title: Religion and alcohol

text: In the ancient Mediterranean world, the Cult of Dionysus and the Orphic mysteries used wine as part of their religious practices. During Dionysian festivals and rituals, wine was drunk as way to reach ecstatic states along with music and dance. Intoxication from alcohol was seen as a state of possession by spirit of the god of wine Dionysus. Religious drinking festivals called Bacchanalia were popular in Italy and associated with the gods Bacchus and Liber. These Dionysian rites were frequently outlawed by the Roman Senate.


title: Religion and alcohol

text: In the Norse religion the drinking of ales and meads was important in several seasonal religious festivals such as Yule and Midsummer as well as more common festivities like wakes, christenings and ritual sacrifices called Blóts. Neopagan and Wiccan religions also allow for the use of alcohol for ritual purposes as well as for recreation.


title: Religion and alcohol

text: Research has been conducted by social scientists and epidemiologists to see if correlations exist between religiosity and alcoholism. It showed that, in Ireland, religious teenagers have a more restricted attitude towards alcohol, but the study was limited to Christianity. By contrast, in America, the extent of the correlation between alcohol consumption and religion depended upon religious denomination.


title: Base bleed

text: Base bleed is a system used on some artillery shells to increase range, typically by about 20–35%. It expels gas into the low pressure area behind the shell to reduce base drag (it does not produce thrust).


title: Base bleed

text: Since base bleed extends the range by a percentage, it is more useful on longer range artillery where an increase of approximately can be achieved. Until the late 1980s the small gains in range were not considered worthwhile for field artillery. Base bleed shells are becoming more common in units equipped with modern artillery with far greater range than older guns, but are usually only used when the longer range is required, due to their higher cost.


title: Base bleed

text: Most (50–60%) of the drag on an artillery shell comes from the nose of the shell, as it pushes the air out of its way at supersonic speeds. Shaping the shell properly can reduce this drag.


title: Base bleed

text: However, another powerful source of drag is the low-pressure area left behind the shell due to its blunt base. Base bleed can reduce this drag without extending the base of the shell. Instead, a small ring of metal extends just past the base, and the area in the rear of the shell is filled with a small gas generator. The gas generator provides little to no thrust, but fills the vacuum in the area behind the shell with an inflow of gas, dramatically reducing drag. It was found that the reduced turbulence also gave the projectiles a more consistent trajectory, resulting in tighter grouping.


title: Base bleed

text: The only disadvantage, apart from higher cost, was a small loss in explosive payload in older shells due to some of the space inside the shell being taken up by this mechanism, but modern gas generators are smaller, and are incorporated in the shell casing.


title: Base bleed

text: The principles were developed in Sweden in the mid-1960s, by the Försvarets forskningsanstalt (abbreviated FOA), and the Artillery bureau at the "Kungliga Materielförvaltningen" (later the Försvarets Materielverk (FMV)) while working on a rocket-assisted projectile called "reatil". Their goal was to increase the range of coastal artillery. By 1966, it had been concluded that a small, slow-burning charge at the base of the projectile would alleviate the low pressure behind the shell, hence increasing the range by lessening the difference between the pressure due to aerodynamic drag on the nose of the shell and the low pressure behind the base. The first full-scale tests took place in 1969 with modified 10.5 cm steel shells, with excellent results, and the Swedish patent was granted FOA in 1971 although both application and patent were classified. Since the development was done, the patent was transferred to FMV for procurement to the armed forces of Sweden.


title: Base bleed

text: The concept was quickly implemented into the 7.5 cm sjömålsgranat m/66 (7.5 cm anti-ship shell m/66) used in the 7.5 cm tornpjäs m/57 fixed coastal artillery gun, and then rapidly into all anti-ship shells in the Swedish military.


title: Base bleed

text: Since FMV was to contract a company in the US to manufacture the gas generator for the 12 cm sjömålsgranat m/70 (12 cm anti-ship shell m/70), used in the 12 cm TAP m/70 fixed coastal artillery gun, the classification "secret" was removed from the patent. Shortly thereafter the international rights were sold, eventually ending up with the Space Research Corporation (SRC), then owned by aeronautical engineer Gerald Bull.


title: 1960 Winter Olympics

text: The 1960 Winter Olympics (officially the VIII Olympic Winter Games and also known as Squaw Valley 1960) were a winter multi-sport event held from February 18 to 28, 1960, at the Squaw Valley Resort (now known as Palisades Tahoe) in Squaw Valley, California, United States. The resort was chosen to host the Games at the 1956 meeting of the International Olympic Committee (IOC). Squaw Valley was an undeveloped resort in 1955, so the infrastructure and all of the venues were built between 1956 and 1960 at a cost of . The layout was designed to be intimate, allowing spectators and competitors to reach most of the venues on foot.


title: 1960 Winter Olympics

text: The 1960 Winter Games hosted athletes from 30 nations, competing in four sports and 27 events. Biathlon and women's speed skating made their Olympic debuts. Bobsled was not on the Winter Olympic program for the only time; the organizers had decided the events did not warrant the cost of building a bobsled venue after a poll indicated that only nine countries were planning to participate.


title: 1960 Winter Olympics

text: Squaw Valley, now called Palisades Tahoe, was a struggling ski resort with minimal facilities, which made its selection to host the 1960 Winter Olympics a surprise. Wayne Poulsen and Alexander Cushing were inspired to bid for the Olympics by a newspaper article mentioning that Reno, Nevada, and Anchorage, Alaska, had expressed interest in the Games. Poulsen, president of the Squaw Valley Development Company, petitioned California Governor Goodwin Knight to support a bid to host the Olympic Games. Knight's administration agreed and recommended that the California Legislature appropriate $1 million to the effort.


title: 1960 Winter Olympics

text: Based on the financial support received from the State of California, the United States Olympic Committee (USOC) approved the bid on January 7, 1955. Cushing and the USOC received a resolution passed by the United States Congress and signed by President Dwight Eisenhower, calling on the International Olympic Committee (IOC) to consider Squaw Valley's bid for the 1960 Games. Preliminary reports were drafted and submitted to the IOC, which was considering bids from Innsbruck, Austria, St. Moritz, Switzerland and Chamonix, France.


title: 1960 Winter Olympics

text: Squaw Valley was provisionally awarded the right to host the Games, but IOC president Avery Brundage warned the Organizing Committee that unless more funds were secured by April 1956, the bid would be awarded to Innsbruck. Another $4 million was committed by the state legislature, which met Brundage's requirements, and on April 4, 1956, the right to host the 1960 Winter Olympics was officially awarded to Squaw Valley. Competitors and officials from European nations were angered by the selection; they felt that the alpine ski courses were not up to specifications and that its base elevation of above sea level would prove too stressful on the athletes.


title: 1960 Winter Olympics

text: Squaw Valley in 1956 consisted of one chair lift, two rope tows, and a fifty-room lodge. Cushing presented the site as a blank canvas of unspoiled environment, where a world-class ski resort could be constructed. The obscurity of the location was underscored at the closing ceremonies of the 1956 Winter Olympics. Traditionally the mayor of the current host city passes a flag to the mayor of the next host city signalling the transfer of the Games. Since Squaw Valley was an unincorporated village it had no city government. John Garland, an IOC member from California, was asked to stand in and received the flag from the mayor of Cortina d'Ampezzo.


title: 1960 Winter Olympics

text: After winning the right to host the Games, the California Olympic Commission was formed. They were given four years to build venues, an Olympic Village, and expand infrastructure. With the expansion of roads, bridges, water and electrical capacity the resort of Squaw Valley became the city of Squaw Valley. Hotels, restaurants, administration buildings, a Sheriff's office and a sewage pumping and treatment plant were all constructed to support the influx of visitors for the Games. Organizers wanted the Olympics to be intimate with the venues close to one another. The Blyth Memorial Ice Arena was built along with three outdoor skating rinks, a 400-meter speed skating oval and four dormitories to house athletes. One venue deemed impractical to build was the bobsled run. Organizers felt the lack of possible entrants and the high cost of building the run were sufficient deterrents to leave the bobsled events off the 1960 Olympic program.


title: 1960 Winter Olympics

text: Several design innovations and new technologies were used for the 1960 Games. The speed skating, figure skating and ice hockey events were held on artificial ice for the first time in Olympic history. A refrigeration plant capable of heating 4,800 homes had to be built to generate and maintain the ice. The heat generated from the refrigeration plant was used to warm spectators, provide hot water, and melt the snow off of roofs. New timing equipment provided by Longines was installed that used a quartz clock to measure to the hundredths of a second. IBM provided a computer that was capable of tabulating results and printing them in English and French. Blyth Arena, site of the opening and closing ceremonies as well as the figure skating and ice hockey competitions, was built with a gap in the roof, which would slide closed as the cables supporting the roof contracted during cold weather.


title: 1960 Winter Olympics

text: Funding for Cushing's initial bid to the IOC came from the California Legislature and investors in the "Squaw Valley Development Company", who were owners of the existing resort. To fund the construction, organizers turned to the federal government, which provided about a quarter of the $80 million required to host the Games. The monies were used to build sports arenas and provide military support during the Games. Further funding was secured from private sponsorships and from the State of California. Governor Knight and his successor Edmund "Pat" Brown remained behind the project, seeing it as a means to showcase the state of California to the world.


title: 1960 Winter Olympics

text: Television was not new to the Olympic Winter Games; broadcasts of events to European audiences had begun in 1956. What was unprecedented was the sale of exclusive United States television rights to broadcast the Games. The Organizing Committee decided to sell the television broadcast rights to CBS for $50,000. Unknown at the time was how lucrative the sale of broadcast rights would become. For example, CBS purchased the rights to broadcast the 1960 Summer Olympics for $550,000. During the Games, CBS broadcast 15 and a quarter hours of television focusing on ice hockey, speed skating, figure skating, alpine skiing and ski jumping. The impact of television was felt during the Games; in the men's slalom event, officials who were unsure if a skier had missed a gate asked CBS if they could review tape of the event. This request gave CBS the idea for what is now known as instant replay.


title: 1960 Winter Olympics

text: Athletic competition between the Soviet Union and United States had grown intense during the 1950s. Their opposing ideologies and interests in nations such as East and West Germany, China and North and South Korea created a delicate situation as the 1960 Winter Games approached. Of particular interest was the question of whether China would be allowed to participate. Chinese athletes last competed at the 1952 Summer Games but had since withdrawn from the IOC due to a dispute over Taiwan's participation as a separate country. The US supported Taiwan while the Soviet Union stood behind China. Given that the 1960 Games were to be held in the US, there was concern among IOC members that the host nation would not allow China or any other Communist country to take part. In 1957, IOC president Avery Brundage, an American, announced that if the US refused entry to any country recognized by the IOC, they would revoke Squaw Valley's invitation to host the Games and he would resign the presidency. The US did allow athletes from Communist countries to participate. China continued calls for Taiwan to be expelled from the IOC, demands that were refused until China broke off relations ending any hope they would participate in the 1960 Games.


