viruses have a relatively high mutation rate that is characteristic of RNA viruses. The segmentation of its genome facilitates genetic recombination by segment reassortment in hosts infected with two different strains of influenza viruses at the same time. A previously uncontagious strain may then be able to pass between humans, one of several possible paths to a pandemic.


title: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1

text: The ability of various influenza strains to show species-selectivity is largely due to variation in the hemagglutinin genes. Genetic mutations in the hemagglutinin gene that cause single amino acid substitutions can significantly alter the ability of viral hemagglutinin proteins to bind to receptors on the surface of host cells. Such mutations in avian H5N1 viruses can change virus strains from being inefficient at infecting human cells to being as efficient in causing human infections as more common human influenza virus types. This doesn't mean that one amino acid substitution can cause a pandemic, but it does mean that one amino acid substitution can cause an avian flu virus that is not pathogenic in humans to become pathogenic in humans.


title: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1

text: Influenza A virus subtype H3N2 is endemic in pigs in China, and has been detected in pigs in Vietnam, increasing fears of the emergence of new variant strains. The dominant strain of annual flu virus in January 2006 was H3N2, which is now resistant to the standard antiviral drugs amantadine and rimantadine. The possibility of H5N1 and H3N2 exchanging genes through reassortment is a major concern. If a reassortment in H5N1 occurs, it might remain an H5N1 subtype, or it could shift subtypes, as H2N2 did when it evolved into the Hong Kong Flu strain of H3N2.


title: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1

text: Both the H2N2 and H3N2 pandemic strains contained avian influenza virus RNA segments. "While the pandemic human influenza viruses of 1957 (H2N2) and 1968 (H3N2) clearly arose through reassortment between human and avian viruses, the influenza virus causing the 'Spanish flu' in 1918 appears to be entirely derived from an avian source".


title: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1

text: There are several H5N1 vaccines for several of the avian H5N1 varieties, but the continual mutation of H5N1 renders them of limited use to date: while vaccines can sometimes provide cross-protection against related flu strains, the best protection would be from a vaccine specifically produced for any future pandemic flu virus strain. Daniel R. Lucey, co-director of the Biohazardous Threats and Emerging Diseases graduate program at Georgetown University has made this point, "There is no H5N1 pandemic so there can be no pandemic vaccine". However, "pre-pandemic vaccines" have been created; are being refined and tested; and do have some promise both in furthering research and preparedness for the next pandemic. Vaccine manufacturing companies are being encouraged to increase capacity so that if a pandemic vaccine is needed, facilities will be available for rapid production of large amounts of a vaccine specific to a new pandemic strain.


title: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1

text: "The United States is collaborating closely with eight international organizations, including the World Health Organization (WHO), the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE), and 88 foreign governments to address the situation through planning, greater monitoring, and full transparency in reporting and investigating avian influenza occurrences. The United States and these international partners have led global efforts to encourage countries to heighten surveillance for outbreaks in poultry and significant numbers of deaths in migratory birds and to rapidly introduce containment measures. The U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) and the U.S. Department of State, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), and Agriculture (USDA) are coordinating future international response measures on behalf of the White House with departments and agencies across the federal government".


title: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1

text: Together steps are being taken to "minimize the risk of further spread in animal populations", "reduce the risk of human infections", and "further support pandemic planning and preparedness".


title: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1

text: Ongoing detailed mutually coordinated onsite surveillance and analysis of human and animal H5N1 avian flu outbreaks are being conducted and reported by the USGS National Wildlife Health Center, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the World Health Organization, the European Commission, and others.


title: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1

text: There is no highly effective treatment for H5N1 flu, but oseltamivir (commercially marketed by Roche as Tamiflu), can sometimes inhibit the influenza virus from spreading inside the user's body. This drug has become a focus for some governments and organizations trying to prepare for a possible H5N1 pandemic. On April 20, 2006, Roche AG announced that a stockpile of three million treatment courses of Tamiflu are waiting at the disposal of the World Health Organization to be used in case of a flu pandemic; separately Roche donated two million courses to the WHO for use in developing nations that may be affected by such a pandemic but lack the ability to purchase large quantities of the drug.


title: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1

text: Animal and lab studies suggest that Relenza (zanamivir), which is in the same class of drugs as Tamiflu, may also be effective against H5N1. In a study performed on mice in 2000, "zanamivir was shown to be efficacious in treating avian influenza viruses H9N2, H6N1, and H5N1 transmissible to mammals". In addition, mice studies suggest the combination of zanamivir, celecoxib and mesalazine looks promising producing a 50% survival rate compared to no survival in the placebo arm. While no one knows if zanamivir will be useful or not on a yet to exist pandemic strain of H5N1, it might be useful to stockpile zanamivir as well as oseltamivir in the event of an H5N1 influenza pandemic. Neither oseltamivir nor zanamivir can be manufactured in quantities that would be meaningful once efficient human transmission starts. In September, 2006, a WHO scientist announced that studies had confirmed cases of H5N1 strains resistant to Tamiflu and Amantadine. Tamiflu-resistant strains have also appeared in the EU, which remain sensitive to Relenza.


title: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1

text: The earliest infections of humans by H5N1 coincided with an epizootic (an epidemic in nonhumans) of H5N1 influenza in Hong Kong's poultry population in 1997. This panzootic (a disease affecting animals of many species, especially over a wide area) outbreak was stopped by the killing of the entire domestic poultry population within the territory. However, the disease has continued to spread; outbreaks were reported in Asia again in 2003. On December 21, 2009, the WHO announced a total of 447 cases which resulted in the deaths of 263.


title: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1

text: H5N1 is easily transmissible between birds, facilitating a potential global spread of H5N1. While H5N1 undergoes mutation and reassortment, creating variations which can infect species not previously known to carry the virus, not all of these variant forms can infect humans. H5N1 as an avian virus preferentially binds to a type of galactose receptors that populate the avian respiratory tract from the nose to the lungs and are virtually absent in humans, occurring only in and around the alveoli, structures deep in the lungs where oxygen is passed to the blood. Therefore, the virus is not easily expelled by coughing and sneezing, the usual route of transmission.


title: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1

text: H5N1 is mainly spread by domestic poultry, both through the movements of infected birds and poultry products and through the use of infected poultry manure as fertilizer or feed. Humans with H5N1 have typically caught it from chickens, which were in turn infected by other poultry or waterfowl. Migrating waterfowl (wild ducks, geese and swans) carry H5N1, often without becoming sick. Many species of birds and mammals can be infected with HPAI A(H5N1), but the role of animals other than poultry and waterfowl as disease-spreading hosts is unknown.


title: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1

text: According to a report by the World Health Organization, H5N1 may be spread indirectly. The report stated the virus may sometimes stick to surfaces or get kicked up in fertilizer dust to infect people.


title: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1

text: H5N1 has mutated into a variety of strains with differing pathogenic profiles, some pathogenic to one species but not others, some pathogenic to multiple species. Each specific known genetic variation is traceable to a virus isolate of a specific case of infection. Through antigenic drift, H5N1 has mutated into dozens of highly pathogenic varieties divided into genetic clades which are known from specific isolates, but all belong to genotype Z of avian influenza virus H5N1, now the dominant genotype. H5N1 isolates found in Hong Kong in 1997 and 2001 were not consistently transmitted efficiently among birds and did not cause significant disease in these animals. In 2002, new isolates of H5N1 were appearing within the bird population of Hong Kong. These new isolates caused acute disease, including severe neurological dysfunction and death in ducks. This was the first reported case of lethal influenza virus infection in wild aquatic birds since 1961.


title: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1

text: Genotype Z emerged in 2002 through reassortment from earlier highly pathogenic genotypes of H5N1 that first infected birds in China in 1996, and first infected humans in Hong Kong in 1997. Genotype Z is endemic in birds in Southeast Asia, has created at least two clades that can infect humans, and is spreading across the globe in bird populations. Mutations occurring within this genotype are increasing their pathogenicity. Birds are also able to shed the virus for longer periods of time before their death, increasing the transmissibility of the virus.


title: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1

text: Infected birds transmit H5N1 through their saliva, nasal secretions, feces and blood. Other animals may become infected with the virus through direct contact with these bodily fluids or through contact with surfaces contaminated with them. H5N1 remains infectious after over 30 days at (over one month at freezing temperature) or 6 days at (one week at human body temperature); at ordinary temperatures it lasts in the environment for weeks. In Arctic temperatures, it does not degrade at all.


title: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1

text: Because migratory birds are among the carriers of the highly pathogenic H5N1 virus, it is spreading to all parts of the world. H5N1 is different from all previously known highly pathogenic avian flu viruses in its ability to be spread by animals other than poultry.


