title: Jeff Hephner

text: BuddyTV ranked Hephner #86 on its list of "TV's Sexiest Men of 2011". In 2011, Hephner was cast in the NBC series "The Playboy Club", but was replaced by Eddie Cibrian before filming began. From 2011 to 2012, Hephner played Ben Zajac in the Starz political drama series "Boss". From 2013 to 2014, Hephner had a recurring role in the second season of the NBC drama "Chicago Fire". In 2015, Hephner co-starred with Sharon Stone in the TNT series "Agent X".


title: Jeff Hephner

text: From 2016 to 2017, Hephner reprised his role as Jeff Clarke in "Chicago Fire"'s medical spinoff "Chicago Med", where Clarke returns to medical school. He appeared in the first season finale and recurred in the show until towards the end of the second season.


title: Aluminium oxynitride

text: Aluminium oxynitride (marketed under the name ALON by Surmet Corporation) is a transparent ceramic composed of aluminium, oxygen and nitrogen. ALON is optically transparent (≥ 80%) in the near-ultraviolet, visible, and midwave-infrared regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. It is four times as hard as fused silica glass, 85% as hard as sapphire, and nearly 115% as hard as magnesium aluminate spinel. Since it has a cubic spinel structure, it can be fabricated to transparent windows, plates, domes, rods, tubes, and other forms using conventional ceramic powder processing techniques.


title: Aluminium oxynitride

text: ALON is the hardest polycrystalline transparent ceramic available commercially. Because of its relatively low weight, distinctive optical and mechanical properties, and resistance to oxidation or radiation, it shows promise for applications such as bulletproof, blast-resistant, and optoelectronic windows. ALON-based armor has been shown to stop multiple armor-piercing projectiles of up to .50 BMG.


title: Aluminium oxynitride

text: ALON is used for infrared-optical windows, with greater than 80% transparency at wavelengths below about 4 micrometers, dropping to near zero at about 6 micrometers. As such, it has applications as a sensor component, specialty IR domes, and windows for laser communications. It has also been demonstrated as an interface passivation layer in some semiconductor-related applications.


title: Aluminium oxynitride

text: ALON has less than half the weight and thickness of glass-based transparent armor. thick ALON armor is capable of stopping .50 BMG armor-piercing rounds, which can penetrate of traditional glass laminate.


title: Aluminium oxynitride

text: ALON can be fabricated as windows, plates, domes, rods, tubes and other forms using conventional ceramic powder processing techniques. Its composition can vary slightly: the aluminium content from about 30% to 36%, which has been reported to affect the bulk and shear moduli by only 1–2%. The fabricated greenware is subjected to heat treatment (densification) at elevated temperatures followed by grinding and polishing to transparency. It can withstand temperatures of about in inert atmospheres. The grinding and polishing substantially improves the impact resistance and other mechanical properties of armor.


title: SEPTA Regional Rail

text: The SEPTA Regional Rail system is a commuter rail network owned by the Southeastern Pennsylvania Transportation Authority and serving the Philadelphia Metropolitan area. The system has 13 branches and more than 150 active stations in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, its suburbs and satellite towns and cities. It is the fifth-busiest commuter railroad in the United States, and the busiest outside of the New York and Chicago metropolitan areas. In 2016, the Regional Rail system had an average of 132,000 daily riders and 118,800 daily riders (As of 2019).


title: SEPTA Regional Rail

text: The core of the Regional Rail system is the Center City Commuter Connection, a tunnel linking three Center City stations: the above-ground upper level of 30th Street Station, the underground Suburban Station, and Jefferson Station (formerly Market East Station). All trains stop at these Center City stations; most also stop at Temple University station on the campus of Temple University in North Philadelphia. Operations are handled by the SEPTA Railroad Division.


title: SEPTA Regional Rail

text: Of the 13 branches, six were originally owned and operated by the Pennsylvania Railroad (PRR) (later Penn Central), six by the Reading Company, while one was constructed under SEPTA in 1985. The PRR lines terminated at Suburban Station; the Reading lines at Reading Terminal. The Center City Commuter Connection opened in November 1984 to unite the two systems, turning the two terminal stations (Reading Terminal having been replaced by the newly built underground Jefferson Station) into through-stations. Most inbound trains from one line continue on as outbound trains on another line. (Some limited or express trains, and all trains on the Cynwyd Line, terminate on one of the stub-end tracks at Suburban Station.) Service on most lines operates from 5:30 a.m. to midnight.


title: SEPTA Regional Rail

text: Each former PRR line, as well as the Airport Line, was once paired with a former Reading line and numbered from R1 to R8 (except for R4), so that one route number described two lines, one on the PRR side and one on the Reading side. This was ultimately deemed more confusing than helpful, so on July 25, 2010, SEPTA dropped the R-number and color-coded route designators and changed dispatching patterns so fewer trains follow both sides of the same route.


title: SEPTA Regional Rail

text: There are 154 active stations on the Regional Rail system (as of 2016), including 51 in the city of Philadelphia, 42 in Montgomery County, 29 in Delaware County, 16 in Bucks County, 10 in Chester County, and six outside the state of Pennsylvania (two in Mercer County, New Jersey and four in New Castle County, Delaware). In 2003, passengers boarding in Philadelphia accounted for 61% of trips on a typical weekday, with 45% from the three Center City stations and Temple University station.


title: SEPTA Regional Rail

text: SEPTA uses a mixed fleet of General Electric and Hyundai Rotem "Silverliner" electric multiple unit (EMU) cars, used on all Regional Rail lines. SEPTA also uses push-pull equipment: coaches built by Bombardier, hauled by ACS-64 electric locomotives similar to those used by Amtrak. The push-pull equipment is used primarily for peak express service because it accelerates slower than EMU equipment, making it less suitable for local service with close station spacing and frequent stops and starts.


title: SEPTA Regional Rail

text: As of 2012, all cars have a blended red-and-blue SEPTA window logo and "ditch lights" that flash at grade crossings and when "deadheading" through stations, as required by Amtrak for operations on the Northeast and Keystone Corridors. SEPTA's railroad reporting mark SEPA is the official mark for their revenue equipment, though it is rarely seen on external markings. SPAX can be seen on non-revenue work equipment, including boxcars, diesel locomotives, and other rolling stock.


title: SEPTA Regional Rail

text: The Silverliner coaches were first built by Budd in Philadelphia and used by the PRR in 1958 as the Pioneer III for a prototype intercity EMU alternative to the GG1-hauled trains. Similarly designed cars were purchased in 1963 as Silverliner II units. In 1967, the PRR took delivery of the St. Louis-built Silverliner III cars, which featured left-hand side controls (railroad cars traditionally have right-hand side controls) and flush toilets (since removed), and were used primarily for Harrisburg-Philadelphia service. The Silverliner II and III cars were designated under the PRR MP85 class. Some Silverliner III cars were converted for exclusive Airport Line use; they featured special luggage racks where the old toilet closets were located, yellow window bands, and the Philadelphia International Airport's PHL" logo. The bulk of the fleet are Silverliner IV coaches built by General Electric in Erie with carshells from Avco and Canadian Vickers; these were delivered in 1973–76, before the formation of Conrail.


title: SEPTA Regional Rail

text: In 1990, the Reading-era "Blueliner" and PRR-era Pioneer III/Silverliner I coachers were retired. In 2002, SEPTA announced the building of 104 new Silverliner V cars to replace the Silverliner II and Silverliner III. SEPTA retired the Silverliner II and Silverliner III cars in June 2012 and replaced them with the Silverliner V model. A total of 120 new Silverliner V cars were built, with the first three entering service on October 29, 2010. The cost for all 120 cars is $274 million, and they were constructed in facilities located in South Philadelphia and South Korea by Hyundai Rotem. The cars were built with wider seats and quarter point doors for easier boarding or departing at high-level stations in Center City. As of March 2013, all 120 cars have been delivered, and are in service. On July 2, 2016, SEPTA announced all 120 Silverliner V cars were being removed from service due to a "serious structural defect." At the time, the Silverliner V cars represent one-third of SEPTA's regional rail fleet.


title: SEPTA Regional Rail

text: SEPTA also owns two Arrow II EMU cars built by GE in 1974 and once operated by New Jersey Transit for its electrified service to and from New York City and Hoboken Terminal (formerly NJT 1236 and 1237). The Arrow II car is nearly identical to that of the Silverliner IV, but lacks the distinctive dynamic brake roof "hump" on the car, and has a "diamond" pantograph instead of the "V" pantograph used on the Silverliner. The Arrow II are used as part of work trains, such as catenary inspection and leaf removal.


title: SEPTA Regional Rail

text: The entire system uses 12 kV / 25 Hz overhead catenary lines that were erected by the PRR and Reading railroads between 1915 and 1938. All current SEPTA equipment is compatible with the power supplies on both the ex-PRR (Amtrak-supplied) and ex-Reading (SEPTA-supplied) sides of the system; the "phase break" is at the northern entrance to the Center City commuter tunnel between Jefferson Station and Temple University Station.


title: SEPTA Regional Rail

text: In late 2014, and the beginning of early 2015, SEPTA began the "Rebuilding for the Future" campaign that will replace all deteriorated rolling stock and rail lines with new, modernized, equipment, including ACS-64 locomotives, bi-level cars, and better signaling. The ACS-64 locomotives for push-pull trains arrived in 2018 and replaced AEM-7 and ALP-44 locomotives.


title: SEPTA Regional Rail

text: All lines used by SEPTA are electrified with overhead catenary supplying alternating current at 12 kV with a frequency of 25 Hz. The system on the former PRR side is owned and operated by Amtrak, part of the electrification of the Northeast Corridor. The electrification on the Reading side is owned by SEPTA. The Amtrak system was originally built by the PRR between 1915 and 1938. The SEPTA-owned system was originally built by the Reading starting in 1931.


title: SEPTA Regional Rail

text: SEPTA was created to prevent passenger railroads and other mass transit services from disappearing or shrinking in the region. Passenger rail service was previously provided by for-profit companies, but by the 1960s the profitability had eroded, not least because huge growth of automobile use over the previous 30 years had reduced ridership. SEPTA's creation provided government subsidies to such operations and thus kept them from closing down. For the railroads, at first it was a matter of paying the existing railroad companies to continue passenger service. In 1966 SEPTA had contracts with the PRR and Reading to continue commuter rail services in the Philadelphia region.


