title: Cinema of the United Kingdom

text: The British New Wave film makers attempted to produce social realist films (see also 'kitchen sink realism') attempted in commercial feature films released between around 1959 and 1963 to convey narratives about a wider spectrum of people in Britain than the country's earlier films had done. These individuals, principally Karel Reisz, Lindsay Anderson and Tony Richardson, were also involved in the short lived Oxford film journal "Sequence" and the "Free Cinema" documentary film movement. The 1956 statement of Free Cinema, the name was coined by Anderson, asserted: "No film can be too personal. The image speaks. Sounds amplifies and comments. Size is irrelevant. Perfection is not an aim. An attitude means a style. A style means an attitude." Anderson, in particular, was dismissive of the commercial film industry. Their documentary films included Anderson's "Every Day Except Christmas", among several sponsored by Ford of Britain, and Richardson's "Momma Don't Allow". Another member of this group, John Schlesinger, made documentaries for the BBC's "Monitor" arts series.


title: Cinema of the United Kingdom

text: Together with future James Bond co-producer Harry Saltzman, dramatist John Osborne and Tony Richardson established the company Woodfall Films to produce their early feature films. These included adaptations of Richardson's stage productions of Osborne's "Look Back in Anger" (1959), with Richard Burton, and "The Entertainer" (1960) with Laurence Olivier, both from Osborne's own screenplays. Such films as Reisz's "Saturday Night and Sunday Morning" (also 1960), Richardson's "A Taste of Honey" (1961), Schlesinger's "A Kind of Loving" (1962) and "Billy Liar" (1963), and Anderson's "This Sporting Life" (1963) are often associated with a new openness about working-class life or previously taboo issues.


title: Cinema of the United Kingdom

text: The team of Basil Dearden and Michael Relph, from an earlier generation, "probe[d] into the social issues that now confronted social stability and the establishment of the promised peacetime consensus". "Pool of London" (1950). and "Sapphire" (1959) were early attempts to create narratives about racial tensions and an emerging multi-cultural Britain. Dearden and Relph's "Victim" (1961), was about the blackmail of homosexuals. Influenced by the Wolfenden report of four years earlier, which advocated the decriminalising of homosexual sexual activity, this was "the first British film to deal explicitly with homosexuality". Unlike the New Wave film makers though, critical responses to Dearden's and Relph's work have not generally been positive.


title: Cinema of the United Kingdom

text: As the 1960s progressed, American studios returned to financially supporting British films, especially those that capitalised on the "swinging London" image propagated by "Time" magazine in 1966. Films like "Darling", "The Knack ...and How to Get It" (both 1965), "Alfie" and "Georgy Girl" (both 1966), all explored this phenomenon. "Blowup" (also 1966), and later "Women in Love" (1969), showed female and then male full-frontal nudity on screen in mainstream British films for the first time.


title: Cinema of the United Kingdom

text: At the same time, film producers Harry Saltzman and Albert R. Broccoli combined sex with exotic locations, casual violence and self-referential humour in the phenomenally successful James Bond series with Sean Connery in the leading role. The first film "Dr. No" (1962) was a sleeper hit in the UK and the second, "From Russia with Love" (1963), a hit worldwide. By the time of the third film, "Goldfinger" (1964), the series had become a global phenomenon, reaching its commercial peak with "Thunderball" the following year. The series' success led to a spy film boom with many Bond imitations. Bond co-producer Saltzman also instigated a rival series of more realistic spy films based on the novels of Len Deighton. Michael Caine starred as bespectacled spy Harry Palmer in "The Ipcress File" (1965), and two sequels in the next few years. Other more downbeat espionage films were adapted from John le Carré novels, such as "The Spy Who Came in from the Cold" (1965) and "The Deadly Affair" (1966).


title: Cinema of the United Kingdom

text: American directors were regularly working in London throughout the decade, but several became permanent residents in the UK. Blacklisted in America, Joseph Losey had a significant influence on British cinema in the 1960s, particularly with his collaborations with playwright Harold Pinter and leading man Dirk Bogarde, including "The Servant" (1963) and "Accident" (1967). Voluntary exiles Richard Lester and Stanley Kubrick were also active in the UK. Lester had major hits with The Beatles film "A Hard Day's Night" (1964) and "The Knack ...and How to Get It" (1965) and Kubrick with "Dr. Strangelove" (1963) and "" (1968). While Kubrick settled in Hertfordshire in the early 1960s and would remain in England for the rest of his career, these two films retained a strong American influence. Other films of this era involved prominent filmmakers from elsewhere in Europe, "Repulsion" (1965) and "Blowup" (1966) were the first English language films of the Polish director Roman Polanski and the Italian Michelangelo Antonioni respectively.


title: Cinema of the United Kingdom

text: Historical films as diverse as "Lawrence of Arabia" (1962), "Tom Jones" (1963), and "A Man for All Seasons" (1966) benefited from the investment of American studios. Major films like "Becket" (1964), "Khartoum" (1966) and "The Charge of the Light Brigade" (1968) were regularly mounted, while smaller-scale films, including "Accident" (1967), were big critical successes. Four of the decade's Academy Award winners for best picture were British productions, including six Oscars for the film musical "Oliver!" (1968), based on the Charles Dickens novel "Oliver Twist".


title: Cinema of the United Kingdom

text: After directing several contributions to the BBC's "Wednesday Play" anthology series, Ken Loach began his feature film career with the social realist "Poor Cow" (1967) and "Kes" (1969). Meanwhile, the controversy around Peter Watkins "The War Game" (1965), which won the Best Documentary Film Oscar in 1967, but had been suppressed by the BBC who had commissioned it, would ultimately lead Watkins to work exclusively outside Britain.


title: Cinema of the United Kingdom

text: American studios cut back on British productions, and in many cases withdrew from financing them altogether. Films financed by American interests were still being made, including Billy Wilder's "The Private Life of Sherlock Holmes" (1970), but for a time funds became hard to come by.


title: Cinema of the United Kingdom

text: More relaxed censorship also brought several controversial films, including Nicolas Roeg and Donald Cammell's "Performance", Ken Russell's "The Devils" (1971), Sam Peckinpah's "Straw Dogs" (1971), and Stanley Kubrick's "A Clockwork Orange" (1971) starring Malcolm McDowell as the leader of a gang of thugs in a dystopian future Britain.


title: Cinema of the United Kingdom

text: Other films during the early 1970s included the Edwardian drama "The Go-Between" (1971), which won the Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival, Nicolas Roeg's Venice-set supernatural thriller "Don't Look Now" (1973) and Mike Hodges' gangster drama "Get Carter" (1971) starring Michael Caine. Alfred Hitchcock returned to Britain to shoot "Frenzy" (1972), Other productions such as Richard Attenborough's "Young Winston" (1972) and "A Bridge Too Far" (1977) met with mixed commercial success. The British horror film cycle associated with Hammer Film Productions, Amicus and Tigon drew to a close, despite attempts by Hammer to spice up the formula with added nudity and gore. Although some attempts were made to broaden the range of British horror films, such as with "The Wicker Man" (1973), these films made little impact at the box office, In 1976, British Lion, who produced "The Wicker Man", were finally absorbed into the film division of EMI, who had taken over ABPC in 1969. The duopoly in British cinema exhibition, via Rank and now EMI, continued.


title: Cinema of the United Kingdom

text: In the early 1970s, the government reduced its funding of the National Film Finance Corporation so the NFFC started to operate as a consortium, including with banks, which led to them using more commercial criteria for funding British films rather than focusing on quality or new talent, moving to fund films based on TV shows such as "Up Pompeii" (1971).


title: Cinema of the United Kingdom

text: Some other British producers, including Hammer, turned to television for inspiration, and big screen versions of popular sitcoms like "On the Buses" (1971) and "Steptoe and Son" (1972) proved successful with domestic audiences, the former had greater domestic box office returns in its year than the Bond film, "Diamonds Are Forever" and in 1973, an established British actor Roger Moore was cast as Bond in, "Live and Let Die", it was a commercial success and Moore would continue the role for the next 12 years. Low-budget British sex comedies included the "Confessions of ..." series starring Robin Askwith, beginning with "Confessions of a Window Cleaner" (1974). More elevated comedy films came from the Monty Python team, also from television. Their two most successful films were "Monty Python and the Holy Grail" (1975) and "Monty Python's Life of Brian" (1979), the latter a major commercial success, probably at least in part due to the controversy at the time surrounding its subject.


title: Cinema of the United Kingdom

text: Some American productions did return to the major British studios in 1977–79, including the original "Star Wars" (1977) at Elstree Studios, "Superman" (1978) at Pinewood, and "Alien" (1979) at Shepperton. Successful adaptations were made in the decade of the Agatha Christie novels "Murder on the Orient Express" (1974) and "Death on the Nile" (1978). The entry of Lew Grade's company ITC into film production in the latter half of the decade brought only a few box office successes and an unsustainable number of failures


title: Cinema of the United Kingdom

text: In 1980, only 31 British films were made, a 50% decline from the previous year and the lowest number since 1914, and production fell again in 1981 to 24 films. The industry suffered further blows from falling cinema attendances, which reached a record low of 54 million in 1984, and the elimination of the 1957 Eady Levy, a tax concession, in the same year. The concession had made it possible for an overseas based film company to write off a large amount of its production costs by filming in the UK – this was what attracted a succession of big-budget American productions to British studios in the 1970s. These factors led to significant changes in the industry, with the profitability of British films now "increasingly reliant on secondary markets such as video and television, and Channel 4 ... [became] a crucial part of the funding equation."


title: Cinema of the United Kingdom

text: With the removal of the levy, multiplex cinemas were introduced to the United Kingdom with the opening of a ten-screen cinema by AMC Cinemas at The Point in Milton Keynes in 1985 and the number of screens in the UK increased by around 500 over the decade leading to increased attendances of almost 100 million by the end of the decade.