title: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1

text: In October 2004, researchers discovered H5N1 is far more dangerous than was previously believed. Waterfowl were revealed to be directly spreading this highly pathogenic strain to chickens, crows, pigeons, and other birds, and the virus was increasing its ability to infect mammals, as well. From this point on, avian flu experts increasingly referred to containment as a strategy that can delay, but not ultimately prevent, a future avian flu pandemic.


title: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1

text: "Since 1997, studies of influenza A (H5N1) indicate that these viruses continue to evolve, with changes in antigenicity and internal gene constellations; an expanded host range in avian species and the ability to infect felids; enhanced pathogenicity in experimentally infected mice and ferrets, in which they cause systemic infections; and increased environmental stability."


title: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1

text: "The New York Times", in an article on transmission of H5N1 through smuggled birds, reports Wade Hagemeijer of Wetlands International stating, "We believe it is spread by both bird migration and trade, but that trade, particularly illegal trade, is more important".


title: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1

text: On September 29, 2007, researchers reported the H5N1 bird flu virus can also pass through a pregnant woman's placenta to infect the fetus. They also found evidence of what doctors had long suspected—the virus not only affects the lungs, but also passes throughout the body into the gastrointestinal tract, the brain, liver, and blood cells.


title: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1

text: In May 2013, North Korea confirmed a H5N1 bird flu outbreak that forced authorities to kill over 160,000 ducks in Pyongyang.


title: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1

text: Over the winter of 2021 and 2022 avian flu spread among the population of barnacle geese on the Solway Firth, UK, with estimates of up to a third of the Svalbard population being lost; pink-footed geese were also affected there and it seems carried the virus to new sites in northern Scotland. The disease was confirmed in sandwich terns in South Africa in April 2022. In late spring 2022 avian flu outbreaks affected many species of wild bird in the United Kingdom, with heavy losses reported among seabirds returning to breed at colonies in the Northern Isles and Outer Hebrides, including great skuas (bonxie) for which outbreaks had initially been reported in 2021 (Scotland hosts c. 60% of the world's breeding population) - the 2022 census on St Kilda showed a 64% decline on 2019 with 106 dead birds recorded so far (to 6 June), gannets (1000+ birds reported dead at the Shetlands' Hermaness colony alone, where there are around 26,000 breeding pairs), with many more gannets being reported dead at other colonies (Troup Head, Bass Rock, and St Kilda); the range of species also seems to be expanding, with reports for many species of wildfowl, seabirds (auks, terns and gulls) and scavenging species (corvids and raptors).


title: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1

text: Elsewhere in Europe the virus killed hundreds (574+) of Dalmatian pelicans in Greece, and in Israel around 6000 common cranes were found dead at Hula in December 2021. A report by Scientific Task Force on Avian Influenza and Wild Birds on: "H5N1 Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza in poultry and wild birds: Winter of 2021/2022 with focus on mass mortality of wild birds in UK and Israel" summarises the situation up to 24 January 2022 and mentions that "H5N8 HPAI is still responsible for poultry and wild bird cases mainly in Asia, H5N1 has now in effect replaced this subtype in Africa and Eurasia in both poultry and wild birds".


title: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1

text: In parallel to above reports, similar outbreaks noted from gannet colonies in Canada, with thousands of birds dead in June 2022, as well as common eiders and great black-backed gulls. Prior to that there were reports of spread in wild birds in over 30 states in the US, including major mortalities in a double-crested cormorant colony in Barrington, Illinois, the virus also spreading to scavengers including three bald eagles in Georgia.


title: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1

text: Novel, contagious strains of H5N1 were created by Ron Fouchier of the Erasmus Medical Center in Rotterdam, the Netherlands, who first presented his work to the public at an influenza conference in Malta in September 2011. Three mutations were introduced into the H5N1 virus genome, and the virus was then passed from the noses of infected ferrets to the noses of uninfected ones, which was repeated 10 times. After these 10 passages the H5N1 virus had acquired the ability of transmission between ferrets via aerosols or respiratory droplets.


title: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1

text: After Fouchier offered an article describing this work to the leading academic journal "Science", the US National Science Advisory Board for Biosecurity (NSABB) recommended against publication of the full details of the study, and the one submitted to Nature by Yoshihiro Kawaoka of the University of Wisconsin describing related work. However, after additional consultations at the World Health Organization and by the NSABB, the NSABB reversed its position and recommended publication of revised versions of the two papers. However, then the Dutch government declared that this type of manuscripts required Fouchier to apply for an export permit in the light of EU directive 428/2009 on dual use goods. After much controversy surrounding the publishing of his research, Fouchier complied (under formal protest) with Dutch government demands to obtain a special permit for submitting his manuscript, and his research appeared in a special issue of the journal "Science" devoted to H5N1. The papers by Fouchier and Kawaoka conclude that it is entirely possible that a natural chain of mutations could lead to an H5N1 virus acquiring the capability of airborne transmission between mammals, and that a H5N1 influenza pandemic would not be impossible.


title: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1

text: In May 2013, it was reported that scientists at the Harbin Veterinary Research Institute in Harbin, China, had created H5N1 strains which passed between guinea pigs.


title: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1

text: In response to Fouchier and Kawaoka's work, a number of scientists expressed concerns with the risks of creating novel potential pandemic pathogens, culminating in the formation of the Cambridge Working Group, a consensus statement calling for an assessment of the risks and benefits of such research.


title: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1

text: H5N1 has had a significant effect on human society, especially the financial, political, social, and personal responses to both actual and predicted deaths in birds, humans, and other animals. Billions of dollars are being raised and spent to research H5N1 and prepare for a potential avian influenza pandemic. Over $10 billion have been spent and over 200 million birds have been killed to try to contain H5N1.


title: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1

text: People have reacted by buying less chicken, causing poultry sales and prices to fall. Many individuals have stockpiled supplies for a possible flu pandemic. International health officials and other experts have pointed out that many unknown questions still hover around the disease.


title: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1

text: Dr. David Nabarro, Chief Avian Flu Coordinator for the United Nations, and former Chief of Crisis Response for the World Health Organization has described himself as "quite scared" about H5N1's potential impact on humans. Nabarro has been accused of being alarmist before, and on his first day in his role for the United Nations, he proclaimed the avian flu could kill 150 million people. In an interview with the International Herald Tribune, Nabarro compares avian flu to AIDS in Africa, warning that underestimations led to inappropriate focus for research and intervention.


title: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1

text: In February 2020 an outbreak of H5N1 avian flu occurred in Shuangqing District of Shaoyang City, in the Hunan province. After poultry had become ill from the virus the city killed close to 18,000 chickens to prevent the spread of the illness. Hunan borders Hubei province where Wuhan is located, the epicenter of the coronavirus pandemic.


title: Seduced: Inside the NXIVM Cult

text: Seduced: Inside the NXIVM Cult is an American true crime documentary miniseries revolving around the cult NXIVM and its leader Keith Raniere, with a focus on the perspective of India Oxenberg, who was an executive producer on the series. It consists of four episodes and premiered on October 18, 2020, on Starz.


title: Seduced: Inside the NXIVM Cult

text: "Seduced: Inside the NXIVM Cult" follows India Oxenberg as she grapples to make sense of her experience within NXIVM, a self-help organization which turned out to be a cult, examining her own culpability and abuse brought on to her by its leader, Keith Raniere, and rebuilds her relationship with her mother, Catherine Oxenberg who desperately fought to rescue her daughter. Naomi Gibson, Debora Giannone, Kelly Thiel, Tabby Chapman, Ashley McClean, and Ana Cecilia, also appear in the series sharing their stories and experiences in the organization.


title: Seduced: Inside the NXIVM Cult

text: The series features interviews with cult experts Janja Lalich, Steve Hassan and Rick Alan Ross, Cult therapist and deprogrammers Rachel Bernstein and Christine Marie Katas, Lawyers and prosecutors for NXIVM including Neil Glazer, Moira Kim Penza, Anne Champion, and Marc Agnifilo, and journalist Jaclyn Cangro.


title: Seduced: Inside the NXIVM Cult

text: India Oxenberg was a former member of NXIVM, a self-help organization located in Albany, New York, run by Keith Raniere, which Oxenberg exited in 2018. Oxenberg initially turned down media requests, but after attending therapy, Oxenberg felt she had to speak out and share her story. Oxenberg met with filmmakers Cecilia Peck and Inbal B. Lessner, who were also recruited by NXIVM, and decided to participate in the project. Oxenberg previously decided not to participate in "The Vow" as she was not ready to share her story, and did not see the project as a competition, nor did Peck and Lessner.