title: 1960 Winter Olympics

text: Problems similar to the issue with China broke out over North Korea and East Germany. Prior to the Korean War the IOC had recognized the Olympic committee of Korea, which was headquartered in Seoul. North Korea was not recognized as a separate country by the IOC who maintained the existence of one Olympic committee. A unified team compromise was proposed but rejected by North Koreans, which meant only athletes from South Korea participated due to their prior recognition. Pressure for full recognition of East Germany continued despite the fact that both East and West Germany had participated as a unified team in 1956. One of the conditions for a unified German team was that the athletes be represented by a neutral flag. Initially West German officials refused to agree to this stipulation citing the fact that the West German flag had been used at both the 1956 Winter and Summer Games, although that flag was also used by East Germany prior to 1959. Eventually the neutral flag was adopted and a unified German team participated.


title: 1960 Winter Olympics

text: The Games were held from February 18 to 28. Medals were awarded in 27 events contested in 4 sports (8 disciplines). The sport of biathlon was added to the program as were speed skating events for women. After a poll was taken indicating that only nine countries would send a bobsled team, the organizers determined that bobsled would be removed from the Olympic program. Despite petitions from the International Bobsleigh and Tobogganing Federation to reconsider, the organizers felt they could not justify the costs of constructing a bobsled run for nine competing nations. It would be the only time in Winter Olympic history that the bobsled events were not held.


title: 1960 Winter Olympics

text: The chairman of the Pageantry Committee was Walt Disney, who was responsible for producing both the opening and closing ceremonies at Blyth Memorial Arena. He organized an opening that included 5,000 entertainers, the release of 2,000 pigeons, and a military gun salute of eight shots, one for each of the previous Winter Olympic Games. The opening ceremonies were held on February 18, 1960, at Blyth Arena in the midst of a blizzard. The heavy snow fall caused traffic problems that delayed the ceremony by an hour. The festivities began with a sustained drum roll as the flags of each participating nation were raised on specially designed flag poles. Vice President Richard Nixon represented the United States government and declared the Games open. The Olympic cauldron was lit by Kenneth Henry, Olympic champion of the 500 meter speed skating race at the 1952 Winter Olympics in Oslo. The Olympic oath was taken by Carol Heiss on behalf of all the athletes. As the national delegations left the stadium fireworks concluded the ceremonies.


title: 1960 Winter Olympics

text: The ice hockey tournament took place at Blyth Arena and the Squaw Valley Olympic Skating Rink. Controversy over the amateur status of communist players overshadowed the event. Canadian Olympic officials objected to the use of "professional amateurs" by Eastern Bloc countries, and especially the Soviet Union. They alleged that the Soviets were giving their elite hockey players phantom jobs in the military that allowed them to play hockey full-time, which gave Soviet teams an advantage that they used to dominate Olympic hockey tournaments for more than 30 years. This issue started coming to light during the 1960 Games and would culminate in a Canadian boycott of the Olympic hockey tournament at the 1972 and 1976 Winter Olympics. The team from the United States won an improbable gold medal, defeating the favored Canadian and Soviet teams, who took silver and bronze respectively. This was the first Olympic gold medal in ice hockey for the United States and it would mark the last time a Soviet team did not win the Olympic tournament until the United States victory at the 1980 Winter Olympics.


title: 1960 Winter Olympics

text: There were six cross-country skiing races at the 1960 Olympics, four for men and two for women, all held at the McKinney Creek Cross-Country Complex. Soviet women swept the 10 kilometer race, which was the first medal sweep for the Soviets in cross-country skiing at the Winter Olympics. They were however upset by Sweden in the 3×5 kilometer relay. Nordic countries dominated the men's competition. Swedish lumberjack Sixten Jernberg added a gold and silver to the four medals he won in 1956. He would add two golds and a bronze in 1964 to finish his Olympic career with nine medals, which made him the most decorated Winter Olympian. Finnish skier Veikko Hakulinen added a gold, silver and bronze to the two golds and two silvers he had won in 1952 and 1956.


title: 1960 Winter Olympics

text: Biathlon made its Olympic debut in 1960. The precursor to biathlon, military patrol, was on the Olympic program for the first Olympic Games in 1924. It was a demonstration sport at the 1928, 1936, and 1948 Winter Olympics, though the competition was only open to members of the armed forces. Military patrol fell out of favor in 1948 due to anti-military sentiments in the post World War II era. Biathlon took its place and was instated as a full Olympic sport in 1960. It encompassed a 20 kilometer cross-country race with four shooting stations at ranges from . Klas Lestander from Sweden became the first Olympic champion, Antti Tyrväinen from Finland and Soviet Aleksandr Privalov placed second and third respectively.


title: 1960 Winter Olympics

text: The Nordic combined competition was held on February 21 at the Squaw Valley normal hill and the McKinney Creek Cross-Country Complex. The athletes had three jumps on February 21 followed by a 15 kilometer cross-country race. German skier Georg Thoma became the first non-Nordic athlete to win the event. He would win bronze medal in the Nordic combined in 1964. Tormod Knutsen of Norway and Nikolay Gusakov of the Soviet Union placed second and third, respectively. Gusakov's wife, Maria Gusakova, competed in the cross-country events, winning a gold and silver.


title: 1960 Winter Olympics

text: There was one ski jumping event at the 1960 Games, the men's normal hill, which was held on February 28. In 1964, the competition would be expanded to include a men's large hill event. Helmut Recknagel became the first German to win the event. In 1994 he would be joined by Jens Weißflog as the only German ski jumping Olympic champions. Niilo Halonen from Finland and Austrian Otto Leodolter earned the silver and bronze medals.


title: 1960 Winter Olympics

text: Held at Blyth Memorial Arena, the figure skating competition took place between February 19 and 26. Although this was not the first time figure skating had been held indoors, it would never be contested outdoors again. There were three events: men's and women's singles and the pairs competition. In the men's event, David Jenkins of the United States, brother of 1956 Winter Olympic figure skating champion Hayes Jenkins, won the gold medal. It was his second Olympic medal, having won the bronze in 1956. Czechoslovakian Karol Divín took the silver medal, and Canadian Donald Jackson won the bronze. American Carol Heiss, winner of the silver medal in 1956, became the Olympic champion in 1960. A year later she married Hayes Jenkins and starred in "Snow White and the Three Stooges". Dutch skater Sjoukje Dijkstra took the silver medal; she would finish her amateur career with an Olympic gold medal in 1964. Barbara Ann Roles gave the United States its third figure skating medal of the competition when she took the bronze. The Soviet Union made its Olympic figure skating debut by sending two couples to compete in the pairs competition; the result belied the fact that Soviet skaters would soon come to dominate this event. The competition was won by the Canadian pair of Barbara Wagner and Bob Paul who had won the last three world championships. The German pair Marika Kilius and Hans-Jürgen Bäumler followed their recent European championship victory with the Olympic silver medal, and the American husband-and-wife team of Ron and Nancy Ludington took the bronze.


title: 1960 Winter Olympics

text: Women were allowed to compete in the Olympic speed skating competition for the first time in 1960. Multiple nations had requested the inclusion of women's speed skating events in the program for the 1956 Games, but the request was rejected by the IOC. The issue was revisited for the 1960 Games, and since women had been competing internationally since 1936 and there was a World Championship for women's speed skating, the IOC agreed to four events; 500, 1,000, 1,500, and 3,000 meters (the same as the number of men's events). Most of the events were held on the Squaw Valley Olympic Skating Rink, which was an outdoor skating oval, and featured artificial ice, a first for the Olympic speed skating competition. Given the altitude and the artificial ice, the rink was the fastest in the world, as evidenced by Norwegian Knut Johannesen’s world record in the 10,000 meter event. At 15:46.6 he was the first skater ever to break the 16-minute barrier, and eclipsed the previous world record by 46 seconds. Despite Johannesen's victory, the Soviets dominated the speed skating events, winning all but two of the races. Yevgeny Grishin won both the 500 and 1,500 meter races, though he shared the 1,500 meter gold medal with Norwegian Roald Aas. Grishin said that “watching the Soviet flag wave in the blue American sky” was the proudest moment of his life. Lidiya Skoblikova from the Soviet Union was the other double gold medalist, when she won the 1,500 and 3,000 meter events. Polish skaters Helena Pilejczyk and Elwira Seroczyńska placed second and third in the 1,500 meter event, which were Poland's only medals of the Games. They were just the second and third Poles ever to win Winter Olympic medals.


title: 1960 Winter Olympics

text: Despite the lack of facilities at Squaw Valley, the resort did have steep mountain slopes in close proximity, resulting in some of the most difficult alpine skiing courses in Olympic history. Both men and women competed in the downhill, giant slalom and slalom with all 6 events held between February 20 and 26. The men's downhill was won by Frenchman Jean Vuarnet who changed the sport by becoming the first Olympic champion to use metal skis. Swiss skier Roger Staub won the giant slalom and Ernst Hinterseer from Austria was the slalom champion. German Heidi Biebl won the women's downhill, Yvonne Rüegg of Switzerland won the giant slalom and Anne Heggtveit from Canada won the slalom. Penny Pitou of the United States was the only multiple medal winner with two silvers in the downhill and giant slalom.


title: 1960 Winter Olympics

text: The Games were brought to a close on afternoon of February 28 in Blyth Memorial Arena in front of 20,000 people. Flags of the participating nations were followed by the athletes who marched as a group with no national distinctions, a tradition carried over from the 1956 Summer Olympics. The flag bearers made a semi-circle around the rostrum and the national anthems of Greece (even though the nation didn't send a delegation to Squaw Valley), the United States, and Austria were played as their respective flags were raised. The Olympic Charter determinates that Greek flag honored Greece as the originators of the Olympic Games, the United States flag represented the host nation and the Austrian flag was raised because Innsbruck, Austria was to be the host of next games. IOC president Avery Brundage declared the Games closed, at which point the Olympic flame was extinguished. The Games concluded with the release of several thousand balloons.


title: 1960 Winter Olympics

text: The opening ceremony was held on February 18, along with the first games of the Ice hockey tournament. From February 19 to 28, at least one event final was held each day.