title: Cinema of the United Kingdom

text: The 1980s soon saw a renewed optimism, led by smaller independent production companies such as Goldcrest, HandMade Films and Merchant Ivory Productions.


title: Cinema of the United Kingdom

text: Handmade Films, which was partly owned by George Harrison, was originally formed to take over the production of "Monty Python's Life of Brian", after EMI's Bernard Delfont (Lew Grade's brother) had pulled out. Handmade also bought and released the gangster drama "The Long Good Friday" (1980), produced by a Lew Grade subsidiary, after its original backers became cautious. Members of the Python team were involved in other comedies during the decade, including Terry Gilliam's fantasy films "Time Bandits" (1981) and "Brazil" (1985), the black comedy "Withnail & I" (1987), and John Cleese's hit "A Fish Called Wanda" (1988), while Michael Palin starred in "A Private Function" (1984), from Alan Bennett's first screenplay for the cinema screen.


title: Cinema of the United Kingdom

text: Goldcrest producer David Puttnam has been described as "the nearest thing to a mogul that British cinema has had in the last quarter of the 20th century." Under Puttnam, a generation of British directors emerged making popular films with international distribution. Some of the talent backed by Puttnam — Hugh Hudson, Ridley Scott, Alan Parker, and Adrian Lyne — had shot commercials; Puttnam himself had begun his career in the advertising industry. When Hudson's "Chariots of Fire" (1981) won 4 Academy Awards in 1982, including Best Picture, its writer Colin Welland declared "the British are coming!". When "Gandhi" (1982), another Goldcrest film, picked up a Best Picture Oscar, it looked as if he was right.


title: Cinema of the United Kingdom

text: It prompted a cycle of period films – some with a large budget for a British film, such as David Lean's final film "A Passage to India" (1984), alongside the lower-budget Merchant Ivory adaptations of the works of E. M. Forster, such as "A Room with a View" (1986). But further attempts to make 'big' productions for the US market ended in failure, with Goldcrest losing its independence after "Revolution" (1985) and "Absolute Beginners" (1986) were commercial and critical flops. Another Goldcrest film, Roland Joffé's "The Mission" (also 1986), won the 1986 Palme d'Or, but did not go into profit either. Joffé's earlier "The Killing Fields" (1984) had been both a critical and financial success. These were Joffé's first two feature films and were amongst those produced by Puttnam.


title: Cinema of the United Kingdom

text: Mainly outside the commercial sector, film makers from the new commonwealth countries had begun to emerge during the 1970s. Horace Ové's "Pressure" (1975) had been funded by the British Film Institute as was "A Private Enterprise" (1974), these being the first Black British and Asian British films, respectively. The 1980s however saw a wave of new talent, with films such as Franco Rosso's "Babylon" (1980), Menelik Shabazz's "Burning an Illusion" (1981) and Po-Chih Leong's "Ping Pong" (1986; one of the first films about Britain's Chinese community). Many of these films were assisted by the newly formed Channel 4, which had an official remit to provide for "minority audiences." Commercial success was first achieved with "My Beautiful Laundrette" (1985). Dealing with racial and gay issues, it was developed from Hanif Kureishi's first film script. "My Beautiful Laundrette" features Daniel Day-Lewis in a leading role. Day-Lewis and other young British actors who were becoming stars, such as Gary Oldman, Colin Firth, Tim Roth and Rupert Everett, were dubbed the Brit Pack.


title: Cinema of the United Kingdom

text: With the involvement of Channel 4 in film production, talents from television moved into feature films with Stephen Frears ("My Beautiful Laundrette") and Mike Newell with "Dance with a Stranger" (1985). John Boorman, who had been working in the US, was encouraged back to the UK to make "Hope and Glory" (1987). Channel Four also became a major sponsor of the British Film Institute's Production Board, which backed three of Britain's most critically acclaimed filmmakers: Derek Jarman ("The Last of England", 1987), Terence Davies ("Distant Voices, Still Lives", 1988), and Peter Greenaway; the latter of whom gained surprising commercial success with "The Draughtsman's Contract" (1982) and "The Cook, the Thief, His Wife & Her Lover" (1989). Stephen Woolley's company Palace Pictures also produced some successful films, including Neil Jordan's "The Company of Wolves" (1984) and "Mona Lisa" (1986), before collapsing amid a series of unsuccessful films. Amongst the other British films of the decade were Bill Forsyth's "Gregory's Girl" (1981) and "Local Hero" (1983), Lewis Gilbert's "Educating Rita" (1983), Peter Yates' "The Dresser" (1983) and Kenneth Branagh's directorial debut, "Henry V" (1989).


title: Cinema of the United Kingdom

text: Compared to the 1980s, investment in film production rose dramatically. In 1989, annual investment was a meagre £104 million. By 1996, this figure had soared to £741 million. Nevertheless, the dependence on finance from television broadcasters such as the BBC and Channel 4 meant that budgets were often low and indigenous production was very fragmented: the film industry mostly relied on Hollywood inward investment. According to critic Neil Watson, it was hoped that the £90 million apportioned by the new National Lottery into three franchises (The Film Consortium, Pathé Pictures, and DNA) would fill the gap, but "corporate and equity finance for the UK film production industry continues to be thin on the ground and most production companies operating in the sector remain hopelessly under-capitalised."


title: Cinema of the United Kingdom

text: These problems were mostly compensated by PolyGram Filmed Entertainment, a film studio whose British subsidiary Working Title Films released a Richard Curtis-scripted comedy "Four Weddings and a Funeral" (1994). It grossed $244 million worldwide and introduced Hugh Grant to global fame, led to renewed interest and investment in British films, and set a pattern for British-set romantic comedies, including "Sliding Doors" (1998) and "Notting Hill" (1999). Other Working Titles films included "Bean" (1997), "Elizabeth" (1998) and "Captain Corelli's Mandolin" (2001). PFE was eventually sold and merged with Universal Pictures in 1999, the hopes and expectations of "building a British-based company which could compete with Hollywood in its home market [had] eventually collapsed."


title: Cinema of the United Kingdom

text: Tax incentives allowed American producers to increasingly invest in UK-based film production throughout the 1990s, including films such as "Interview with the Vampire" (1994), "" (1996), "Saving Private Ryan" (1998), "" (1999) and "The Mummy" (1999). Miramax also distributed Neil Jordan's acclaimed thriller "The Crying Game" (1992), which was generally ignored on its initial release in the UK, but was a considerable success in the United States. The same company also enjoyed some success releasing the BBC period drama "Enchanted April" (1992) and "The Wings of the Dove" (1997).


title: Cinema of the United Kingdom

text: Among the more successful British films were the Merchant Ivory productions "Howards End" (1992) and "The Remains of the Day" (1993), Richard Attenborough's "Shadowlands" (1993), and Kenneth Branagh's Shakespeare adaptations. "The Madness of King George" (1994) proved there was still a market for British costume dramas, and other period films followed, including "Sense and Sensibility" (1995), "Restoration" (1995), "Emma" (1996), "Mrs. Brown" (1997), "Basil" (1998), "Shakespeare in Love" (1998) and "Topsy-Turvy" (1999).


title: Cinema of the United Kingdom

text: After a six-year hiatus for legal reasons the James Bond films returned to production with the 17th Bond film, "GoldenEye". With their traditional home Pinewood Studios fully booked, a new studio was created for the film in a former Rolls-Royce aero-engine factory at Leavesden in Hertfordshire.


title: Cinema of the United Kingdom

text: Mike Leigh emerged as a significant figure in British cinema in the 1990s, with a series of films financed by Channel 4 about working and middle class life in modern England, including "Life Is Sweet" (1991), "Naked" (1993) and his biggest hit "Secrets & Lies" (1996), which won the Palme d'Or at Cannes.


title: Cinema of the United Kingdom

text: Other new talents to emerge during the decade included the writer-director-producer team of John Hodge, Danny Boyle and Andrew Macdonald responsible for "Shallow Grave" (1994) and "Trainspotting" (1996). The latter film generated interested in other "regional" productions, including the Scottish films "Small Faces" (1996), "Ratcatcher" (1999) and "My Name Is Joe" (1998).


title: Cinema of the United Kingdom

text: The first decade of the 21st century was a relatively successful one for the British film industry. Many British films found a wide international audience due to funding from BBC Films, Film 4 and the UK Film Council, and some independent production companies, such as Working Title, secured financing and distribution deals with major American studios. Working Title scored three major international successes, all starring Hugh Grant and Colin Firth, with the romantic comedies "Bridget Jones's Diary" (2001), which grossed $254 million worldwide; the sequel "", which earned $228 million; and Richard Curtis's directorial debut "Love Actually" (2003), which grossed $239 million. The most successful of all, Phyllida Lloyd's "Mamma Mia!" (2008), grossed $601 million.


title: Cinema of the United Kingdom

text: The new decade saw a major new film series in the Harry Potter films, beginning with "Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone" in 2001. David Heyman's company Heyday Films has produced seven sequels, with the final title released in two parts – "Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1" in 2010 and "Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2" in 2011. All were filmed at Leavesden Studios in England.


title: Cinema of the United Kingdom

text: Aardman Animations' Nick Park, the creator of Wallace and Gromit and the Creature Comforts series, produced his first feature-length film, "Chicken Run" in 2000. Co-directed with Peter Lord, the film was a major success worldwide and one of the most successful British films of its year. Park's follow up, "" was another worldwide hit: it grossed $56 million at the US box office and £32 million in the UK. It also won the 2005 Academy Award for Best Animated Feature.