title: Seduced: Inside the NXIVM Cult

text: Peck was targeted for recruitment by a coworker from a previous project, who sent her e-mails informing her of an "incredible women's group" and suggested she meet with Allison Mack. Peck never responded to the e-mails, and a year later received an apology from the recruiter stating: "I’m so sorry. I was in a cult and I didn’t know it." Due to the sensitive subject matter, a fund was created for participants to have access to counseling and therapy services before, during, and after filming.


title: Seduced: Inside the NXIVM Cult

text: In 2021, Marc Elliot sued Starz and Lion's Gate for $12 million, claiming that the show "...[implies] that Elliot supports sexual misconduct against women."


title: Seduced: Inside the NXIVM Cult

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the series holds an approval rating of 100% based on 11 reviews, with an average rating of 7.5/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "With compelling firsthand accounts and plenty of expert insights, Seduced is harrowing account of the startling ease with which a cult can consume a person's life."


title: Polydipsia

text: Polydipsia is excessive thirst or excess drinking. The word derives from the Greek () "very thirsty", which is derived from (, "much, many") + (, "thirst"). Polydipsia is a nonspecific symptom in various medical disorders. It also occurs as an abnormal behaviour in some non-human animals, such as in birds.


title: Polydipsia

text: Polydipsia can be characteristic of diabetes mellitus, often as an initial symptom. It is observed in cases of poorly controlled diabetes, which is sometimes the result of low patient adherence to anti-diabetic medication.


title: Polydipsia

text: Diabetes insipidus ("tasteless" diabetes, as opposed to diabetes mellitus) can also cause polydipsia.


title: Polydipsia

text: It can also be caused by a change in the osmolality of the extracellular fluids of the body, hypokalemia, decreased blood volume (as occurs during major hemorrhage), and other conditions that create a water deficit. This is usually a result of osmotic diuresis.


title: Polydipsia

text: Polydipsia is also a symptom of anticholinergic poisoning. Zinc is also known to reduce symptoms of polydipsia by causing the body to absorb fluids more efficiently (reduction of diarrhea, induces constipation) and it causes the body to retain more sodium; thus a zinc deficiency can be a possible cause. The combination of polydipsia and (nocturnal) polyuria is also seen in (primary) hyperaldosteronism (which often goes with hypokalemia).


title: Polydipsia

text: Primary polydipsia describes excessive thirst and water intake caused in the absence of physiological stimuli to drink. This includes both psychogenic primary polydipsia and non-psychogenic primary polydipsia, such as in patients with autoimmune chronic hepatitis with severely elevated globulin levels.


title: Polydipsia

text: Psychogenic polydipsia is an excessive water intake seen in some patients with mental illnesses such as schizophrenia, or with developmental disabilities. It should be taken very seriously, as the amount of water ingested exceeds the amount that can be excreted by the kidneys, and can on rare occasions be life-threatening as the body's serum sodium level is diluted to an extent that seizures and cardiac arrest can occur.


title: Polydipsia

text: While psychogenic polydipsia is generally not found outside the population of serious mental disorders, there is some anecdotal evidence of a milder form (typically called 'habit polydipsia' or 'habit drinking') that can be found in the absence of psychosis or other mental conditions. The excessive levels of fluid intake may result in a false diagnosis of diabetes insipidus, since the chronic ingestion of excessive water can produce diagnostic results that closely mimic those of mild diabetes insipidus. As discussed in the entry on diabetes insipidus, "Habit drinking (in its severest form termed psychogenic polydipsia) is the most common imitator of diabetes insipidus at all ages. While many adult cases in the medical literature are associated with mental disorders, most patients with habit polydipsia have no other detectable disease. The distinction is made during the water deprivation test, as some degree of urinary concentration above isosmolar is usually obtained before the patient becomes dehydrated." However, prior to a water deprivation test, consideration should be given to a psychiatric consult to see whether it is possible to rule out psychogenic polydipsia or habit polydipsia.


title: Polydipsia

text: Polydipsia is a symptom (evidence of a disease state), not a disease in itself. As it is often accompanied by polyuria (excessive urination) and low sodium levels. Investigations directed at diagnosing diabetes insipidus and diabetes mellitus can be useful. Blood serum tests can also provide useful information about the osmolality of the body's extracellular fluids. A decrease in osmolality caused by excess water intake will decrease the serum concentration of red blood cells, blood urea nitrogen (BUN), and sodium.


Beauty and the Beast: The Enchanted Christmas is a 1997 direct-to-video animated Christmas musical fantasy film produced by Walt Disney Television Animation. It is a follow-up to the 1991 Disney animated film "Beauty and the Beast". The film sold 7.6million VHS tapes in 1997. This is the first of two sequels to "Beauty and the Beast" that were released, with the other being "Belle's Magical World" (1998).


title: Beauty and the Beast: The Enchanted Christmas

text: A Christmas party is held at the Beast's castle sometime after the enchantress's spell is broken, attended by almost the entire village. While reminiscing about the previous year's Christmas, Lumiere and Cogsworth get into an argument over who "saved" Christmas, prompting Mrs. Potts to tell the story.


text: One year ago, not long after the Beast saved Belle from the wolves, Belle anticipates the coming Christmas season, as do the other servants, though they reveal that the Prince is against the season since that’s when he was transformed into a Beast and the enchanted rose was put under the bell jar on Christmas Eve. To lighten his spirit, Belle teaches the Beast how to ice skate. They are observed from the West Wing by Forte, a pipe organ who was formerly the Prince's court composer and does not want the spell to break (meaning he never wanted to be human again) as he is of more use in his enchanted form. He sends his piccolo minion, Fife, to sabotage their newfound friendship, causing Belle and the Beast to crash into the snow. Then, when Belle makes a snow angel, the Beast sees his snow figure as a shadow of a monster. He roars, thrashes the snow and storms off in a fit of rage. As Fife claims that Forte will be proud of him, the Beast stomps back into his castle in fury and depression.


text: Despite the Beast's misgivings, Belle decides to celebrate Christmas without his consent, though the Beast gradually opens up to the idea with advice from Lumiere. Belle meets Forte in the West Wing and he suggests that she venture into the forest to find a Christmas tree, but he secretly tells the Beast that Belle is abandoning him. Forte then continues to manipulate the Beast (under his mind control) into a rage, destroying the Christmas decorations in the dining room and storming off outside to look for Belle. Angelique cries because Forte's mindless slave had destroyed everything, thinking it's hopeless. Belle and a few more servants find and chop the tree down, but Belle falls through thin ice and almost drowns. The Beast intervenes and saves her in time, though he locks her in the dungeon for supposedly breaking her promise not to leave.


text: As Belle is comforted inside the dungeon by the servants and Fife, who felt guilty for what happened. Forte tempts the Beast to destroy the rose when a petal flutters beside the storybook present Belle left him. The Beast then has a change of heart after reading it and ignoring Forte's plea, frees Belle, giving his consent to celebrate his Christmas. Powerless to prevent the inevitable, thinking that when human again he would once more fade into the background, Forte, in a lasting attempt, attempts to use his powers to bring the castle down, thinking that they can't fall in love if they're dead. Fife confronts Forte and it is revealed that the solo Forte promised him was all along blank, even going as far as to tell him that he's second rate and that's all he'll ever be. Beast then storms up to confront Forte, but by then unreasonable to obey him. Belle and the others reach the West Wing where Lumiere, Cogsworth and Angelique try to save the rose, while Belle joins the Beast in confronting Forte. Fife points to the Beast's Forte's keyboard where he clambers up and pulls it away, removing Forte's magic abilities. The Beast violently smashes Forte's keyboard. Forte then tries to pull away from the wall, causing him to come crashing down into the floor, killing him while Belle comforts the devastated Beast. Soon after, the castle is repaired, Fife receives a royal pardon, and Christmas is celebrated.


text: Back in the present, Mrs. Potts concludes that it was Belle who saved Christmas. Belle and the Prince enter the court to greet their guests, presenting Chip with a storybook as a present. As Fife, now the new court composer, leads the orchestra, the Prince and Belle share a moment on the balcony, where he gives her a rose as a gift.


text: In the wake of the success of "The Return of Jafar" (1994), The Walt Disney Company opened the Walt Disney Animation Canada studios in January 1996 to produce direct-to-video and potential theatrical films, as well as utilize the talent pool of Canadian animators. With 200 animators hired, Disney Animation Canada had two separate animation facilities in Toronto and Vancouver which were supervised by Joan Fischer, a former Canadian public television executive. Their first project was "Beauty and the Beast: The Enchanted Christmas", which went into pre-production later that spring. Additional animation work was done by Walt Disney Television Animation Australia, Wang Film Productions Co., Ltd. located in Xindian District, Taipei, Taiwan, and Character Builders. It was Disney's first direct-to-video animated film to use digital ink and paint.