title: SEPTA Regional Rail

text: The PRR and Reading operated both passenger and freight trains along their tracks in the Philadelphia region. Starting in 1915, both companies electrified their busiest lines to improve the efficiency of their passenger service. They used an overhead catenary trolley wire energized at 11,000 volts single-phase alternating current at 25 Hertz (Hz). The PRR electrified the Paoli line in 1915, the Chestnut Hill West line in 1918, and the Media/West Chester and Wilmington lines in 1928. Both railroads continued electrifying lines into the 1930s, replacing trains pulled by steam locomotives with electric multiple unit cars and locomotives. PRR electrification reached Trenton and Norristown in 1930. Reading began electrified operation in 1931 to West Trenton, Hatboro (extended to Warminster in 1974) and Doylestown; and in 1933 to Chestnut Hill East and Norristown. The notable exception was the line to Newtown, the Reading's only suburban route not electrified. While the PRR expanded electrification throughout the northeast (ultimately stretching from Washington, D.C. to New York City), the Reading never expanded electric lines beyond the Philadelphia commuter district.


title: SEPTA Regional Rail

text: By the late 1950s, commuter service had become a drag on profitability for the PRR and Reading, like most railroads of the era. Commuter service requires large amounts of equipment, large numbers of employees to operate equipment and station sites, and large amounts of maintenance on track that see extremely heavy usage for only six hours a day, five days a week. Meanwhile, the rise in automobile ownership and the building of the Interstate Highway System chipped away at the steady patronage as population in the suburbs grew. When the Philadelphia suburbs were small towns, people lived close enough to a train station to walk to and from the trains. When the suburbs expanded into what had been fields and pastures, the trip to the station required an automobile, leading commuters to remain in their cars and drive all the way into the city as a matter of convenience.


title: SEPTA Regional Rail

text: Both railroads shed a few minor money-losing routes, but more major pruning efforts ran into public opposition and government regulation. Ending a major line involved hearings before the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC), the predecessor to the Surface Transportation Board, which moved at a glacial pace and was capricious in the matter of approval, requiring one railroad to continue operating a local train on a route covered by four other trains while allowing another to discontinue a well-patronized train that had no competing lines. In response, the railroads made commuting unpleasant for passengers by neglecting the upkeep of equipment.


title: SEPTA Regional Rail

text: Faced with the possible loss of commuter service, local business interests, politicians, and the railroad unions in Philadelphia pushed for limited government subsidization. In 1958, the city enacted the Philadelphia Passenger Service Improvement Corporation (PSIC), which consisted of a partnership with the Reading and PRR to subsidize service on both Chestnut Hill branches. This was not enough to reverse the deterioration of the railroad infrastructure. By 1960, the PSIC assisted with services reaching as far as the city border in all directions. PSIC subsidized trains to Manayunk on the PRR's Schuylkill Branch to Shawmont on the Reading Norristown line, to Fox Chase on the Reading Newtown line, and as far as Torresdale on the PRR's northeast corridor to New York City. Subsequently, the city purchased new trains. The success of the PSIC subsidy program resulted in its expanding throughout the five-county suburban area under the Southeastern Pennsylvania Transportation Compact (SEPACT) in 1962. In 1966, SEPTA began contracts with the Pennsylvania Railroad and the Reading Company to subsidize their commuter lines.


title: SEPTA Regional Rail

text: Still, the subsidies could not save the big railroads. The PRR attempted to stay solvent by merging with the New York Central Railroad on February 1, 1968, but the resulting company, Penn Central, went bankrupt on June 21, 1970. The Reading filed for bankruptcy in 1971. Between 1974 and 1976, SEPTA ordered and accepted the delivery of the Silverliner IVs.


title: SEPTA Regional Rail

text: In 1976, Conrail took over the railroad-related assets and operations of the bankrupt PRR and Reading railroads, including the commuter rail operations. Conrail provided commuter rail services under contract to SEPTA until January 1, 1983, when SEPTA assumed operations.


title: SEPTA Regional Rail

text: The Regional Rail SEPTA inherited from Conrail and its predecessor railroads was almost entirely run with electric-powered multiple unit cars and locomotives. However, Conrail (the Reading before 1976) operated four SEPTA-branded routes under contract throughout the 1970s, all of which originated from Reading Terminal. The Allentown via Bethlehem, Quakertown, and Lansdale service was gradually cut back. Allentown–Bethlehem service ended in 1979, Bethlehem-Quakertown service ended July 1, 1981, and Quakertown–Lansdale service ended July 27, 1981. Pottsville line service to Pottsville via Reading and Norristown, also ended July 27, 1981. West Trenton service previously ran to Newark Penn Station; this was cut back to West Trenton on July 1, 1981, with replacement New Jersey Transit connecting service continuing until December 1982. The final service, Fox Chase-Newtown service, initially ended on July 1, 1981. It was re-established on October 5, 1981, as the Fox Chase Rapid Transit Line, which then ended on January 14, 1983.


title: SEPTA Regional Rail

text: Most train equipment was either Budd Rail Diesel Cars, or locomotive-hauled push-pull trains with former Reading FP7s. The diesel equipment was maintained at the Reading Company/Conrail owned Reading Shops, in Reading, PA.


title: SEPTA Regional Rail

text: The services were phased out due to a number of reasons that included lack of ridership, a lack of funding outside the five-county area, withdrawal of Conrail as a contract carrier, a small pool of aging equipment that needed replacement, and a lack of SEPTA-owned diesel maintenance infrastructure. The death knell for any resumption of diesel service was the Center City Commuter Connection tunnel project, which lacks the necessary ventilation for exhaust-producing locomotives.


title: SEPTA Regional Rail

text: Service from Cynwyd was extended to a new high-level station at Ivy Ridge in 1980, and the 52nd Street Station closed in the same year.


title: SEPTA Regional Rail

text: The transition from Conrail to SEPTA, overseen by General Manager David L. Gunn (who later became President of the New York City Transit Authority and Amtrak), was a turbulent one. SEPTA attempted to impose lower transit (bus and subway driver's) pay scales and work rules, which was met by resistance by the BLE (an experiment was already in place on the diesel-only Fox Chase Rapid Transit Line, which used City Transit Division employees instead of traditional railroad employees as a bargaining chip). As the January 1, 1983 deadline approached, the unions stated they agreed to work even if new union contracts were not in place by the new year. SEPTA had spent most of December 1982 preparing riders for the likelihood of no train service come the new year. Even with the unions' offers to continue working, SEPTA insisted that a brief shutdown of service would still be necessary, arguing that it would not know until the eleventh hour how many Conrail employees would actually come to work for SEPTA. In addition, SEPTA claimed that these employees would have to be qualified to work on portions of the system unfamiliar to them.


title: SEPTA Regional Rail

text: A lawyer who regularly commuted from Newtown on the Fox Chase Rapid Transit line filed a class action lawsuit against SEPTA to force the agency to keep trains running. The judge who heard the case, while agreeing that SEPTA probably would not be able initially to operate a full schedule, ordered the agency to keep as much train service running as possible. This resulted in limited service after January 1, 1983 on all the Reading lines and the heavily patronized PRR Paoli line. Full service was gradually restored over the next several weeks.


title: SEPTA Regional Rail

text: The unions then surprised SEPTA on March 15, 1983, by going on strike, still without contracts, in an action timed to coincide with an expected City Transit Division strike. At the time, the City Transit Division was chafing at SEPTA for discontinuing diesel service on the Fox Chase Rapid Transit Line on January 14, 1983, as personnel were paid higher salaries for traveling a considerable distance to operate trains based in Newtown. SEPTA, however, settled with the transit union shortly before its strike deadline, a move that rail unions took as a betrayal. The rail unions had hoped that with both the railroads and City Transit shut down, the unions could extract whatever settlement they desired. The railroad strike lasted 108 days, and service did not resume until July 3, 1983, when the last holdout union agreed to a contract to settle from the other rail unions.


title: SEPTA Regional Rail

text: In the end, SEPTA would treat the rail unions workers as railroad workers rather than transit operators, but their pay scale remains lower than that of other Northeast commuter railroads, such as NJ Transit and the Long Island Rail Road. The strike resulted in lower ridership, which took over 10 years to rebuild.


title: SEPTA Regional Rail

text: The idea of linking the Philadelphia and Reading lines with an urban tunnel was first adopted by the Philadelphia City Planning Commission in 1960, under the leadership of Edmund Bacon. Such a tunnel would improve the connectivity of the network. The tunnel was constructed between 1976 and 1984 at a cost of $330 million.


title: SEPTA Regional Rail

text: As part of the tunnel project SEPTA implemented a diametrical mode of operation. Heretofore the Pennsylvania and Reading trains had terminated in their respective terminals. Besides making transfers difficult, this led to congestion and reduced capacity. With the opening of the tunnel, Pennsylvania trains would run through the tunnel on to matched Reading lines, and vice versa. This would reduce congestion at the downtown stations, as very few trains would terminate or originate at them, and reduce the number of potential passenger transfers as each train reached more destinations. The original plan for the system was made by University of Pennsylvania professor Vukan Vuchic, based on the S-Bahn commuter rail systems in Germany. Numbers were assigned to the Pennsylvania lines in order from south (Airport) to northeast (Trenton); the Reading line matches were chosen to balance ridership, the physical characteristics of the lines, and the location of yards. An additional consideration was avoiding crossovers on the trunk lines. and to attempt to avoid trains running full on one side and then running mostly empty on the other. Vuchic recommended seven lines:


title: SEPTA Regional Rail

text: Stage 1, which represented the state of affairs when the tunnel opened in 1984, was hampered by an "imbalance" between the Pennsylvania lines and Reading lines. Both the R3 and R4 would short turn at Wayne Junction or Suburban Station (as would some R7 trains), which cut against the diametrical principle. To correct this, Vuchich proposed the construction of a connection in the Swampoodle neighborhood between the ex-Pennsylvania Chestnut Hill West Line and the ex-Reading trunk line west of Wayne Junction as part of Stage 2, moving the Chestnut Hill West line to the "Reading" side. This connection was never built, leading (among other factors) to the following changes:


title: SEPTA Regional Rail

text: One of the assumptions in this plan was that ridership would increase after the connection was open. Instead, ridership dropped after the 1983 strike. While recent rises in oil prices have resulted in increased rail ridership for daily commuters, many off-peak trains run with few riders. Pairing up the rail lines based on ridership is less relevant today than it was when the system was implemented.