title: 1960 Winter Olympics

text: The lack of facilities prior to the Olympics gave organizers freedom to tailor the layout of the venues to fit the needs of the athletes. Their vision was for an intimate Games in which athletes and spectators could walk between venues. This was accomplished with the exception of the cross-country events, which were held at McKinney Creek, a drive from Squaw Valley. In prior Winter Olympics the athletes were housed in hotels or billeted with local families. Since no such facilities existed in Squaw Valley, the organizers decided to build the first Olympic Village at the Winter Games. Competitors slept in one of four dormitories and ate together in a dining room. The complex was located centrally, with access to all the sporting facilities.


title: 1960 Winter Olympics

text: The peaks surrounding Squaw Valley were used for the alpine skiing events. The ladies' downhill and men's slalom and giant slalom were on KT-22 mountain, while the ladies' slalom and giant slalom were contested on Little Papoose Peak. Squaw Peak was the site of the men's downhill competition. Prior to the Games, concerns persisted that the courses would not meet international standards. To address these concerns, a test event was held in 1959 and the attending delegates from the International Ski Federation (FIS) left assured that the events would comply with FIS rules and specifications. Bleachers were constructed for officials, coaches and spectators, along with broadcast booths for radio and television. Papoose Peak Jumps was located on Little Papoose Peak directly opposite Blyth Memorial Arena. Designed by Heini Klopfer, the hill was innovative in that it had 40-, 60-, and 80–meter jumps. Tall trees on both sides protected athletes from the wind, and it was situated so that the sun would be at the jumper's back during the competition.


title: 1960 Winter Olympics

text: McKinney Creek Stadium was built to host all of the cross-country races, which included the biathlon and a portion of the Nordic combined competition. It consisted of a timing building, two Quonset huts for competitors and course workers, a scoreboard, and bleachers to accommodate 1,200 people. Shooting ranges were interspersed throughout the biathlon course, and were supervised by non-commissioned officers of the United States military.


title: 1960 Winter Olympics

text: Season tickets for the Games ranged from $60 to $250, the latter included a reserved seat at the ice arena; the daily admission fee


title: 1960 Winter Olympics

text: Blyth Memorial Arena was the centerpiece of the Games. It hosted the opening and closing ceremonies jointly with Squaw Valley Olympic Skating Rink, and also hosted the figure skating competition, a few of the speed skating events, as well as most of the games in the hockey tournament. All three of the sports were held indoors on artificial ice for the first time in Olympic history. At full capacity, the arena accommodated 11,000 people, 8,500 of whom were seated. One end of the stadium could be opened and closed, depending on the event. During the ceremonies it was open to allow for the entrance of the athletes; during the competitions it was closed to accommodate more spectators. A special machine was created to resurface the ice for all three competitions. It could lay a new ice surface on the 400-meter speed skating track in 45 minutes. In addition to resurfacing the ice, the machine created the snow dividers that delineated the racing lanes. The roof was designed on a suspension principle, using cables rather than vertical supports; this removed any visual impediments for the audience, but it weakened the strength of the roof. Given the amount of annual snowfall designers planned on using heat generated by the refrigeration plant to melt the snow. There were flaws in the design and miscalculations in the load the roof could bear, and during a particularly heavy snowfall in 1983, a portion of the roof collapsed and the building was subsequently demolished.


title: 1960 Winter Olympics

text: , three buildings from the 1960 Winter Olympics remain in Palisades Tahoe (formerly known as Squaw Valley). An expansion of the resort's village, currently in the planning stages, would see two of these buildings demolished.


title: 1960 Winter Olympics

text: Athletes from 30 nations competed at the 1960 Games. South Africa competed at the Winter Games for the first time; it would be the last until 1994. Athletes from West Germany (FRG) and East Germany (GDR) competed together as the United Team of Germany from 1956 to 1964. The number at the end of each country denotes the number of athletes each country sent.


title: 1960 Winter Olympics

text: ‡ Since there was a tie in the men's 1,500 meter speed skating race (like in 1956), two gold medals and no silver medals were awarded.


title: Cross-linked polyethylene

text: Cross-linked polyethylene, commonly abbreviated PEX, XPE or XLPE, is a form of polyethylene with cross-links. It is used predominantly in building services pipework systems, hydronic radiant heating and cooling systems, domestic water piping, insulation for high tension (high voltage) electrical cables, and baby play mats. It is also used for natural gas and offshore oil applications, chemical transportation, and transportation of sewage and slurries. PEX is an alternative to polyvinyl chloride (PVC), chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC) or copper tubing for use as residential water pipes.


title: Cross-linked polyethylene

text: Low-temperature impact strength, abrasion resistance and environmental stress cracking resistance can be increased significantly by crosslinking, whereas hardness and rigidity are somewhat reduced. Compared to thermoplastic polyethylene, PEX does not melt (analogous to elastomers) and is thermally resistant (over longer periods of up to 120 °C, for short periods without electrical or mechanical load up to 250 °C). With increasing crosslinking density also the maximum shear modulus increases (even at higher temperatures). PEX has significantly enhanced properties compared with ordinary PE. Crosslinking enhances the temperature properties of the base polymer. Adequate strength to 120–150 °C is maintained and chemical stability enhanced by resisting dissolution. Low temperature properties are improved. Impact and tensile strength, scratch resistance, and resistance to brittle fracture are enhanced.


title: Cross-linked polyethylene

text: Almost all PEX used for pipe and tubing is made from high-density polyethylene (HDPE). PEX contains cross-linked bonds in the polymer structure, changing the thermoplastic to a thermoset. Cross-linking is accomplished during or after the extrusion of the tubing. The required degree of cross-linking, according to ASTM Standard F876, is between 65% and 89%. A higher degree of cross-linking could result in brittleness and stress cracking of the material, while a lower degree of cross-linking could result in product with poorer physical properties.


title: Cross-linked polyethylene

text: A theoretically extreme degree of cross-linking is reached if only –CH– bridges are placed between cross-linkings that are also –CH– bridges and if the polymer structure's sum formula is (CH), then the structure is that of a diamond with all bonds replaced by –CH– bridges. If 4 vertices of a cube c are placed where C-atoms of the diamond base are so that only one further diamond base atom lies inside c then 4 diamond base bonds lie in c and—because the bond angles are forced towards such maximal values that also here a diamond cubic crystal structure is already approached—it is expected that the C-atoms of these –CH– bridges are posed on lines that are both orthogonal to diamond base bonds and parallel to faces of c.


title: Cross-linked polyethylene

text: Almost all cross-linkable polyethylene compounds (XLPE) for wire and cable applications are based on LDPE.


title: Cross-linked polyethylene

text: XLPE-insulated cables have a rated maximum conductor temperature of 90 °C and an emergency rating up to 140 °C, depending on the standard used. They have a conductor short-circuit rating of 250 °C. XLPE has excellent dielectric properties, making it useful for medium voltage—1 to 69 kV AC, and high-voltage cables—up to 380 kV AC-voltage, and several hundred kV DC.


title: Cross-linked polyethylene

text: Numerous modifications in the basic polymer structure can be made to maximize productivity during the manufacturing process. For medium voltage applications, reactivity can be boosted significantly. This results in higher line speeds in cases where limitations in either the curing or cooling processes within the continuous vulcanization (CV) tubes used to cross-link the insulation. XLPE insulation can be modified to limit the amount of by-product gases generated during the cross-linking process. This is particularly useful for high-voltage cable and extra-high voltage cable applications, where degassing requirements can significantly lengthen cable manufacturing time.


title: Cross-linked polyethylene

text: Various methods can be used to prepare PEX from thermoplastic polyethylene (PE-LD, PE-LLD or PE-HD). The first PEX material was prepared in the 1930s, by irradiating the extruded tube with an electron beam. The electron beam processing method was made feasible in the 1970s, but was still expensive. In the 1960s, Engel cross-linking was developed. In this method, a peroxide is mixed with the HDPE before extruding, the cross-linking taking place during the passage of the melted polymer through a long heated die. In 1968, the Sioplas process using silicon hydride (silane) was patented, followed by another silane-based process, Monosil, in 1974. A process using vinylsilane followed in 1986.


title: Cross-linked polyethylene

text: A basic distinction is made between peroxide crosslinking (PE-Xa), silane crosslinking (PE-Xb), electron beam crosslinking (PE-Xc) and azo crosslinking (PE-Xd).


title: Cross-linked polyethylene

text: A low degree of crosslinking leads initially only to a multiplication of the molecular weight. The individual macromolecules are not linked and no covalent network is formed yet. Polyethylene that consists of those large molecules behaves similar to polyethylene of ultra high molecular weight (PE-UHMW), i.e. like a thermoplastic elastomer.


title: Cross-linked polyethylene

text: Upon further crosslinking (crosslinking degree about 80%), the individual macromolecules are eventually connected to a network. This crosslinked polyethylene (PE-X) is chemically seen a thermoset, it shows above the melting point rubber-elastic behavior and cannot be processed in the melt anymore.


title: Cross-linked polyethylene

text: The degree of crosslinking (and hence the extent of the change) is different in intensity depending on the process. According to DIN 16892 (a quality requirement for pipes made of PE-X) at least the following degree of crosslinking must be achieved:


title: Cross-linked polyethylene

text: All PEX pipe is manufactured with its design specifications listed directly on the pipe. These specifications are listed to explain the pipe's many standards as well as giving specific detailing about the manufacturer. The reason that all these specifications are given, are so that the installer is aware if the product is meeting standards for the necessary local codes. The labeling ensures the user that the tubing is up to all the standards listed.


title: Cross-linked polyethylene

text: Materials used in PEX pipes in North America are defined by cell classifications that are described in ASTM standards, the most common being ASTM F876. Cell classifications for PEX include 0006, 0008, 1006, 1008, 3006, 3008, 5006 and 5008, the most common being 5006. Classifications 0306, 3306, 5206 and 5306 are also common, these materials containing ultraviolet blockers and/or inhibitors for limited UV resistance. In North America all PEX tubing products are manufactured to ASTM, NSF and CSA product standards, among them the aforementioned ASTM standard F876 as well as F877, NSF International standards NSF 14 and NSF 61 ("NSF-pw"), and Canadian Standards Association standard B137.5, to which the pipes are tested, certified and listed. The listings and certifications met by each product appear on the printline of the pipe or tubing to ensure the product is used in the proper applications for which it was designed.


title: Cross-linked polyethylene

text: In European standards. there are three classifications referred to as PEX-A, -B, and -C. The classes are not related to any type of rating system.