text: Initially, the film was going to be a direct sequel to the original film with the main villain slated to be Avenant, here depicted as Gaston's younger brother. Avenant's goal was to avenge Gaston by ruining the lives of Belle and the prince and threatening to kill them, reportedly using sorcery to transform the prince back into a Beast and frame Belle for it. Although he was cut out of the story and the plot had changed, these traits were incorporated into Forte, the pipe organ, who did not want the Beast to become human again. Unlike the other characters, Forte was animated entirely by computers.


text: Incidentally, the antagonist's name "Avenant" was taken from the French 1946 live action black and white film "Beauty and the Beast" ("La Belle et la Bête"), being the name of the antagonist of its film. The film is one of the first and most popular adaptations of the story, and have been the most influential on future adaptations, including the original Disney film whose antagonist, Gaston, in fact, was himself inspired by Avenant.


text: The film was first released on VHS and LaserDisc in the United States and Canada on November 11, 1997. A bare-bones DVD was released on October 13, 1998. Both editions were quickly taken out of print, and the film remained unavailable until Disney released the Special Edition DVD and VHS on November 12, 2002, just a month after the studio released the original film's Platinum Edition DVD and VHS release. The new DVD featured a remake music video of the song "As Long As There's Christmas" by Play. Also featured was a game titled Forte's Challenge, a 10-minute behind-the-scenes featurette, Disney Song Selection, and Enchanted Environment, where it shows the Beast's Castle during the different seasons. The original film's Platinum Edition and this film's Special Edition were taken out of print at the same time in January 2003.


text: The film was released on Blu-ray on November 22, 2011, following the release of the Diamond Edition of the first film on October 5, 2010. In Australia, the film was released on Region 4 DVD on November 3, 2011 with the same features as the original "Beauty and the Beast: The Enchanted Christmas" DVD. The Blu-ray release was placed into the Disney Vault along with the other two films.


text: The film was re-released by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment on a Blu-ray combo pack on October 25, 2016 — a little over one month after the first film's 25th anniversary Signature Edition was released.


text: Review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported that the film has "rotten" approval rating with an average rating of 4.1/10, based on reviews.


text: Ty Burr, reviewing for "Entertainment Weekly", graded the film a C−, concluding in his review, "All in all, a pretty soggy Christmas fruitcake. Will your kids eat it up? Sure, and that makes "Enchanted Christmas" worth a rental. But Disney really wants you to put this sucker in your permanent collection. And next to "Beauty and the Beast" — still the company's crown jewel — "Christmas" looks like a lump of coal."


text: A soundtrack was released on September 9, 1997. The original score and songs were composed by Rachel Portman with lyrics written by Don Black. The film's songs were recorded "live" with an orchestra and the cast in a room, similar to the first film.


text: "Stories", sung by Paige O'Hara, is about what Belle will give the Beast for a Christmas: a story book, and is heavily based on the motif in the finale of Jean Sibelius' symphony no. 5. "As Long As There's Christmas", the theme of the film, is about finding hope during Christmas Time. The song was sung by the cast of the film with a back-up chorus and is sung when Belle and the enchanted objects redecorate the castle for Christmas. "Don't Fall In Love", sung by Tim Curry, displays Forte's plan on keeping the Beast away from Belle to stop the spell from breaking. "A Cut Above The Rest", also sung by the cast, is about how teamwork and friends are very important in life.


text: "Deck The Halls" is performed during the opening title by Jerry Orbach, David Ogden Stiers, Bernadette Peters, and the Chorus. Tracks 8 to 15 also act as a Christmas album of traditional carols sung by Paige O'Hara.


title: Bocchi the Rock!

text: is the center band in the series, based in STARRY, a live house in Shimokitazawa. The members' family names are derived from the real-life J-Rock band Asian Kung-Fu Generation, with their instrumental roles matching as well (for example, the Yamada of both bands play bass).


title: Bocchi the Rock!

text: SICK HACK is a psychedelic rock band, based in FOLT, a live house in Shinjuku. The members share their last names with those of the real-life band 88Kasyo Junrei.


title: Bocchi the Rock!

text: SIDEROS is a metal band, based in FOLT, a live house in Shinjuku. The members share their last names with those of the real-life band Kinniku Shōjo Tai.


title: Bocchi the Rock!

text: "Bocchi the Rock!" is written and illustrated by Aki Hamaji. It was initially serialized on Houbunsha's "Manga Time Kirara Max" magazine on December 19, 2017, as a guest work. A full serialization started in the same magazine on March 19, 2018. It has been collected into five "tankōbon" volumes as of November 26, 2022.


title: Bocchi the Rock!

text: An anime television series adaptation was announced on February 18, 2021. It is produced by CloverWorks and directed by Keiichirō Saitō, with Yūsuke Yamamoto serving as assistant director, Erika Yoshida writing the series' scripts, Kerorira designing the characters, and Tomoki Kikuya composing the music. The series premiered on October 9, 2022, on Tokyo MX and other networks. Kessoku Band performed the opening theme , as well as the ending theme "Distortion!!". Crunchyroll licensed the series outside of Asia. Plus Media Networks Asia licensed the series in Southeast Asia and is releasing it on Aniplus Asia and Bilibili.


title: Hanford, California

text: Hanford is a city and county seat of Kings County, California, located in the San Joaquin Valley region of the greater Central Valley. The population was 53,967 at the 2010 census.


title: Hanford, California

text: Today's Hanford was once north of Tulare Lake, historically the largest body of fresh water west of the Mississippi River. The area was inhabited by the Tachi Yokuts Indians for several thousand years prior to Euro-American contact. They occupied locations along watercourses such as creeks, springs and seep areas (such as sloughs), along perennial and seasonal drainages, as well as flat ridges and terraces.


title: Hanford, California

text: Since the annexation of California after the Mexican-American War, the locality was settled by Americans and immigrants as farmland, broadly referred to as "Mussel Slough". The earliest dated grave in the area was that of a young Alice Spangler who was initially buried in the Kings River Cemetery just north of her family's farm in 1860. As the settlement grew, Tulare Lake's feeding rivers were diverted for agricultural irrigation, causing it to gradually shrink and, over the 19th and 20th centuries, effectively become extinct.


title: Hanford, California

text: From the mid-to-late 1870s, the Southern Pacific Railroad planned to lay tracks towards the developing farmland west of Visalia, spurring a growth in labor and population. Hanford's namesake was James Madison Hanford, an executive for the company. The earliest known document labeling the settlement as "Hanford" is an 1876 map of Tulare County which once included the territory of present-day Kings County. Tracks were laid through a sheep camp in 1877. According to "History of Kings County": "It was but a short step from sheep-camp to village and with the railroad as an attraction the village flourished and became a town within a few historic months." Many of those working on the tracks were Chinese immigrants.


title: Hanford, California

text: In 1877, Hanford began to appear in state newspapers, giving details of events in the town's early days. In 1878, Hanford began running their own newspaper service and wiring called "The Public Good" which fed into other papers. In May 1878, Hanford residents drafted a resolve against the South Pacific Railroad from purchasing land with residing settlers. In June 1878, the Workingmen's Party was reported to have a majority vote over the Democrats in the town.


title: Hanford, California

text: In May 1878, the Upper Kings River Canal and Irrigation Company filed articles of incorporation. On August 1, California Governor candidates George Clement Perkins and Romualdo Pacheco (and on August 10, O F Thornton and W F White W P C) spoke in Hanford and Lemoore.


title: Hanford, California

text: In May 1880, a dispute over land titles between settlers and the Southern Pacific Railroad resulted in a bloody gun battle on a farm northwest of Hanford that left seven men dead. This event became famous as the Mussel Slough Tragedy. The next month, the town's first census was held counting some 269 residents. Forty-four of them were Chinese immigrants who resided in what's known today as China Alley.


title: Hanford, California

text: On several occasions, major fires destroyed much of the young community's business district. The need for fire protection led to the town becoming an incorporated city in 1891. Its first mayor was local resident Yamon LeBaron.


title: Hanford, California

text: An electrical generating plant was built in 1891 by pioneering flour miller H.G. Lacey, bringing the first electric lights to the city. The Lacey Milling Company was still operating in Hanford in 2016.


title: Hanford, California

text: The first public high school, Hanford Union High School, was started in 1892 with one teacher, W. S. Cranmer, and an average enrollment of fourteen.


title: Hanford, California

text: When Kings County was created in 1893 from the western part of Tulare County, Hanford became its county seat.


title: Hanford, California

text: A second railroad was laid through Hanford in 1897, which today is the main north–south line of the BNSF Railway through the San Joaquin Valley. The original east–west Southern Pacific Railroad branch line is now operated by the San Joaquin Valley Railroad.


title: Hanford, California

text: In 1903, steel magnate and philanthropist Andrew Carnegie donated $12,500 for the construction of the Hanford Carnegie Library which opened in 1906 (and is now the Carnegie Museum of Kings County).