title: SEPTA Regional Rail

text: At a later time, R1 was applied to the former Reading side, shared with the R2 and R5 lines to Glenside, and R3 to Jenkintown, and R1-Airport trains ran to Glenside rather than becoming R3 trains to West Trenton. In later years, SEPTA became more flexible in order to cope with differences in ridership on various lines. After the original service patterns were introduced, the following termini changed:


title: SEPTA Regional Rail

text: On July 25, 2010, the R-numbering system was dropped and each branch was named after its primary outer terminals.


title: SEPTA Regional Rail

text: The 1980s and 1990s were difficult times for SEPTA. While the agency has spent most of its 50-year history staggering from crisis to crisis, the 1980s were a particularly low point. The era was defined by crippling strikes, engineer shortages, drastic service cuts and an abundance of mismanagement. State and local officials, commuters, and general observers were quick to brand SEPTA as the most inept of all the major transit agencies, though getting a handle on what exactly was the cause of its ills was historically difficult.


title: SEPTA Regional Rail

text: "Railpace Newsmagazine" contributor Gerry Williams commented that understanding what routinely transpires in SEPTA upper management rarely made itself clearly known to the general public. Frequently, there were various hidden agendas working in the background, often working at cross purposes with one another. This was often the result of the city (Philadelphia)/Suburban (Bucks, Delaware, Chester, Montgomery) split. The city government had historically been Democratic, the four suburban counties Republican until 2019, when all four suburban counties elected Democratic leadership. This factor is regularly influenced by the changing political winds at the state capital in Harrisburg.


title: SEPTA Regional Rail

text: In addition, unlike all other U.S. railroad commuter agencies which are a state agency operated as a leg of its corresponding Department of Transportation, SEPTA is not a state agency and is beholden primarily to the five local governments which comprise it. Williams questioned why there has never been any massive public push to force SEPTA to "clean up its act." He concluded that the crisis within SEPTA "merely reflects the broader problems of local provincialism and petty political squabbles which are so rampant within the region." Williams later commented that "unfortunately, there does not seem to be any group out there influential enough to bring shame on SEPTA, and SEPTA just may be beyond shaming anyway."


title: SEPTA Regional Rail

text: Service to Reading Terminal ended on November 6, 1984, in anticipation of the opening of the Center City Commuter Connection, which opened on November 12, 1984. The tunnel, first proposed in the 1950s, is an underground connection between PRR and Reading lines; previously, PRR commuter trains terminated at Suburban Station and Reading at Reading Terminal. The connection converted Suburban Station into a through-station and rerouted Reading trains down a steep incline and into a tunnel that turns sharply west near the new Market East Station (now Jefferson Station). The conversion was meant to increase efficiency and reduce the number of tracks needed. On April 28, 1985, the Airport Line opened, providing service from Suburban Station via 30th Street Station to Philadelphia International Airport. This line runs along Amtrak's NEC, then crosses over onto Reading tracks that pass close to the airport. At the airport, a new bridge carries it over Interstate 95 and into the airport terminals between the baggage claim in arrivals and the check-in counters in departures. In 1990, R5 service was extended from Downingtown to Coatesville and Parkesburg. However, on November 10, 1996, R5 service to Parkesburg was truncated to Downingtown. In 2006, SEPTA started negotiations with Wawa Food Markets to purchase land in Wawa, Pennsylvania to build a new Park-and-Ride facility for a planned restoration of service between Elwyn and Wawa on the Media/Wawa Line, which previously ran to West Chester.


title: SEPTA Regional Rail

text: Between 1979 and 1983, diesel locomotives were phased out. With insufficient operating funds and a desire to avoid maintaining deteriorating lines, SEPTA cut various services throughout the 1980s. R3 West Chester service was truncated to Elwyn on September 19, 1986, due to unsatisfactory track beyond. R6 Ivy Ridge service was truncated to Cynwyd on May 17, 1986, due to concerns about the Manayunk Bridge over the Schuylkill River. Service to Cynwyd ended altogether in 1988, but fierce political pressure brought resumed service. R8 diesel service between Fox Chase and Newtown ended on January 14, 1983, after SEPTA decided not to repair failing diesel train equipment. The service was initially terminated on July 1, 1981 (along with diesel services to Allentown and Pottsville) and reinstated on October 5, 1981, using operators from the city transit division. This experimental Fox Chase Rapid Transit Line caused a rift in unions within the organization, adding to the March 1983 strike that lasted 108 days.


title: SEPTA Regional Rail

text: SEPTA management was criticized for the cuts. Vukan Vuchic, the transit expert and University of Pennsylvania professor who designed the former R-numbering system for SEPTA, said he had never seen a city the size of Philadelphia "cut transit services quite as drastically as SEPTA. For a system that is already obsolete, any more cutbacks would be disastrous—and likely spell doom for transit in the Philadelphia region. This city would be the first in the world to do that."


title: SEPTA Regional Rail

text: DVARP said that SEPTA purposely truncated service and that while other commuter railroad counterparts "in North America expand their rail services, SEPTA is the only one continuing to cut and cut and cut. The only difference between SEPTA and its railroad and transit predecessors is that SEPTA eliminates services to avoid rebuilding assets, while its predecessors (PRR, Reading and Conrail) kept service running while deferring maintenance."


title: SEPTA Regional Rail

text: On November 16, 1984, the Columbia Avenue (now Cecil B. Moore Avenue) bridge near old Temple University Station was found to be unsafe, putting all four tracks out of service north of Market East Station. In December 1984, a temporary bridge opened, allowing service to resume north of Market East Station. Nonetheless, the results of decades of deferred maintenance on the Reading Viaduct between the Center City Commuter Connection and Wayne Junction continued to threaten the right-of-way. In 1992, the bridge was in such poor condition that the bridge inspector actually saw the structure sag every time a train passed over the bridge; further inspection revealed that the bridge was in imminent danger of collapsing.


title: SEPTA Regional Rail

text: Over the following year, SEPTA undertook a 10-month, $354 million (equivalent to $ million in ) project to overhaul the viaduct, labeled "RailWorks." The viaduct was shut down completely from April 5 to October 3, 1992, and from May 2 to September 4, 1993, with the R6 Norristown, R7 Chestnut Hill East, and R8 Fox Chase lines suspended. Other Reading lines only came as far into the city as the Fern Rock Transportation Center, where riders had to transfer to the Broad Street Line. Express trackage was added to the Broad Street Line to improve travel times from Center City to Fern Rock. Nonetheless, the number of subway trains needed to carry both regular Broad Street Line riders, as well as passengers transferring to the subway because of RailWorks, exceeded the capacity of the above-ground, two-track, stub-end Fern Rock terminus. In 1993, SEPTA added a loop track to Fern Rock Yard, so that northbound trains did not need to use the crossovers at the station throat, somewhat ameliorating the problem. During peak hours, SEPTA ran several diesel trains from the Reading side branches, along non-electrified Conrail trackage, to 30th Street Station.


title: SEPTA Regional Rail

text: Meanwhile, SEPTA crews replaced several dilapidated bridges, installed new continuous welded rail and overhead catenary, constructed new rail stations at Temple University and North Broad Street, and upgraded the signals. Upon the completion of RailWorks, the Reading Viaduct became the "newest" piece of railroad owned by SEPTA, although other projects have since allowed improved service on the ex-Reading side of the system.


title: SEPTA Regional Rail

text: When Conrail handled operations on SEPTA's behalf, overall ridership peaked in 1980 with over 373 million unlinked trips per year. The Regional Rail Division carried over 32 million passengers in 1980, a level which was not to be exceeded again for decades. Regional Rail ridership subsequently declined in 1982 after SEPTA ceased operating diesel service. It then sharply declined by half after SEPTA assumed operations in 1983, hitting a new low of just under 13 million passengers. This decline of ridership was the result of a drawn-out strike by the railroad unions, the discontinuing of service to over 60 stations, the increase in fares during a period of decreasing gasoline prices, and the unfamiliarity of SEPTA's management in operating a commuter railroad.


title: SEPTA Regional Rail

text: In 1992, ridership dipped again due to economic factors and due to SEPTA's RailWorks project, which shut down half of the railroad over two periods of several months each in 1992 and 1993. A mild recession in 1992–1994 also dampened ridership, but a booming economy in the late 1990s helped increase ridership to near the peak level of 1980.


title: SEPTA Regional Rail

text: In 2000, ridership started a slight decline due to the slow economy, but in 2003 ridership started increasing again. The average weekday passenger counts have not increased at the same rate as the total annual passenger counts, which may mean that weekend ridership is increasing. In 2008, Regional Rail ridership hit an all-time high of over 35 million. In 2009, it was down 1% of this high, but by fiscal year 2013 ridership reached a new high of over 36 million. This number was passed again in 2015 with a new record of 37.7 million trips.


title: SEPTA Regional Rail

text: On June 14, 2014, a strike shut down SEPTA's Regional Rail service after negotiations failed between SEPTA and the Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers and Trainmen and the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers. A total of 400 workers walked off the job. As a result of the strike, SEPTA planned to add additional capacity on bus, subway, and trolley routes along with the Norristown High Speed Line during off-peak hours. On the first day of the strike, Governor Tom Corbett asked President Barack Obama to appoint a presidential emergency board to attempt to end the labor dispute and force employees back to work. A short time after 7 p.m. on June 14, President Obama signed an executive order forcing workers to return and continue negotiations through the presidential emergency board. SEPTA Regional Rail service resumed on June 15.


title: SEPTA Regional Rail

text: SEPTA Regional Rail operated "Lifeline Service" during the COVID-19 pandemic. On April 9, 2020, service was suspended on the Chestnut Hill East, Chestnut Hill West, Cynwyd, Manayunk/Norristown, West Trenton, and Wilmington/Newark lines. Service along the Lansdale/Doylestown and Paoli/Thorndale lines were also truncated to and , respectively. Wilmington/Newark Line service as far as resumed on May 10, 2020, as part of the Southwest Connection Improvement Program, while service was suspended along the Media/Wawa Line on the same date. The West Trenton Line and Paoli/Thorndale Line service to resumed on June 15, 2020. Lansdale/Doylestown Line service to resumed on June 22, 2020. The Chestnut Hill East, Manayunk/Norristown, and Media/Elwyn lines resumed on June 28, 2020. On the same date, service levels increased on all lines except the Chestnut Hill West and Cynwyd lines. Service on the Wilmington/Newark Line to Newark resumed on January 25, 2021 in order to offer public transit options during a construction project along Interstate 95 in Wilmington. Service on the Chestnut Hill West Line resumed on March 8, 2021, on a limited schedule, with service running Monday through Friday. Service on the Cynwyd Line resumed with limited operations on September 7, 2021. Weekend service on the Chestnut Hill West Line was restored on December 19, 2021.


title: SEPTA Regional Rail

text: In February 2021, the city government of Philadelphia announced the Philadelphia Transit Plan, which outlines the city's proposals for its public transportation system through 2045. For Regional Rail, the plan included increased service frequency, a fare system overhaul, and the creation of many metro-like Regional Rail lines within the Philadelphia city limits and close suburbs. Regional Rail would be split into the Silver Line, frequent Regional Rail (metro-style lines), and Regional Express Service (lines similar to the current Regional Rail, which would make fewer stops closer to Philadelphia). This plan would require upgraded tracks and stations, new vehicles, and infrastructure replacement and upgrades. Similar to other major infrastructure upgrades to existing commuter networks such as GO Transit Regional Express Rail in Toronto or the Electrification of Caltrain in San Francisco. The plan also proposed extensions of Regional Rail services to Phoenixville, Quakertown, and West Chester.


title: SEPTA Regional Rail

text: Phase 1 entails the creation of the "Silver Line". The name comes from the Silverliner family of EMUs which are used in Regional Rail service, and was chosen to denote the metro-like similarities between the Silver Line and the Blue (Market–Frankford) and Orange (Broad Street) lines. The Silver Line would run from Fern Rock Transportation Center in North Philadelphia to Penn Medicine station in University City. It would have the same frequency as a bus line, with 15-minute headway for 15 hours a day every week. Fares along the Silver Line would be similar to SEPTA's other transportation modes, including bus, trolley, and subway.


title: SEPTA Regional Rail

text: Phase 2 would include the addition of more metro-like regional rail routes. These would be called Frequent Regional Rail lines and would be similar to the Silver Line, having lower fares, free transfers, and increased frequencies. Currently, there are four phase 2 routes proposed, including conversion of the Manayunk/Norristown, Chestnut Hill East, and Airport lines to Frequent Regional Rail, and a portion of the SEPTA Main Line from Fern Rock Transportation Center to Jenkintown–Wyncote station in Jenkintown would have Frequent Regional Rail alongside Regional Express Services.


title: SEPTA Regional Rail

text: Phase 3 would include the implementation of the final Frequent Regional Rail lines, additional infrastructure, vehicle, and station upgrades. As part of phase 3, the Chestnut Hill West, Fox Chase, and Warminster lines would be completely replaced with Frequent Regional Rail, while the Lansdale/Doylestown, Media/Wawa, Paoli/Thorndale, and West Trenton lines would have Frequent Regional Rail run alongside Regional Express Services to Lansdale, Elwyn, Villanova, and Somerton respectively.


title: SEPTA Regional Rail

text: The city of Philadelphia and SEPTA expect this plan to take decades and billions of dollars to complete.


title: SEPTA Regional Rail

text: In concert with the 2045 Philadelphia transit plan, SEPTA is taking user feedback in a program called Reimagining Regional Rail. Its stated goal, as found on the SEPTA Forward website, is to develop a "strategic plan, [that] envision Regional Rail as a part of a lifestyle network of frequent, all-day, and all-week services that connects people to a range of destinations across the region". The planned duration of the initiative is a little over nine months, from Fall of 2021 through Summer of 2022.


title: SEPTA Regional Rail

text: Phase one was information gathering. SEPTA employees set out to collect user feedback of the state of the system. After collecting over 5000 responses SEPTA published the summary of its findings on its website, and a draft of the 'State of the System Report'.


title: SEPTA Regional Rail

text: Phase two is presenting the prepared options to the public for feedback and input. The three options produced are "Regional Coverage", "Metro Frequency", and "All Day Speed". It is expected to wrap up in the summer of 2022.


title: Behavioural sciences

text: Behavioral sciences explore the cognitive processes within organisms and the behavioral interactions between organisms in the natural world. It involves the systematic analysis and investigation of human and animal behavior through naturalistic observation, controlled scientific experimentation and mathematical modeling. It attempts to accomplish legitimate, objective conclusions through rigorous formulations and observation. Examples of behavioral sciences include psychology, psychobiology, anthropology, economics, and cognitive science. Generally, behavioral science primarily has shown how human action often seeks to generalize about human behavior as it relates to society and its impact on society as a whole.


title: Behavioural sciences

text: Behavioral sciences include two broad categories: neural "Information sciences" and social "Relational sciences".


title: Behavioural sciences

text: Information processing sciences deal with information processing of stimuli from the social environment by cognitive entities in order to engage in decision making, social judgment and social perception for individual functioning and survival of organism in a social environment. These include psychology, cognitive science, behavior analysis, psychobiology, neural networks, social cognition, social psychology, semantic networks, ethology, and social neuroscience.


title: Behavioural sciences

text: On the other hand, Relational sciences deal with relationships, interaction, communication networks, associations and relational strategies or dynamics between organisms or cognitive entities in a social system. These include fields like sociological social psychology, social networks, dynamic network analysis, agent-based model, behavior analysis, and microsimulation.


title: Behavioural sciences

text: Insights from several pure disciplines across behavioral sciences are explored by various applied disciplines and practiced in the context of everyday life and business. These applied disciplines of behavioral science include: organizational behavior, operations research, consumer behavior, health, and media psychology.


title: Behavioural sciences

text: Consumer Behavior is the study of the decision making process consumers make when purchasing goods or services. It studies the way consumers recognize problems and discover solutions. Behavioral Science is applied in this study by examining the patterns consumers make when making purchases, the factors that influenced that decision, and how to take advantage of these patterns.


title: Behavioural sciences

text: Organizational Behavior is the application of Behavioral Science in a business setting. It studies what motivates employees, how to make them work more effectively, what influences this behavior, and how to use these patterns in order to achieve the company's goals. Managers often use organizational behavior to better lead their employees.


title: Behavioural sciences

text: Using insights from psychology and economics, behavioral science can be leveraged to understand how individuals make decisions regarding their health and ultimately reduce disease burden through interventions such as loss aversion, framing, defaults, nudges, and more. The University of Pennsylvania’s Center for Health Incentives & Behavioral Economics uses behavioral science to inform health policy, improve health care delivery and increase healthy behavior in areas such as physical activity, vaccine uptake, medication adherence, smoking cessation, and food choice.


title: Behavioural sciences

text: The terms "behavioral sciences" and "social sciences" are often used interchangeably. Regardless of these two broad areas being connected and study systematic processes of behavior, they do differ on their level of scientific analysis of various dimensions of behavior.


title: Behavioural sciences

text: Behavioral sciences abstract empirical data to investigate the decision processes and communication strategies within and between organisms in a social system. This characteristically involves fields like psychology, social neuroscience, ethology, and cognitive science. In contrast, social sciences provide a perceptive framework to study the processes of a social system through impacts of social organization on structural adjustment of the individual and of groups. They typically include fields like sociology, economics, public health, anthropology, demography and political science.


title: Behavioural sciences

text: Many subfields of these disciplines test the boundaries between behavioral and social sciences. For example, political psychology and behavioral economics use behavioral approaches, despite the predominant focus on systemic and institutional factors in the broader fields of political science and economics.


title: Behavioural sciences

text: Behavioral Science began being studied predominantly in the early 1900s. One of the pioneers of the study is John B Watson. He began teaching as a professor of psychology at Johns Hopkins University in 1908. In 1915 he served as the president of the American Psychological Association (APA). Some of his methods in studying behavioral science have been controversial. One of these instances was the "Little Albert" experiment. This experiment was to condition a child to fear a white rat. The fear also translated to other furry white things. This was done by associating the objects with a loud clanging noise. A point that drew controversy is that the child was never de-conditioned. In 1957 he received the APA's Award for Distinguished Scientific Contributions.


title: Behavioural sciences

text: In 2009, behavioral scientists conducted a report on loss aversion (Gächter et al., 2009). The research concluded that the pain of losing is psychologically twice as powerful as the pleasure of gaining. Behavioral scientists use loss aversion now in studying human behavior. It has helped show why in some instances penalty frames are more effective than reward frames in motivating human behavior.


title: D-flat major

text: D-flat major (or the key of D-flat) is a major scale based on D, consisting of the pitches D, E, F, G, A, B and C. Its key signature has five flats. It is enharmonically equivalent to C-sharp major.


title: D-flat major

text: Its relative minor is B-flat minor. Its parallel minor, D-flat minor, is usually replaced by C-sharp minor, since D-flat minor features a B (B-double-flat) in its key signature making it impractical to use. C-sharp major, the enharmonic equivalent to D-flat major, has a similar problem as it contains seven sharps. Therefore, D-flat major is often used as the parallel major for C-sharp minor. (The same enharmonic situation occurs with the keys of A-flat major and G-sharp minor).


title: D-flat major

text: For example, in his Prelude No. 15 in D-flat major ("Raindrop"), Frédéric Chopin switches from D-flat major to C-sharp minor for the middle section in the parallel minor, while in his "Fantaisie-Impromptu" and Scherzo No. 3, primarily in C-sharp minor, he switches to D-flat major for the middle section for the opposite reason. Ferdinand Ries' third concerto likewise switches to D-flat major for a while for the return of the second theme in the first movement. Claude Debussy also switches from D-flat major to C-sharp minor in the significant section in his famous "Clair de lune". Antonín Dvořák's "New World Symphony" likewise switches to C-sharp minor for a while for the significant section in the slow movement.


title: D-flat major

text: D-flat major is enharmonic to C-sharp major. In music for the harp, D-flat major is preferred enharmonically not only because harp strings are more resonant in the flat position and the key has fewer accidentals, but also because modulation to the dominant key is easier (by putting the G pedal in the natural position, whereas there is no double-sharp position in which to put the F pedal for G-sharp major).


title: D-flat major

text: Hector Berlioz called the key "majestic" in his 1856 "Grand Traité d'Instrumentation et d'Orchestration modernes", while having a much different opinion of its enharmonic counterpart, calling it "Less vague; and more elegant". Despite this, when he came to orchestrate Carl Maria von Weber's piano piece "Invitation to the Dance" in 1841, he transposed it from D-flat to D major, to give the strings a more manageable key and to produce a brighter sound.


title: D-flat major

text: Although this key was unexplored during the Baroque and Classical periods and was rarely used as the main key for orchestral works of the 18th century, Franz Schubert used it quite frequently in his sets of écossaises, valses and so on, as well as entering it and even flatter keys in his sonatas, impromptus and the like. Ludwig van Beethoven, too, used this key extensively in his second piano concerto. D-flat major was used as the key for the slow movements of Joseph Haydn's Piano Sonata Hob XVI:46 in A-flat major, and Beethoven's "Appassionata Sonata".


title: D-flat major

text: The flattened pitches of D-flat major correspond to the black keys of the piano, and there is much significant piano music written in this key. Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky's Piano Concerto No. 1 is written in B-flat minor, but the famous opening theme is in D-flat major. Tchaikovsky composed the second movement of Piano Concerto No. 1 also in D-flat. Sergei Rachmaninoff composed the famous 18th variation of his "Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini" in this key, perhaps emphasizing the generally held view that D-flat major is the most romantically flavored of the major keys; and his friend Nikolai Medtner similarly chose it for the sensually romantic "big tune" in the last movement of his Piano Concerto No. 3 ("Ballade"). Claude Debussy also composed the famous "Clair de lune" in this key, with a significant section in C-sharp minor. Edvard Grieg composed the second movement of his Piano Concerto in D-flat. Frédéric Chopin's Nocturne in D-flat, Op. 27 and Berceuse, Op. 57 are in this key. Franz Liszt composed heavily in this key, with his most recognizable piece being the third movement of his piano composition "Trois études de concert", dubbed "Un sospiro". Liszt took advantage of the piano's configuration of the key and used it to create an arpeggiating melody using alternating hands.


title: D-flat major

text: In orchestral music, the examples are fewer. Gustav Mahler concluded his Ninth Symphony with an Adagio in D-flat major, rather than the home key of D major of the first movement. Anton Bruckner wrote the third movement of his Symphony No. 8 in D-flat major, while every other movement is in C minor. Antonín Dvořák wrote the second movement of his Symphony No. 9 in D-flat major, while every other movement is in E minor. The first piano concerto of Sergei Prokofiev is also written in D-flat major, with a short slow movement in G-sharp minor. Aram Khachaturian wrote his Piano Concerto, Op. 38 in the key of D-flat major. Choral writing explores D-flat infrequently, notable examples being Robert Schumann's "Requiem", Op. 148, Gabriel Fauré's "Cantique de Jean Racine" and Sergei Rachmaninoff's "Nunc Dimittis" from his All-Night Vigil, Op. 37. Vincent d'Indy's String Quartet No. 3, Op. 96, which is in D-flat.


title: Dream (American group)

text: Dream was an American pop girl group best known for their transatlantic hit single "He Loves U Not". The group was active from 1998 through 2003 and briefly reunited in 2015, releasing the single "I Believe" before disbanding in 2016.


title: Dream (American group)

text: The group was originally formed in October 1998. Talent scout Judith Fontaine selected Holly Blake-Arnstein (), Melissa Schuman (), Ashley Poole (), and Alex Chester (), four teens from California, to comprise a girl group called First Warning, which was later changed to Dream.


title: Dream (American group)

text: The group auditioned for Sean Combs and were subsequently signed to Bad Boy Records. Following this, the group stopped working with Fontaine, who later sued Combs and Blake-Arnstein, Schuman, and Poole, but lost her court case. In January 1999, Chester was replaced by Diana Ortiz ().


title: Dream (American group)

text: Dream released their debut single "He Loves U Not" in 2000. "He Loves U Not" peaked at number 2 on the "Billboard" Hot 100, and number 17 on the UK Singles Chart. The video for the single peaked at number 2 on MTV's "TRL". Their debut album "It Was All a Dream" was released on January 23, 2001. The second single from the album, "This Is Me", was not as successful, but the music video hit number 1 on "TRL". An alternate song with the same name but different lyrics and production, titled "This Is Me (Remix)" was also released featuring rapper Kain and Sean Combs, and was later included on the compilation "Totally Hits 2001". Bad Boy Records had planned to release more singles from "It Was All a Dream", but these releases were later canceled. According to Blake-Arnstein, this was partly due to the impact of the September 11 terrorist attacks in 2001.


title: Dream (American group)

text: To promote "It Was All a Dream", Dream participated in the 2001 "TRL" tour, and opened for Destiny's Child, Eve, NSYNC (No Strings Attached Tour) and Nelly. They were featured in a segment of "MTV Cribs". Play Along Toys released dolls of the group in 2001. Dream made various appearances on television shows, including "TRL", "The Rosie O'Donnell Show", "The Early Show", "Live with Regis and Kelly", and "Good Morning America".


title: Dream (American group)

text: In April 2002, Melissa Schuman left the group to pursue an acting career. A lengthy search conducted by Sean Combs and the three remaining members led to Kasey Sheridan () joining the group in Fall 2002.


title: Dream (American group)

text: Dream spent the subsequent months recording new songs for their second album. In the summer of 2003, the group released the single "Crazy" featuring rapper Loon which coincided with a sexier image. Blake-Arnstein later noted that the sexier, more mature image pushed upon the group by Combs and their management was not a welcome change, and that she and the other members were no longer enjoying the experience. "Crazy" peaked at #39 on the Billboard Mainstream Top 40. Dream's album "Reality" was completed and was scheduled to be released in Fall 2003, but its release was repeatedly postponed by their label. The album did not see a wide release and was only released for digital download from the French Virgin Megastore website. Bad Boy Records later dropped Dream and they disbanded, though their dissolution was never formally announced.


title: Dream (American group)

text: Ashley Poole and Melissa Schuman pursued solo singing careers, and Holly Blake-Arnstein joined the California-based band Whirl Magnet.


title: Dream (American group)

text: On May 9, 2008, Clockwork Entertainment released two compilation albums titled "Daddy's Little Girl" and "Dream Never Land". These albums feature demo songs recorded before their debut and include early member Alex Chester. Subsequently, "Reality" also became available for purchase on iTunes on May 13, 2008. A third compilation, "Dream Back To You", was released in 2009.


title: Dream (American group)

text: In 2008, members Melissa Schuman, Ashley Poole, and Diana Ortiz started a new group under the name Lady Phoenix. A reality show documenting their search for new members was in the works, but was not picked up by any networks, and the group disbanded in 2012.


title: Dream (American group)

text: On May 11, 2015, the original members of Dream posted a video online performing a acapella version of their 2000 single "He Loves U Not". On May 29, 2015, Dream announced they would be making a comeback and launched a new Twitter and Facebook page. On December 17, 2015, Dream released a studio recording of "O Holy Night".


title: Dream (American group)

text: In 2016, Dream opened for 98 Degrees on the My2K Tour. They also performed at the 2016 Mixtape Festival on August 6 with New Kids On The Block headlining. On August 25, 2016, Former member Kasey Sheridan joined Dream on stage to perform "Crazy" at the Microsoft Theater in Los Angeles, California.


title: Burning of Smyrna

text: The burning of Smyrna (, "Smyrna Catastrophe"; , "1922 Izmir Fire"; , "Zmyuṙno Mets Hrdeh") destroyed much of the port city of Smyrna (modern İzmir, Turkey) in September 1922. Eyewitness reports state that the fire began on 13 September 1922 and lasted until it was largely extinguished on 22 September. It began four days after the Turkish military captured the city on 9 September, effectively ending the Greco-Turkish War, more than three years after the landing of Greek army troops at Smyrna on 15 May 1919. Estimated Greek and Armenian deaths resulting from the fire range from 10,000 to 125,000.


title: Burning of Smyrna

text: Approximately 80,000 to 400,000 Greek and Armenian refugees crammed the waterfront to escape from the fire. They were forced to remain there under harsh conditions for nearly two weeks. Turkish troops and irregulars had started committing massacres and atrocities against the Greek and Armenian population in the city before the outbreak of the fire. Many women were raped. Tens of thousands of Greek and Armenian men were subsequently deported into the interior of Anatolia, where most of them died in harsh conditions.


title: Burning of Smyrna

text: The fire completely destroyed the Greek and Armenian quarters of the city; the Muslim and Jewish quarters escaped damage. There are different accounts and eyewitness reports about who was responsible for the fire; most sources and scholars attribute it to Turkish soldiers setting fire to Greek and Armenian homes and businesses, while a few, Turkish or pro-Turkish, sources hold that the Greeks and Armenians started the fire either to tarnish the Turks' reputation or deny them access to their former homes and businesses. Testimonies from Western eyewitnesses were printed in many Western newspapers.


title: Burning of Smyrna

text: The ratio of Christian population to Muslim population remains a matter of dispute, but the city was a multicultural and cosmopolitan center until September 1922. Different sources claim either Greeks or Turks as constituting the majority in the city. According to Katherine Elizabeth Flemming, in 1919–1922 the Greeks in Smyrna numbered 150,000, forming just under half of the population, outnumbering the Turks by a ratio of two to one. Alongside Turks and Greeks, there were sizeable Armenian, Jewish, and Levantine communities in the city. According to Trudy Ring, before World War I the Greeks alone numbered 130,000 out of a population of 250,000, excluding Armenians and other Christians.


title: Burning of Smyrna

text: According to the Ottoman census of 1906/7, there were 341,436 Muslims, 193,280 Greek Orthodox Christians, 12,273 Armenian Gregorian Christians, 24,633 Jews, 55,952 Foreigners totalling to 630,124 people in İzmir Sanjak (13 Kazas including the central Kaza); the updated figures for 1914 gave 100,356 Muslims, 73.676 Greek Orthodox Christians, 10,061 Armenian Gregorians, 813 Armenian Catholics, 24,069 Jews for the central kaza of İzmir.


title: Burning of Smyrna

text: According to the U.S. Ambassador to the Ottoman Empire at the time, Henry Morgenthau, more than half of Smyrna's population was Greek. The American Consul General in Smyrna at the time, George Horton, wrote that before the fire there were 400,000 people living in the city of Smyrna, of whom 165,000 were Turks, 150,000 were Greeks, 25,000 were Jews, 25,000 were Armenians, and 20,000 were foreigners—10,000 Italians, 3,000 French, 2,000 British, and 300 Americans. Most of the Greeks and Armenians were Christians.


title: Burning of Smyrna

text: Moreover, according to various scholars, prior to the war, the city was a center of more Greeks than lived in Athens, the capital of Greece. The Ottomans of that era referred to the city as "Infidel Smyrna" ("Gavur Izmir") due to the numerous Greeks and the large non-Muslim population.


title: Burning of Smyrna

text: Greek troops evacuated Smyrna on the evening of Friday 8 September. The first elements of Mustafa Kemal's forces, a Turkish cavalry squadron, made its way into the city from the northern tip of the quay the following morning, establishing their headquarters at the main government building called "Konak". The Greek Army was in disarray and could not evacuate the city in an orderly manner, and fighting continued to the next day. According to the General of the 5th Cavalry Sidearmy Fahrettin Altay, on the 10th of September, Turkish forces belonging to the 2nd and the 3rd Cavalry regiments captured around 3,000 Greek soldiers, 50 Greek Officers, including a Brigadier Commander in the south of the city center who were retreating from Aydın. Lieutenant Ali Rıza Akıncı, the first Turkish officer to hoist the Turkish flag in the Liberation of Izmir on the 9th of September, mentions in his memoirs that his unit of 13 cavalrymen was ambushed by a volley of fire from 30-40 rifles from the Tuzakoğlu factory after being saluted and congratulated by a French Marine platoon in the Halkapınar bridge. This volley fire killed 3 cavalrymen instantly and fatally wounded another. They were relieved by Captain Şerafettin and his 2 units which encircled the factory. Moreover, Captain Şerafettin, alongside Lieutenant Ali Rıza Akıncı were wounded by a grenade thrown by a Greek soldier in front of the Pasaport building. The Lieutenant was wounded lightly from his nose and his leg, and his horse from its belly. The grenade thrower was also mentioned by George Horton as ""some fool threw a bomb"", and that the commander of this unit ""received bloody cuts about the head"". A monument was later erected on the spot these cavalrymen had fallen. Military command was first assumed by Mürsel Pasha, and then Nureddin Pasha, General of the Turkish First Army.


title: Burning of Smyrna

text: At the outset, the Turkish occupation of the city was orderly. Though the Armenian and Greek inhabitants viewed their entry with trepidation, they reasoned that the presence of the Allied fleet would discourage any violence against the Christian community. On the morning of 9 September, no fewer than twenty-one Allied warships lay at anchor in Smyrna's harbor, including the British flagship, the battleships HMS "Iron Duke" and "King George V", along with their escort of cruisers and destroyers under the command of Admiral Osmond Brock; the American destroyers USS "Litchfield", "Simpson", and "Lawrence" (later joined by the "Edsall"); three French cruisers and two destroyers under the command of Admiral Dumesnil; and an Italian cruiser and destroyer. As a precaution, sailors and marines from the Allied fleet were landed ashore to guard their respective diplomatic compounds and institutions with strict orders of maintaining neutrality in the event that violence would break out between the Turks and the Christians.


title: Burning of Smyrna

text: On 9 September, order and discipline began to break down among the Turkish troops, who began systematically targeting the Armenian population, pillaging their shops, looting their homes, separating the men from the women and carrying away and sexually assaulting the latter. The Greek Orthodox Metropolitan bishop, Chrysostomos, was tortured and hacked to death by a Turkish mob in full view of French soldiers, who were prevented from intervening by their commanding officer, and much to Admiral Dumesnil's approval. Refuge was sought wherever possible, including Paradise, where the American quarter was located, and the European quarters. Some were able to take shelter at the American Collegiate Institute and other institutions, despite strenuous efforts to turn away those seeking help by the Americans and Europeans, who were anxious not to antagonize or harm their relations with the leaders of the Turkish National movement. An officer of the Dutch steamer "Siantar" which was at the city's port during that period reported an incident that he has heard, according to him after the Turkish troops had entered the city a large hotel which had Greek guests was set on fire, the Turks had placed a machine gun at the opposite of the hotel's entrance and opened fire when people were trying to exit the burning building. In addition, he said that the crew were not allowed to go offshore after dusk because thugs were roaming the city's streets and it was dangerous.


title: Burning of Smyrna

text: Victims of the massacres committed by the Turkish army and irregulars were also foreign citizens. On 9 September, Dutch merchant Oscar de Jongh and his wife were murdered by Turkish cavalrymen, while in another incident a retired British doctor was beaten to death in his home, while trying to prevent the rape of a servant girl.


title: Burning of Smyrna

text: The first fire broke out in the late afternoon of 13 September, four days after Turkish nationalist forces had entered the city. The blaze began in the Armenian quarter of the city (now the Basmane borough), and spread quickly due to the windy weather and the fact that no effort was made to put it out. Author Giles Milton writes:


title: Burning of Smyrna

text: Others, such as Claflin Davis of the American Red Cross and Monsieur Joubert, director of the Credit Foncier Bank of Smyrna, also witnessed the Turks putting buildings to the torch. When the latter asked the soldiers what they were doing, "They replied impassively that they were under orders to blow up and burn all the houses of the area." The city's fire brigade did its best to combat the fires but by Wednesday 13 September so many were being set that it was unable to keep up. Two firemen from the brigade, a Sgt. Tchorbadjis and Emmanuel Katsaros, would later testify in court witnessing Turkish soldiers setting fire to the buildings. When Katsaros complained, one of them commented, "You have your orders...and we have ours. This is Armenian property. "Our" orders are to set fire to it." The spreading fire caused a stampede of people to flee toward the quay, which stretched from the western end of the city to its northern tip, known as the Point. Captain Arthur Japy Hepburn, chief of Staff of the American naval squadron, described the panic on the quay:


title: Burning of Smyrna

text: The heat from the fire was so intense that Hepburn was worried that the refugees would die as a result of it. The refugees' situation on the pier on the morning of 14 September was described by the British Lieutenant A. S. Merrill, who believed that the Turks had set the fire to keep the Greeks in a state of terror so as to facilitate their departure:


title: Burning of Smyrna

text: Turkish troops cordoned off the Quay to box the Armenians and Greeks within the fire zone and prevent them from fleeing. Eyewitness reports describe panic-stricken refugees diving into the water to escape the flames and that their terrified screaming could be heard miles away. By 15 September the fire had somewhat died down, but sporadic violence by the Turks against the Greek and Armenian refugees kept the pressure on the Western and Greek navies to remove the refugees as quickly as possible. The fire was completely extinguished by 22 September, and on 24 September the first Greek ships – part of a flotilla organized and commandeered by the American humanitarian Asa Jennings – entered the harbor to take passengers away, following Captain Hepburn's initiative and his having obtained permission and cooperation from the Turkish authorities and the British admiral in command of the destroyers in the harbor.


title: Burning of Smyrna

text: The evacuation was difficult despite the efforts of British and American sailors to maintain order, as tens of thousands of refugees pushed and shoved towards the shore. Attempts to organize relief were made by the American officials from the YMCA and YWCA, who were reportedly robbed and later shot at by Turkish soldiers. On the quay, Turkish soldiers and irregulars periodically robbed Greek refugees, beating some and arresting others who resisted. Though there were several reports of well-behaved Turkish troops helping old women and trying to maintain order among the refugees, these are heavily outnumbered by those describing gratuitous cruelty, incessant robbery and violence.


title: Burning of Smyrna

text: American and British attempts to protect the Greeks from the Turks did little good, with the fire having taken a terrible toll. Some frustrated and terrified Greeks took their own lives, plunging into the water with packs at their back, children were stampeded, and many of the elderly fainted and died. The city's Armenians also suffered grievously, and according to Captain Hepburn, "every able-bodied Armenian man was hunted down and killed wherever found, with even boys aged 12 to 15 taking part in the hunt."


title: Burning of Smyrna

text: The fire completely destroyed the Greek, Armenian, and Levantine quarters of the city, with only the Turkish and Jewish quarters surviving. The thriving port of Smyrna, one of the most commercially active in the region, was burned to the ground. Some 150,000–200,000 Greek refugees were evacuated, while approximately 30,000 able-bodied Greek and Armenian men were deported to the interior, many of them dying under the harsh conditions or executed along the way. The 3,000-year Greek presence on Anatolia's Aegean shore was brought to an abrupt end, along with the Megali Idea. The Greek writer Dimitris Pentzopoulos wrote, "It is no exaggeration to call the year '1922' the most calamitous in modern Hellenic history."


title: Burning of Smyrna

text: The question of who was responsible for starting the burning of Smyrna continues to be debated, with Turkish sources mostly attributing responsibility to Greeks or Armenians, and vice versa. Other sources, on the other hand, suggest that at the very least, Turkish inactivity played a significant part on the event.


title: Burning of Smyrna

text: A number of studies have been published on the Smyrna fire. Professor of literature Marjorie Housepian Dobkin's 1971 study "Smyrna 1922" concluded that the Turkish army systematically burned the city and killed Christian Greek and Armenian inhabitants. Her work is based on extensive eyewitness testimony from survivors, Allied troops sent to Smyrna during the evacuation, foreign diplomats, relief workers, and Turkish eyewitnesses. A study by historian Niall Ferguson comes to the same conclusion. Historian Richard Clogg categorically states that the fire was started by the Turks following their capture of the city. In his book "Paradise Lost: Smyrna 1922", Giles Milton addresses the issue of the Smyrna Fire through original material (interviews, unpublished letters, and diaries) from the Levantine families of Smyrna, who were mainly of British origin. The conclusion of the author is that it was Turkish soldiers and officers who set the fire, most probably acting under direct orders. British scholar Michael Llewellyn-Smith, writing on the Greek administration in Asia Minor, also concluded that the fire was "probably lit" by the Turks as indicated by what he called "what evidence there is."


title: Burning of Smyrna

text: Stanford historian Norman Naimark has evaluated the evidence regarding the responsibility of the fire. He agrees with the view of American Lieutenant Merrill that it was in Turkish interests to terrorize Greeks into leaving Smyrna with the fire, and points out to the "odd" fact that the Turkish quarter was spared from the fire as a factor suggesting Turkish responsibility. However, he points out that there is no "solid and substantial evidence" of this and that it can be argued that burning the city was against Turkish interests and was unnecessary. He also suggests that the responsibility may lie with Greeks and Armenians as they "had own their good reasons", pointing out to the "Greek history of retreating" and "Armenian attack in the first day of the occupation". However, the Greek army departed from Smyrna on 9 September 1922, when Mustafa Kemal Atatürk and his army entered the city, while the fire began four days later, on 13 September 1922.


title: Burning of Smyrna

text: Horton and Housepian are criticized by Heath Lowry and Justin McCarthy, who argue that Horton was highly prejudiced and Housepian makes an extremely selective use of sources. Lowry and McCarthy were both members of the now defunct Institute of Turkish Studies and have in turn been strongly criticized by other scholars for their denial of the Armenian Genocide and McCarthy has been described by Michael Mann as being on "the Turkish side of the debate."