title: Cross-linked polyethylene

text: PEX-A is produced by the peroxide (Engel) method. This method performs "hot" cross-linking, above the crystal melting point. However, the process takes slightly longer than the other two methods as the polymer has to be kept at high temperature and pressure for long periods during the extrusion process. The cross-linked bonds are between carbon atoms.


title: Cross-linked polyethylene

text: The silane method, also called the "moisture cure" method, results in PEX-B. In this method, cross-linking is performed in a secondary post-extrusion process, producing cross-links between a cross-linking agent. The process is accelerated with heat and moisture. The cross-linked bonds are formed through silanol condensation between two grafted vinyltrimethoxysilane (VTMS) units, connecting the polyethylene chains with C-C-Si-O-Si-C-C bridges.


title: Cross-linked polyethylene

text: PEX-C is produced through electron beam processing, in a "cold" cross-linking process (below the crystal melting point). It provides less uniform, lower-degree cross-linking than the Engel method, especially at tube diameters over one inch (2.5 cm). When the process is not controlled properly, the outer layer of the tube may become brittle. However, it is the cleanest, most environmentally friendly method of the three, since it does not involve other chemicals and uses only high-energy electrons to split the carbon-hydrogen bonds and facilitate cross-linking.


title: Cross-linked polyethylene

text: PEX tubing is widely used to replace copper in plumbing applications. One estimate from 2006 was that residential use of PEX for delivering drinking water to home faucets was increasing by 40% annually. In 2006, "The Philadelphia Inquirer" recommended that plumbing installers switch from copper pipes to PEX.


title: Cross-linked polyethylene

text: In the early to mid 20th century, mass-produced plumbing pipes were made from galvanized steel. As users experienced problems with the internal build-up of rust, which reduced water volume, these were replaced by copper tubing in the late 1960s. Plastic pipes with fittings using glue were used as well in later decades. Initially PEX tubing was the most popular way to transport water in hydronic radiant heating systems, and it was used first in hydronic systems from the 1960s onwards. Hydronic systems circulate water from a boiler or heater to places in the house needing heat, such as baseboard heaters or radiators. PEX is suitable for recirculating hot water.


title: Cross-linked polyethylene

text: Gradually, PEX became more accepted for more indoor plumbing uses, such as carrying pressurized water to fixtures throughout the house. Increasingly, in the 2000s, copper pipes as well as plastic PVC pipes are being replaced with PEX. PEX can be used for underground purposes, although one report suggested that appropriate "sleeves" be used for such applications.


title: Cross-linked polyethylene

text: PEX has been approved for use in all fifty states of the United States as well as Canada, including the state of California, which approved its use in 2009. California allowed the use of PEX for domestic water systems on a case-by-case basis only in 2007. This was mostly due to concerns about corrosion of the manifolds (rather than the tubing itself) and was allowed to be used in California for hydronic radiant heating systems but not potable water. In 2009, the Building Standards Commission approved PEX plastic pipe and tubing to the California Plumbing Code (CPC), allowing its use in hospitals, clinics, residences, and commercial construction throughout the state. Formal adoption of PEX into the CPC occurred on August 1, 2009, allowing local jurisdictions to approve its general use, although there were additional issues, and new approvals were issued in 2010 with revised wordings to the 2007 act.


title: Cross-linked polyethylene

text: PEX-AL-PEX pipes, or AluPEX, or PEX/Aluminum/PEX, or Multilayer pipes are made of a layer of aluminum sandwiched between two layers of PEX. The metal layer serves as an oxygen barrier, stopping the oxygen diffusion through the polymer matrix, so it cannot dissolve into the water in the tube and corrode the metal components of the system. The aluminium layer is thin, typically 1 or 2 mm, and provides some rigidity to the tube such that when bent it retains the shape formed (normal PEX tube will spring back to straight). The aluminium layer also provides additional structural rigidity such that the tube will be suitable for higher safe operating temperatures and pressures.


title: Cross-linked polyethylene

text: The use of AluPex tubing has grown greatly since 2010 onwards. It is easy to work and position. Curves may be easily formed by hand. Tube exists for use with both hot and cold water and also for gas.


title: Cross-linked polyethylene

text: This product in Canada has been discontinued due to water infiltrating between the Layers resulting in premature failures.


title: Cross-linked polyethylene

text: There are two types of fitting that may be used. Crimped or compressive. Crimped connectors are less expensive but require a specialised crimping tool. Compression fittings are tightened with normal spanners and are designed to allow sections of the system to be easily disassembled, they are also popular for small works, esp. DIY, avoiding the need for extra tools.


title: Cross-linked polyethylene

text: A PEX tool kit includes a number of basic tools required for making fittings and connections with PEX tubing. In most cases, such kits are either bought at a local hardware store, plumbing supply store or assembled by either a home owner or a contractor. PEX tools kits range from under $100 and can go up to $300+. A typical PEX tool kit includes crimp tools, an expander tool for joining, clamp tools, PEX cutters, rings, boards, and staplers.


title: Fairchild Dornier 328JET

text: The Fairchild-Dornier 328JET is a commuter airliner, based upon the turboprop-powered Dornier 328, developed by the German aircraft manufacturer Dornier Luftfahrt GmbH. It would be the last Dornier-designed aircraft to reach production before the company's collapse during the early 2000s.


title: Fairchild Dornier 328JET

text: The 328JET was designed by Dornier in response to negative feedback from some customers on the marketability of turboprops against the more appealing turbofan engine. It was a relatively straightforward re-engining of the existing 328, being originally designated as the "328-300" prior to being rebranded as the "328JET". During 1996, early on in the programme, the financially distressed Dornier company was acquired by the American aerospace firm Fairchild Aircraft; the resulting corporation, named Fairchild Dornier, continued development of the 328JET. On 20 January 1998, the first 328JET prototype conducted its maiden flight.


title: Fairchild Dornier 328JET

text: While production of the 328 family was performed in Oberpfaffenhofen, Germany, sales activity was centred in San Antonio, Texas, and support for Dornier's products was provided from both locations. At one stage, a stretched variant commonly referred to as the 428JET was under active development. However, amid intense competition in the international market for regional jets, Fairchild Dornier were unable to attain enough sales of the type to maintain production after 2002. Support for existing aircraft continues, and a prospective revival of the programme has been mooted on multiple occasions, but no solid production-related activity has ensued. Sierra Nevada Corporation currently provides parts and maintenance support.


title: Fairchild Dornier 328JET

text: During the early 1990s, German manufacturer Dornier had launched their turboprop-powered Dornier 328 onto the market. However, some prospective customers reported a negative perception of noise and reliability issues with turboprop engines, which motivated the company to study the manufacture of a turbofan-based variant, initially referred to as the "328-300". Market research had indicated that, provided that both the economics and performance of such an aircraft were competitive, this would have greater desirability amongst the market. According to Fairchild Dornier president Jim Robinson, such an arrangement had been examined early on in the 328's development process but had been rejected by then-parent company Daimler-Benz Aerospace AG (DASA). Reportedly, producing a jet-powered version of the airliner had been greatly aided by the relatively conservative structural design of the 328. Relatively few design modifications between the two airliners were necessary.


title: Fairchild Dornier 328JET

text: By November 1996, according to Dornier vice-president for sales Andrew Jampoler, a feasibility study for the programme had been completed and the company was close to selecting an engine; options considered included the General Electric CFE738, Pratt & Whitney Canada PW306, and the LF507-1F, as well as a de-rated LF507-2 powerplant. By adopting one of these engines, a cruise speed of between 375kt (690km/h) and 390kt at 22,000ft (6,700m) could be achieved, noticeably higher than the original 328's current maximum speed of 335kt at the same altitude. Conservative projections anticipated the jet-powered airliner to consume roughly 30% more fuel than its turboprop-powered predecessor, although it was believed that this difference would be decreased by further refinements. Jampoler also stated that Dornier had forecast an in-service date of late 1998. Dornier ultimately opted for the Pratt & Whitney Canada PW306/9 engine. During early February 1997, Dornier formally launched the 328JET programme.


title: Fairchild Dornier 328JET

text: During the mid-1990s, Dornier experienced considerable financial difficulties; these heavily contributed to the company's acquisition by the American aerospace firm Fairchild Aircraft, after which the organisation became Fairchild Dornier. The new entity chose to continue with the programme, albeit rebranding the type as the "328JET". Even following the acquisition, considerable pressure remained on the programme's finances, extending through to its suppliers, leading to reorganisations and premature withdrawals from involvement. By the end of 1997, Dornier-Fairchild had cut its annual costs by $58 million, and anticipated exceeding its $115 million cost-cutting target within two years. Management shake-ups and other measures continued to be performed as part of efforts to reform the business.


title: Fairchild Dornier 328JET

text: In spite of internal pressures, senior figures remained upbeat about the prospects for the 328JET and the regional jet market. During June 1997, the first sales of the type were announced, French regional operator Proteus Airlines emerged as the launch customer as a result of a $70 million order for six aircraft, alongside orders from other customers. It was hoped that the 328JET would have market appeal with those who found the 328 to not meet their preferences, in particular those customers based in the Middle East. By the end of the year, Dornier had reportedly secured 17 firm orders and 15 options, while the company claimed it was negotiating two major orders for up to 180 aircraft with the aim of closing over the following three months. Dornier representatives believed that there was a viable market for up to 600 328JETs. According to Andrew Doyle of the aerospace periodical Flight International, the reenginging programme was being well-received, referring to it as "a new lease of life".


title: Fairchild Dornier 328JET

text: By March 1997, reports emerged that Dornier was set to start converting the second 328 prototype into the first turbofan-powered 328JET prototype. During October 1997, as work was underway on building the first prototype, Dornier announced several improvements to the aircraft, including a higher cruise speed of 400kt that was achieved via a minor reduction of the trailing edge flaps. On 6 December 1997, the 328JET prototype rolled out at Dornier's facility outside Oberpfaffenhofen, Germany, after which ground-based testing commenced immediately. On 20 January 1998, the prototype conducted its maiden flight; it was piloted by Meinhardt Feuersenger, hitherto chief test pilot of the turboprop 328, and Peter Weger. This initial flight over the Bavarian Alps attained a peak altitude of 25,000ft (7,600m) and lasted for almost 2 hours. The flight test programme would involve a total of four prototypes. According to Dornier, performance figures gained from the flight testing phase had either met or exceeded their established expectations. Certification was delayed by four months to address issues with the 328JET's undercarriage, specifically involving the brakes and shock absorbers. During July 1999, type certification was granted by the European Joint Aviation Authorities, corresponding approval from the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) was received within the following weeks.