title: Hanford, California

text: Saloons flourished in Hanford's early days despite an anti-saloon movement until the town voted to become "dry" in 1912, eight years before nationwide Prohibition was enacted.


title: Hanford, California

text: In the 1930s, famed pilot Amelia Earhart lived in Hanford to teach flying lessons at Fresno Chandler Airport. She befriended local resident and student of hers Mary Packwood with whom she gifted a personally-designed dress and left luggage shortly before her disappearance in the Pacific Ocean in 1937. The belongings are on display in Hanford's Carnegie Museum.


title: Hanford, California

text: Hanford is located at (36.3275, −119.6457). It is situated in the south-central portion of California's San Joaquin Valley, south-southeast of the city of Fresno and west of the city of Visalia. The city is above sea level and has a flat terrain. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , all land. The only natural watercourse is Mussel Slough, remnants of which still exist on the city's western edge. The Kings River is about north of Hanford. The People's Ditch, an irrigation canal dug in the 1870s, traverses Hanford from north to south.


title: Hanford, California

text: Hanford's land was once a drainage basin for Tulare Lake. Today it has a climate typical of the San Joaquin Valley floor with hot, dry summers and cool winters characterized by dense Tule fog. The wetter season occurs from November through March. The average annual rainfall over the ten years from 1997/98 through 2006/07 was . The 30-year normal precipitation (1971–2000) is .


title: Hanford, California

text: The National Weather Service Forecast Office for the San Joaquin Valley is in Hanford and includes a Doppler weather radar. Weather forecasts and climatological information for Hanford and the surrounding area are available from its official website.


title: Hanford, California

text: The 2010 United States Census reported that Hanford had a population of 53,967. The population density was . The racial makeup of Hanford was 33,713 (62.5%) White, 2,632 (4.9%) African American, 712 (1.3%) Native American, 2,322 (4.3%) Asian, 53 (0.1%) Pacific Islander, 11,599 (21.5%) from other races, and 2,936 (5.4%) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 25,419 persons (47.1%).


title: Hanford, California

text: The Census reported that 53,068 people (98.3% of the population) lived in households, 283 (0.5%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 616 (1.1%) were institutionalized.


title: Hanford, California

text: There were 17,492 households, out of which 8,053 (46.0%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 9,088 (52.0%) were married couples living together, 2,833 (16.2%) had a female householder with no husband present, 1,207 (6.9%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 1,315 (7.5%) unmarried partnerships, and 117 (0.7%) same-sex partnerships. 3,483 households (19.9%) were made up of individuals, and 1,405 (8.0%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.03. There were 13,128 families (75.1% of all households); the average family size was 3.49.


title: Hanford, California

text: The population was spread out, with 16,731 people (31.0%) under the age of 18, 5,478 people (10.2%) aged 18 to 24, 14,764 people (27.4%) aged 25 to 44, 11,647 people (21.6%) aged 45 to 64, and 5,347 people (9.9%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 30.9 years. For every 100 females, there were 96.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93.9 males.


title: Hanford, California

text: There were 18,493 housing units at an average density of , of which 10,208 (58.4%) were owner-occupied, and 7,284 (41.6%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 2.4%; the rental vacancy rate was 4.6%. 31,109 people (57.6% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 21,959 people (40.7%) lived in rental housing units.


title: Hanford, California

text: there were 41,686 people, 13,931 households, and 10,378 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 14,721 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 64.1% White, 5.0% Black or African American, 1.4% Native American, 2.9% Asian, 0.2% Pacific Islander, 20.8% from other races, and 5.7% from two or more races. 38.7% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.


title: Hanford, California

text: Foreign-born residents accounted for 13.2% of Hanford's population and 28.3% spoke a language other than English at home.


title: Hanford, California

text: There were 13,931 households, out of which 42.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 53.9% were married couples living together, 15.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 25.5% were non-families. 20.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.93 and the average family size was 3.39.


title: Hanford, California

text: In the city, the population was spread out, with 31.6% under the age of 18, 9.8% from 18 to 24, 29.6% from 25 to 44, 18.6% from 45 to 64, and 10.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 31 years. For every 100 females, there were 95.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.3 males.


title: Hanford, California

text: Hanford is a major trading center serving the surrounding agricultural area. According to the California Employment Development Department, as of September 2012, most residents of the Hanford-Corcoran Metropolitan Statistical Area were employed in services (31,000 employees), government (14,400 employees) and farming (6,400 employees) as well as in some manufacturing enterprises (5,700 employees).


title: Hanford, California

text: The heavy industry sector has declined significantly over the past 30 years. An oil refinery formerly operated in the city under several different owners (Caminol Oil Co. from 1932 to 1967, Beacon Oil Co. from 1967 to 1982 and Ultramar Oil Co. from 1982 to 1987) until it permanently closed in 1987. A tire manufacturing plant was built in 1962 by the Armstrong Rubber Co., which operated it until that company was purchased by the Italian manufacturer Pirelli, which eventually closed the factory in 2001. In August 2017, Faraday Future announced that it had signed a lease for the former Pirelli plant where it plans to manufacture electric vehicles. The company said that it could employ up to 1,300 people over time and build up to 10,000 cars a year.


title: Hanford, California

text: Major employers within the city of Hanford in 2006 included the Kings County government with 1,041 employees, the Adventist Health with 857, the Hanford Elementary School District with 520, the Del Monte Foods tomato cannery with 435 year-round and 1,500 seasonal employees and Marquez Brothers International, Inc., makers of Hispanic cheese and other dairy products. Many Hanford residents work for other nearby employers such as NAS Lemoore, the U.S. Navy's largest Master Jet Base located WSW of Hanford and for the California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation which operates three state prisons in Kings County.


title: Hanford, California

text: The city was impacted by the Great Recession (2007–09) and employment was also affected by the California drought (2012–13). The unemployment rate in January 2016 was 10.3%. However, the rate had dropped to 7.9% in February 2020 at the eve of the COVID-19 pandemic. The unemployment rate had risen to 16.0% in April of that year. According to the United States Census Bureau, median household income in Hanford was $54,767 and 18.3% of the population was living below the poverty line in 2008–2012.


title: Hanford, California

text: The Kings Art Center was opened in 1989 to be the premier visual arts gallery and art training center of Kings County. It hosts gallery showings throughout the year, as well as art classes for adults and children.


title: Hanford, California

text: The Kings District Fair is a traditional county fair held on four days in mid-June at the Kings Fairgrounds. The Renaissance of Kings Cultural Arts Faire is held the first weekend of October at Courthouse Square in Hanford's city center. The event typically attracts 15,000 people over the two-day period.


title: Hanford, California

text: The Kings Symphony Orchestra was founded in 1963 and draws musicians from throughout the central and southern San Joaquin Valley. The orchestra generally performs four times a year.


title: Hanford, California

text: The Hanford Carnegie Museum was built in 1905 as one of the many Carnegie libraries that were funded by the steel industry magnate, Andrew Carnegie. The library was replaced by a new structure at a different location in 1968. The old library was later renovated and re-opened as the Hanford Carnegie Museum in 1975.


title: Hanford, California

text: The former Clark Center for Japanese Art and Culture had the mission of collecting, preserving and exhibiting works of fine art, primarily the arts of Japan. The center also housed a specialist library for Japanese art and culture. The Clark Center closed permanently on June 30, 2015. The art collection was moved to the Minneapolis Institute of Arts and the bonsai collection was transferred to the Shinzen Friendship Garden at Woodward Park in Fresno, California.


title: Hanford, California

text: Chinese immigrants that arrived in the late 19th century created a thriving Chinatown in Hanford in the neighborhood around China Alley. China Alley was the site of the famous but now closed Imperial Dynasty restaurant. Hanford's Taoist Temple (listed on the National Register of Historic Places) built in 1893 is also there. A Moon Festival is held in China Alley in early October. In July 2011, Hanford city council commissioned a study of China Alley with the hope of revitalizing it. The China Alley Preservation Society is a non profit organization dedicated to preserving and revitalizing China Alley.


title: Hanford, California

text: Hanford is the site of the Hanford Criterium bicycle races held on a Sunday in late March or early April. The hourglass style loop course is run on downtown streets. The Criterium is held under USA Cycling racing rules and permit.


title: Hanford, California

text: Dirt track auto racing takes place at the Kings Speedway from March through October. The track is a 3/8-mile semi-banked clay oval and is at the Kings Fairgrounds.


title: Hanford, California

text: Hanford is incorporated as a general law city under the California Constitution. The city has a council-manager government with a city manager appointed by the city council.