title: Cinema of the United Kingdom

text: However it was usually through domestically funded features throughout the decade that British directors and films won awards at the top international film festivals. In 2003, Michael Winterbottom won the Golden Bear at the Berlin Film Festival for "In This World". In 2004, Mike Leigh directed "Vera Drake", an account of a housewife who leads a double life as an abortion provider in 1950s London. The film won the Golden Lion at the Venice Film Festival. In 2006 Stephen Frears directed "The Queen" based on the events surrounding the death of Princess Diana, which won the Best Actress prize at the Venice Film Festival and Academy Awards and the BAFTA for Best Film. In 2006, Ken Loach won the Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival with his account of the struggle for Irish Independence in "The Wind That Shakes the Barley". Joe Wright's adaptation of the Ian McEwan novel "Atonement" was nominated for 7 Academy Awards, including Best Film and won the Golden Globe and BAFTA for Best Film. "Slumdog Millionaire" was filmed entirely in Mumbai with a mostly Indian cast, though with a British director (Danny Boyle), producer (Christian Colson), screenwriter (Simon Beaufoy) and star (Dev Patel)—the film was all-British financed via Film4 and Celador. It has received worldwide critical acclaim. It has won four Golden Globes, seven BAFTA Awards and eight Academy Awards, including Best Director and Best Film. "The King's Speech", which tells the story of King George VI's attempts to overcome his speech impediment, was directed by Tom Hooper and filmed almost entirely in London. It received four Academy Awards (including Best Film, Best Director, Best Actor and Best Screenplay) in 2011.


title: Cinema of the United Kingdom

text: The start of the 21st century saw Asian British cinema assert itself at the box office, starting with "East Is East" (1999) and continuing with "Bend It Like Beckham" (2002). Other notable British Asian films from this period include "My Son the Fanatic" (1997), "Ae Fond Kiss... (2004)", "Mischief Night (2006)", "Yasmin" (2004) and "Four Lions" (2010). Some argue it has brought more flexible attitudes towards casting Black and Asian British actors, with Robbie Gee and Naomie Harris take leading roles in "Underworld" and "28 Days Later" respectively. The year 2005 saw the emergence of The British Urban Film Festival, a timely addition to the film festival calendar, which recognised the influence of "Kidulthood" on UK audiences and consequently began to showcase a growing profile of films in a genre previously not otherwise regularly seen in the capital's cinemas. Then in 2005 "Kidulthood", a film centring on inner-city London youth had a limited release. This was successfully followed up with a sequel "Adulthood" (2008) that was written and directed by actor Noel Clarke. Several other films dealing with inner city issues and Black Britons were released in the 2000s such as "Bullet Boy" (2004), "Life and Lyrics" (2006) and "Rollin' with the Nines" (2009).


title: Cinema of the United Kingdom

text: Like the 1960s, this decade saw plenty of British films directed by imported talent. The American Woody Allen shot "Match Point" (2005) and three later films in London. The Mexican director Alfonso Cuarón helmed "Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban" (2004) and "Children of Men" (2006); New Zealand filmmaker Jane Campion made "Bright Star" (2009), a film set in 19th century London; Danish director Nicolas Winding Refn made "Bronson" (2008), a biopic about the English criminal Michael Gordon Peterson; the Spanish filmmaker Juan Carlos Fresnadillo directed "28 Weeks Later" (2007), a sequel to a British horror film; and two John le Carré adaptations were also directed by foreigners—"The Constant Gardener" by the Brazilian Fernando Meirelles and "Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy" by the Swedish Tomas Alfredson. The decade also saw English actor Daniel Craig became the new James Bond with "Casino Royale", the 21st entry in the official Eon Productions series.


title: Cinema of the United Kingdom

text: Despite increasing competition from film studios in Australia and Eastern Europe, British studios such as Pinewood, Shepperton and Leavesden remained successful in hosting major productions, including "Finding Neverland", "Closer", "Batman Begins", "Charlie and the Chocolate Factory", "United 93", "The Phantom of the Opera", "", "Fantastic Mr. Fox", "Robin Hood", "", "Hugo" and "War Horse".


title: Cinema of the United Kingdom

text: In February 2007, the UK became home to Europe's first DCI-compliant fully digital multiplex cinemas with the launch of Odeon Hatfield and Odeon Surrey Quays (in London), with a total of 18 digital screens.


title: Cinema of the United Kingdom

text: In November 2010, Warner Bros. completed the acquisition of Leavesden Film Studios, becoming the first Hollywood studio since the 1940s to have a permanent base in the UK, and announced plans to invest £100 million in the site.


title: Cinema of the United Kingdom

text: A study by the British Film Institute published in December 2013 found that of the 613 tracked British films released between 2003 and 2010 only 7% made a profit. Films with low budgets, those that cost below £500,000 to produce, were even less likely to gain a return on outlay. Of these films, only 3.1% went into the black. At the top end of budgets for the British industry, under a fifth of films that cost £10million went into profit.


title: Cinema of the United Kingdom

text: On 26 July 2010 it was announced that the UK Film Council, which was the main body responsible for the development of promotion of British cinema during the 2000s, would be abolished, with many of the abolished body's functions being taken over by the British Film Institute. Actors and professionals, including James McAvoy, Emily Blunt, Pete Postlethwaite, Damian Lewis, Timothy Spall, Daniel Barber and Ian Holm, campaigned against the Council's abolition. The move also led American actor and director Clint Eastwood (who had filmed "Hereafter" in London) to write to the British Chancellor of the Exchequer George Osborne in August 2010 to protest the decision to close the Council. Eastwood warned Osborne that the closure could result in fewer foreign production companies choosing to work in the UK. A grass-roots online campaign was launched and a petition established by supporters of the Council.


title: Cinema of the United Kingdom

text: Countering this, a few professionals, including Michael Winner and Julian Fellowes, supported the Government's decision. A number of other organisations responded positively.


title: Cinema of the United Kingdom

text: At the closure of the UK Film Council on 31 March 2011, "The Guardian" reported that "The UKFC's entire annual budget was a reported £3m, while the cost of closing it down and restructuring is estimated to have been almost four times that amount." One of the UKFC's last films, "The King's Speech", is estimated to have cost $15m to make and grossed $235m, besides winning several Academy Awards. UKFC invested $1.6m for a 34% share of net profits, a valuable stake that will pass to the British Film Institute.


title: Cinema of the United Kingdom

text: In June 2012, Warner opened the re-developed Leavesden studio for business. The most commercially successful British directors in recent years are Paul Greengrass, Mike Newell, Christopher Nolan, Ridley Scott and David Yates.


title: Cinema of the United Kingdom

text: In January 2012, at Pinewood Studios to visit film-related businesses, UK Prime Minister David Cameron said that his government had bold ambitions for the film industry: "Our role, and that of the BFI, should be to support the sector in becoming even more dynamic and entrepreneurial, helping UK producers to make commercially successful pictures that rival the quality and impact of the best international productions. Just as the British Film Commission has played a crucial role in attracting the biggest and best international studios to produce their films here, so we must incentivise UK producers to chase new markets both here and overseas."


title: Cinema of the United Kingdom

text: The film industry remains an important earner for the British economy. According to a UK Film Council press release of 20 January 2011, £1.115 billion was spent on UK film production during 2010. A 2014 survey suggested that British-made films were generally more highly rated than Hollywood productions, especially when considering low-budget UK productions.


title: Cinema of the United Kingdom

text: In November 2022, director Danny Boyle expressed a negative sentiment of the British film industry in recent years, stating that "I am not sure we are great filmmakers, to be absolutely honest. As a nation, our two artforms are theatre, in a middle-class sense, and pop music, because we are extraordinary at it."


title: Cinema of the United Kingdom

text: Although it had been funding British experimental films as early as 1952, the British Film Institute's foundation of a production board in 1964—and a substantial increase in public funding from 1971 onwards—enabled it to become a dominant force in developing British art cinema in the 1970s and 80s: from the first of Bill Douglas's Trilogy "My Childhood" (1972), and of Terence Davies' Trilogy "Childhood" (1978), via Peter Greenaway's earliest films (including the surprising commercial success of "The Draughtsman's Contract" (1982)) and Derek Jarman's championing of the New Queer Cinema. The first full-length feature produced under the BFI's new scheme was Kevin Brownlow and Andrew Mollo's "Winstanley" (1975), while others included "Moon Over the Alley" (1975), "Requiem for a Village" (1975), the openly avant-garde "Central Bazaar" (1973), "Pressure" (1975) and "A Private Enterprise" (1974) – the last two being, respectively, the first British Black and Asian features.


title: Cinema of the United Kingdom

text: The release of Derek Jarman's "Jubilee" (1978) marked the beginning of a successful period of UK art cinema, continuing into the 1980s with filmmakers like Sally Potter. Unlike the previous generation of British film makers who had broken into directing and production after careers in the theatre or on television, the Art Cinema Directors were mostly the products of Art Schools. Many of these filmmakers were championed in their early career by the London Film Makers Cooperative and their work was the subject of detailed theoretical analysis in the journal "Screen Education". Peter Greenaway was an early pioneer of the use of computer generated imagery blended with filmed footage and was also one of the first directors to film entirely on high definition video for a cinema release.


title: Cinema of the United Kingdom

text: With the launch of Channel 4 and its Film on Four commissioning strand, Art Cinema was promoted to a wider audience. However, the Channel had a sharp change in its commissioning policy in the early 1990s and Greenaway and others were forced to seek European co-production financing.


title: Cinema of the United Kingdom

text: In the 1970s and 1980s, British studios established a reputation for great special effects in films such as "Superman" (1978), "Alien" (1979), and "Batman" (1989). Some of this reputation was founded on the core of talent brought together for the filming of "" (1968) who subsequently worked together on series and feature films for Gerry Anderson. Thanks to the Bristol-based Aardman Animations, the UK is still recognised as a world leader in the use of stop-motion animation.


title: Cinema of the United Kingdom

text: British special effects technicians and production designers are known for creating visual effects at a far lower cost than their counterparts in the US, as seen in "Time Bandits" (1981) and "Brazil" (1985). This reputation has continued through the 1990s and into the 21st century with films such as the James Bond series, "Gladiator" (2000) and the Harry Potter franchise.