title: Fairchild Dornier 328JET

text: Early on the 328JET programme, Dornier were already considering options for a stretched version of the aircraft, originally referred to as the "328-700". During 1998, following the first flight of the type, Fairchild-Dornier opted to pursue development of the stretched "428JET", a 44-seat version of the 328JET. Work proceeded to the point several customers had signed letters of intent to purchase the upcoming aircraft. Furthermore, Dornier had planned to conduct a comprehensive upgrade of the existing model, involving an avionics overhaul and possible re-winging to use a new swept wing, around the early 2000s. By 1998, a dedicated corporate-orientated version, branded "Envoy 3", was also being promoted. However, a consequence of intense competition within the regional airliner market was multiple manufacturers making losses and terminating their programmes; Fairchild-Dornier were no exception to the industry-wide pressure. The limited commercial performance of the 328JET had placed Fairchild-Dornier into a precarious financial position, the company ultimately being unable to continue the development of further models. As such, the 328JET became the last commercial aircraft to be produced by the former Dornier business prior to being rendered insolvent during 2002.


title: Fairchild Dornier 328JET

text: Following Dornier's insolvency, AvCraft Aviation of Virginia acquired the 328 program during March 2003. This acquisition included rights to the design itself, a total of 18 328JETs in various stages of assembly, and the development work on the 428JET. After the sale of these airplanes, AvCraft negotiated with its suppliers to resume production due to low profit expectations for its other projects. During 2004, the first of AvCraft's 328JET was delivered.


title: Fairchild Dornier 328JET

text: During 2005, AvCraft itself filed for bankruptcy. As a consequence, the firm was acquired by private equity investors and reformed as M7 Aerospace. During June 2006, 328 Support Services GmbH acquired the 328JET type certificate. However, this entity did not resume manufacturing of the type; instead, it opted to provide maintenance, repair and overhaul services to the 330 in-service fleet.


title: Fairchild Dornier 328JET

text: During February 2015, US engineering company Sierra Nevada Corporation acquired 328 Support Services GmbH. Shortly thereafter, Sierra Nevada's owner, Turkish-American engineer Fatih Ozmen, established a private corporation named "Özjet Havacılık Teknolojileri A.Ş." at Technopark of Bilkent University, Ankara and signed a Memorandum of understanding with the Transportation Ministry of Turkey in order to manufacture the 328 at Ankara.


title: Fairchild Dornier 328JET

text: In June 2015, the Turkish government launched the Turkish "TR328" and "TRJ328" regional aircraft project, a modernized 328/328JET, with either turboprops or jets. It could be followed by the larger TR628/TRJ-628.


title: Fairchild Dornier 328JET

text: At one point, the first flight of a Turkish-built aircraft was anticipated to occur during 2019. However, During October 2017, Turkey announced that it was abandoning the programme as a consequence of escalating costs. Stating that they believe demand in the sub 40-seat market is still present for the type, Sierra Nevada Corporation and 328 Support Services GmbH began to seek out for other opportunities in order to revive the aircraft, hoping to follow through by the end of 2017 or early 2018.


title: Fairchild Dornier 328JET

text: In December 2019, a total of 33 Dornier 328JET aircraft remained in airline service. The only operators remaining are Sun Air of Scandinavia with 14 aircraft, Key Lime Air and Ultimate Jetcharters with 14 aircraft combined, Taos Air operated by Advanced Air with 2 aircraft, and Calm Air, Sepehran Airlines, and Air Peace with 1 aircraft each.


title: Fairchild Dornier 328JET

text: Past airline operators in the U.S. include Skyway Airlines, a feeder airline for Midwest Airlines, which flew twelve 328JET aircraft and Great Plains Airlines (four 328JET aircraft). Skyway, Midwest and Great Plains are no longer in existence. Atlantic Coast Airlines operated over 30 328JET aircraft as part of its Delta Connection service from 2000 until 2005 when Delta Air Lines and Atlantic Coast terminated their agreement with the arrival of Airbus A319s into the rebranded Independence Air fleet.


title: Fairchild Dornier 328JET

text: Pratt & Whitney Canada owns and operates one Dornier 328JET, registry number C-GCPW, between its Montreal and Toronto facilities as an employee shuttle. It primarily flies between Toronto Pearson International Airport (CYYZ) and Montreal Saint-Hubert Longueuil Airport (CYHU).


title: Gzuz

text: Kristoffer Klauß (; born 29 June 1988), better known by the stage name Gzuz (), is a German rapper. In addition to his solo career, he has had success as part of Hamburg hip hop crew 187 Strassenbande.


title: Gzuz

text: After his parents divorced, Klauß grew up with his sister and his mother in Hamburg. He was fascinated by the people who earn their money in the streets. Klauß has been a member of 187 Strassenbande since 2006. The name Gzuz is an acronym for ""Ghetto-Zeug unzensiert"" (Ghetto stuff uncensored).


title: Gzuz

text: In October 2010 he was sentenced to three years and six months in prison for predatory theft. During his detention, the 187 street gang went on a "Free Gzuz Tour" in 2012 and sold Gzuz Merchandise, such as Free Gzuz T-shirts.


title: Gzuz

text: After his release in 2013 he took part in the "Uprising Tour". In 2014 he released the album "High & hungrig" together with Bonez MC, which entered the album charts in Germany at number 9.


title: Gzuz

text: His solo album "Ebbe & Flut" was released on 9 October 2015. This made it to number 2 in the album charts in Germany. On 27 May 2016 he released the album "High & hungrig 2" together with Bonez MC. It entered the album charts at number 1 and reached Gold status.


title: Gzuz

text: Gzuz gained attention in America after Worldstar Hip Hop posted the video for his song “Was Hast Du Gedacht”. The music video went viral due to its extremely graphic and violent nature. Worldstar later posted the video for his song “Warum” as well.


title: The Goode Family

text: The Goode Family (sometimes abbreviated to Goode Family) is a short-lived American adult animated television sitcom that originally aired on ABC from May 27 to August 7, 2009. The series was created by Mike Judge, the creator of MTV's "Beavis and Butt-Head" and Fox's "King of the Hill", and follows the life of an environmentally responsible but obsessive family. The series takes a comic look at contemporary society, this time focusing on a liberal family instead of "King of the Hill"s conservative family. Judge created the show along with former "King of the Hill" writers John Altschuler and David Krinsky. The show was cancelled after its first season on August 8, 2009.


title: The Goode Family

text: The Goode family struggles with the modern social and environmental responsibilities of being liberals, and the paradoxes that arise for a working-class family when trying to be politically correct all of the time about everything. Situations in the first episode included shopping at a natural foods store, not having brought reusable bags, how to refer to ethnic groups, analyzing conservative beliefs they typically despise, and raising modern teenagers. The pilot satirized both stereotypical "liberal" and "conservative" mindsets, including the ongoing derangement of the family's "vegan" dog (who has taken to eating neighborhood pets).


title: The Goode Family

text: The show is created by Mike Judge, John Altschuler, and Dave Krinsky, with Altschuler and Krinsky serving as show runners. The show is directed by John Rice, Seth Kearsley, Jennifer Coyle, and Anthony Chun, with Wes Archer as supervising director. Show writers include Jonathan Collier, Jace Richdale, Gene Hong, Owen Ellickson, Dave Jeser, Franklin Hardy, Leila Strachan, Brad Pope, Howard Kremer, Shane Kosakowski, Jordana Arkin, and Matt Silverstein, in addition to Altschuler and Krinsky, and other writers.


title: The Goode Family

text: On August 8, 2009, ABC Entertainment President Steve McPherson explained that the show, along with "Surviving Suburbia", had officially been canceled due to low ratings.


title: The Goode Family

text: On November 1, 2009, Mike Judge announced that ABC was not interested in a second season of "The Goode Family", despite its success. In 2009, the series ended on August 7, 2009 after the season one episode "A Goode Man is Hard to Find".


title: The Goode Family

text: In 2010, reruns of "The Goode Family" aired Monday nights at 10pm on Comedy Central, beginning January 4. It was to be evaluated for new episodes. It departed the network's primetime schedule after four weeks, returning occasionally in low-trafficked timeslots.


title: The Goode Family

text: When first airing, the show received mixed reviews. A reviewer for the "Los Angeles Times" said: ""The Goode Family", which is nicely acted and well animated, works best when the cultural potshots give way to the more basic human needs of its characters: a mother's desire to be close to her daughter, or to her father (Brian Doyle-Murray as the resident voice of political incorrectness), in spite of "a lifetime of crippling negative comments," and a father's willingness to go outside his comfort zone to make his son happy, as when Ubuntu joins the football team. There's a show there." A reviewer for NJ.com said: "The Goode Family" feels as if you are being dropped into a foreign land without any kind of guide, or even map." A reviewer for "The New York Times" said: "Mr. Judge, who remains obsessed with the absurdities of political correctness, still has his head very much in the Clinton years, and it is possible to watch "The Goode Family" feeling so thoroughly transported back to another time that you wonder where all the Monica Lewinsky jokes went. Sometimes you’ve just got to grab your cup of fair-trade coffee and move on."


title: Pallor

text: Pallor is a pale color of the skin that can be caused by illness, emotional shock or stress, stimulant use, or anemia, and is the result of a reduced amount of oxyhaemoglobin and may also be visible as pallor of the conjunctivae of the eyes on physical examination.


title: Pallor

text: Pallor is more evident on the face and palms. It can develop suddenly or gradually, depending on the cause. It is not usually clinically significant unless it is accompanied by a general pallor (pale lips, tongue, palms, mouth and other regions with mucous membranes). It is distinguished from similar presentations such as hypopigmentation (lack or loss of skin pigment) or simply a fair complexion.


title: Assa Abloy

text: Assa Abloy AB is a Swedish conglomerate whose offerings include products and services related to locks, doors, gates, and entrance automation. Related products and services include controlling access and confirming identities with keys, cards, tags, mobile, and bio-metric identity verification systems.


title: Assa Abloy

text: The company was formed in 1994, when Assa AB was separated from Swedish security firm Securitas AB. Shortly thereafter, Assa AB merged with the Finnish high security lock manufacturer Abloy Oy (based in Joensuu, a subsidiary of the Finnish company Wärtsilä). The company was introduced to the Stockholm Stock Exchange later the same year. Assa Abloy has since made over 200 acquisitions including Yale lock, Chubb Locks, Medeco in the United States, Mul-T-Lock in Israel and Fichet-Bauche in France. Its two largest shareholders are Latour and Melker Schörling AB.