title: Hanford, California

text: The city council is made up of five members elected by districts for four-year terms. There are no term limits in effect. The mayor and vice mayor are elected annually by the city council from among its members. In December 2019, the city council elected John Draxler as mayor and elected Francisco Ramirez as vice mayor. Other council members include Art Brieno, Sue Sorenson, and Martin Devine. The current mayor is Libertarian Kalish Morrow following the resignation of mayor Diane Sharp in March 2022.


title: Hanford, California

text: Hanford's city manager is the chief administrative officer of the city and is responsible for the overall administrative direction of the city. The city manager's duties include development and implementation of the annual budget for approval by the city council. Mario Cifuentez II was appointed as the city manager in 2019.


title: Hanford, California

text: In the state legislature, Hanford is in the 14th State Senate District, which is represented by Democrat Melissa Hurtado, and in the 32nd State Assembly District, represented by Democrat Rudy Salas. Federally, Hanford is in California's 21st congressional district and is represented by Republican David Valadao.


title: Hanford, California

text: Hanford has 15 elementary schools, three junior high schools, four high schools with a total of 8,464 Kindergarten through 8th grade students and 3,522 high schoolers.


title: Hanford, California

text: The Hanford Elementary School District provides kindergarten through eighth grade education for most of the city. The Pioneer Union Elementary School District serves much of the northern part of Hanford. Part of north Hanford is served by the Kings River-Hardwick School District. The Hanford Joint Union High School District provides public secondary education. It operates Hanford Union High School, Hanford West High School, Sierra Pacific High School as well as Earl F. Johnson High School.


title: Hanford, California

text: The College of the Sequoias operates an education center in Hanford as part of the Joint Educational Center that includes Sierra Pacific High School.


title: Hanford, California

text: Kings Area Regional Transit (KART) operates regularly scheduled fixed route bus service, vanpool service for commuters and Dial-A-Ride (demand response) services throughout Kings County as well as to Fresno. Hanford is also served by Orange Belt Stages.


title: Hanford, California

text: Amtrak provides passenger rail service from Hanford station to the San Francisco Bay Area and Sacramento, and service to Southern California by a combination of rail and bus. Freight service is available from both the BNSF Railway and the San Joaquin Valley Railroad.


title: Hanford, California

text: The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009-funded California High-Speed Rail has proposed a station. However, the proposed station on the eastern outskirts of Hanford is listed as "optional" and will not be built without matching local funds or in-kind support.


title: Hanford, California

text: The city's water system is supplied by a network of 14 active deep wells and one standby well ranging in depth from to with of main lines and serves 15,900 water connections. Formerly, the water had contained naturally occurring arsenic in excess of the maximum contaminant level adopted by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. However, according to the Consumer Confidence Report issued by the city of Hanford in March 2010 for calendar year 2009, since November 2009, the city has supplied water that is below the federal standard of 10 micrograms of arsenic per liter of water. Although it does not pose a health hazard, Hanford's drinking water also naturally contains hydrogen sulfide, which caused the water to have a noticeable "rotten egg" odor. In February 2015, the city completed a project to chlorinate all of its water, to eliminate the odor.


title: Hanford, California

text: The city's sanitary sewer system consists of of collector lines and 22 pump stations. The wastewater treatment plant treats of sewage per day. The treated effluent is used to irrigate non-food crops.


title: Jason Ellis (radio host)

text: Jason Shane Ellis (born 11 October 1971) is an Australian radio personality who is best known as the host of "The Jason Ellis Show" on Sirius XM satellite radio, which aired from 2005 to 2020. Ellis is also a former professional skateboarder, auto racer, and singer.


title: Jason Ellis (radio host)

text: Ellis moved to the US when he was 17 to embark on a professional skateboarding career, which began in 1985. He retired from the sport in 2006. In 2001, Ellis set a Guinness World Record for the biggest drop on a skateboard, jumping into a 70-foot skateboard ramp. The record was broken by Danny Way in 2006.


title: Jason Ellis (radio host)

text: One of the six Big Air competitors to compete in both 2004 and 2005, Ellis was suffering from a concussion in 2005 and didn't make the final, finishing tenth overall. Still involved in the skate community, Ellis has performed skate demos alongside Tony Hawk, is a perennial X-Games competitor in the Mega Ramp competition, and was the host of the annual 'Tony Hawk's Boom Boom Huckjam'.


title: Jason Ellis (radio host)

text: Ellis formerly trained in the Team Quest camp located in Murrieta, California under the direction of Dan Henderson, Jason "Mayhem" Miller, and Muhammed Lawal. He also trains with Justin Fortune at Fortune Boxing Gym in Hollywood California.


title: Jason Ellis (radio host)

text: Ellis made his mixed martial arts debut against Brazilian jiu-jitsu specialist Tony Gianopulos on 6 February 2009 winning via guillotine choke submission.


title: Jason Ellis (radio host)

text: On May 6, 2017, Ellis defeated Gabe Rivas via an Americana submission, 1 second away from the end of the 3rd round. Advancing Ellis to 2-0 in professional mixed martial arts. They fought at 190 lbs (86.2 kg) in San Jacinto, California.


title: Jason Ellis (radio host)

text: For the 2011 season, Ellis raced in the Lucas Oil SuperLite Series for Dethrone. At a number of events, he did his Friday morning radio show from his R.V.


title: Jason Ellis (radio host)

text: After a three-year hiatus from MMA, Ellis returned to the sport on 14 July 2012 defeating UFC veteran Gabe Ruediger via KO in the second round in a celebrity non-professional boxing fight. Gabe Ruediger has since challenged Ellis to a re-match, citing that he did not take the first fight seriously. After being dropped by Ellis, Gabe lost their rematch to a decision.


title: Jason Ellis (radio host)

text: On 15 October 2016, Ellis participated in a boxing exhibition match against former UFC champion Shane Carwin at EllisMania 13. Per the unique rules, Carwin had one of his arms duct-taped to his body to box Ellis. Ellis lost the bout via knockout in the second round.


title: Jason Ellis (radio host)

text: Ellis launched his radio career as a co-host of Hawk's Demolition Radio on a part-time basis. He soon became the host of his own show on the network.


title: Jason Ellis (radio host)

text: Following his skateboarding career, Ellis became a host for the Sirius XM satellite radio station and launched "The Jason Ellis Show". The show was cancelled on SiriusXM on 11-22-2020, and has since continued as a podcast.


title: Jason Ellis (radio host)

text: Ellis was also the founding member and vocalist for the comedy rock/metal band, Taintstick, which achieved chart success with its debut album "Six Pounds of Sound". Taintstick has since become known as "Death! Death! Die!"


title: Jason Ellis (radio host)

text: Ellis co-authored "I'm Awesome: One Man's Triumphant Quest to Become the Sweetest Dude Ever" in 2013, and "The Awesome Guide to Life: Get Fit, Get Laid, Get Your Sh*t Together" in 2014.


title: Jason Ellis (radio host)

text: From 2006 to 2012, Ellis was married to wife Andrea Brown. They had a daughter Devin and son Tiger. In August 2017, Ellis married Katie Gilbert. In December 2016, Ellis and Gilbert appeared on the "This Life With Dr. Drew and Bob Forrest" podcast where he spoke about his past addictions and sobriety, as well as the trauma he experienced after the death of his brother Stevie.


title: Jason Ellis (radio host)

text: In 2016, Ellis announced he is bisexual. He affirmed his sexuality in 2019, stating: "Bit scared to talk about it. But I am a bi guy and I think it’s ok. Not here for a shoutout just letting others know it’s ok to be you too. I’m happy".


title: Starch gelatinization

text: Starch gelatinization is a process of breaking down the intermolecular bonds of starch molecules in the presence of water and heat, allowing the hydrogen bonding sites (the hydroxyl hydrogen and oxygen) to engage more water. This irreversibly dissolves the starch granule in water. Water acts as a plasticizer.


title: Starch gelatinization

text: Three main processes happen to the starch granule: granule swelling, crystallite or double helical melting, and amylose leaching.


title: Starch gelatinization

text: The gelatinization temperature of starch depends upon plant type and the amount of water present, pH, types and concentration of salt, sugar, fat and protein in the recipe, as well as starch derivatisation technology are used. Some types of unmodified native starches start swelling at 55 °C, other types at 85 °C. The gelatinization temperature of modified starch depends on, for example, the degree of cross-linking, acid treatment, or acetylation.


title: Starch gelatinization

text: Gel temperature can also be modified by genetic manipulation of starch synthase genes. Gelatinization temperature also depends on the amount of damaged starch granules; these will swell faster. Damaged starch can be produced, for example, during the wheat milling process, or when drying the starch cake in a starch plant. There is an inverse correlation between gelatinization temperature and glycemic index. High amylose starches require more energy to break up bonds to gelatinize into starch molecules.