title: Cinema of the United Kingdom

text: From the 1990s to the present day, there has been a progressive movement from traditional film opticals to an integrated digital film environment, with special effects, cutting, colour grading, and other post-production tasks all sharing the same all-digital infrastructure. The London-based visual effects company Framestore, with Tim Webber the visual effects supervisor, have worked on some of the most technically and artistically challenging projects, including, "The Dark Knight" (2008) and "Gravity" (2013), with new techniques involved in "Gravity" realized by Webber and the Framestore team taking three years to complete.


title: Cinema of the United Kingdom

text: The availability of high-speed internet has made the British film industry capable of working closely with U.S. studios as part of globally distributed productions. As of 2005, this trend is expected to continue with moves towards (currently experimental) digital distribution and projection as mainstream technologies. The British film "This Is Not a Love Song" (2003) was the first to be streamed live on the Internet at the same time as its cinema premiere.


title: Craniodiaphyseal dysplasia

text: Craniodiaphyseal dysplasia (CDD), also known as lionitis, is an extremely rare autosomal recessive bone disorder that causes calcium to build up in the skull, disfiguring the facial features and reducing life expectancy.


title: Craniodiaphyseal dysplasia

text: These calcium deposits decrease the size of cranial foramina, and can decrease the circumference of the cervical spinal canal. In the few cases recorded, most died in childhood.


title: Craniodiaphyseal dysplasia

text: Among the medical signs are dacryocystitis, seizures, intellectual disability, and paralysis, each of which is a complication resulting from the diminutive foramina. A common sign reported as a result of the disease has been widely spaced eyes.


title: Craniodiaphyseal dysplasia

text: Peter Bogdanovich's 1985 drama film "Mask" drew public attention to the case of "Rocky" Dennis, an American boy with disorder who died at the age of 16, in 1978.


title: Craniodiaphyseal dysplasia

text: In the American medical drama "Grey's Anatomy" episode "Yesterday", Jesse Plemons plays a teenage boy with lionitis.


title: Craniodiaphyseal dysplasia

text: The main character of the two-issue comic book miniseries "Friday the 13th: How I Spent My Summer Vacation" by Wildstorm Productions is a 13-year-old boy with the disorder.


title: Craniodiaphyseal dysplasia

text: In the anthology television series "American Horror Story" season 1, Beauregard, the brother of Tate and Adelaide, has lionitis.


title: Humanitarianism

text: Humanitarianism is an active belief in the value of human life, whereby humans practice benevolent treatment and provide assistance to other humans to reduce suffering and improve the conditions of humanity for moral, altruistic, and emotional reasons. One aspect involves voluntary emergency aid overlapping with human rights advocacy, actions taken by governments, development assistance, and domestic philanthropy. Other critical issues include correlation with religious beliefs, motivation of aid between altruism and social control, market affinity, imperialism and neo-colonialism, gender and class relations, and humanitarian agencies. A practitioner is known as a humanitarian.


title: Humanitarianism

text: Humanitarianism is an informal ideology of practice; it is "the doctrine that people's duty is to promote human welfare."


title: Humanitarianism

text: Humanitarianism is based on a view that all human beings deserve respect and dignity and should be treated as such. Therefore, humanitarians work towards advancing the well-being of humanity as a whole. It is the antithesis of the "us vs. them" mentality that characterizes tribalism and ethnic nationalism. Humanitarians abhor slavery, violation of basic and human rights, and discrimination on the basis of features such as skin colour, religion, ancestry, or place of birth. Humanitarianism drives people to save lives, alleviate suffering, and promote human dignity in the middle of man-made or natural disasters. Humanitarianism is embraced by movements and people across the political spectrum. The informal ideology can be summed up by a quote from Albert Schweitzer: "Humanitarianism consists in never sacrificing a human being to a purpose."


title: Humanitarianism

text: Jean Pictet, in his commentary on The Fundamental Principles of the Red Cross, argues for the universal characteristics of humanitarianism:


title: Humanitarianism

text: Humanitarianism was publicly seen in the social reforms of the late 1800s and early 1900s, following the economic turmoil of the Industrial Revolution in England. Many of the women in Great Britain who were involved with feminism during the 1900s also pushed humanitarianism. The atrocious hours and working conditions of children and unskilled laborers were made illegal by pressure on Parliament by humanitarians. The Factory Act of 1833 and the Factory Act of 1844 were some of the most significant humanitarian bills passed in Parliament following the Industrial Revolution.


title: Humanitarianism

text: In the middle of the 19th century, humanitarianism was central to the work of Florence Nightingale and Henry Dunant in emergency response and in the latter case led to the founding of the Red Cross.


title: Humanitarianism

text: The Humanitarian League (1891–1919) was an English advocacy group, formed by Henry S. Salt, which sought to advance the humanitarian cause.


title: Humanitarianism

text: Various suggestions of distinct periods of humanitarianism exist, drawing either on geopolitical or socioeconomic factors that determine humanitarian action. The first approach is exemplified by Michael Barnett's proposition to distinguish ages of "imperial humanitarianism" (up to 1945), "neo-humanitarianism" (1945–1989), and "liberal humanitarianism". Norbert Götz, Georgina Brewis, and Steffen Werther are advocates of the socioeconomic and cultural approach, arguing that there have been ages of "ad hoc humanitarianism" (up to c. 1900), "organized humanitarianism" (c. 1900–1970), and "expressive humanitarianism" (since 1970). They suggest we might currently be entering "a novel kind of defensive humanitarianism with roots in the expressive age, with automated interfaces, and with thick 'firewalls' between donors and recipients."


title: Humanitarianism

text: Today, humanitarianism is particularly used to describe the thinking and doctrines behind the emergency response to humanitarian crises. In such cases it argues for a humanitarian response based on humanitarian principles, particularly the principle of humanity.


title: Humanitarianism

text: The most important principles of humanitarian action are humanity, neutrality, independence and impartiality, which posits the conviction that all people have equal dignity by virtue of their being human based solely on need, without discrimination among recipients. Humanitarian organizations must refrain from taking part in hostilities or taking actions that advantage one side of the conflict over another, the §action serves the interests of political, religious, or other agendas.


title: Humanitarianism

text: These fundamental principles serve two essential purposes. They embody humanitarian action’s single-minded purpose of alleviating suffering, unconditionally and without any ulterior motive. They also serve as background document to develop operational tools that help in obtaining both the consent of communities for the presence and activities of humanitarian organizations, particularly in highly volatile contexts.


title: Humanitarianism

text: Patrick Meier first started using the term 'digital humanitarianism' after crowdmapping for the 2010 Haiti earthquake. In 2011, Paul Conneally gave a TED talk on digital humanitarianism in which he states that humanitarianism's "origins are firmly rooted in the analogue age" with "a major shift coming". In 2015 he authored the book "Digital Humanitarians: How Big Data Is Changing the Face of Humanitarian Response".


title: Humanitarianism

text: Vincent Fevrier notes that "social media can benefit the humanitarian sector ... by providing information to give better situational awareness to organisations for broad strategic planning and logistics" and that "crisis mapping really emerged in 2010 during the Haiti earthquake" with "software and digital humanitarian platforms such as Standby Task Force, OpenStreetMap, and many others" being active during many disasters since then.


title: Humanitarianism

text: In fact, the role of social media in digital humanitarian efforts is a considerable one. Ten days after the 2010 earthquake, the "Hope for Haiti Now" telethon event was launched in the United States, effectively taking over the mediasphere and reaching hundreds of millions of households and viewers. It focused on appealing to the viewing public's empathy for the survivors of the disaster, allowing ordinary citizens to help in a collective relief effort by contributing money donations to NGOs providing Humanitarian aid to earthquake survivors. The telethon attracted support through a variety of celebrity musical performances and staged calls for empathy, using digital social networks to disseminate its appeal to the moral responsibility of the viewer-consumers who are able to reinforce identification with a national identity of the American 'savior' through participation in this Humanitarian project.


title: Humanitarianism

text: During the summer of 2010, when open fires raged across Russia, causing many to die from smog inhalation, the use of social media allowed digital humanitarians to map the areas in need of support. This is because Russians who were hoping to be evacuated were posting online about the conditions they were in which prompted thousands of Russian bloggers to coordinate relief efforts online. The digital humanitarian efforts in Russia were crucial to responding to the fires in 2010 considering the Russian government was vastly unprepared to deal with such a large-scale disaster.


title: Humanitarianism

text: Within digital humanitarianism, big data has featured strongly in efforts to improve digital humanitarian work and produces a limited understanding of how a crisis is unfolding. It has been argued that Big Data is constitutive of a social relation in which digital humanitarians claim both the formal humanitarian sector and victims of crises need the services and labor that can be provided by digital humanitarians.


title: Humanitarianism

text: Earlier in 2005, a question was raised as to whether Wikipedia can be seen as digital humanitarianism.


title: Agnosia

text: Agnosia is the inability to process sensory information. Often there is a loss of ability to recognize objects, persons, sounds, shapes, or smells while the specific sense is not defective nor is there any significant memory loss. It is usually associated with brain injury or neurological illness, particularly after damage to the occipitotemporal border, which is part of the ventral stream. Agnosia only affects a single modality, such as vision or hearing. More recently, a top-down interruption is considered to cause the disturbance of handling perceptual information.


title: Agnosia

text: Visual agnosia is a broad category that refers to a deficiency in the ability to recognize visual objects. Visual agnosia can be further subdivided into two different subtypes: apperceptive visual agnosia and associative visual agnosia.


title: Agnosia

text: Individuals with apperceptive visual agnosia display the ability to see contours and outlines when shown an object, but they experience difficulty if asked to categorize objects. Apperceptive visual agnosia is associated with damage to one hemisphere, specifically damage to the posterior sections of the right hemisphere.


title: Agnosia

text: In contrast, individuals with associative visual agnosia experience difficulty when asked to name objects. Associative agnosia is associated with damage to both the right and left hemispheres at the occipitotemporal border. A specific form of associative visual agnosia is known as prosopagnosia. Prosopagnosia is the inability to recognize faces. For example, these individuals have difficulty recognizing friends, family and coworkers. However, individuals with prosopagnosia can recognize all other types of visual stimuli.