title: Assa Abloy

text: Assa Abloy was founded at the merger of the two companies Assa and Abloy in 1994. Assa stands for August Stenman Stenman August. The name comes from a contraction of the Swedish Finnish bilingual name Ab Låsfabriken Lukkotehdas Oy, meaning literally "Corp. Lock Factory Lock Factory Corp." (first Corp. and Låsfabriken from Swedish, last Lukkotehdas and Corp. from Finnish). In 1919 the company was renamed Aktiebolag Lukko Osakeyhtio.


title: Assa Abloy

text: Assa Abloy was formed in 1994, through the merger of Swedish firm ASSA and Finnish high security lock manufacturer Abloy. The company was introduced to the Stockholm Stock Exchange later the same year.


title: Assa Abloy

text: From a regional company with 4,700 employees in 1994, Assa Abloy has become a global group with 51,000 employees in 2021. The company has grown its revenue by more than 9% annually and operates now in over 70 countries.


title: Assa Abloy

text: In May 1999, the acquisition of Effeff Fritz Fuss in Germany enabled Assa Abloy to enter the electromechanical lock market. Assa Abloy also acquires Mul-T-Lock in Israel, a manufacturer of high security locks. Assa Abloy doubles in size in 2000, when it acquires the global lock group Yale Intruder Security. In the same year, Assa Abloy acquires HID, adding electronic identification to its product portfolio.


title: Assa Abloy

text: In April 2002, Assa Abloy Group acquired Besam, a Swedish company specialized in automatic pedestrian doors. Another important acquisition for the group was Fargo Electronics, a company which develops systems for safe issuing of credit, bank, debit and ID cards. This was followed by other acquisitions such as Baodean in China and Irevo in South Korea in 2007.


title: Assa Abloy

text: In 2009, the Italian door automation manufacturer, Ditec, was bought. Important acquisitions were also made in September 2011, with the purchase of Crawford and Flexiforce. A number of purchases followed in 2012. The group acquired Albany Door Systems, a manufacturer of high speed industrial doors. November 2013 came with the purchase of the Polish fire and security door manufacturer Mercor SA, Ameristar USA, and Amarr.


title: Assa Abloy

text: In December 2018, Assa Abloy acquired Lorient, a UK based designer and manufacturer of high performance door sealing systems.


title: Assa Abloy

text: In December 2018, Assa Abloy acquired Luxer One, a leading advanced package locker solutions business in the US.


title: Assa Abloy

text: In February 2020, Assa Abloy acquired the UK-based, 140-strong biometric access and workforce management technology business, Biosite.


title: Assa Abloy

text: In May 2021, Assa Abloy acquired Sure-Loc, the leading supplier of residential locks and associated hardware in the US.


title: Assa Abloy

text: In September 2021, Assa Abloy acquired the Hardware and Home Improvement ("HHI") division of Spectrum Brands for $4.3 billion. HHI has a varied portfolio of products, including patented SmartKey technology and electronic, smart and biometric locks. Key brands include Kwikset, Baldwin, Weiser, Pfister and National Hardware. HHI is headquartered in Lake Forest, California with some 7,500 employees worldwide and has manufacturing facilities in the United States, Mexico, Taiwan, China, and the Philippines.


title: Assa Abloy

text: The company is a Corporate Partner in the Stockholm School of Economics partner program for companies that contribute financially to the college and works closely with regard to research and education. In October 2015, Assa Abloy joined as partner to KTH Royal Institute of Technology’s Things, a start up hub for companies in the Internet-of-things sector.


title: Geraldo Alckmin

text: Geraldo José Rodrigues Alckmin Filho (; born 7 November 1952) is a Brazilian politician who is the vice president-elect of Brazil. He previously served as the Governor of São Paulo from 2001 to 2006, and then again from 2011 to 2018, the longest term served in that state since the end of the Military dictatorship in Brazil. He was the Brazilian Social Democracy Party (PSDB) presidential nominee for the 2018 Brazilian presidential election, when he finished in fourth place, as well for the 2006 Brazilian presidential election, when he came in second place, losing in the runoff to then president Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva. He is usually described by political analysts and supporters as a pro-business centrist, closely associated with the political and financial establishment.


title: Geraldo Alckmin

text: Alckmin attended the Universidade de Taubaté's medical school, specializing in anesthesiology, before going on to work in the São Paulo Public Service Hospital. Alckmin was elected governor of São Paulo in 2010 and reelected in 2014, for the fourth (not consecutive) time. He resigned on 6 April 2018 to run for president for a second time in the 2018 elections. His vice governor Márcio França held the office until the end of the term on 1 January 2019. In 2021, Alckmin left PSDB after 33 years with the party and joined the Brazilian Socialist Party (PSB) the following year to be Lula's running mate in the 2022 Brazilian presidential election. On 30 October 2022, Lula beat Bolsonaro in the presidential election, making Alckmin vice president-elect.


title: Geraldo Alckmin

text: Geraldo José Rodrigues Alckmin Filho was born in the city of Pindamonhangaba, Vale do Paraíba. Alckmin is the son of Geraldo José Rodrigues Alckmin and Míriam Penteado. Geraldo is the nephew of José Geraldo Rodrigues de Alckmin, who was a minister of the Supreme Federal Court. According to Época magazine, Geraldo received a Christian formation from the Opus Dei Catholic prelature, and told the magazine that his uncle José Geraldo was from Opus Dei.


title: Geraldo Alckmin

text: Geraldo is married to Maria Lúcia Ribeiro Alckmin and is the father of three children. Sophia, Geraldo and Thomaz. Thomaz died in a helicopter accident on 2 April 2015.


title: Geraldo Alckmin

text: While still in his first year of medical school, Alckmin began his political career in 1972 when he was elected to the Pindamonhangaba city council (1973–1977), and then its mayor (1977–1982). At age 25, he was the youngest Brazilian mayor. He was elected a federal deputy for two terms, (1983–1987 and 1987–1994), distinguishing himself by authoring consumer protection laws. In 1988, he was one of the founders of the Brazilian Social Democracy Party (PSDB).


title: Geraldo Alckmin

text: He was elected vice governor of São Paulo, Mário Covas's running-mate first in the 1994 election and then again in 1998. With the death of Covas, he assumed the governorship of the state of São Paulo in March, 2001, he continued Covas' policies, investing in large, state-run projects, health and education programs. All of these investments were possible through privatization programs that sold off public and state-owned companies. He was elected governor on October 27, 2002, through a runoff election, for the 2003–2006 term, with 12 million votes (or 58.64%). His current administration is marked by a reduction in the state payroll from 49% to 46% of the state's budget, the unification of purchasing systems and other "smart spending" initiatives, as well as the implementation of Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs).


title: Geraldo Alckmin

text: On March 14, 2006, PSDB nominated Alckmin as its candidate for president in the 2006 elections. Because of electoral rules, no candidate running for office may currently be in an executive office, forcing him to resign the governorship on March 31, 2006. Cláudio Lembo, the lieutenant governor, finished Alckmin's term. Alckmin's party mate, José Serra, the PSDB's presidential standard-bearer who lost to Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva in 2002, then announced his candidacy to replace Alckmin in the 2006 state elections. Serra won the vote in Brazil's first round elections on October 1, 2006 and was elected as the governor of São Paulo.


title: Geraldo Alckmin

text: Contrary to all major polls taken in the run-up to the October 1, 2006 balloting, Alckmin surprised almost everyone and came in second place in the presidential election. His 41.64% of the vote, along with votes cast for two less significant candidates, as well as ballots that were left blank or spoiled, was enough to deny the simple majority necessary to re-elect incumbent President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva ("Lula") in the first round. Lula and Alckmin faced one another in a run-off election on October 29, 2006. Alckmin received 39% of the vote, losing to Lula, who received 61% of the vote and was then reelected.


title: Geraldo Alckmin

text: On January 19, 2009, Geraldo was appointed Secretary of Development for the State of São Paulo by then-Governor José Serra.


title: Geraldo Alckmin

text: At the PSDB Convenction held on June 13, 2010, Alckmin was officially named the party's candidate for the São Paulo government.


title: Geraldo Alckmin

text: Alckmin was elected governor in the first round with 11.5 million votes (50.63%) defeating Senator Aloizio Mercadante (PT) who obtained 8 million votes (35.23%).


title: Geraldo Alckmin

text: Alckmin assumed the government of São Paulo for the third time on January 1, 2011. The inauguration took place during a ceremony held at State Legislative Assembly.


title: Geraldo Alckmin

text: His administration in 2013 faces strikes in education and health. After the readjustment in the passage of the metropolitan trains and the subway, great manifestations of protests began, that also happened in all Brazil. The readjustment was later suspended by Alckmin and the mayor of São Paulo, Fernando Haddad.


title: Geraldo Alckmin

text: Alckmin's reelection campaign for 2014 was officialized on June 29, 2014. In the first round, on October 5, 2014, he was re-elected with 12.2 million votes (57.31%), being the second highest percentage of votes since the redemocratization of Brazil.


title: Geraldo Alckmin

text: In a convention held on 9 December 2017, Alckmin was elected the PSDB's national president in a 470–3 vote, succeeding Minas Gerais senator Aécio Neves, and announced his pre-candidacy for next year's presidential race. On 23 February 2018, after Manaus mayor Arthur Virgílio Neto suspended his campaign, Alckmin became the sole candidate for the party's primary. His candidacy became official on 6 March 2018.


title: Geraldo Alckmin

text: Since resigning as governor and losing his legal immunity, Alckmin has been the target of a probe by electoral justice authorities for allegations that construction company Odebrecht illegally funneled R$10 million into his 2010 and 2014 campaign. He has denied wrongdoing, saying the funds were of "electoral nature" and that the allegation "does not proceed".


title: Geraldo Alckmin

text: In early May 2018, Alckmin announced his campaign communications team, which is headed by Luis Felipe d'Avila with Lula Guimarães as marketing director. Later that month, he announced his economic advisorial team, which includes Plano Real economists Edmar Bacha and Persio Arida. In late July, Alckmin negotiated a coalition with the ""centrão"" (big centre), a group of parties in Congress composed of DEM, PP, PR, PRB and SD. On 2 August 2018, Rio Grande do Sul senator Ana Amélia Lemos, a member of PP, was confirmed as Alckmin's running mate in the general election. As the candidate with the largest coalition, Alckmin has secured the longest slot for political ads on free-to-air television channels.


title: Geraldo Alckmin

text: As candidate, Alckmin has proposed a smaller government and reduction of taxes, and has defended the labor reform that took place in the administration of President Michel Temer.