title: Starch gelatinization

text: Gelatinization improves the availability of starch for amylase hydrolysis. So gelatinization of starch is used constantly in cooking to make the starch digestible or to thicken/bind water in roux, sauce, or soup.


title: Starch gelatinization

text: Gelatinized starch, when cooled for a long enough period (hours or days), will thicken (or gel) and rearrange itself again to a more crystalline structure; this process is called retrogradation. During cooling, starch molecules gradually aggregate to form a gel. The following molecular associations can occur: amylose-amylose, amylose-amylopectin, and amylopectin-amylopectin. A mild association amongst chains come together with water still embedded in the molecule network.


title: Starch gelatinization

text: Due to strong associations of hydrogen bonding, longer amylose molecules (and starch which has a higher amylose content) will form a stiff gel.


title: Starch gelatinization

text: Amylopectin molecules with longer branched structure (which makes them more similar to amylose), increases the tendency to form strong gels. High amylopectin starches will have a stable gel, but will be softer than high amylose gels.


title: Starch gelatinization

text: Retrogradation restricts the availability for amylase hydrolysis to occur which reduces the digestibility of the starch.


title: Starch gelatinization

text: Pregelatinized starch (Dextrin) is starch which has been cooked and then dried in the starch factory on a drum dryer or in an extruder making the starch cold-water-soluble. Spray dryers are used to obtain dry starch sugars and low viscous pregelatinized starch powder.


title: Starch gelatinization

text: A simple technique to study starch gelation is by using a Brabender Viscoamylograph. It is a common technique used by food industries to determine the pasting temperature, swelling capacity, shear/thermal stability, and the extent of retrogradation. Under controlled conditions, starch and distilled water is heated at a constant heating rate in a rotating bowl and then cooled down. The viscosity of the mixture deflects a measuring sensor in the bowl. This deflection is measured as viscosity in torque over time vs. temperature and recorded on the computer. The viscoamylograph allows us to observe: the beginning of gelatinization, gelatinization maximum, gelatinization temperature, viscosity during holding, and viscosity at the end of cooling.


title: Starch gelatinization

text: Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) is another method industries use to examine properties of gelatinized starch. As water is heated with starch granules, gelatinization occurs, involving an endothermic reaction.


title: Starch gelatinization

text: The initiation of gelatinization is called the T-onset. T-peak is the position where the endothermic reaction occurs at the maximum. T-conclusion is when all the starch granules are fully gelatinized and the curve remains stable.


title: Unit load device

text: A unit load device (ULD) is a container used to load luggage, freight, and mail on wide-body aircraft and specific narrow-body aircraft. It allows preloading of cargo, confidence the containerised load will fit in the aircraft and efficient planning of aircraft weight and balance and reduced labour and time in loading aircraft holds compared with 'bulk-loading' single items of cargo or luggage by hand. Each ULD has its own packing list or manifest so that its contents can be tracked. A loaded aircraft cargo pallet secured with a cargo net also forms a ULD, but its load must be gauged for size in addition to being weighed to ensure aircraft door and hold clearances.


title: Unit load device

text: The IATA publishes ULD regulations and notes there are 900,000 in service worth more than US$1 billion, averaging $1000/0.9round-2 each.


title: Unit load device

text: ULDs come in two forms: pallets and containers. ULD pallets are rugged sheets of aluminium with rims designed to lock onto cargo net lugs. ULD containers, also known as cans and pods, are closed containers made of aluminium or a combination of aluminium (frame) and Lexan (walls), which, depending on the nature of the goods to be transported, may have built-in refrigeration units. Examples of common ULDs and their specifics are listed below.


title: Unit load device

text: LD3s, LD6s, and LD11s will fit 787s, 777s, 747s, MD-11s, Il-86s, Il-96s, L-1011s and all Airbus wide-bodies. The 767 uses the smaller LD2s and LD8s because of its narrower fuselage. The less common LD1 is designed specifically for the 747, but LD3s are more commonly used in its place because of ubiquity (they have the same floor dimensions such that one LD3 takes the place of one LD1). LD3s with reduced height ( instead of ) can also be loaded on the Airbus A320 family. LD7 pallets will fit 787s, 777s, 747s, late model 767s (with larger doors), and Airbus wide-bodies.


title: Unit load device

text: Interchangeability of certain ULDs between LD3/6/11 aircraft and LD2/8 aircraft is possible when cargo needs to be quickly transferred to a connecting flight. Both LD2s and LD8s can be loaded in LD3/6/11 aircraft, but at the cost of using internal volume inefficiently (33 ft wasted per LD2). Only the LD3 of the LD3/6/11 family of ULDs can be loaded in a 767; it will occupy an entire row where two LD2s or one LD8 would otherwise have fit (90 ft wasted per LD3). Policies vary from airline to airline as to whether such transfers are allowed.


title: Unit load device

text: The 787, intended to replace the 767, was designed to use the LD3/6/11 family of ULDs to solve the wasted volume issue.


title: Unit load device

text: Aircraft loads can consist of containers, pallets, or a mix of ULD types, depending on requirements. In some aircraft the two types must be mixed as some compartments take only specific ULDs.


title: Unit load device

text: Container capacity of an aircraft is measured in "positions". Each half-width container (LD1/LD2/LD3) in the aircraft it was designed for occupies one position. Typically, each row in a cargo compartment consists of two positions. Therefore, a full-width container (LD6/LD8/LD11) will take two positions. An LD6 or an LD11 can occupy the space of two LD3s. An LD8 takes the space of two LD2s.


title: Unit load device

text: Aircraft pallet capacity is measured by how many PMC-type LD7s can be stored. These pallets occupy approximately three LD3 positions (two positions of one row and half of the two positions of the following row) or four LD2 positions. PMCs can only be loaded in cargo compartments with large doors designed to accept them (small door compartments are container-only).


title: Unit load device

text: All ULDs are identified by their ULD number. A three-letter prefix identifies its type and key characteristics, followed by a 4 or 5 digit serial number (4 if prior to October 1, 1993; either 4 or 5 if after October 1, 1993) to uniquely identify it from others of the same type, and ending with a two character (alpha-numerical) suffix identifying the ULD's owner (if an airline, often the same as IATA designator codes). For example, "AKN 12345 DL" means that the ULD is a forkliftable LD3 with the unique number "12345" and its owner is Delta Air Lines.


title: Unit load device

text: On the main deck of cargo planes are tall ULDs with footprints similar to those of or wide pallets and or long. A wide × tall ULD is half the volume of a × 88 inch pallet. The 20 foot pallet is long and wide. What the actual dimensions of contoured upper deck ULDs are is very hard to know, because most manufacturers only profile width, length and height data.


title: Unit load device

text: There are several common types of contoured main deck ULDs, that are contoured (curved to fit in the plane's body) to provide as much cargo volume as possible. Initially ULD contouring was simply a triangle removed from one or two corners of the profile of the ULD, such as the common LD3 and LD6. Main deck ULDs use curves for the contoured shape to truly maximize cargo volume. Upper deck ULDs are just like lower deck ULDs that are either the full width of the plane with two corners of the profile removed (lower deck LD6 lower), or that container is cut in half, down the center line of the plane, (lower deck LD3 and upper deck AAX).


title: Unit load device

text: Main deck ULDs and pallets are not only taller than lower deck ULDs, they are frequently two or four times longer. They are usually organized like an LD6, using the width of the plane and missing two profile corners, or two very long LD3s, stored in parallel to use the plane's width and each missing one profile corner, but often twice or four times as long from plane's nose to tail.


title: Unit load device

text: Many air cargo companies use main deck ULDs that have both features called dual-profile, so that on smaller planes such as the Boeing 727, they are stored widthwise and have two corners contoured, and on the bigger Boeing 767, they can be rotated 90 degrees and shipped in parallel like LD3s, so that only one corner is contoured when being used like an LD3. This greatly simplifies transportation of cargo containers at slight cost of cargo volume.


title: Rhine–Main–Danube Canal

text: The Rhine–Main–Danube Canal (German: "Rhein-Main-Donau-Kanal"; also called Main-Danube Canal, RMD Canal or Europa Canal), is a canal in Bavaria, Germany. Connecting the Main and the Danube rivers across the European Watershed, it runs from Bamberg via Nuremberg to Kelheim. The canal connects the North Sea and Atlantic Ocean to the Black Sea, providing a navigable artery between the Rhine delta (at Rotterdam in the Netherlands), and the Danube Delta in south-eastern Romania and south-western Ukraine (or Constanța, through the Danube–Black Sea Canal). The present canal was completed in 1992 and is long.