title: Agnosia

text: Speech agnosia, or auditory verbal agnosia, refers to "an inability to comprehend spoken words despite intact hearing, speech production and reading ability". Patients report that they hear sounds being produced, but that the sounds are fundamentally unrecognizable or untranslatable.


title: Agnosia

text: Despite an inability to process what the speaker is saying, some patients have been reported to recognize certain characteristic information about the speaker's voice (such as being a man or woman).


title: Agnosia

text: Agnosia can result from strokes, dementia, or other neurological disorders. It may also be trauma-induced by a head injury, brain infection, or hereditary. Additionally, some forms of agnosia may be the result of developmental disorders. Damage causing agnosia usually occurs in either the occipital or parietal lobes of the brain. Although one modality may be affected, cognitive abilities in other areas are preserved.


title: Agnosia

text: The effect of damage to the superior temporal sulcus is consistent with several types of neurolinguistic deficiencies, and some contend that agnosia is one of them. The superior temporal sulcus is vital for speech comprehension because the region is highly involved with the lexical interface. According to the 1985 TRACE II Model, the lexical interface associates sound waves (phonemes) with morphological features to produce meaningful words. This association process is accomplished by lateral inhibition/excitement of certain words within an individual's lexicon (vocabulary). For instance, if an experimenter were to say DOG aloud, the utterance would activate and inhibit various words within the subjects lexical interface:


title: Agnosia

text: The consistency of this model to agnosia is shown by evidence that bilateral lesions to the superior temporal sulcus produces 'pure word deafness' (Kussmaul, 1877), or as it is understood today, speech agnosia. Patients with pure word deafness demonstrate the inability to recognize and process speech sounds with normal auditory processing for non-speech sounds below the level of the cortex.


title: Agnosia

text: In order to assess an individual for agnosia, it must be verified that the individual does not have a loss of sensation, and that both their language abilities and intelligence are intact. In order for an individual to be diagnosed with agnosia, they must only be experiencing a sensory deficit in a single modality. To make a diagnosis, the distinction between apperceptive and associative agnosia must be made. This distinction can be made by having the individual complete copying and matching tasks. If the individual has a form of apperceptive agnosia they will not be able to match two stimuli that are identical in appearance. In contrast, if an individual has a form of associative agnosia, they will not be able to match different examples of a stimulus. For example, an individual who has been diagnosed with associative agnosia in the visual modality would not be able to match pictures of a laptop that is open with a laptop that is closed.


title: Agnosia

text: Individuals with pure alexia usually have difficulty reading words as well as difficulty with identifying letters. In order to assess whether an individual has pure alexia, tests of copying and recognition must be performed. An individual with pure alexia should be able to copy a set of words, and should be able to recognize letters.


title: Agnosia

text: Individuals are usually shown pictures of human faces that may be familiar to them such as famous actors, singers, politicians or family members. The pictures shown to the patient are selected to be age and culture appropriate. The task involves the examiner asking the individual to name each face. If the individual cannot name whose face appears in the picture, the examiner may ask a question that would help to recognize the face in the picture.


title: Agnosia

text: For all practical purposes, there is no direct cure. Patients may improve if information is presented in other modalities than the damaged one. Different types of therapies can help to reverse the effects of agnosia. In some cases, occupational therapy or speech therapy can improve agnosia, depending on its cause.


title: Agnosia

text: Initially many individuals with a form of agnosia are unaware of the extent to which they have either a perceptual or recognition deficit. This may be caused by anosognosia which is the lack of awareness of a deficit. This lack of awareness usually leads to a form of denial and resistance to any form of help or treatment. There are various methods that can be used which can help the individual recognize the impairment in perception or recognition that they may have. A patient can be presented with a stimulus to the impaired modality only to help increase their awareness of their deficit. Alternatively, a task can be broken down into its component parts so that the individual can see each part of the problem caused by the deficit. Once the individual acknowledges their perceptual or recognition deficit, a form of treatment may be recommended. There are various forms of treatment such as compensatory strategies with alternate modalities, verbal strategies, alternate cues and organizational strategies.


title: Agnosia

text: Using verbal descriptions may be helpful for individuals with certain types of agnosia. Individuals such as prosopagnosics may find it useful to listen to a description of their friend or family member and recognize them based on this description more easily than through visual cues.


title: Agnosia

text: Alternate cues may be particularly useful to an individual with environmental agnosia or prosopagnosia. Alternate cues for an individual with environmental agnosia may include color cues or tactile markers to symbolize a new room or to remember an area by. Prosopagnosics may use alternate cues such as a scar on an individual's face or crooked teeth in order to recognize the individual. Hair color and length can be helpful cues as well.


title: Agnosia

text: Organizational strategies may be extremely helpful for an individual with visual agnosia. For example, organizing clothes according to different hangers provides tactile cues for the individual, making it easier to identify certain forms of clothing as opposed to relying solely on visual cues.


title: Agnosia

text: These strategies elicit the use of an unaffected modality. For example, visual agnosics can use tactile information in replacement of visual information. Alternatively, an individual with prosopagnosia can use auditory information in order to replace visual information. For example, an individual with prosopagnosia can wait for someone to speak, and will usually recognize the individual from their speech.


title: Agnosia

text: There are clinical trials being done to further research for treatments. At the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS) they support research for rare diseases like agnosia. Some organizations that are recruiting for trials are using clincaltrials.gov and give status updates on the trials.


title: Agnosia

text: The term 'agnosia' comes from the Ancient Greek ἀγνωσία ("agnosia"), "ignorance", "absence of knowledge". It was introduced by Sigmund Freud in 1891: "For disturbances in the recognition of objects, which Finkelnburg classes as asymbolia, I should like to propose the term 'agnosia'." Prior to Freud's introduction of the term, some of the first ideas about agnosia came from Carl Wernicke, who created theories about receptive aphasia in 1874. He noted that individuals with receptive aphasia did not possess the ability to understand speech or repeat words. He believed that receptive aphasia was due to lesions of the posterior third of the left superior temporal gyrus. Due to these lesions, Wernicke believed that individuals with receptive aphasia had a limited deafness for certain sounds and frequencies in speech.


title: Agnosia

text: After Wernicke, came Kussmaul in 1877 who attempted to explain why auditory verbal agnosia, also known as word deafness, occurs. Contrary to Wernicke's explanations, Kussmaul believed auditory verbal agnosia was the result of major destruction to the first left temporal gyrus. Kussmaul also posited about the origins of alexia (acquired dyslexia) also known as word blindness. He believed that word blindness was the result of lesions to the left angular and supramarginal gyri.


title: Agnosia

text: Heinrich Lissauer shared his ideas about agnosia after Wernicke and Kussmaul. In 1890, he theorized that there were two ways in which object recognition impairment could occur. One way in which impairment could occur was if there was damage to early perceptual processing or if there was damage to the actual object representation. If the actual object representation was damaged, this would not allow the object to be stored in visual memory, and therefore the individual would not be able to recognize the object. During the time of Wernicke, Kussmaul and Lissauer there was little known about the cerebral cortex. Today, with new neuroimaging techniques, we have been able to expand our knowledge on agnosia greatly.


title: Radix tree

text: In computer science, a radix tree (also radix trie or compact prefix tree or compressed trie) is a data structure that represents a space-optimized trie (prefix tree) in which each node that is the only child is merged with its parent. The result is that the number of children of every internal node is at most the radix of the radix tree, where is a positive integer and a power of 2, having ≥ 1. Unlike regular trees, edges can be labeled with sequences of elements as well as single elements. This makes radix trees much more efficient for small sets (especially if the strings are long) and for sets of strings that share long prefixes.


title: Radix tree

text: Unlike regular trees (where whole keys are compared "en masse" from their beginning up to the point of inequality), the key at each node is compared chunk-of-bits by chunk-of-bits, where the quantity of bits in that chunk at that node is the radix of the radix trie. When is 2, the radix trie is binary (i.e., compare that node's 1-bit portion of the key), which minimizes sparseness at the expense of maximizing trie depth—i.e., maximizing up to conflation of nondiverging bit-strings in the key. When ≥ 4 is a power of 2, then the radix trie is an -ary trie, which lessens the depth of the radix trie at the expense of potential sparseness.


title: Radix tree

text: As an optimization, edge labels can be stored in constant size by using two pointers to a string (for the first and last elements).


title: Radix tree

text: Note that although the examples in this article show strings as sequences of characters, the type of the string elements can be chosen arbitrarily; for example, as a bit or byte of the string representation when using multibyte character encodings or Unicode.


title: Radix tree

text: Radix trees are useful for constructing associative arrays with keys that can be expressed as strings. They find particular application in the area of IP routing, where the ability to contain large ranges of values with a few exceptions is particularly suited to the hierarchical organization of IP addresses. They are also used for inverted indexes of text documents in information retrieval.


title: Radix tree

text: Radix trees support insertion, deletion, and searching operations. Insertion adds a new string to the trie while trying to minimize the amount of data stored. Deletion removes a string from the trie. Searching operations include (but are not necessarily limited to) exact lookup, find predecessor, find successor, and find all strings with a prefix. All of these operations are O("k") where k is the maximum length of all strings in the set, where length is measured in the quantity of bits equal to the radix of the radix trie.


title: Radix tree

text: The lookup operation determines if a string exists in a trie. Most operations modify this approach in some way to handle their specific tasks. For instance, the node where a string terminates may be of importance. This operation is similar to tries except that some edges consume multiple elements.


title: Radix tree

text: To insert a string, we search the tree until we can make no further progress. At this point we either add a new outgoing edge labeled with all remaining elements in the input string, or if there is already an outgoing edge sharing a prefix with the remaining input string, we split it into two edges (the first labeled with the common prefix) and proceed. This splitting step ensures that no node has more children than there are possible string elements.