title: Geraldo Alckmin

text: After his defeat in the 2018 elections, Alckmin considered running again for São Paulo governor in 2022. His former ally, São Paulo governor João Doria, launched his vice governor Rodrigo Garcia as the PSDB's candidate for the role. Alckmin considered staying with the PSDB in the case of Eduardo Leite's victory against Doria in the party's presidential primaries. After Doria's victory in November 2021, Alckmin's departure from the party became inevitable.


title: Geraldo Alckmin

text: On December 15, 2021, Alckmin formally announced his departure from the PSDB. After his departure, there were speculations that he would join the Social Democratic Party (PSD) if he decided to run for the government of São Paulo in 2022, or the leftist Brazilian Socialist Party (PSB) if he decided to run for vice president on former president Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva's ticket in the 2022 presidential elections. On July 29, he officially affiliated with the PSB and launched his candidacy for vice-presidency was officialized.


title: Geraldo Alckmin

text: Alckmin's candidacy as vice-president for his former rival, Lula da Silva, has been seen as an attempt by Lula to form a broad front against the re-election of Jair Bolsonaro.


title: Geraldo Alckmin

text: The Lula-Alckmin ticket won the second round of the 2022 elections, on October 30, defeating the ticket of incumbent President Jair Bolsonaro (PL). Alckmin will take the office of Hamilton Mourão (Republicans).


title: Geraldo Alckmin

text: In March 2022, Alckmin joined PSB to be Lula's running mate in the 2022 presidential election. The two were formerly rivals in the 2006 Brazilian presidential election, where Alckmin, then a PSDB member, was defeated by Lula in the second round.


title: Emma Lazarus

text: Emma Lazarus (July 22, 1849 – November 19, 1887) was an American author of poetry, prose, and translations, as well as an activist for Jewish and Georgist causes. She is remembered for writing the sonnet "The New Colossus", which was inspired by the Statue of Liberty, in 1883. Its lines appear inscribed on a bronze plaque, installed in 1903, on the pedestal of the Statue of Liberty. The last lines of the sonnet were set to music by Irving Berlin as the song "Give Me Your Tired, Your Poor" for the 1949 musical "Miss Liberty", which was based on the sculpting of the Statue of Liberty ("Liberty Enlightening the World"). The latter part of the sonnet was also set by Lee Hoiby in his song "The Lady of the Harbor" written in 1985 as part of his song cycle "Three Women".


title: Emma Lazarus

text: Lazarus was also the author of "Poems and Translations" (New York, 1867); "Admetus, and other Poems" (1871); "Alide: An Episode of Goethe's Life" (Philadelphia, 1874); "Poems and Ballads of Heine" (New York, 1881); "Poems, 2 Vols."; "Narrative, Lyric and Dramatic"; as well as "Jewish Poems and Translations".


title: Emma Lazarus

text: Emma Lazarus was born in New York City, July 22, 1849, into a large Sephardic Jewish family. She was the fourth of seven children of Moses Lazarus, a wealthy Jewish merchant and sugar refiner, and Esther Nathan. One of her great-grandfathers on the Lazarus side was from Germany; the rest of her Lazarus and Nathan ancestors were originally from Portugal and they were resident in New York long before the American Revolution, they were among the original twenty-three Portuguese Jews who arrived in New Amsterdam after they had fled from their settlement in Recife, Brazil in an attempt to flee from the Inquisition. Lazarus's great-great-grandmother on her mother's side, Grace Seixas Nathan (born in New York in 1752) was also a poet. Lazarus was related through her mother to Benjamin N. Cardozo, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. Her siblings included sisters Josephine, Sarah, Mary, Agnes and Annie, and a brother, Frank.


title: Emma Lazarus

text: Privately educated by tutors from an early age, she studied American and British literature as well as several languages, including German, French, and Italian. She was attracted in youth to poetry, writing her first lyrics when eleven years old.


title: Emma Lazarus

text: The first stimulus for Lazarus's writing was offered by the American Civil War. A collection of her "Poems and Translations", verses written between the ages of fourteen and seventeen, appeared in 1867 (New York), and was commended by William Cullen Bryant. It included translations from Friedrich Schiller, Heinrich Heine, Alexandre Dumas, and Victor Hugo. "Admetus and Other Poems" followed in 1871. The title poem was dedicated "To my friend Ralph Waldo Emerson", whose works and personality were exercising an abiding influence upon the poet's intellectual growth. During the next decade, in which "Phantasies" and "Epochs" were written, her poems appeared chiefly in "Lippincott's Monthly Magazine" and "Scribner's Monthly".


title: Emma Lazarus

text: By this time, Lazarus's work had won recognition abroad. Her first prose production, "Alide: An Episode of Goethe's Life", a romance treating of the Friederike Brion incident, was published in 1874 (Philadelphia), and was followed by "The Spagnoletto" (1876), a tragedy. "Poems and Ballads of Heinrich Heine" (New York, 1881) followed, and was prefixed by a biographical sketch of Heine; Lazarus's renderings of some of Heine's verse are considered among the best in English. In the same year, 1881, she became friends with Rose Hawthorne Lathrop. In April 1882, Lazarus published in "The Century Magazine" the article "Was the Earl of Beaconsfield a Representative Jew?" Her statement of the reasons for answering this question in the affirmative may be taken to close what may be termed the Hellenic and journeyman period of Lazarus's life, during which her subjects were drawn from classic and romantic sources.


title: Emma Lazarus

text: Lazarus also wrote "The Crowing of the Red Cock", and the sixteen-part cycle poem "Epochs". In addition to writing her own poems, Lazarus edited many adaptations of German poems, notably those of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and Heinrich Heine. She also wrote a novel and two plays in five acts, "The Spagnoletto", a tragic verse drama about the titular figure and "The Dance to Death", a dramatization of a German short story about the burning of Jews in Nordhausen during the Black Death. During the time Lazarus became interested in her Jewish roots, she continued her purely literary and critical work in magazines with such articles as "Tommaso Salvini", "Salvini's 'King Lear, "Emerson's Personality", "Heine, the Poet", "A Day in Surrey with William Morris", and others.


title: Emma Lazarus

text: Lines from her sonnet "The New Colossus" appear on a bronze plaque which was placed in the pedestal of the Statue of Liberty in 1903. The sonnet was written in 1883 and donated to an auction, conducted by the "Art Loan Fund Exhibition in Aid of the Bartholdi Pedestal Fund for the Statue of Liberty" in order to raise funds to build the pedestal. Lazarus's close friend Rose Hawthorne Lathrop was inspired by "The New Colossus" to found the Dominican Sisters of Hawthorne.


title: Emma Lazarus

text: She traveled twice to Europe, first in 1883 and again from 1885 to 1887. On one of those trips, Georgiana Burne-Jones, the wife of the Pre-Raphaelite painter Edward Burne-Jones, introduced her to William Morris at her home.


title: Emma Lazarus

text: She also met with Henry James, Robert Browning and Thomas Huxley during her European travels. A collection of "Poems in Prose" (1887) was her last book. Her "Complete Poems with a Memoir" appeared in 1888, at Boston.


title: Emma Lazarus

text: Lazarus was a friend and admirer of the American political economist Henry George. She believed deeply in Georgist economic reforms and became active in the "single tax" movement for land value tax. Lazarus published a poem in the "New York Times" named after George's book, "Progress and Poverty".


title: Emma Lazarus

text: Lazarus became more interested in her Jewish ancestry as she heard of the Russian pogroms that followed the assassination of Tsar Alexander II in 1881. As a result of this anti-Semitic violence, and the poor standard of living in Russia in general, thousands of destitute Ashkenazi Jews emigrated from the Russian Pale of Settlement to New York. Lazarus began to advocate on behalf of indigent Jewish immigrants. She helped establish the Hebrew Technical Institute in New York to provide vocational training to assist destitute Jewish immigrants to become self-supporting. Lazarus volunteered in the Hebrew Emigrant Aid Society employment bureau; she eventually became a strong critic of the organization. In 1883, she founded the Society for the Improvement and Colonization of East European Jews.


title: Emma Lazarus

text: The literary fruits of identification with her religion were poems like "The Crowing of the Red Cock", "The Banner of the Jew", "The Choice", "The New Ezekiel", "The Dance to Death" (a strong, though unequally executed drama), and her last published work (March 1887), "By the Waters of Babylon: Little Poems in Prose", which constituted her strongest claim to a foremost rank in American literature. During the same period (1882–87), Lazarus translated the Hebrew poets of medieval Spain with the aid of the German versions of Michael Sachs and Abraham Geiger, and wrote articles, signed and unsigned, upon Jewish subjects for the Jewish press, besides essays on "Bar Kochba", "Henry Wadsworth Longfellow", "M. Renan and the Jews", and others for Jewish literary associations. Several of her translations from medieval Hebrew writers found a place in the ritual of American synagogues. Lazarus's most notable series of articles was that titled "An Epistle to the Hebrews" ("The American Hebrew", November 10, 1882 – February 24, 1883), in which she discussed the Jewish problems of the day, urged a technical and a Jewish education for Jews, and ranged herself among the advocates of an independent Jewish nationality and of Jewish repatriation in Palestine. The only collection of poems issued during this period was "Songs of a Semite: The Dance to Death and Other Poems" (New York, 1882), dedicated to the memory of George Eliot.


title: Emma Lazarus

text: Lazarus returned to New York City seriously ill after she completed her second trip to Europe, and she died two months later, on November 19, 1887, most likely from Hodgkin's lymphoma. She never married. Lazarus was buried in Beth Olam Cemetery in Cypress Hills, Brooklyn. "The Poems of Emma Lazarus" (2 vols., Boston and New York, 1889) was published after her death, comprising most of her poetic work from previous collections, periodical publications, and some of the literary heritage which her executors deemed appropriate to preserve for posterity. Her papers are kept by the American Jewish Historical Society, Center for Jewish History, and her letters are collected at Columbia University.


title: Emma Lazarus

text: A stamp featuring the Statue of Liberty and Lazarus's poem, "The New Colossus", was issued by Antigua and Barbuda in 1985. In 1992, she was named as a Women's History Month Honoree by the National Women's History Project. Lazarus was honored by the Office of the Manhattan Borough President in March 2008, and her home on West 10th Street was included on a map of Women's Rights Historic Sites. In 2009, she was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame. The Museum of Jewish Heritage featured an exhibition about Lazarus in 2012.


title: Emma Lazarus

text: The irony is that the statue goes on speaking, even when the tide turns against immigration — even against immigrants themselves, as they adjust to their American lives. You can’t think of the statue without hearing the words Emma Lazarus gave her.


title: Emma Lazarus

text: Lazarus contributed toward shaping the self-image of the United States as well as how the country understands the needs of those who emigrate to the United States. Her themes produced sensitivity and enduring lessons regarding immigrants and their need for dignity. What was needed to make her a poet of the people as well as one of literary merit was a great theme, the establishment of instant communication between some stirring reality and her still-hidden and irresolute subjectivity. Such a theme was provided by the immigration of Russian Jews to America, consequent upon the proscriptive May Laws of 1882. She rose to the defense of her ethnic compatriots in powerful articles, as contributions to "The Century" (May 1882 and February 1883). Hitherto, her life had held no Jewish inspiration. Though of Sephardic ancestry, and ostensibly Orthodox in belief, her family had till then not participated in the activities of the synagogue or of the Jewish community. Contact with the unfortunates from Russia led her to study the Torah, the Hebrew language, Judaism, and Jewish history. While her early poetry demonstrated no Jewish themes, her "Songs of a Semite" (1882) is considered to be the earliest volume of Jewish American poetry.


title: Emma Lazarus

text: A review of "Alide" by "Lippincott's Monthly Magazine" was critical of Lazarus's style and elements of technique.


title: Integral domain

text: In mathematics, specifically abstract algebra, an integral domain is a nonzero commutative ring in which the product of any two nonzero elements is nonzero. Integral domains are generalizations of the ring of integers and provide a natural setting for studying divisibility. In an integral domain, every nonzero element "a" has the cancellation property, that is, if , an equality implies .


title: Integral domain

text: "Integral domain" is defined almost universally as above, but there is some variation. This article follows the convention that rings have a multiplicative identity, generally denoted 1, but some authors do not follow this, by not requiring integral domains to have a multiplicative identity. Noncommutative integral domains are sometimes admitted. This article, however, follows the much more usual convention of reserving the term "integral domain" for the commutative case and using "domain" for the general case including noncommutative rings.


title: Integral domain

text: An "integral domain" is a nonzero commutative ring in which the product of any two nonzero elements is nonzero. Equivalently:


title: Integral domain

text: Given elements "a" and "b" of "R", one says that "a" "divides" "b", or that "a" is a "divisor" of "b", or that "b" is a "multiple" of "a", if there exists an element "x" in "R" such that .


title: Integral domain

text: The "units" of "R" are the elements that divide 1; these are precisely the invertible elements in "R". Units divide all other elements.


title: Integral domain

text: If "a" divides "b" and "b" divides "a", then "a" and "b" are associated elements or associates. Equivalently, "a" and "b" are associates if for some unit "u".


title: Integral domain

text: A nonzero non-unit "p" is a "prime element" if, whenever "p" divides a product "ab", then "p" divides "a" or "p" divides "b". Equivalently, an element "p" is prime if and only if the principal ideal ("p") is a nonzero prime ideal.


title: Integral domain

text: Both notions of irreducible elements and prime elements generalize the ordinary definition of prime numbers in the ring formula_56 if one considers as prime the negative primes.


title: Integral domain

text: Every prime element is irreducible. The converse is not true in general: for example, in the quadratic integer ring formula_57 the element 3 is irreducible (if it factored nontrivially, the factors would each have to have norm 3, but there are no norm 3 elements since formula_58 has no integer solutions), but not prime (since 3 divides formula_59 without dividing either factor). In a unique factorization domain (or more generally, a GCD domain), an irreducible element is a prime element.


title: Integral domain

text: While unique factorization does not hold in formula_57, there is unique factorization of ideals. See Lasker–Noether theorem.


title: Integral domain

text: The field of fractions "K" of an integral domain "R" is the set of fractions "a"/"b" with "a" and "b" in "R" and "b" ≠ 0 modulo an appropriate equivalence relation, equipped with the usual addition and multiplication operations. It is "the smallest field containing "R" " in the sense that there is an injective ring homomorphism such that any injective ring homomorphism from "R" to a field factors through "K". The field of fractions of the ring of integers formula_1 is the field of rational numbers formula_64 The field of fractions of a field is isomorphic to the field itself.


title: Integral domain

text: Integral domains are characterized by the condition that they are reduced (that is "x" = 0 implies "x" = 0) and irreducible (that is there is only one minimal prime ideal). The former condition ensures that the nilradical of the ring is zero, so that the intersection of all the ring's minimal primes is zero. The latter condition is that the ring have only one minimal prime. It follows that the unique minimal prime ideal of a reduced and irreducible ring is the zero ideal, so such rings are integral domains. The converse is clear: an integral domain has no nonzero nilpotent elements, and the zero ideal is the unique minimal prime ideal.


title: Integral domain

text: This translates, in algebraic geometry, into the fact that the coordinate ring of an affine algebraic set is an integral domain if and only if the algebraic set is an algebraic variety.


title: Integral domain

text: More generally, a commutative ring is an integral domain if and only if its spectrum is an integral affine scheme.


title: Integral domain

text: If "R" is an integral domain of prime characteristic "p", then the Frobenius endomorphism "f"("x") = "x" is injective.


title: South Jamaica, Queens

text: South Jamaica (also commonly known as "The Southside") is a residential neighborhood in the borough of Queens in New York City, located south of downtown Jamaica. Although a proper border has not been established, the neighborhood is a subsection of greater Jamaica bounded by the Long Island Rail Road Main Line tracks, Jamaica Avenue, or Liberty Avenue to the north; the Van Wyck Expressway on the west; Rockaway Boulevard on the south; and Merrick Boulevard on the east, adjoining the neighboring community of St. Albans. Other primary thoroughfares of South Jamaica include Baisley, Foch, Linden, Guy R. Brewer, and Sutphin Boulevards. The 180th Street Business Improvement District is responsible for the development of the area.


title: South Jamaica, Queens

text: Considered a slum in the early 20th century, the neighborhood now consists of working-class and middle-class residents.


title: South Jamaica, Queens

text: South Jamaica is located in Queens Community District 12 and its ZIP Codes are 11433 through 11436. It is patrolled primarily by the New York City Police Department's 113th Precinct, but also by the 103rd Precinct. Politically, South Jamaica is represented by the New York City Council's 27th and 28th Districts.


title: South Jamaica, Queens

text: South Jamaica is generally considered to be the area south of Downtown Jamaica (Jamaica Center) or Jamaica Avenue, with the Van Wyck Expressway to the west, and Merrick Boulevard to the east. The eastern border extends as far as the LIRR Montauk Branch tracks in the northern part of the neighborhood. John F. Kennedy International Airport lies to the south across the Belt Parkway. This area overlaps with the neighborhoods of St. Albans to the east, and Rochdale and Springfield Gardens to the south. Many maps however consider South Jamaica to be bounded by Linden Boulevard to the north, and Rockaway Boulevard and Baisley Boulevard to the south, with the section north of Linden Boulevard (including the South Jamaica Houses) defined as part of Jamaica. Other maps consider the area between Linden Boulevard and Baisley/Rockaway Boulevards to be a southern subsection of South Jamaica called Baisley Park; Baisley Pond Park, the Baisley Park Houses, the Baisley Park Branch of Queens Public Library, and the Baisley Park Bus Depot are located in this area. The neighborhood south of Rockaway and Baisley Boulevards to the Belt Parkway (including Rochdale Village) historically has been considered part of South Jamaica, but is now often mapped as Springfield Gardens North or Rochdale. The three sections constitute the western half of Queens Community Board 12.


title: South Jamaica, Queens

text: South Jamaica is often referred to as "Southside" or "Southside Jamaica" (also spelled as "South Side"). This is said to be derived from the location of the neighborhood and its demographics; Hollis, Queens in the northeast corner of greater Jamaica and Queens CB12 is referred to as "Northside". The South Side nickname dates back to the first half of the 20th century, when several local community organizations carried the name. An additional nickname, "South Suicide Queens", is a reference to the high crime rate in the neighborhood since the 1980s.


title: South Jamaica, Queens

text: South Jamaica is named for its location south of Jamaica; the name Jamaica itself is derived from the Lenape word "Yameco" meaning "beaver". This was reflected in the naming of Beaver Pond at the border of Jamaica and South Jamaica. Through the 20th century, the neighborhood was also known as Cedar Manor.


title: South Jamaica, Queens

text: Through the 19th century, what is now South Jamaica consisted of farmland. Early developments in South Jamaica included the Prospect Cemetery opened in 1668, and the Prospect and St. Monica's Churches opened around 1857. Baisley Pond, created by local farmers from dammed streams, was acquired by the City of Brooklyn's Williamsburg Water Works Company in 1852 for municipal water supplies.


title: South Jamaica, Queens

text: The Jamaica Race Course was opened in 1894 at Baisley Boulevard and New York Avenue (today's Guy R. Brewer Bouelvard), and expanded in the early 1900s. Some sources state its official opening year as 1903. Transportation was introduced into the neighborhood at the turn of the century. The Far Rockaway Line streetcar was opened along New York Avenue between downtown Jamaica and the Jamaica Racetrack on September 1, 1896, and was extended to the Rockaways by summer 1897. The Cedar Manor station opened at Linden Boulevard along the LIRR Atlantic Branch in 1906. The Queens Boulevard Line streetcar to Midtown Manhattan was extended along Sutphin Boulevard to 109th Avenue in South Jamaica in April 1916. Baisley Pond Park was opened by the city in 1919.


title: South Jamaica, Queens

text: In the 1920s, the neighborhood's population exploded after streets were laid down and houses constructed. Many African Americans began moving into the neighborhood at this time, while White residents began leaving the neighborhood, coinciding with other white flight periods in the city. By the 1930s, the neighborhood was considered to be predominantly Black, especially in contrast to other southeast Queens neighborhoods, although a significant White population remained. At this time, the neighborhood was considered a major slum, due to overcrowding, high crime, and lack of infrastructure. Many houses were frame houses constructed only of wood and were not fireproof, while residences in the neighborhood were without modern utilities such as electricity and indoor plumbing. The Jamaica Racetrack, meanwhile, was blamed for bringing down property values, and was in poor operating condition.


title: South Jamaica, Queens

text: In 1939, the city began slum clearance projects in the neighborhood. The first was the South Jamaica Houses public housing project, originally referred to as the "'South Jamaica' slum clearance project", opened in July 1940. A second portion of the project opened in 1954. By 1955, following the takeover of the Jamaica Race Course by the Greater New York Association, the city and city planner Robert Moses began evaluating plans to replace the track with new development. Plans included an additional public housing development, and one of several potential Queens sites for the failed relocation of the Brooklyn Dodgers. In October 1956, Moses planned a middle-income cooperative to be constructed on the site. The track was closed in 1959 and demolished in 1960, replaced by an expanded Aqueduct Racetrack.