title: Rhine–Main–Danube Canal

text: Projects for connecting the Danube and Rhine basins by canal have a long history. In 793, the Emperor Charlemagne ordered the construction of a canal—the "Fossa Carolina" (German: "Karlsgraben")—connecting the Swabian Rezat, a tributary of the Rednitz, to the Altmühl near Treuchtlingen. Between 1836 and 1846 the Ludwig Canal (German: Ludwigskanal), named for King Ludwig I of Bavaria, was built between Bamberg and Kelheim. This canal had a narrow channel, with many locks, and a shortage of water in the peak section, so the operation of the waterway soon became uneconomic—especially given the rapidly advancing construction of the railway network in the southern German countryside. The canal finally was abandoned in 1950, after a decision was made to not repair damage it had suffered from Allied bombing during World War II.


title: Rhine–Main–Danube Canal

text: In 1917, the Landtag of Bavaria passed a law calling for the development of a major shipping route "between Aschaffenburg and Passau", with the capacity to carry the 1,200-ton ships used on the Rhine. On 13 June 1921, Bavaria and the German Reich concluded an agreement to build the ""Main-Donau-Wasserstraße"".


title: Rhine–Main–Danube Canal

text: Under this plan, in addition to the expansion of the Main and Danube, a completely new channel linking the rivers was to be created. The Rhein-Main-Donau AG (RMD-AG) was founded on 30 December 1921 to undertake the project. To finance the waterway, the RMD was given control of the water resources of the Main, Danube, Lech, Altmühl, and Regnitz.


title: Rhine–Main–Danube Canal

text: The first concrete plans for the new waterway emerged in 1938, for the so-called Mindorfer Linie south of Nuremberg. As early as 1939 the first preparatory work began at Thalmässing in Landkreis Roth. However, after the war this route was dropped. By 1962, the Main's channel had been expanded as far upstream as Bamberg. In 1966, the Duisburger Vertrag, an agreement between Bavaria and the Federal Republic of Germany, was reached for financing the completion of the project. The contract was signed on 16 September of that year in Duisburg by Federal Transport Minister Hans-Christoph Seebohm, Federal Finance Minister Rolf Dahlgrün, Bavarian Prime Minister Alfons Goppel and the Bavarian Finance Minister Konrad Pöhner.


title: Rhine–Main–Danube Canal

text: The last section to be built, between Nuremberg and Kelheim, became politically controversial in the 1970s and 1980s, mainly because of the long section through the Altmühl valley. On 25 September 1992, the canal was completed. The equivalent of some 2.3 billion euros were invested in the construction from 1960 to 1992. Almost 20 percent of that went for environmental protection projects.


title: Rhine–Main–Danube Canal

text: From Bamberg to Fürth the canal follows the valley of the Regnitz, a tributary of the Main. From Fürth to beyond Roth it follows the valley of the Rednitz, a tributary of the Regnitz. It crosses the Franconian Jura mountains and joins the river Altmühl near Dietfurt. From Dietfurt to Kelheim on the Danube the canal follows the Altmühl valley.


title: Rhine–Main–Danube Canal

text: Today, there still exists between Nuremberg and Berching some 60 km of the Ludwig Canal in good condition. Some of the locks still function, and part of the towpath has been converted to a cycle track. The old canal comes close to the new canal at Pollanten, and from there the two canals flow downstream in parallel, eventually meeting 5km south of Berching.


title: Rhine–Main–Danube Canal

text: The cross-section of the waterway is normally trapezoidal, with width at the bottom, width at the water surface, of water depth, and a side grade of 1:3. The channel is a Waterway Class Vb; the largest authorised vessel is long and wide. The channel in the Kelheim-bound Bamberg lock has a depth of . In the few sections with a rectangular profile, the width is usually (i.e., the mean between top and bottom widths).


title: Rhine–Main–Danube Canal

text: The length of the canal is ; the summit elevation (between the Hilpoltstein and Bachhausen locks) is above sea level. This is the highest point on Earth that is currently reached by commercial watercraft from the sea.


title: Rhine–Main–Danube Canal

text: The height difference along the north ramp of the canal—from the Main at Bamberg to the crest elevation—is , with 11 locks. From the crest elevation down to the Altmühl at Dietfurt is a drop of through three locks. The further difference in elevation of along the Altmühl, with two more locks, makes a total of for the south ramp. This means that the Danube end of the canal is above the level of the Main end.


title: Rhine–Main–Danube Canal

text: Along the course of the canal there are 16 locks with lifting heights of up to 25 meters (). The 16 locks are managed from four remote control centres (Neuses since 2007, Kriegenbrunn, Hilpoltstein, and Dietfurt from the beginning of 2007). These centres are manned with one worker on the night shift, and two on the day shift. The locks were modernized from 2001 to 2007, replacing the outdated relay technology with programmable logic controllers (PLC). The cost was approximately $1.3 million per lock.


title: Rhine–Main–Danube Canal

text: The summit water level is maintained by pumping water from the canal stretches below; and some water is drained into the summit level from local natural sources.


title: Rhine–Main–Danube Canal

text: Thirteen locks are designed to conserve water, which they do by piping first the top third, and then the middle third of the lock water into side tanks during the down cycle. On the up cycle, these tanks replenish first the bottom third and then the middle third of the lock volume. The remaining top third is supplied by water from the upper level of the canal.


title: Rhine–Main–Danube Canal

text: There were different forecasts of freight transport volumes, from which benefit–cost ratio could be derived. In 1981, a Federal Minister for Transport cost–benefit account assumed an estimated traffic volume of only 2.7 million tonnes per year for the Main-Danube Canal, and a benefit–cost ratio of 0.52:1. This might have justified the termination of the project. One of the proponents commissioned a study by the Ifo-Institut München, predicting an estimated 5.5 million tonnes per year for the traffic volume on the Main-Danube Canal. In 2004, the freight volume in exchange traffic totalled 5.9 million tonnes and the total transport 6.9 million tonnes.


title: Rhine–Main–Danube Canal

text: The course of the planned extension of the Danube waterway between Passau and Kelheim is still controversial. Proponents argue that the cost structure of inland navigation will require larger ship sizes, so that larger lock dimensions, deeper channels and secure minimum water depth will be required. Opponents argue the environmental degradation is too great and that inland navigation is falling.


title: Rhine–Main–Danube Canal

text: The transport volume through the RMD Canal in 2006 was down almost 20% compared to the previous year.


title: Rhine–Main–Danube Canal

text: The container traffic declined from 3,986 to 2,539 TEUs. Of these 85% were in the direction of Danube.


title: Rhine–Main–Danube Canal

text: Meanwhile, tourism along the canal is economically important. This has contributed to the extensive creation of habitats to compensate for the canal.


title: Rhine–Main–Danube Canal

text: The transport volume in traffic between Main-Danube Canal and Danube (Kelheim lock) in 2010 consisted of the following items (in tons):


title: Rhine–Main–Danube Canal

text: The construction of canals involves ecological dangers. The Main-Danube Canal makes it possible for animals to spread from Western to Eastern Europe and in the opposite direction. These so-called invasive species often cause difficulties in the ecosystem of their new home: competition with the species already living there, lack of predators, etc. However, there is also the possibility that they will fit into the existing ecosystem and their introduction lead to an enrichment of the resident wildlife.


title: Rhine–Main–Danube Canal

text: In order to maintain navigable water levels for the waterway in the Main, Regnitz, and Rednitz valleys, water must be diverted via the Altmühlüberleiter canal & tunnel from the upper Altmühl to the Brombachsee reservoirs, across the European Watershed between the drainage basins of the Danube and Rhine.


title: Rhine–Main–Danube Canal

text: On the other hand, the canal carries traffic that would otherwise require 250,000 truck trips annually, or as an alternative, 3,000 freight trains on the Deutsche Bahn rail network.


title: Rhine–Main–Danube Canal

text: So far about 20 species of invertebrate animals and a number of fish have spread from the Danube to the Main, and on to the Rhine and Lake Constance. The following list shows some examples:


title: Rhine–Main–Danube Canal

text: The construction work was interrupted on 26 March 1979 by a serious accident in the Nuremberg district of Katzwang. A dam broke on the Eibach–Schwanstetten section, which was still under construction but already flooded. About of water poured through the wide hole and flooded large parts of old Katzwang.


title: Rhine–Main–Danube Canal

text: The force of the water was so great that it dug a wide crater and swept away cars, people and houses. During the rescue operations, a 12-year-old girl died. The damage was around DM 24 million (converted c. 12 million euros).


title: Rhine–Main–Danube Canal

text: After the disaster, the entire canal line was checked for weaknesses and retrofitted at critical points.


title: Rhine–Main–Danube Canal

text: The long-distance Challenge Roth triathlon, which is held annually in July, includes a swim in the Main-Danube Canal at Hilpoltstein. The canal is closed to vessel traffic during the race. An approximately -long section of the marathon route runs along the canal from the Hilpoltstein lock to the Leerstetten lock.