title: Radix tree

text: Several cases of insertion are shown below, though more may exist. Note that r simply represents the root. It is assumed that edges can be labelled with empty strings to terminate strings where necessary and that the root has no incoming edge. (The lookup algorithm described above will not work when using empty-string edges.)


title: Radix tree

text: To delete a string x from a tree, we first locate the leaf representing x. Then, assuming x exists, we remove the corresponding leaf node. If the parent of our leaf node has only one other child, then that child's incoming label is appended to the parent's incoming label and the child is removed.


title: Radix tree

text: The datastructure was invented in 1968 by Donald R. Morrison, with whom it is primarily associated, and by Gernot Gwehenberger.


title: Radix tree

text: Donald Knuth, pages 498-500 in Volume III of The Art of Computer Programming, calls these "Patricia's trees", presumably after the acronym in the title of Morrison's paper: "PATRICIA - Practical Algorithm to Retrieve Information Coded in Alphanumeric". Today, Patricia tries are seen as radix trees with radix equals 2, which means that each bit of the key is compared individually and each node is a two-way (i.e., left versus right) branch.


title: Radix tree

text: Unlike balanced trees, radix trees permit lookup, insertion, and deletion in O("k") time rather than O(log "n"). This does not seem like an advantage, since normally "k" ≥ log "n", but in a balanced tree every comparison is a string comparison requiring O("k") worst-case time, many of which are slow in practice due to long common prefixes (in the case where comparisons begin at the start of the string). In a trie, all comparisons require constant time, but it takes "m" comparisons to look up a string of length "m". Radix trees can perform these operations with fewer comparisons, and require many fewer nodes.


title: Radix tree

text: Radix trees also share the disadvantages of tries, however: as they can only be applied to strings of elements or elements with an efficiently reversible mapping to strings, they lack the full generality of balanced search trees, which apply to any data type with a total ordering. A reversible mapping to strings can be used to produce the required total ordering for balanced search trees, but not the other way around. This can also be problematic if a data type only provides a comparison operation, but not a (de)serialization operation.


title: Radix tree

text: Hash tables are commonly said to have expected O(1) insertion and deletion times, but this is only true when considering computation of the hash of the key to be a constant-time operation. When hashing the key is taken into account, hash tables have expected O("k") insertion and deletion times, but may take longer in the worst case depending on how collisions are handled. Radix trees have worst-case O("k") insertion and deletion. The successor/predecessor operations of radix trees are also not implemented by hash tables.


title: Radix tree

text: A common extension of radix trees uses two colors of nodes, 'black' and 'white'. To check if a given string is stored in the tree, the search starts from the top and follows the edges of the input string until no further progress can be made. If the search string is consumed and the final node is a black node, the search has failed; if it is white, the search has succeeded. This enables us to add a large range of strings with a common prefix to the tree, using white nodes, then remove a small set of "exceptions" in a space-efficient manner by "inserting" them using black nodes.


title: Radix tree

text: The HAT-trie is a cache-conscious data structure based on radix trees that offers efficient string storage and retrieval, and ordered iterations. Performance, with respect to both time and space, is


title: Radix tree

text: A PATRICIA trie is a special variant of the radix 2 (binary) trie, in which rather than explicitly store every bit of every key, the nodes store only the position of the first bit which differentiates two sub-trees. During traversal the algorithm examines the indexed bit of the search key and chooses the left or right sub-tree as appropriate. Notable features of the PATRICIA trie include that the trie only requires one node to be inserted for every unique key stored, making PATRICIA much more compact than a standard binary trie. Also, since the actual keys are no longer explicitly stored it is necessary to perform one full key comparison on the indexed record in order to confirm a match. In this respect PATRICIA bears a certain resemblance to indexing using a hash table.


title: Radix tree

text: The adaptive radix tree is a radix tree variant that integrates adaptive node sizes to the radix tree. One major drawback of the usual radix trees is the use of space, because it uses a constant node size in every level. The major difference between the radix tree and the adaptive radix tree is its variable size for each node based on the number of child elements, which grows while adding new entries. Hence, the adaptive radix tree leads to a better use of space without reducing its speed.


title: Radix tree

text: A common practice is to relax the criteria of disallowing parents with only one child in situations where the parent represents a valid key in the data set. This variant of radix tree achieves a higher space efficiency than the one which only allows internal nodes with at least two children.


title: LGBT parenting

text: LGBT parenting refers to lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people raising one or more children as parents or foster care parents. This includes: children raised by same-sex couples (same-sex parenting), children raised by single LGBT parents, and children raised by an opposite-sex couple where at least one partner is LGBT.


title: LGBT parenting

text: Opponents of LGBT rights have argued that LGBT parenting adversely affects children. However, scientific research consistently shows that gay and lesbian parents are as fit and capable as heterosexual parents, and their children are as psychologically healthy and well-adjusted as those reared by heterosexual parents. Major associations of mental health professionals in the U.S., Canada, and Australia have not identified credible empirical research that suggests otherwise.


title: LGBT parenting

text: LGBT people can become parents through various means including current or former relationships, coparenting, adoption, foster care, donor insemination, reciprocal IVF, and surrogacy. A gay man, a lesbian, or a transgender person who transitions later in life may have children within an opposite-sex relationship, such as a mixed-orientation marriage, for various reasons.


title: LGBT parenting

text: Some children do not know they have an LGBT parent; coming out issues vary and some parents may never reveal to their children that they identify as LGBT. Accordingly, how children respond to their LGBT parent(s) coming out has little to do with their sexual orientation or gender identification, but rather with how either parent responds to acts of coming out; i.e. whether there is dissolution of parental partnerships or rather if parents maintain a healthy, open, and communicative relationship after coming out or during transition in the case of trans parents.


title: LGBT parenting

text: Many lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender people are parents. In the 2000 U.S. Census, for example, 33 percent of female same-sex couple households and 22 percent of male same-sex couple households reported at least one child under the age of 18 living in the home. As of 2005, an estimated 270,313 children in the United States live in households headed by same-sex couples.


title: LGBT parenting

text: Joint adoption by same-sex couples is legal in 27 countries and in some sub-national territories. Furthermore, 5 countries have legalized some form of step-child adoption. Institutional heterosexism can be observed in adoption policies in many parts of the world: some countries or states explicitly prohibit adoption by openly lesbian, gay or bisexual people. Other jurisdictions make decisions about whether LGBTQ people may adopt on a case-by-case basis, with great variability between agencies depending upon the focus of the agency (special needs children, infants, etc.), the religious affiliation of the agency if any, and the disposition of area supervisors and placement workers. There are also legal barriers to international adoptions, since currently no countries which are actively involved in international adoption (e.g. China, Guatemala) permit adoption by openly identified lesbian and gay people. Bisexual, transgender and transsexual people are not typically explicitly named, but are presumably included in these prohibitions.


title: LGBT parenting

text: Sandy Schuster and Madeleine Isaacson, who met at their Pentecostal church, won America's first custody battle in favor of a lesbian couple in 1978.


title: LGBT parenting

text: In January 2008, the European Court of Human Rights ruled that an otherwise legally qualified and suitable candidate must not be excluded from adopting based on their sexual orientation.


title: LGBT parenting

text: In 2010 a Florida court declared that "reports and studies find that there are no differences in the parenting of homosexuals or the adjustment of their children", therefore the "Court is satisfied that the issue is so far beyond dispute that it would be irrational to hold otherwise."


title: LGBT parenting

text: "Fulton v. City of Philadelphia" is a Supreme Court case between Catholic Social Services (CSS) and the city of Philadelphia that took place from November 4, 2020, to June 17, 2021. The city's contracts with adoption agencies prohibit discrimination of LGBTQ couples by law. The city of Philadelphia ended its contract with CSS because the agency refused to consider LGBTQ couples when screening for foster care parents, stating that their actions were due to the religious belief that marriage is between a man and a woman. CSS operates other types of foster care services, like group homes, and received millions of dollars from Philadelphia regardless of the dismissal of their contract. In the court case, CSS claimed that the dismissal of their contract with the city was impeding on their First Amendment right. The lawyer for Philadelphia, Neal Katyal, argued that, "You can't on Monday sign a contract that says we won't discriminate and on Tuesday go ahead and discriminate." The case also aimed to overturn a prior Supreme Court case, "Employment Division v. Smith" (1990), which concluded that the government's neutral enforcement of a general law is legitimate even if it negatively impacts a religious party. The court ruled that Philadelphia's decision to dismiss the contract violated the rights granted by the Free Exercise Clause of the First Amendment. Despite siding with CSS in Fulton vs. City of Philadelphia, the court did not overturn the 1990 case ruling.


title: LGBT parenting

text: Some gay couples decide to have a surrogate pregnancy. A surrogate is a woman (possibly a parent) carrying an egg fertilized by sperm, given by a donor or given by a partner. Some people become surrogates for money, others for humanitarian reasons or both. Parents who use surrogacy services can be stigmatized.


title: LGBT parenting

text: Insemination is a method used mostly by lesbian couples. It is when a partner is fertilised with donor sperm injected through a syringe. Some people who produce sperm donate it for humanitarian reasons, others for money or both. In some countries, the donor can choose to be anonymous (for example in Spain) and in others, they cannot have their identity withheld (United Kingdom).


title: LGBT parenting

text: Reciprocal IVF is used by couples who both possess female reproductive organs. Using in vitro fertilization, eggs are removed from one partner to be used to make embryos that the other partner will hopefully carry in a successful pregnancy.


title: LGBT parenting

text: Currently scientists conduct research on alternative types of human parenthood which can aid same-sex couples to have children. One of the possibilities is obtaining sperm from skin stem cells.


title: LGBT parenting

text: According to U.S. Census Snapshot published in December 2007, same-sex couples with children have significantly fewer economic resources and significantly lower rates of homeownership than heterosexual married couples. A literature review of LGBTQ families' economic well being in the US states that there is also greater food insecurity and less ability to access resources to relieve the affects of poverty among LGBTQ families because of the fear of discrimination. One suggested reason for this is that the majority of LGBTQ couples belong to more than one marginalized group which have lower overall incomes than people in non-marginalized communities.