title: Burning of Smyrna

text: Turkish author and journalist Falih Rıfkı Atay, who was in Smyrna at the time, and the Turkish professor Biray Kolluoğlu Kırlı agreed that Turkish nationalist forces were responsible for the destruction of Smyrna in 1922. More recently, a number of non-contemporary scholars, historians, and politicians have added to the history of the events by revisiting contemporary communications and histories. Leyla Neyzi, in her work on the oral history regarding the fire, makes a distinction between Turkish nationalist discourse and local narratives. In the local narratives, she points out to the Turkish forces being held responsible for at least not attempting to extinguish the fire effectively, or, at times, being held responsible for the fire itself.


title: Burning of Smyrna

text: The number of casualties from the fire is not precisely known, with estimates of up to 125,000 Greeks and Armenians killed. American historian Norman Naimark gives a figure of 10,000–15,000 dead, while historian Richard Clogg gives a figure of 30,000. Larger estimates include that of John Freely at 50,000 and Rudolf Rummel at 100,000.


title: Burning of Smyrna

text: Help to the city's population by ships of the Hellenic Navy was limited, as the 11 September 1922 Revolution had broken out, and the most of the Greek army was concentrated at the islands of Chios and Lesbos, planning to overthrow the royalist government of Athens.


title: Burning of Smyrna

text: Although there were numerous ships from various Allied powers in the harbor of Smyrna, the vast majority of them cited neutrality and did not pick up Greeks and Armenians who were forced to flee from the fire and the Turkish troops retaking the city after the Greek army's defeat. Military bands played loud music to drown out the screams of those who were drowning in the harbor and who were forcefully prevented from boarding Allied ships. A Japanese freighter dumped all of its cargo and took on as many refugees as possible, taking them to the Greek port of Piraeus.


title: Burning of Smyrna

text: Many refugees were rescued via an impromptu relief flotilla organized by American missionary Asa Jennings. Other scholars give a different account of the events; they argue that the Turks first forbade foreign ships in the harbor to pick up the survivors, but, under pressure especially from Britain, France, and the United States, they allowed the rescue of all the Christians except males 17 to 45 years old. They intended to deport the latter into the interior, which "was regarded as a short life sentence to slavery under brutal masters, ended by mysterious death".


title: Burning of Smyrna

text: The number of refugees changes according to the source. Some contemporary newspapers claim that there were 400,000 Greek and Armenian refugees from Smyrna and the surrounding area who received Red Cross aid immediately after the destruction of the city. Stewart Matthew states that there were 250,000 refugees who were all non-Turks. Naimark gives a figure of 150,000–200,000 Greek refugees evacuated. Edward Hale Bierstadt and Helen Davidson Creighton say that there were at least 50,000 Greek and Armenian refugees. Some contemporary accounts also suggest the same number.


title: Burning of Smyrna

text: The number of Greek and Armenian men deported to the interior of Anatolia and the number of consequent deaths varies across sources. Naimark writes that 30,000 Greek and Armenian men were deported there, where most of them died under brutal conditions. Dimitrije Đorđević puts the number of deportees at 25,000 and the number of deaths at labour battalions at 10,000. David Abulafia states that at least 100,000 Greeks were forcibly sent to the interior of Anatolia, where most of them died.


title: Burning of Smyrna

text: Aristotle Onassis, who was born in Smyrna and who later became one of the richest men in the world, was one of the Greek survivors. The various biographies of his life document aspects of his experiences during the Smyrna catastrophe. His life experiences were featured in the TV movie called "Onassis, The Richest Man in the World".


title: Burning of Smyrna

text: During the Smyrna catastrophe, the Onassis family lost substantial property holdings, which were either taken or given to Turks as bribes to secure their safety and freedom. They became refugees, fleeing to Greece after the fire. However, Aristotle Onassis stayed behind to save his father, who had been placed in a Turkish concentration camp. He was successful in saving his father's life. During this period three of his uncles died. He also lost an aunt, her husband Chrysostomos Konialidis, and their daughter, who were burned to death when Turkish soldiers set fire to a church in Thyatira, where 500 Christians had found shelter to avoid Turkish soldiers and the burning of Smyrna.


title: Burning of Smyrna

text: The entire city suffered substantial damage to its infrastructure. The core of the city literally had to be rebuilt from the ashes. Today, 40 hectares of the former fire area is a vast park named Kültürpark serving as Turkey's largest open air exhibition center, including the İzmir International Fair, among others.


title: Burning of Smyrna

text: According to the first census in Turkey after the war, the total population of the city in 1927 was 184,254, of whom 162,144 (88%) were Muslims, the remainder numbering 22,110.


title: Pegmatite

text: A pegmatite is an igneous rock showing a very coarse texture, with large interlocking crystals usually greater in size than and sometimes greater than . Most pegmatites are composed of quartz, feldspar, and mica, having a similar silicic composition to granite. However, rarer intermediate composition and mafic pegmatites are known.


title: Pegmatite

text: Many of the world's largest crystals are found within pegmatites. These include crystals of microcline, quartz, mica, spodumene, beryl, and tourmaline. Some individual crystals are over long.


title: Pegmatite

text: Most pegmatites are thought to form from the last fluid fraction of a large crystallizing magma body. This residual fluid is highly enriched in volatiles and trace elements, and its very low viscosity allows molecules to migrate rapidly to join an existing crystal rather than coming together to form new crystals. This allows a few very large crystals to form. While most pegmatites have a simple composition of minerals common in ordinary igneous rock, a few pegmatites have a complex composition, with numerous unusual minerals of rare elements. These complex pegmatites are mined for lithium, beryllium, boron, fluorine, tin, tantalum, niobium, rare earth elements, uranium, and other valuable commodities.


title: Pegmatite

text: The word "pegmatite" derives from Homeric Greek, πήγνυμι ("pēgnymi"), which means “to bind together”, in reference to the intertwined crystals of quartz and feldspar in the texture known as graphic granite. The term was first used by René Just Haüy in 1822 as a synonym for graphic granite. Wilhelm Karl Ritter von Haidinger first used the term in its present meaning in 1845.


title: Pegmatite

text: Pegmatites are exceptionally coarse-grained igneous rocks composed of interlocking crystals, with individual crystals usually over in size and sometimes exceeding . Most pegmatites have a composition similar to granite, so that their most common minerals are quartz, feldspar, and mica. However, other pegmatite compositions are known, including compositions similar to nepheline syenite or gabbro. The term "pegmatite" is thus purely a textural description. Geologists typically prefix the term with a compositional description, so that "granitic pegmatite" is a pegmatite with the composition of granite while "nepheline syenite pegmatite" is a pegmatite with the composition of nepheline syenite. However, the British Geological Survey discourages this usage, preferring terms like "biotite-quartz-feldspar pegmatite" for a pegmatite with a typical granitic composition, dominated by feldspar with lesser quartz and biotite. Under BGS terminology, a "pegmatitic rock" (for example, a "pegmatitic gabbro") is a coarse-grained rock containing patches of much coarser-grained rock of essentially the same composition.


title: Pegmatite

text: Individual crystals in pegmatites can be enormous in size. It is likely that the largest crystals ever found were feldspar crystals in pegmatites from Karelia with masses of thousands of tons. Quartz crystals with masses measured in thousands of pounds and micas over across and thick have been found. Spodumene crystals over long have been found in the Black Hills of South Dakota, and beryl crystals long and in diameter have been found at Albany, Maine. The largest beryl crystal ever found was from Malakialina on Madagascar, weighing about 380 tons, with a length of and a crosscut of .


title: Pegmatite

text: Pegmatite bodies are usually of minor size compared to typical intrusive rock bodies. Pegmatite body size is on the order of magnitude of one to a few hundred meters. Compared to typical igneous rocks they are rather inhomogeneous and may show zones with different mineral assemblages. Crystal size and mineral assemblages are usually oriented parallel to the wall rock or even concentric for pegmatite lenses.


title: Pegmatite

text: Modern pegmatite classification schemes are strongly influenced by the depth-zone classification of granitic rocks published by Buddington (1959), and the Ginsburg & Rodionov (1960) and Ginsburg et al. (1979) classification which categorized pegmatites according to their depth of emplacement and relationship to metamorphism and granitic plutons. Cerny’s (1991) revision of that classification scheme is the most widely used classification of pegmatites today. Cerny’s (1991) pegmatite classification, which is a combination of emplacement depth, metamorphic grade and minor element content, has provided significant insight into the origin of pegmatitic melts and their relative degrees of fractionation. This classification has been widely accepted and is in general use today.


title: Pegmatite

text: Granitic pegmatites are commonly ranked into three hierarchies (class – family – type – subtype) depending upon their mineralogical-geochemical characteristics and depth of emplacement according to Cerny (1991). Classes are Abyssal, Muscovite, Rare-Element and Miarolitic. The Rare-Element Class is subdivided based on composition into LCT and NYF families: LCT for Lithium, Cesium, and Tantalum enrichment and NYF for Niobium, Yttrium, and Fluorine enrichment. Virtually all recent pegmatite descriptions classify pegmatites according to LCT- and NYF-types and subtypes. Another important contribution of the classification is the petrogenetic component of the classification, which shows the association of LCT pegmatites with mainly orogenic plutons, and NYF pegmatites with mainly anorogenic plutons.


title: Pegmatite

text: Pegmatites form under conditions in which the rate of new crystal nucleation is much less than the rate of crystal growth. In other words, molecules in the fluid from which the crystals are growing are much more likely to join an existing crystal than to come together to start a new crystal. This favors growth of a few very large crystals. In normal igneous rocks, coarse texture is a result of slow cooling deep underground. However, the extraordinarily coarse texture of pegmatites must be a result of more than just slow cooling. In fact, it is not clear if pegmatite forms by slow or rapid cooling.


title: Pegmatite

text: Pegmatites are widely believed to form from the last part of a magma body to crystallize. This final fluid fraction is highly enriched in volatile and trace elements. The residual magma undergoes phase separation into a melt phase and a hydrous fluid phase saturated with silica, alkalis, and other elements. Such phase separation requires formation from a wet magma, rich enough in water to saturate before more than two-thirds of the magma is crystallized. Otherwise, the separation of the fluid phase is difficult to explain. Granite requires a water content of 4 wt% at a pressure of 0.5 GPa, but only 1.5 wt% at 0.1 GPa, for phase separation to take place.


title: Pegmatite

text: The volatiles (primarily water, boron, fluorine, chlorine, and phosphorus) are concentrated in the hydrous phase, greatly lowering its viscosity. The silica in the hydrous phase is completely depolymerized, existing almost entirely as orthosilicate, with all oxygen bridges between silicon ions broken. The very low viscosity promotes rapid diffusion of molecules through the fluid, enhancing crystal growth rates and allowing very large crystals to grow.


title: Pegmatite

text: When this hydrous fluid is injected into the surrounding country rock, minerals crystallize from the outside in to form a zoned pegmatite, with different minerals predominating in concentric zones. A typical sequence of deposition begins with microcline and quartz, with minor schorl and garnet. This is followed by deposition of albite, lepidolite, gem tourmaline, beryl, spodumene, amblygonite, topaz, apatite, and fluorite, which may partially replace some of the minerals in the earlier zone. The center of the pegmatite may have cavities lined with spectacular gemstone crystals.


title: Pegmatite

text: Some pegmatites have more complex zoning. Five distinct zones are recognized in the Harding Pegmatite in the Picuris Mountains of northern New Mexico, US. These are:


title: Pegmatite

text: Large crystals nucleate on the margins of pegmatites, becoming larger as they grow inward. These include very large conical alkali feldspar crystals. Aplites are commonly present. These may cut across the pegmatite, but also form zones or irregular patches around coarser material. The aplites are often layered, showing evidence of deformation. Xenoliths may be found in the body of the pegmatite, but their original mineral content is replaced by quartz and alkali feldspar, so that they are difficult to distinguish from the surrounding pegmatite. Pegmatite also commonly replaces part of the surrounding country rock.


title: Pegmatite

text: Because pegmatites likely crystallize from a fluid-dominated phase, rather than a melt phase, they straddle the boundary between hydrothermal mineral deposits and igneous intrusions. Although there is broad agreement on the basic mechanisms by which they form, the details of pegmatite formation remain enigmatic. Pegmatites have characteristics inconsistent with other igneous intrusions. They are not porphyritic, and show no chilled margin. On the contrary, the largest crystals are often found on the margins of the pegmatite body. While aplites are sometimes found on the margins, they are as likely to occur within the body of the pegmatite. The crystals are never aligned in a way that would indicate flow, but are perpendicular to the walls. This implies formation in a static environment. Some pegmatities take the form of isolated pods, with no obvious feeder conduit. As a result, metamorphic or metasomatic origins have sometimes been suggested for pegmatites. A metamorphic pegmatite would be formed by removal of volatiles from metamorphic rocks, particularly felsic gneiss, to liberate the right constituents and water, at the right temperature. A metasomatic pegmatite would be formed by hydrothermal circulation of hot alteration fluids upon a rock mass, with bulk chemical and textural change. Metasomatism is currently not favored as a mechanism for pegmatite formation and it is likely that metamorphism and magmatism are both contributors toward the conditions necessary for pegmatite genesis.


title: Pegmatite

text: Most pegmatites have a simple composition, often being composed entirely of minerals common in granite, such as feldspar, mica, and quartz. The feldspar and quartz often show graphic texture. Rarely, pegmatites are extremely enriched in incompatible elements, such as lithium, caesium, beryllium, tin, niobium, zirconium, uranium, thorium, boron, phosphorus, and fluorine. These complex pegmatites contain unusual minerals of these elements, such as beryl, spodumene, lepidolite, amblygonite, topaz, apatite, fluorite, tourmaline, triphylite, columbite, monazite, and molybdenite. Some of these can be important ore minerals. Some gemstones, such as emerald, are found almost exclusively in pegmatites.


title: Pegmatite

text: Pegmatites are enriched in volatile and incompatible elements, consistent with their likely origin as the final melt fraction of a crystallizing body of magma. However, it is difficult to get a representative composition of a pegmatite, due to the large size of the constituent mineral crystals. Hence, pegmatite is often characterised by sampling the individual minerals that compose the pegmatite, and comparisons are made according to mineral chemistry. A common error is to assume that the wall zone is a chilled margin whose composition is representative of the original melt.


title: Pegmatite

text: Pegmatites derived from batholiths can be divided into a family of NYF pegmatites, characterized by progressive enrichment in niobium, yttrium, and fluorine as well as enrichment in beryllium, rare earth elements, scandium, titanium, zirconium, thorium, and uranium; and a family of LCT pegmatites, characterized by progressive accumulation of lithium, caesium, and tantalum, as well as enrichment in rubidium, beryllium, tin, barium, phosphorus, and fluorine.


title: Pegmatite

text: The NYF pegmatites likely fractionated from A- to I-type granites that were relatively low in aluminium (subaluminous to metaluminous granites). These granites originated from depleted crust or mantle rock. LCT pegmatites most likely formed from S-type granites or possibly I-type granites, with a higher aluminium content (peraluminous granites).


title: Pegmatite

text: Intermediate pegmatites (NYF + LCT pegmatites) are known and may have formed by contamination of an initially NYF magma body with melted undepleted supracrustral rock.


title: Pegmatite

text: Pegmatites are important because they often contain rare earth minerals and gemstones, such as aquamarine, tourmaline, topaz, fluorite, apatite and corundum, often along with tin, rare earth, and tungsten minerals, among others. Pegmatites have been mined for both quartz and feldspar. For quartz mining, pegmatites with central quartz masses have been of particular interest.


title: Pegmatite

text: Pegmatites are the primary source of lithium either as spodumene, lithiophyllite or usually from lepidolite. The primary source for caesium is pollucite, a mineral from a zoned pegmatite. The majority of the world's beryllium is sourced from non-gem quality beryl within pegmatite. Tantalum, niobium, and rare-earth elements are sourced from a few pegmatites worldwide, such as the Greenbushes Pegmatite, the Kibara Belt of Rwanda and Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Kenticha mine of Ethiopia the Alto Ligonha Province of Mozambique, and the Mibra (Volta) mine of Minas Gerais, Brazil.


title: Pegmatite

text: Notable pegmatite occurrences are found worldwide within the major cratons, and within greenschist-facies metamorphic belts. However, pegmatite localities are only well recorded when economic mineralisation is found.


title: Pegmatite

text: Pegmatites are found as irregular dikes, sills, or veins, and are most common at the margins of batholiths (great masses of intrusive igneous rock). Most are closely related spatially and genetically to large intrusions. They may take the form of veins or dikes in the intrusion itself, but more commonly, they extend into the surrounding country rock, especially above the intrusion.


title: Pegmatite

text: Some pegmatites surrounded by metamorphic rock have no obvious connection to a larger intrusion. Pegmatites in low-grade metamorphic rock tend to be dominated by quartz and carbonate minerals. Pegmatites in metamorphic rock of higher grade are dominted by alkali feldspar.


title: Pegmatite

text: Gabbroic pegmatites typically occur as lenses within bodies of gabbro or diabase. Nepheline syenite pegmatites are common in alkaline igneous complexes.


title: Philips Stadion

text: The Philips Stadion () is a football stadium in Eindhoven, Netherlands. As the home of PSV Eindhoven (Philips Sport Vereniging), it is therefore also known as PSV Stadion. With a capacity of 36,500, it is the third-largest football stadium in the country. Established as the Philips Sportpark, it was constructed as a sports field for Philips employees in 1910. The Philips Elftal played football matches from 1911 until 1913, when the team was succeeded by PSV. Since 1913, PSV has used the original ground as its home stadium.


title: Philips Stadion

text: The stadium has gone through several extensions in its history: after a wooden stand in 1916, seating and standing places slowly enclosed the field throughout the first decades. Two extensive renovations in the 1970s and 1990s first created a covered stadium, and then a two-tiered ground with extensive commercial spaces. The completion of the four corners in 2002 eventually led to its current capacity.


title: Philips Stadion

text: The Philips Stadion currently holds a four-star rating by UEFA. It has hosted a range of Netherlands national team fixtures since 1971. In 2013, PSV's reserve team, Jong PSV, also played their league matches at the stadium. They now play their games at the training complex De Herdgang. Furthermore, the Philips Stadion was the location for three UEFA Euro 2000 group stage matches, as well as the 2006 UEFA Cup Final. Aside from football-related purposes, the ground is occasionally used for music concerts.


title: Philips Stadion

text: In 1910, the Philips company erected new houses to serve the growing need for employee housing. The area, fittingly named Philipsdorp ("Philips Village"), was built on walking distance from the Philips factories and located (at that point) in the outskirts of Eindhoven. Urban planner Gerrit Jan de Jongh envisaged a village green in the center, creating a space for leisure and sports. In this green, a football field, a korfball field and a bandstand were planned. The area was named the Philips Sportpark. Meanwhile, Philips founded a football team for its young employees, named Philips Elftal. Their first match marks the first recorded use of the Philips Sportpark: on 15 January 1911, the Philips Elftal won their debut match against Hollandia from Woensel. The Philips Elftal continued to play at the field for two seasons; in 1913 the team was succeeded by PSV, who also took the Philips Sportpark as their home ground. PSV's first official home game was the Eindhoven derby against EVV on 10 October 1915.


title: Philips Stadion

text: In its first years, the field did not include any seating space for spectators. This changed in 1916, when the first wooden stand was built, providing room for 550 viewers. The stand was funded by Philips, which was celebrating its 25th anniversary that year. Later, the stand was replaced by a new main stand in 1933, providing seating space for 900 spectators. Five years later, during PSV's twenty-fifth anniversary, a scoreboard was installed in the stadium. The board was a gift by the official PSV fan union. In 1941, PSV decided to build stands across the entire ground. The decision was made to create an oval shape with a running track between field and stands, enabling the possibility for athletic, cycling and ice skating matches. After completion, the capacity rose to 18,000. During World War II, the ground was claimed by German occupants and used for military purposes. The final days of World War II witnessed great destruction in the city of Eindhoven and also to the stadium itself. Repairs were duly made.


title: Philips Stadion

text: In 1953, the main stand was refurbished and extended, creating space for a press room and meeting spaces. Also, a memorial was revealed, commemorating the war victims. In 1958, the running track was removed, making space for a bigger field. New stands are built as well, increasing the capacity to 22,000. Four 40-meter high floodlights were installed by Philips in the stadium in the same year, making evening matches possible. The lights were inaugurated on April 9 with an exhibition match against RSC Anderlecht. A complete renovation of the stadium started in 1969. After its completion in 1977, the stadium was completely enclosed and every seat was covered. The main (south) stand peaked above the other stands. The capacity rose to 26,500, of which 12,000 were for standing spectators. The renovated ground was celebrated with a match against Leeds United. Earlier, the ground was used by the Netherlands national football team for the first time. On November 17, 1971, the Netherlands played a qualifying match for the 1972 UEFA European Championship against Luxembourg (8–0).