title: LGBT parenting

text: Data from a survey called the American Community Survey carried out from 2014-2016 estimated that the number of LGBTQ parents raising children in the United States was 114,000. Out of all of the LGBTQ couples in the US, the survey approximated that 24% of female same-sex couples were raising children in comparison to 8% of male same-sex couples. Additionally about 21% of same-sex partners had an adopted child.


title: LGBT parenting

text: A 2014 literature review of 51 surveys of Transgender people in the US found that between one quarter and one half reported being parents with more Trans women being parents than Trans men. In comparison, a 2015 survey of about 27,700 Transgender and Gender Non-conforming people found that 18% reported being a parent to a child.


title: LGBT parenting

text: An LGBTQ Family Building Survey compiled by a LGBTQ rights coalition called Family Equality found that, in the US, in 2019:63% of LGBTQ Millennials (aged 18-35) are considering expanding their families, either becoming parents for the first time, or by having more children


title: LGBT parenting

text: 48% of LGBTQ Millennials are actively planning to grow their families, compared to 55% of non-LGBTQ Millennials, a gap that has narrowed significantly in comparison to older generations


title: LGBT parenting

text: 63% of LGBTQ people planning families expect to use assisted reproductive technology, foster care, or adoption to become parents, a significant shift away from older generations of LGBTQ parents for whom the majority of children were conceived through intercourse. A study on the empowerment of LGBTQ couples in Finland found there were 4 factors that contributed to higher feelings of support: 1) Parents' willingness to create socially recognized families, 2) Parenthood support, 3) Respectful partnership with all parents, and 4) Accessible services.According to a 2013–14 survey conducted in Poland by the Institute of Psychology of the Polish Academy of Sciences (IP PAN) on 3000 LGBT people in same-sex relationships living in the country, 9% (11.7% of women and 4.6% of men) of coupled LGBT people were parents. The 2011 Canadian Census had similar conclusions to these of the Polish study: 9.4% of Canadian gay couples were bringing up children.


title: LGBT parenting

text: Scientific research consistently shows that gay and lesbian parents are as fit and capable as heterosexual parents, and their children are as psychologically healthy and well-adjusted as those reared by heterosexual parents. Major associations of mental health professionals in the U.S., Canada, and Australia have not identified credible empirical research that suggests otherwise.


title: LGBT parenting

text: In the United States, studies on the effect of gay and lesbian parenting on children were first conducted in the 1970s, and expanded through the 1980s in the context of increasing numbers of gay and lesbian parents seeking legal custody of their biological children.


title: LGBT parenting

text: Children and young adults with LGBTQ parents are uniquely defined by the fact that they typically identify as heterosexual, but as a function of their membership in an LGBTQ-parent family, they are exposed to minority stress and experience the effects of adulthood. Thus, a central question in this study is, How do young adults with LGBTQ parents explain their sense of connection to or disconnection from the LGBTQ community, both as children (while growing up with LGBTQ parents) and as young adults?


title: LGBT parenting

text: Regarding the transmission of gender roles, LGBTQ parents are caught between two contrasting images: ‘‘they are portrayed as either inherently different from, or essentially the same as, heterosexual families’’. Lesbians are either seen as a threat to heternormativity because they are militant, anti-male feminists, or as especially safe caregivers because they are two loving, nurturing women, who are unlikely to be sexually abusive. Gay men are also caught between these two contrasting images. On one hand they do not have women’s ‘‘natural’’ ability to care for children, are perceived as sexually (over)active and potentially predatory and, like lesbians, too political; on the other hand they are more maternal and more feminine than heterosexual men.


title: LGBT parenting

text: The underlying assumption is that gay men and lesbians are different in some essential way from heterosexual people, and this difference implicates their aberrant gender expression. Therefore, they are unable to model appropriate gender behavior to their children, for example, the assumption that gay fathers are unable to bathe their daughters or discuss puberty and menstruation.


title: LGBT parenting

text: Studies of LGBT parenting have sometimes suffered from small and/or non-random samples and inability to implement all possible controls, due to the small LGBT parenting population and to cultural and social obstacles to identifying as an LGBT parent.


title: LGBT parenting

text: A 1993 review published in the "Journal of Divorce & Remarriage" identified fourteen studies addressing the effects of LGBT parenting on children. The review concluded that all of the studies lacked external validity and that therefore: "The conclusion that there are no significant differences in children reared by lesbian mothers versus heterosexual mothers is not supported by the published research database."


title: LGBT parenting

text: Many of these studies suffer from similar limitations and weaknesses, with the main obstacle being the difficulty in acquiring representative, random samples on a virtually invisible population. Many lesbian and gay parents are not open about their sexual orientation due to real fears of discrimination, homophobia, and threats of losing custody of their children. Those who do participate in this type of research are usually relatively open about their homosexuality and, therefore, may bias the research towards a particular group of gay and lesbian parents.


title: LGBT parenting

text: Because of the inevitable use of convenience samples, sample sizes are usually very small and the majority of the research participants end up looking quite homogeneous—e.g. white, middle-class, urban, and well-educated. Another pattern is the wide discrepancy between the number of studies conducted with children of gay fathers and those with lesbian mothers...


title: LGBT parenting

text: Another potential factor of importance is the possibility of social desirability bias when research subjects respond in ways that present themselves and their families in the most desirable light possible. Such a phenomenon does seem possible due to the desire of this population to offset and reverse negative images and discrimination. Consequently, the findings of these studies may be patterned by self-presentation bias.


title: LGBT parenting

text: According to a 2001 review of 21 studies by Stacey and Biblarz published in "American Sociological Review": "[R]esearchers lack reliable data on the number and location of lesbigay parents with children in the general population, there are no studies of child development based on random, representative samples of such families. Most studies rely on small-scale, snowball and convenience samples were drawn primarily from personal and community networks or agencies. Most research to date has been conducted on white lesbian mothers who are comparatively educated, mature, and reside in relatively progressive urban centers, most often in California or the Northeastern states."


title: LGBT parenting

text: In more recent studies, many of these issues have been resolved due to factors such as the changing social climate for LGBT people.


title: LGBT parenting

text: The overall methodological sophistication and quality of studies in this domain have increased over the years, as would be expected for any new area of empirical inquiry. More recent research has reported data from probability and community-based convenience samples, has used more rigorous assessment techniques, and has been published in highly respected and widely cited developmental psychology journals, including "Child Development and Developmental Psychology". Data are increasingly available from prospective studies. In addition, whereas early study samples consisted mainly of children originally born into heterosexual relationships that subsequently dissolved when one parent came out as gay or lesbian, recent samples are more likely to include children conceived within a same-sex relationship or adopted in infancy by a same-sex couple. Thus, they are less likely to confound the effects of having a sexual minority parent with the consequences of divorce.


title: LGBT parenting

text: A 2002 review of the literature identified 20 studies examining outcomes among children raised by gay or lesbian parents and found that these children did not systematically differ from those raised by heterosexual parents on any of the studied outcomes.


title: LGBT parenting

text: In a 2009 affidavit filed in the case "Gill v. Office of Personnel Management", Michael Lamb, a professor of psychology and head of Department of Social and Developmental Psychology at Cambridge University, stated:


title: LGBT parenting

text: The methodologies used in the major studies of same-sex parenting meet the standards for research in the field of developmental psychology and psychology generally. The studies specific to same-sex parenting were published in leading journals in the field of child and adolescent development, such as Child Development, published by the Society for Research in Child Development, Developmental Psychology, published by the American Psychological Association, and The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, the flagship peer-review journals in the field of child development. Most of the studies appeared in these (or similar) rigorously peer-reviewed and highly selective journals, whose standards represent expert consensus on generally accepted social scientific standards for research on child and adolescent development. Prior to publication in these journals, these studies were required to go through a rigorous peer-review process, and as a result, they constitute the type of research that members of the respective professions consider reliable. The body of research on same-sex families is consistent with standards in the relevant fields and produces reliable conclusions."


title: LGBT parenting

text: Gartrell and Bos's 25-year longitudinal study, published 2010, was limited to mothers who sought donor insemination and who may have been more motivated than mothers in other circumstances. Gartrell and Bos note that the study's limitations included utilizing a non-random sample, and the lesbian group and control group were not matched for race or area of residence.


title: LGBT parenting

text: Michael J. Rosenfeld, associate professor of sociology at Stanford University, wrote in a 2010 study published in "Demography" that "[A] critique of the literature—that the sample sizes of the studies are too small to allow for statistically powerful tests—continues to be relevant." Rosenfeld's study, "the first to use large-sample nationally representative data," found that children of same-sex couples demonstrated normal outcomes in school. "The core finding here," reports the study," offers a measure of validation for the prior, and much-debated, small-sample studies."


title: LGBT parenting

text: In 2010 American Psychological Association, The California Psychological Association, The American Psychiatric Association, and the American Association for Marriage and Family Therapy stated:


title: LGBT parenting

text: A significant increase in methodological rigor was achieved in a 2020 study by Deni Mazrekaj at University of Oxford, Kristof De Witte and Sofie Cabus at KU Leuven published in the American Sociological Review. The authors used administrative longitudinal data on the entire population of children born between 1998 and 2007 in the Netherlands, which was the first country to legalize same-sex marriage. They followed the educational performance of 2,971 children with same-sex parents and over a million children with different-sex parents from birth. This was the first study to address how children who were actually raised by same-sex parents from birth (instead of happening to live with a same-sex couple at some point in time) perform in school while retaining a large representative sample. The authors found that children raised by same-sex parents from birth perform better than children raised by different-sex parents in both primary and secondary education. According to the authors, a major factor explaining these results was parental socioeconomic status. Same-sex couples often have to use expensive fertility treatments and adoption procedures to have a child, meaning they tend to be wealthier, older and more educated than the typical different-sex couple. However, the study concluded that the positive effects of being raised by same-sex parents still remained after controlling for socioeconomic status, though they did lessen. The authors hypothesize that homophobic discrimination could cause same-sex parents to compensate by investing more time and energy into their children.


title: LGBT parenting

text: Scientific research that has directly compared outcomes for children with gay and lesbian parents with outcomes for children with heterosexual parents has found that children raised by same-sex couples are as physically or psychologically healthy, capable, and successful as those raised by opposite-sex couples, despite the reality that considerable legal discrimination and inequity remain significant challenges for these families. Major associations of mental health professionals in the U.S., Canada, and Australia, have not identified credible empirical research that suggests otherwise. Sociologist Wendy Manning echoes their conclusion that "[The] studies reveal that children raised in same-sex parent families fare just as well as children raised in different-sex parent families across a wide spectrum of child well-being measures: academic performance, cognitive development, social development, psychological health, early sexual activity, and substance abuse." The range of these studies allows for conclusions to be drawn beyond any narrow spectrum of a child's well-being, and the literature further indicates that parents' financial, psychological and physical well-being is enhanced by marriage and that children benefit from being raised by two parents within a legally recognized union. There is evidence that nuclear families with homosexual parents are more egalitarian in their distribution of home and childcare activities, and thus less likely to embrace traditional gender roles. Nonetheless, the American Academy of Pediatrics reports that there are no differences in the interests and hobbies between children with homosexual versus heterosexual parents.


title: LGBT parenting

text: Since the 1970s, it has become increasingly clear that it is family processes (such as the quality of parenting, the psychosocial well-being of parents, the quality of and satisfaction with relationships within the family, and the level of co-operation and harmony between parents) that contribute to determining children's well-being and outcomes rather than family structures, per se, such as the number, gender, sexuality and cohabitation status of parents. Since the end of the 1980s, as a result, it has been well established that children and adolescents can be as well-adjusted in nontraditional settings as in traditional settings. Furthermore, whereas factors such as the number and cohabitation status of parents can and do influence relationship quality in aggregate, the same has not been demonstrated for sexuality. According to sociologist Judith Stacey of New York University, "Rarely is there as much consensus in any area of social science as in the case of gay parenting, which is why the American Academy of Pediatrics and all of the major professional organizations with expertise in child welfare have issued reports and resolutions in support of gay and lesbian parental rights". These organizations include the American Academy of Pediatrics, the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, the American Psychiatric Association, the American Psychological Association, the American Association for Marriage and Family Therapy, the American Psychoanalytic Association, the National Association of Social Workers, the Child Welfare League of America, the North American Council on Adoptable Children, and Canadian Psychological Association. In 2006, Gregory M. Herek stated in "American Psychologist": "If gay, lesbian, or bisexual parents were inherently less capable than otherwise comparable heterosexual parents, their children would evidence problems regardless of the type of sample. This pattern clearly has not been observed. Given the consistent failures in this research literature to disprove the null hypothesis, the burden of empirical proof is on those who argue that the children of sexual minority parents fare worse than the children of heterosexual parents."


title: LGBT parenting

text: Studies and analyses include Bridget Fitzgerald's 1999 analysis of the research on gay and lesbian parenting, published in "Marriage & Family Review", which found that the available studies generally concluded that "the sexual orientation of parents is not an effective or important predictor of successful childhood development" and Gregory M. Herek's 2006 analysis in "American Psychologist", which said: "Despite considerable variation in the quality of their samples, research design, measurement methods, and data analysis techniques, the findings to date have been remarkably consistent. Empirical studies comparing children raised by sexual minority parents with those raised by otherwise comparable heterosexual parents have not found reliable disparities in mental health or social adjustment. Differences have not been found in parenting ability between lesbian mothers and heterosexual mothers. Studies examining gay fathers are fewer in number but do not show that gay men are any less fit or able as parents than heterosexual men." Additionally, some fear that children will inherit their parent's gender dysphoria or alternate mental health issues in the case of trans parent, yet there is research that suggests "an absence of evidence that children raised by transgendered parents have a greater chance of experiencing […] development issues than raised by non-transgender parents" and further clinical research shows that "children of gender-variant parents do not develop gender dysphoria or mental diseases" due to their parents' diagnosis with gender identity disorder A 1996 meta-analysis found "no differences on any measures between the heterosexual and homosexual parents regarding parenting styles, emotional adjustment, and sexual orientation of the child(ren)"; and a 2008 meta-analysis reached similar conclusions.


title: LGBT parenting

text: In June 2010, the results of a 25-year ongoing longitudinal study by Nanette Gartrell of the University of California and Henny Bos of the University of Amsterdam were released. Gartrell and Bos studied 78 children conceived through donor insemination and raised by lesbian mothers. Mothers were interviewed and given clinical questionnaires during pregnancy and when their children were 2, 5, 10, and 17 years of age. In the abstract of the report, the authors stated: "According to their mothers' reports, the 17-year-old daughters and sons of lesbian mothers were rated significantly higher in social, school/academic, and total competence and significantly lower in social problems, rule-breaking, aggressive, and externalizing problem behavior than their age-matched counterparts in Achenbach's normative sample of American youth."


title: LGBT parenting

text: Analysis of extensive social science literature into the question of children's psychological outcomes of being raised by same-sex parents by the Australian Institute of Family Studies in 2013 concluded that "there is now strong evidence that same-sex parented families constitute supportive environments in which to raise children" and that with regard to lesbian parenting "...clear benefits appear to exist with regard to: the quality of parenting children experience in comparison to their peers parented in heterosexual couple families; children's and young adults' greater tolerance of sexual and gender diversity; and gender flexibility displayed by children, particularly sons."


title: LGBT parenting

text: Reviews of data from studies thus far suggest that children reared by non-heterosexual parents have outcomes similar to those of children reared by heterosexual parents with respect to sexual orientation. According to the U.S. Census, 80% of the children being raised by same-sex couples in the United States are their biological children. Regarding biological children of non-heterosexuals, a 2016 review lead by J. Michael Bailey states "We would expect, for example, that homosexual parents should be more likely than heterosexual parents to have homosexual children on the basis of genetics alone", since there is some genetic contribution to sexual orientation, and parents and children share 50 percent of their genes.


title: LGBT parenting

text: Important observations from research on twins separated at birth and large adoption studies, is that parents tend to have little to no environmental effects on their children's behavioural traits, which are instead correlated with genes shared between parent and child and the non-shared environment (environment which is unique to the child, such as random developmental noise and events, as opposed to rearing). The 2016 Bailey et al. review concludes that there "is good evidence for both genetic and nonsocial environmental influences on sexual orientation" including prenatal developmental events, but that there is better evidence for biological mechanisms relating to male sexual orientation, which appears unresponsive to socialization, saying "we would be surprised if differences in social environment contributed to differences in male sexual orientation at all." In contrast, they say that female sexual orientation may be somewhat responsive to social environment, saying "it would also be less surprising to us to discover that social environment affects female sexual orientation and related behavior, that possibility must be scientifically supported rather than assumed."


title: LGBT parenting

text: A 2013 statement from the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry states that children of LGBT parents do not have any differences in their gender role behaviors in comparison to those observed in heterosexual family structures.


title: LGBT parenting

text: A 2005 review by Charlotte J. Patterson for the American Psychological Association found that the available data did not suggest higher rates of homosexuality among the children of lesbian or gay parents. Herek's 2006 review describes the available data on the point as limited. Stacey and Biblarz and Herek stress that the sexual orientation and gender identification of children is of limited relevance to discussions of parental fitness or policies based on the same. In a 2010 review comparing single-father families with other family types, Stacey and Biblarz state, "We know very little yet about how parents influence the development of their children's sexual identities or how these intersect with gender." When it comes to family socialization processes and "contextual effects," Stacey and Biblarz say that children with such parents are more likely to grow up in relatively more tolerant school, neighborhood, and social contexts.


title: LGBT parenting

text: Children may struggle with negative attitudes about their parents from the harassment they may encounter by living in society. There are many risks and challenges that can occur for children of LGBT families and their parents in North America, including those in the individual domain, family domain, and community/school domain. Hegemonic social norms can lead some children to struggle in all or several domains. Social interactions at school, extracurricular activities, and religious organizations can promote negative attitudes towards their parents and themselves based on gender and sexuality. Bias, stereotypes, micro-aggressions, harm, and violence that both students and parents can often encounter are a result of identifying outside of social normative, cis-gender, heterosexual society or having their identity used as a weapon against them.


title: LGBT parenting

text: The forms of harm and violence that LGBT young people can experience include physical harm and harassment, cyber harassment, assault, bullying, micro-aggressions and beyond. Due to the increased risk of harm experienced, children of LGBT parents and LGBT students can also experience increased levels of stress, anxiety, and self-esteem issues. Several legal and social protections support children and parents who experience transphobia and homophobia in the community, school, and family. Practicing and developing supportive networks within schools and working towards resilience skills can assist in creating safe environments for students and parents. Social supports, ally development, and positive school environments are direct ways to challenge homophobia and transphobia directed at these students and their families. Several networks and school clubs can be set up and led by student youth to create positive school environments and community environments for LGBT students and their families. Organizations such as Gay-Straight Alliance Network (GSA), American Civil Liberties Union(ACLU), and Gay, Lesbian, and Straight Education Network (GLSEN) can assist in supportive school environments. Community resources for LGBT children and parents such as the Human Rights Campaign (HRC), The Trevor Project, and Parents, Families, and Friends of Lesbians and Gays (PFLAG) can assist in building personal support systems.


title: LGBT parenting

text: Stephen Hicks, a reader in health and social care at the University of Salford questions the value of trying to establish that lesbian or gay parents are defective or suitable. He argues such positions are flawed because they are informed by ideologies that either oppose or support such families. In Hicks' view: