title: Portrait painting

text: The historically recorded name inscriptions next to the figures cause the relief painting functions as "portraiture represents specific people". In addition, the iconographic details of each figure based on biography renders an extent of individualization. For instance, the biography of Liu Ling in the "Book of Jin" records his obsession with alcohol. In the relief painting, the figure of Liu Ling sits in a casual posture with a curving knee and holds an "erbei", a vessel for alcohol, while dipping the other hand into the cup to have a taste of the drink. The portrait reflects the essence of Liu Ling's characteristics and temperament. The figure of Ruan Xian who was famous for musical talents according to the "Book of Jin" plays a flute in the portrait.


title: Portrait painting

text: Gu Kaizhi, one of the most famous artists of the Eastern Jin dynasty, instructed how to reflect the sitter's characteristics through accurate portray of the physical features in his book "On Painting". He also stressed the capture of the sitter's spirit through vivid depiction of eyes.


title: Portrait painting

text: During the Tang dynasty, there was an increase of humanization and personalization in portrait painting. Due to the influx of Buddhism, the painting portrait adopted a more realistic likeness, especially for the portraits of the monks. The belief in "temporal incorruptibility" of the immortal body in Mahayana Buddhism linked the presence in an image with the presence in reality. Portrait was regarded as the visual embodiment and substitute of a real person. Thus, the true likeness was highly valued in the paintings and statues of the monks. The Tang dynasty mural portrait painting values the spiritual quality—the "animation through spirit consonance" ("qi yun shen tong").


title: Portrait painting

text: In terms of the imperial portrait, Emperor Taizong, the second emperor of the Tang dynasty, used portraits to legitimize succession and reinforce power. He commissioned the "Portrait of Succession Emperors," which contains the portraits of 13 emperors in the previous dynasties in chronological order. The commonness among the selected emperors was that they were the sons of the founders of the dynasties. Since Emperor Taizong's father, Emperor Gaozu, was the founder of the Tang dynasty, Emperor Taizong's selection of the previous emperors in the similar position of himself served as a political allusion. His succession was under doubt and criticism since he murdered two of his brothers and forced his father to pass the throne to him. Through commissioning the collective portraits of the previous emperors, he aimed at legitimize the transmission of the reign. In addition, the difference in the costumes of the portrayed emperors implied Emperor Taizong's opinion on them. The emperors portrayed in informal costumes were regarded as the bad examples of a ruler such as being weak or violent, while the ones in formal dresses were thought to accomplish either civil or military achievements. The commission was an indirect method by Emperor Taizong to proclaim his achievements had surpassed the precedent emperors. Emperor Taizong also commissioned a series of portrait paintings of famous scholars and intellectuals before he became the emperor. He attempted to befriend with the intellectuals by putting the portraits on the wall of Pingyan Pavilion as a signal of respect. The portraits also served as evidence that he had gained political support from the portrayed famous scholars to frighten his opponents. During his reign, Emperor Taizong commissioned portraits of himself receiving offerings from the ambassadors of the conquered foreign countries to celebrate and advertise his military achievements.


title: Portrait painting

text: During the Song dynasty, Emperor Gaozong commissioned "Portraits of Confucius and Seventy-two Disciples" ("sheng xian tu") on blank ground with his handwritten inscription. The figures were portrayed in vivid lines, animated gestures, and the facial expressions were rendered a narrative quality. The portrait of the saints and his disciples was found on a stone tablet on the wall of Imperial University as a moral code to educate the students. However, scholars argued that Emperor Gaozong's true purpose of the commission was to announce that his policies were supported by Confucianism as well as his control over the Confucian heritage.


title: Portrait painting

text: The Yuan dynasty was a watershed moment in Chinese history. After the Mongol Empire conquered the Chinese mainland and ended the Song dynasty, the traditional Chinese intelligentsia were left in a dilemma situation of choosing between reclusion from the foreign government or pursuing new political careers. Portrait paintings of "men of culture" ("wen ren hua") at that period reflects this dilemma. For instance, the "Portrait of Yang Qian" depicted him standing in a bamboo forest. While the bamboo symbolizes his moral rightness, the half-enclosed and half-opened space in the background alludes to his potential of choosing between reclusion and serve in the Mongol government.


title: Portrait painting

text: In terms of imperial portrait, the "Portrait of Kublai" and the "Portrait of Chabi" by Mongol imperial painter Araniko in 1294 reflect the fusion of the traditional Chinese imperial portrait techniques and the Himalayan-Mongol aesthetic value. Kublai Khan was portrayed as an elder man while Empress Chabi was depicted in youth, both wearing traditional Mongolian imperial costumes. Araniko adopted the Chinese portrait technique such as outlining the shape with ink and reinforcing the shape with color, whereas the highlights on Chabi's jewelry with the same hue but lighter value proved to be a continuation of the Himalayan style. The full frontal orientation of the sitters and their centered pupil add a confrontational impact to the viewer, which reflect the Nepali aesthetics and style. The highly symmetrical composition and the rigid depiction of hair and clothes differed from the previous Song dynasty painting style. There is little implication on the moral merit of the sitters or their personality, indicating a detachment of the painter from the sitter, which contradicts with the Song dynasty's emphasis on the capture of the spirit.


title: Portrait painting

text: During the Qing dynasty, the eighteenth century European masquerade court portraiture which portrayed the aristocrats engaging in various activities in different costumes was imported to China. The Yongzheng Emperor and his son, the Qianlong Emperor, commissioned a number of masquerade portrait paintings with various political implications. In most of the Yongzheng Emperor's masquerade portrait, he wears exotic costumes such as the suit of the European gentleman. The lack of inscription on the portrait painting leaves his intention unclear, but some scholars believe the exotic costume reflects his interest in foreign culture and desire to rule the world. Compared with the Yongzheng Emperor's ambiguous attitude, the Qianlong Emperor wrote inscriptions on his masquerade portraits to announce his philosophy of the "Way of Ruling" which was to conceal and to deceive so that his subordinates and enemies cannot trace his strategies. Compared with the Yongzheng Emperor's enthusiasm in exotic costume, the Qianlong Emperor showed more interest in Chinese traditional costume such as dressing as a Confucian scholar, Taoist priest, and Buddhist monk, which manifests his desire in conquer the traditional Chinese heritage.


title: Portrait painting

text: The Qianlong Emperor commissioned the "Spring’s Peaceful Message" after he inherited the throne from his father, which is a double portrait painting of him and his father dressed in Confucian scholar garments instead of traditional Manchu robes standing side by side next to bamboos. Scholars believe that the commission aimed to legitimize his succession of the throne by emphasizing the physical similarity between him and his father such as facial structure, identical costume and hairstyle. The bamboo forest in the background indicate their moral righteousness proposed by traditional Confucianism. The portrait depicts the Yongzheng Emperor, who is in a larger scale, handing a flowering branch to the Qianlong Emperor as a political metaphor of the imperial authority to reign. The Qianlong Emperor also advertised his filial piety proposed by Confucianism by posing in a modest gesture.


title: Portrait painting

text: The Jesuit painter Giuseppe Castiglione spent 50 years at the imperial court before his death in 1766, and was a court painter to three emperors. In his portraits, as with other genres, he combined aspects of Chinese traditional style with contemporary Western painting.


title: Portrait painting

text: Portrait painting of women in ancient China from the Han dynasty to the Qing dynasty (206 BC – 1912) developed under great impact of the Confucian patriarchal cosmology, however, the subject and the style varied according to the culture of each dynasty.


title: Portrait painting

text: In the Han dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD), women in the portrait painting were mainly a type rather than specific individual. The major subject was idealized exemplary women ("lie nü") with virtues prompted by Confucianism such as chastity, three-fold obedience ("san cong") to father, husband, son. Gu Kaizhi’s handscroll "Exemplary Women (lie nü tu)" which was created shortly after the Han dynasty represents this genre.


title: Portrait painting

text: In the Tang dynasty (618–906), palace women ("shi nü") performing daily chores or entertainment became a popular subject. The feminine beauty and charm of the palace ladies were valued, but the subject remained nonspecific under the painting name "Palace Ladies". Characteristics encouraged by the Confucianism including submissive and agreeable were encompassed as standards of beauty and emphasized in the portrait. Painters pursued correctness and likeness of the sitter and aimed to reveal the purity of the soul.


title: Portrait painting

text: In the Song dynasty (960–1279), portrait paintings of women were created based on love poems written by court poets. Although depicted as living in luxurious fashion and comfortable housing, women in the painting were usually portrayed as lonely and melancholic because they feel deserted or trapped in the domestic chores while their husbands stayed outside and pursued their careers. Common settings include empty garden path and empty platform couch which hint the absence of male figures. Common background include flowering trees which were associated with beauty and banana trees which symbolized vulnerability of women.


title: Portrait painting

text: In the Ming dynasty(1368–1644), literati painting ("wenren hua") which combined painting, calligraphy, and poetry became a popular trend among the elites. Most women in the literati painting were abstract figures serving as visual metaphor and remained nonentity. In the Qing dynasty (1644–1912), the literati painting gained more variety of brushstroke and use of bright color.


title: Booker Group

text: In January 2017, it was announced that the British multinational supermarket retailer Tesco had agreed to purchase the company for £3.7 billion. It was confirmed on 5 March 2018 that Tesco had completed its acquisition of Booker.


title: Booker Group

text: The company was founded by George and Richard Booker in 1835, when they bought their first ship and established the Booker Line, which focused on shipping goods. It later diversified into the distribution of goods, and gradually disposed of its fleet of ships. With a new focus on wholesale food distribution, the company had over 100 warehouses across the United Kingdom by 1978, and was trading as Booker McConnell Ltd.


title: Booker Group

text: Among other interests, it operated the sugar industry in Guyana (British Guiana before independence in 1966), running five Booker Line ships, until it was nationalised around 1970. After six months, Booker was called back to market the sugar. Booker had a long history of exploitation of sugar workers through the indentured labour system during the 19th and 20th centuries (outright slavery was abolished in British Guiana before Booker's founding, but exploitative labour practices continued. All of the Booker brothers had claimed and received 'compensation' payments for their post 1815 Guiana slave holdings - see U.C.L. "Legacies of British Slave-ownership" index).


title: Booker Group

text: At its peak, it controlled 75% of the sugar industry in British Guiana and was so powerful that a common joke was to refer to the country as "Booker's Guiana".


title: Booker Group

text: In 1952, Jock Campbell took over the chairmanship of the company and his Fabian social politics transformed it dramatically into a benevolent force providing major benefits for sugar workers. Jock Campbell was also instrumental in the setting up of Booker's Author Division, which sponsored the Booker Prize.


title: Booker Group

text: In 1986, the company set up a short lived co venture between the directors of Siriol Animation to create Kalisto. Kalisto also developed a show called "Space Baby" (which eventually became "Fantastic Max"), along with another series called "Satellite City" (which was co produced with Fairwater Films) and the animated film "The Little Engine That Could". Kalisto barely lasted a year before Booker bought the rights back.


title: Booker Group

text: In November 1996, Booker bought Nurdin & Peacock, taking ownership of the convenience store operator and brand Happy Shopper. Happy Shopper's products are sold by Booker to independent convenience stores and off licences. In 2000, the brand's logo of a smiling face with blonde hair was dropped from products and packaging, as part of a redesign by Partners In Communication, a design consultant company.


title: Booker Group

text: In May 2000, Booker was purchased by Iceland Supermarkets, via its Big Food Group vehicle. Then, in December 2004, Big Food Group was in turn bought by acquisitive Icelandic group, Baugur, which split Booker and Iceland again into different companies.


title: Booker Group

text: In June 2007, Booker reversed into an AIM listed wholesaler of groceries Blueheath, to form Booker Group plc. Baugur sold all its assets in Booker Cash & Carry in June 2008, only weeks after its founder was found guilty of accounting irregularities. Baugur collapsed in February 2009, amidst the Icelandic financial crisis.


title: Booker Group

text: In September 2009, Booker opened a store in Mumbai and planned to expand its cash and carry stores across India. In May 2012, Metro Group sold the thirty stores of Makro in the United Kingdom and all operational assets to Booker Group Plc, in return for 9.99% of Booker's share capital, plus £15.8 million in cash; although the merger was referred to the Office of Fair Trading it was cleared by the Competition Commission in April 2013.


title: Booker Group

text: In May 2015, Booker Group confirmed it had reached an agreement with Musgrave Group to buy the Budgens and Londis grocery chains, for £40 million. In January 2017, Tesco announced that it had reached an agreement to merge with Booker Group for £3.7 billion, subject to shareholder and regulatory approval. It was confirmed on 5 March 2018 that Tesco had completed its merger with Booker.


title: Booker Group

text: The company supplies approximately 1.5 million businesses across the United Kingdom, through its different divisions. It operates cash and carry branches throughout the United Kingdom (as well as a few in India) and operates a national delivery service in the United Kingdom. The industry journal "The Grocer" named Booker the "Green Wholesaler of the Year" at the Grocer Gold Awards.


title: Booker Group

text: The group consists of several divisions each specialising in different areas of the wholesale market in the United Kingdom:


title: Booker Group

text: The company also founded, and was previously a sponsor of, the Booker Prize for literary fiction, which was established in 1968. During The Baron Campbell of Eskan's tenure as chairman of the company, then known as Booker–McConnell, he was also instrumental in the setting up of the Booker's author division. Lord Campbell of Eskan purchased 51 per cent of Glidrose Ltd, which owned the copyrights of his friend Ian Fleming for £100,000.


title: Booker Group

text: This purchase was the foundation of the Authors' Division, which also acquired rights to some well known authors' works, such as Georgette Heyer, whose company, Heron Enterprises, with eighteen of her copyrights, Booker bought in 1966 for £80,000, Dennis Wheatley, and the 64% stake in Agatha Christie's works not controlled by her family. When, in 1968, Booker established the prestigious Booker Prize, it was with the money from the Fleming, Heyer and Christie purchases. Ironically, not one of these authors would ever have won the Booker Prize for fiction.


title: Booker Group

text: In June 1998, Agatha Christie's stakeholding was sold to Chorion for £10 million, who themselves sold it on in February 2012 to Acorn Media UK. The division also co founded and sponsored the prestigious Booker–McConnell Prize for literature in 1968, now known as Booker Prize. This was transferred to the independent Booker Prize Foundation in 2002, and became sponsored by the Man Group plc, who opted to retain the well known "Booker" name.


title: Booker Group

text: Chairmen of the Author's division have included Charles William Tyrell (1960s–1970s), Dennis H. Joss (1970s–1980s) and Agatha Christie's grandson Caradoc Thomas Prichard (1990s–2000s).


title: Myc

text: Myc is a family of regulator genes and proto-oncogenes that code for transcription factors. The "Myc" family consists of three related human genes: "c-myc" (MYC), "l-myc" (MYCL), and "n-myc" (MYCN). "c-myc" (also sometimes referred to as "MYC") was the first gene to be discovered in this family, due to homology with the viral gene "v-myc".


title: Myc

text: In cancer, "c-myc" is often constitutively (persistently) expressed. This leads to the increased expression of many genes, some of which are involved in cell proliferation, contributing to the formation of cancer. A common human translocation involving "c-myc" is critical to the development of most cases of Burkitt lymphoma. Constitutive upregulation of "Myc" genes have also been observed in carcinoma of the cervix, colon, breast, lung and stomach. Myc is thus viewed as a promising target for anti-cancer drugs. Unfortunately, Myc possesses several features that render it undruggable such that any anti-cancer drugs for Myc dysregulation will require acting on the protein indirectly, i.e. targeting the mRNA for the protein rather than a small molecule that targets the protein itself.


title: Myc

text: In the human genome, "C-myc" is located on chromosome 8 and is believed to regulate expression of 15% of all genes through binding on enhancer box sequences (E-boxes).


title: Myc

text: In addition to its role as a classical transcription factor, "N-myc" may recruit histone acetyltransferases (HATs). This allows it to regulate global chromatin structure via histone acetylation.


title: Myc

text: The "Myc" family was first established after discovery of homology between an oncogene carried by the Avian virus, Myelocytomatosis ("v-myc"; ) and a human gene over-expressed in various cancers, cellular Myc ("c-Myc"). Later, discovery of further homologous genes in humans led to the addition of "n-Myc" and "l-Myc" to the family of genes.


title: Myc

text: The most frequently discussed example of "c-Myc" as a proto-oncogene is its implication in Burkitt's lymphoma. In Burkitt's lymphoma, cancer cells show chromosomal translocations, most commonly between chromosome 8 and chromosome 14 [t(8;14)]. This causes "c-Myc" to be placed downstream of the highly active immunoglobulin (Ig) promoter region, leading to overexpression of "Myc".


title: Myc

text: The protein product of "Myc" family genes all belong to the Myc family of transcription factors, which contain bHLH (basic helix-loop-helix) and LZ (leucine zipper) structural motifs. The bHLH motif allows Myc proteins to bind with DNA, while the leucine zipper TF-binding motif allows dimerization with Max, another bHLH transcription factor.


title: Myc

text: Myc mRNA contains an IRES (internal ribosome entry site) that allows the RNA to be translated into protein when 5' cap-dependent translation is inhibited, such as during viral infection.


title: Myc

text: Myc proteins are transcription factors that activate expression of many pro-proliferative genes through binding enhancer box sequences (E-boxes) and recruiting histone acetyltransferases (HATs). Myc is thought to function by upregulating transcript elongation of actively transcribed genes through the recruitment of transcriptional elongation factors. It can also act as a transcriptional repressor. By binding Miz-1 transcription factor and displacing the p300 co-activator, it inhibits expression of Miz-1 target genes. In addition, myc has a direct role in the control of DNA replication. This activity could contribute to DNA amplification in cancer cells.


title: Myc

text: Myc is activated upon various mitogenic signals such as serum stimulation or by Wnt, Shh and EGF (via the MAPK/ERK pathway).


title: Myc

text: By modifying the expression of its target genes, Myc activation results in numerous biological effects. The first to be discovered was its capability to drive cell proliferation (upregulates cyclins, downregulates p21), but it also plays a very important role in regulating cell growth (upregulates ribosomal RNA and proteins), apoptosis (downregulates Bcl-2), differentiation, and stem cell self-renewal. Nucleotide metabolism genes are upregulated by Myc, which are necessary for Myc induced proliferation or cell growth.


title: Myc

text: A major effect of c-myc is B cell proliferation, and gain of MYC has been associated with B cell malignancies and their increased aggressiveness, including histological transformation. In B cells, Myc acts as a classical oncogene by regulating a number of pro-proliferative and anti-apoptotic pathways, this also includes tunning of BCR signaling and CD40 signaling is regulation of microRNAs (miR-29, miR-150, miR-17-92).


title: Myc

text: c-Myc induces MTDH(AEG-1) gene expression and in turn itself requires AEG-1 oncogene for its expression.


title: Myc

text: Myc-nick is a cytoplasmic form of Myc produced by a partial proteolytic cleavage of full-length c-Myc and N-Myc. Myc cleavage is mediated by the calpain family of calcium-dependent cytosolic proteases.


title: Myc

text: The cleavage of Myc by calpains is a constitutive process but is enhanced under conditions that require rapid downregulation of Myc levels, such as during terminal differentiation. Upon cleavage, the C-terminus of Myc (containing the DNA binding domain) is degraded, while Myc-nick, the N-terminal segment 298-residue segment remains in the cytoplasm. Myc-nick contains binding domains for histone acetyltransferases and for ubiquitin ligases.


title: Myc

text: The functions of Myc-nick are currently under investigation, but this new Myc family member was found to regulate cell morphology, at least in part, by interacting with acetyl transferases to promote the acetylation of α-tubulin. Ectopic expression of Myc-nick accelerates the differentiation of committed myoblasts into muscle cells.


title: Myc

text: A large body of evidence shows that Myc genes and proteins are highly relevant for treating tumors. Except for early response genes, Myc universally upregulates gene expression. Furthermore, the upregulation is nonlinear. Genes for which expression is already significantly upregulated in the absence of Myc are strongly boosted in the presence of Myc, whereas genes for which expression is low in the absence Myc get only a small boost when Myc is present.


title: Myc

text: Inactivation of SUMO-activating enzyme (SAE1 / SAE2) in the presence of Myc hyperactivation results in mitotic catastrophe and cell death in cancer cells. Hence inhibitors of SUMOylation may be a possible treatment for cancer.


title: Myc

text: Amplification of the MYC gene was found in a significant number of epithelial ovarian cancer cases. In TCGA datasets, the amplification of Myc occurs in several cancer types, including breast, colorectal, pancreatic, gastric, and uterine cancers.


title: Myc

text: In the experimental transformation process of normal cells into cancer cells, the MYC gene can cooperate with the RAS gene.


title: Myc

text: Expression of Myc is highly dependent on BRD4 function in some cancers. BET inhibitors have been used to successfully block Myc function in pre-clinical cancer models and are currently being evaluated in clinical trials.


title: Myc

text: MYC expression is controlled by a wide variety of noncoding RNAs, including miRNA, lncRNA, and circRNA. Some of these RNAs have been shown to be specific for certain types of human tissues and tumors. Changes in the expression of such RNAs can potentially be used to develop targeted tumor therapy.


title: Myc

text: In Drosophila Myc is encoded by the diminutive locus, (which was known to geneticists prior to 1935). Classical diminutive alleles resulted in a viable animal with small body size. Drosophila has subsequently been used to implicate Myc in cell competition, endoreplication, and cell growth.


title: Myc

text: During the discovery of Myc gene, it was realized that chromosomes that reciprocally translocate to chromosome 8 contained immunoglobulin genes at the break-point. To study the mechanism of tumorigenesis in Burkitt lymphoma by mimicking expression pattern of Myc in these cancer cells, transgenic mouse models were developed. Myc gene placed under the control of IgM heavy chain enhancer in transgenic mice gives rise to mainly lymphomas. Later on, in order to study effects of Myc in other types of cancer, transgenic mice that overexpress Myc in different tissues (liver, breast) were also made. In all these mouse models overexpression of Myc causes tumorigenesis, illustrating the potency of Myc oncogene.


title: Myc

text: In a study with mice, reduced expression of Myc was shown to induce longevity, with significantly extended median and maximum lifespans in both sexes and a reduced mortality rate across all ages, better health, cancer progression was slower, better metabolism and they had smaller bodies. Also, Less TOR, AKT, S6K and other changes in energy and metabolic pathways (such as AMPK, more oxygen consumption, more body movements, etc.). The study by John M. Sedivy and others used Cre-Loxp -recombinase to knockout one copy of Myc and this resulted in a "Haplo-insufficient" genotype noted as Myc+/-. The phenotypes seen oppose the effects of normal aging and are shared with many other long-lived mouse models such as CR (calorie restriction) ames dwarf, rapamycin, metformin and resveratrol. One study found that Myc and p53 genes were key to the survival of chronic myeloid leukaemia (CML) cells. Targeting Myc and p53 proteins with drugs gave positive results on mice with CML.


title: Myc

text: "Myc" genes play a number of normal roles in stem cells including pluripotent stem cells. In neural stem cells, N-Myc promotes a rapidly proliferative stem cell and precursor-like state in the developing brain, while inhibiting differentiation. In hematopoietic stem cells, Myc controls the balance between self-renewal and differentiation.


title: Myc

text: "c-Myc" plays a major role in the generation of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs). It is one of the original factors discovered by Yamanaka et al. to encourage cells to return to a 'stem-like' state alongside transcription factors Oct4, Sox2 and Klf4. It has since been shown that it is possible to generate iPSCs without "c-Myc".


title: Pont Neuf

text: The Pont Neuf (, "New Bridge") is the oldest standing bridge across the river Seine in Paris, France. It stands by the western (downstream) point of the Île de la Cité, the island in the middle of the river that was, between 250 and 225 BC, the birthplace of Paris, then known as Lutetia and, during the medieval period, the heart of the city.


title: Pont Neuf

text: The bridge is composed of two separate spans, one of five arches joining the left bank to the "Île de la Cité", another of seven joining the island to the right bank. Old engraved maps of Paris show that the newly built bridge just grazed the downstream tip of the "Île de la Cité"; since then, the natural sandbar building of a mid-river island, aided by stone-faced embankments called "quais", has extended the island. Today the tip of the island is the location of the "Square du Vert-Galant", a small public park named in honour of Henry IV, nicknamed the "Green Gallant".


title: Pont Neuf

text: The name "Pont Neuf" was given to distinguish it from older bridges that were lined on both sides with houses, and has remained after all of those were replaced. Its name notwithstanding, it has long been the oldest bridge in Paris crossing the Seine. It has been listed since 1889 as a "monument historique" by the French Ministry of Culture.


title: Pont Neuf

text: As early as 1550, Henry II was asked to build a bridge here because the existing Pont Notre-Dame was overloaded, but the expense was too much at the time.


title: Pont Neuf

text: In February 1578, the decision to build the bridge was made by Henry III who laid its first stone in on 31 May 1578, the same year when the foundations of four piers and one abutment were completed. Pierre des Isles, one of the builders, convinced the supervisory commission that the bridge, which was originally planned straight, would be more resistant to the river currents if its two sections were built at a slight angle. The change was adopted in May 1578.


title: Pont Neuf

text: Further design changes were made during the summer of 1579. First, the number of arches was changed from eight and four to seven and five. This was not a problem on the north side, where nothing had been built, but on the south, where the four piles and the abutment on the Left Bank were already laid, the addition of the fifth arch necessitated reducing the length of the platform on the island, the "terre-plein", from 28.5 toises to about 19. Second, it was decided to allow houses to be built on the bridge (though they never were). This required the widening of the bridge. The remaining piers were built over the next nine years. After a long delay beginning in 1588, due to political unrest and to the Wars of Religion, construction was resumed in 1599 under the reign of Henry IV. The bridge was opened to traffic in 1604 and completed in July 1606. It was inaugurated by Henry IV in 1607.


title: Pont Neuf

text: Like most bridges of its time, the "Pont Neuf" is constructed as a series of many short arch bridges, following Roman precedents. It was the first stone bridge in Paris not to support houses in addition to a thoroughfare, and was also fitted with pavements protecting pedestrians from mud and horses; pedestrians could also step aside into its bastions to let a bulky carriage pass. The decision not to include houses on the bridge can be traced back directly to Henry IV, who decided against their inclusion on the grounds that houses would impede a clear view of the Louvre, which the newly built "galerie du bord de l'eau" linked to the Tuileries Palace.


title: Pont Neuf

text: The bridge had heavy traffic from the beginning; it was for a long time the widest bridge in Paris. It has undergone much repair and renovation work, including rebuilding of seven spans in the long arm and lowering of the roadway by changing the arches from an almost semi-circular to elliptical form (1848–1855), lowering of sidewalks and faces of the piers, spandrels, cornices and replacing crumbled corbels as closely to the originals as possible. In 1885, one of the piers of the short arm was undermined, removing the two adjacent arches, requiring them to be rebuilt and all the foundations strengthened.


title: Pont Neuf

text: A major restoration of the "Pont Neuf" was begun in 1994 and was completed in 2007, the year of its 400th anniversary.


title: Pont Neuf

text: The "mascarons" are the stone masks, 381 in number, each being different and which decorate the sides of the bridge. They represent the heads of forest and field divinities from ancient mythology, as well as satyrs and sylvains. They are copies of the originals attributed to the French Renaissance sculptor Germain Pilon (1525–1590), who also sculpted the tomb of King Henry II of France and Queen Catherine de'Medici in the Basilica of St Denis, five kilometers north of Paris. The "mascarons" remained in place until 1851–1854, when the bridge was completely rebuilt. At that time six of the original "mascarons" from the 16th century were placed in the Musée Carnavalet, along with eight molds of other originals. Eight other originals were first placed in the Musée de Cluny – Musée national du Moyen Âge, and are now in the French National Museum of the Renaissance in the "Château d'Écouen". During their reconstruction, the Renaissance masks were replaced with copies made by noted 19th-century sculptors, including Hippolyte Maindron, Hubert Lavigne, Antoine-Louis Barye and Fontenelle. Fontenelle made 61 masks, which are found on the upstream side of the bridge between the right bank and the "Île de la Cité".


title: Pont Neuf

text: At the point where the bridge crosses the Île de la Cité, there stands a bronze equestrian statue of king Henry IV, originally commissioned from Giambologna under the orders of Marie de Médicis, Henri's widow and Regent of France, in 1614. After his death, Giambologna's assistant Pietro Tacca completed the statue, which was erected on its pedestal by Pietro Francavilla, in 1618. It was destroyed in 1792 during the French Revolution, but was rebuilt in 1818, following the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy. Bronze for the new statue was obtained with the bronze from a statue of Louis Charles Antoine Desaix, as well as from the statue of Napoleon in "Place Vendôme", which was melted down. The new statue was cast from a mold made using a surviving cast of the original. Inside the statue, the new sculptor François-Frédéric Lemot put four boxes, containing a history of the life of Henry IV, a 17th-century parchment certifying the original statue, a document describing how the new statue was commissioned, and a list of people who contributed to a public subscription.


title: Pont Neuf

text: Between 1712 and 1719, replacing an earlier one, a large pump house was built on the bridge. It was decorated with an image of the Samaritan woman at the well. As a result, the structure (which included a carillon) was named "La Samaritaine". Years after it was torn down (in 1813), Ernest Cognacq, a 19th-century merchant, set up a stand on the site and gradually grew his business to what became, in 1869, the department store La Samaritaine.


title: Pont Neuf

text: All through the 18th century, the "Pont Neuf" was the center of Paris, lively with both crime and commerce: Czar Peter the Great, who came to study French civilization under the regency of the Duke d'Orleans, declared that he had found nothing more curious in Paris than the Pont Neuf; and, sixty years later, the philosopher Franklin wrote to his friends in America that he had not understood the Parisian character except in crossing the Pont Neuf.


title: Pont Neuf

text: In 1862, Édouard Fournier traced its history in his lively two-volume "Histoire du Pont-Neuf". He describes how, even before it was completed (in 1607), gangs hid out in and around it, robbing and murdering people. It remained a dangerous place even as it became busier. For a long time, the bridge even had its own gallows.


title: Pont Neuf

text: This did not prevent people from congregating there, drawn by various stands and street performers (acrobats, fire-eaters, musicians, etc.). Charlatans and quacks of various sorts were also common, as well as the hustlers (shell game hucksters, etc.) and pickpockets often found in crowds – not to mention a lively trade in prostitution. Among the many businesses which, however, unofficially set up there, were several famous tooth pullers.


title: Pont Neuf

text: One finds on the Pont-Neuf an infinity of people who give tickets, some put fallen teeth back in, and others make crystal eyes; there are those who cure incurable illnesses; those who claim to have discovered the virtues of some powdered stones to white and to beautify the face. This one claims he makes old men young; there are those who remove wrinkles from the forehead and the eyes, who make wooden legs to repair the violence of bombs; finally everybody is so applied to work, so strongly and continually, that the devil can tempt no one but on Holidays and Sundays.


title: Pont Neuf

text: With its numerous sellers of pamphlets and satirical performers, it was also a center for social commentary:


title: Pont Neuf

text: In the 16th cent. the Pont-Neuf was the scene of the recitals of Tabarin, a famous satirist of the day, and it was long afterwards the favourite rendezvous of news-vendors, jugglers, showmen, loungers, and thieves. Any popular witticism in verse was long known as "un Pont-Neuf".


title: Pont Neuf

text: In the seventeenth century, that bridge of memories, the old "Pont Neuf" of Paris, was the rendezvous of quacksalvers and mountebanks. Booths for the sale of various articles lined the sides of the bridge. People flocked there to see the sights, laugh, chat, make love and enjoy life as only Parisians can. Students and "grisettes" of the "Quartier latin" elbowed ladies and gentlemen of the court. Bourgeois families came to study the flippant manners of the aristocrats. Poodle clippers plied their trade; jugglers amused the "quid nuncs" with feats of dexterity; traveling dentists pulled teeth and sold balsams; clowns tumbled; and last, but not least, pickpockets lifted purses and silk handkerchiefs with impunity. Says Augustus J. C. Hare (Walks in Paris): "So central an artery is the Pont Neuf, that it used to be a saying with the Parisian police, that if, after watching three days, they did not see a man cross the bridge, he must have left Paris." One of the principal vendors of quack nostrums of the "Pont Neuf" was Montdor. He was aided by a buffoon named Tabarin, who made facetious replies to questions asked by his master, accompanied with laughable grimaces and grotesque gestures. The modern ringmaster and clown of the circus have similar scenes together, minus the selling of medicines.


title: Pont Neuf

text: Under Louis XV, thieves and entertainers were joined by recruiters, or "sellers of human flesh", who did their best to lure newcomers to Paris and others "with as much violence as the sale of Negros in the Congo". Silversmiths and other luxury businesses nearby (which gave their name to the "Quai des Orfèvres") drew visitors as well.


title: Pont Neuf

text: One yearly event, held on the nearby "Place Dauphine", prefigured the "Salon des Refusés" which would give rise to the Impressionists. During the celebration of the Corpus Christi ("Fête-Dieu"), the "Place Dauphine" hosted one of the most magnificent "reposoirs" (portable altars for the Host).


title: Pont Neuf

text: Along with all the rich silverwork and tapestries placed on it, some local silversmiths ordered paintings for these. This led to art dealers being asked to participate and, ultimately, to the newest talents being shown at the "Petite Fête-Dieu" (the Small Corpus Christi), a reduced version of the Corpus Christi holiday which took place eight days later. Though their canvases were only shown from six in the morning to noon, this became an important opportunity for unknown artists to draw attention. Among other things, this led to the painters there signing their work, as was not frequent in the Salon – which was not always an advantage when the work was publicly and loudly critiqued.


title: Pont Neuf

text: Showing works, which often had no pretense of a religious subject, they might then be noticed and find an entree into the official Academy. Chardin is one of the most famous painters to have started this way.


title: Pont Neuf

text: In 1720, a young man of about twenty-two, son of the man who maintained the king's billiards, displayed a canvas here showing an antique bas-relief. J.-B. Vanloo passed by, looked at the canvas for a long time, found great qualities there, and bought it. He wanted afterwards to know the young painter, encouraged him, gave him advice, of which the latter perhaps had no need, got him work, which was more useful, and eight years later, the unknown of the "place Dauphine" was his colleague at the Academy of Painting... he was called Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin.


title: Pont Neuf

text: The slow decline of the bridge's central role began in 1754: "Starting in 1754, the first year of the vogue, the madness of the boulevards, it was no longer the thing to talk about the "Cours" [the Champs-Elysées], and still less of this poor Pont-Neuf. To the Boulevard, at once, long live the Boulevard!". Still the bridge remained a lively place through the end of the century. With time, people became wary of its reputation and other changes subdued its atmosphere. In 1840, Lacroix wrote: "Once the pont Neuf was a perpetual fair; at present, it is just a bridge to be crossed without stopping."


title: Pont Neuf

text: In 1838, Louis Daguerre produced his famous daguerreotype portrait of the "View of the Boulevard du Temple", widely considered the first photograph where a human can be seen. However, between 1836 and 1837, Daguerre made several test portraits, in order to experiment with and perfect the new technique in an outdoor environment. One surviving example is an image of the Pont Neuf and the equestrian statue of Henry IV. On the lower-left side of the image, what appears to be a worker, or perhaps two, can be seen laying against the fence, in the shadow of the statue.


title: Pont Neuf

text: In 1985, after years of negotiation with the mayor of Paris, the art duo Christo and Jeanne-Claude wrapped the Pont Neuf.


title: Mary Landrieu

text: Mary Loretta Landrieu ( ; born November 23, 1955) is an American politician, entrepreneur, and former U.S. Senator for the state of Louisiana. She is a member of the Democratic Party.


title: Mary Landrieu

text: Born in Arlington, Virginia, Landrieu was raised in New Orleans, Louisiana. She is the daughter of Moon Landrieu, former New Orleans mayor and secretary of the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development, and the sister of Mitch Landrieu, a former mayor of New Orleans and Lieutenant Governor of Louisiana. She received her baccalaureate degree from Louisiana State University in Baton Rouge. After working as a real estate agent for several years, she was elected as a state representative (1980–1988) and state treasurer (1988–1996). She won a close race for the U.S. Senate in 1996; she was re-elected by increasing margins in competitive races in 2002 and 2008, but was defeated in 2014 by U.S. Representative Bill Cassidy.


title: Mary Landrieu

text: Landrieu came to national attention in the wake of Hurricane Katrina in 2005 after she publicly criticized the federal response to the natural disaster. Her opposition to the public option played a major role in the crafting of the 2010 Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, as she did not agree to support it until additional concessions were granted to support Louisiana's Medicaid system. In 2011, she became a cardinal (chair) of the Senate's Homeland Security Appropriations Subcommittee. She chaired the Senate Committee on Small Business and Entrepreneurship from 2009 to 2014, and chaired the Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources from 2014 to 2015.


title: Mary Landrieu

text: Landrieu was born in Arlington, Virginia, the daughter of Verna (née Satterlee) and Moon Landrieu, who served as mayor of New Orleans. She is the sister of Mitch Landrieu, the former mayor of New Orleans and lieutenant governor of Louisiana. She was raised in New Orleans as a Catholic and attended Ursuline Academy of New Orleans. While a student at Ursuline, Landrieu participated in the Close Up Washington civic education program. She graduated from Louisiana State University in Baton Rouge in 1977, where she was a member of Delta Gamma sorority.


title: Mary Landrieu

text: Before entering politics, Landrieu worked as a real estate agent. She is Italian on her mother's side, and her family was among the large wave of Sicilian immigrants that came to Louisiana during the nineteenth century. Her mother, Verna Satterlee Landrieu, was the daughter of Kent Satterlee and Olga Helen Macheca. Landrieu has been repeatedly highlighted by the Order Sons of Italy in America as the first woman of Italian-American heritage to become a US senator. Her paternal great-grandmother Cerentha Mackey was the illegitimate child of a mixed-race black woman and an unknown father.


title: Mary Landrieu

text: Landrieu was first elected to the Louisiana House of Representatives in 1979, serving from 1980 to 1988 and representing a New Orleans district. She was re-elected to the 90th district in October 1983 with 78% of the vote. In October 1987, she was succeeded in the 90th district by her brother Mitch.


title: Mary Landrieu

text: On July 25, 1995, "The Times-Picayune" revealed that as a state representative, Landrieu awarded Tulane University tuition waivers to a former campaign manager.


title: Mary Landrieu

text: On January 1, 1987, State Treasurer Mary Evelyn Parker, the longtime Democratic incumbent, resigned with nearly a year and a half left in her fifth term. Landrieu ran to succeed her in both the special and regularly scheduled elections, both held in October 1987. No Republican filed to run, so Landrieu faced only Democratic opponents. She came first on both ballots with 44%. She defeated two legislative colleagues, State Rep. Kevin P. Reilly, Sr., at the time chief executive officer of Lamar Advertising Company in Baton Rouge, who came second in the special and regular elections, with 33% and 32%, respectively, and State Rep. Claude "Buddy" Leach, a former U.S. Representative, who came third in both elections with 15%. Tom Burbank, son of Thomas D. Burbank Sr., former head of the state police, came in last in both elections with 9% of the vote. Reilly decided not to contest a runoff election, known in Louisiana as a "general election", and Landrieu won the treasurer's position by default. In 1991, Landrieu was unopposed for re-election.


title: Mary Landrieu

text: Landrieu declined to run for a third term as Treasurer, giving up the office to run for governor in the 1995 election. The other major candidates in the race were Democratic U.S. Representative Cleo Fields; State Senator Murphy J. Foster, Jr., who switched his party affiliation from Democratic to Republican when he filed; Democratic attorney Phil Preis; Republican former Governor Buddy Roemer; and Democratic Lieutenant Governor Melinda Schwegmann. Landrieu finished third in the state's nonpartisan blanket primary with 18% of the vote, finishing 8,983 votes behind Fields, who came second with 19% of the vote. Roemer came fourth with 18%, Preis was fifth with 9% and Schwegmann came sixth with 5%. Foster came first with 26% and went on to defeat Fields in the runoff with 64% of the vote. Landrieu was succeeded as state treasurer by her fellow Democrat Ken Duncan, a Baton Rouge attorney and businessman.


title: Mary Landrieu

text: Landrieu was elected in 1996 to the U.S. Senate seat previously held by John Bennett Johnston, Jr. of Shreveport after winning a close and controversial runoff election. (The runoff election is what other states would call "the general election" of a federal seat.) She defeated state Representative Woody Jenkins of Baton Rouge. Landrieu narrowly won re-election in the 2002. She defeated state Election Commissioner Suzanne Haik Terrell of New Orleans. Some experts and pundits had considered Landrieu as a possible running mate for presidential candidate John Kerry in the 2004 election before he selected then- Senator John Edwards of North Carolina. In 2004 Landrieu became Louisiana's senior senator upon the retirement of John Breaux, who was replaced by Republican David Vitter.


title: Mary Landrieu

text: In 2008, she won a relatively comfortable 52% to 46% re-election to a third term in a race against her challenger, state Treasurer John Neely Kennedy. He was a former Democrat who switched to the Republican Party in 2007.


title: Mary Landrieu

text: Landrieu sought re-election in 2014. Former President Bill Clinton campaigned on her behalf in Louisiana. While Landrieu garnered 42% of the vote she fell short of the 50.1% required for re-election. She was defeated in the December 6, 2014, runoff election by her Republican opponent, Congressman Bill Cassidy, by a 56% to 44% margin.


title: Mary Landrieu

text: In 2002, she voted for the Iraq Resolution, and in 2003, she issued a statement indicating that, "The time for diplomacy has ended." She voted for the Class Action Fairness Act of 2005 and the Protection of Lawful Commerce in Arms Act.


title: Mary Landrieu

text: In 2005, Landrieu sponsored a resolution, which the Senate passed in an unprecedented action, to formally apologize for its repeated failure in the early twentieth century to pass anti-lynching legislation. The Senate Southern white Democrats had filibustered the Dyer bill in 1922 and two other bills that passed the House. She held high-profile hearings on the mistakes of the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) in the wake of hurricanes Katrina and Rita in 2005.


title: Mary Landrieu

text: Subsequent to the 2006 mid-term elections, in which the Democratic Party gained control of both houses of Congress, Landrieu announced (along with Republican Olympia Snowe of Maine) the formation of the "Common Ground Coalition", a group of moderate senators of both parties, with the goal of finding bipartisan consensus on legislative matters.


title: Mary Landrieu

text: Landrieu voted to raise the estate tax exemption to $5 million in 2008, but voted against repeal of the estate tax in 2006.


title: Mary Landrieu

text: On December 15, 2008, it was announced that Landrieu would become chairwoman of the Senate Committee on Small Business and Entrepreneurship for the 111th Congress when former Chairman John Kerry left to lead the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, previously headed by Vice President-elect Joe Biden.


title: Mary Landrieu

text: In September 2010, Landrieu announced she would hold up OMB director Jacob Lew’s confirmation until the administration lifted or eased a federal freeze on deepwater oil-and-gas drilling. Her delay of Lew's nomination came despite broad bipartisan support for appointing him to OMB. The Senate Budget Committee recommended that Lew be confirmed on a 22–1 vote.


title: Mary Landrieu

text: According to "The Washington Post", Landrieu "is one of the lawmakers leading for more natural gas exports".


title: Mary Landrieu

text: On December 18, 2010, Landrieu voted in favor of the Don't Ask, Don't Tell Repeal Act of 2010. In 2011, she became chairman of the Senate's Homeland Security Appropriations Subcommittee, giving her significant influence in the funding of federal agencies like the U.S. Coast Guard, Department of Homeland Security and FEMA. On April 17, 2013, Landrieu voted to expand background checks for gun purchases.


title: Mary Landrieu

text: In April 2014, the United States Senate debated the Minimum Wage Fairness Act (S. 1737; 113th Congress). The bill would amend the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 (FLSA) to increase the federal minimum wage for employees to $10.10 per hour over the course of a two-year period. The bill was strongly supported by President Barack Obama and many of the Democratic senators, but strongly opposed by Republicans in the Senate and House. She wanted additional debate on the timeline and the raise for tipped workers. Landrieu said that "I do not believe that $10.10 an hour is too high to aspire to, but how quickly we get there and what increments, the tipped wage, how that should be handled, who should get paid the tipped wage, and who shouldn't. There are a lot of questions about that, and some of those discussions are going on."


title: Mary Landrieu

text: Landrieu opposed the public health insurance option in the America's Affordable Health Choices Act of 2009 (HR 3200) until the bill was rewritten to send a $300,000,000 payment to Medicaid for her home state. When two pages were added to the bill to place $300 million in Louisiana's Medicaid system, she changed her web page in order to reflect her support of the program. Conservative figures referred to the deal as the "Louisiana Purchase". A typographical error in the bill resulted in $4.3 billion in additional funds for Medicaid for Louisiana. As a result, prominent conservative figures Glenn Beck and Rush Limbaugh called her a "high-priced prostitute".


title: Mary Landrieu

text: On November 21, 2009, Landrieu voted with fifty-nine other senators to bring the health care bill up for debate. On December 8, 2009, she voted against the Nelson–Hatch–Casey amendment which proposed to ban federal funding for private plans that covered elective abortions but would have allowed individuals to purchase separate individual riders that would cover abortions. Prior to a concession of $300 million being added to the bill, Landrieu responded to a question on popular support of the public option, and asserted that the option has popular support because "when people hear 'public option' they hear 'free health care'. Everybody wants free health care. Everybody wants health care they don't have to pay for."


title: Mary Landrieu

text: Landrieu voted for the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (known as "Obamacare") in December 2009. In September 2013, Landrieu voted to restore funding for the ACA that House Republicans had eliminated in their version of the funding bill.


title: Mary Landrieu

text: On March 1, 2012, Landrieu voted against a measure that would have repealed a birth control mandate in the health care bill. In October 2013, she introduced a bill to force health insurance companies to re-issue plans which they have cancelled.


title: Mary Landrieu

text: In the weeks following Hurricane Katrina, Landrieu and fellow Senator David Vitter co-sponsored the Hurricane Katrina Disaster Relief and Economic Recovery Act of 2005 (S.1765), a 440-page aid package worth an estimated $250 billion The bill was read twice by Congress, then referred to the United States Senate Committee on Finance.


title: Mary Landrieu

text: Separate legislation was passed to provide $1 billion in loans to communities affected by Katrina despite Landrieu's objection to the provision insisted on by Republicans that prohibited the loans from being forgiven. In 2007, when Democrats took control of the House and Senate, they passed legislation written by Landrieu that authorized FEMA to forgive the loans.


title: Mary Landrieu

text: However, 40% of the loans were not forgiven by FEMA, which led Landrieu to insert addition provisions into the 2013 federal spending bill to forgive the remainder of these loans.


title: Mary Landrieu

text: Landrieu's national name recognition rose in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina as she made multiple TV appearances to discuss the response effort. Landrieu was noted in The New York Times as becoming "a national spokeswoman for victims of the hurricane" as she complained of "the staggering incompetence of the national government." She was particularly critical of President George W. Bush, who, in turn, was critical of her in his 2010 memoir "Decision Points", in which he related telling her to be quiet after she interrupted him in a meeting with what he called an "unproductive emotional outburst".


title: Mary Landrieu

text: Landrieu voted for the confirmation of Chief Justice John Roberts in 2005, but in 2006, she opposed Samuel Alito; she voted in favor of cloture to send the nomination to an up-or-down vote. She voted for both Sonia Sotomayor in 2009 and Elena Kagan in 2010.


title: Mary Landrieu

text: On August 3, 2007, Landrieu broke ranks with Democrats when she and Louisiana Rep. Charlie Melancon sided with Republicans and the Bush Administration in voting for the Protect America Act, an amendment to the USA Patriot Act further expanding wiretap powers.


title: Mary Landrieu

text: In 2011, she was the inadvertent Senate sponsor of the four-year extension to the Patriot Act when Senator Reid amended a small business bill introduced by Landrieu as a means of avoiding a threatened filibuster by Senator Rand Paul. Landrieu joined the majority in voting for the extension, which passed 72–23.


title: Mary Landrieu

text: On January 25, 2010, four Republican conservative activists, including Stan Dai, Joseph Basel, both 24; Robert Flanagan, son of Bill Flanagan, acting U.S. Attorney in Louisiana; and conservative filmmaker James O'Keefe, were arrested by US Marshals and subsequently charged with entering a federal facility under false pretenses for entering Landrieu's New Orleans office under the guise of being telephone repairmen. The crew intended to record their interactions with Landrieu's staff. Two of the activists posed as telephone repair technicians in order to gain access to the telephone system. O'Keefe admitted to secretly "recording" the interactions with the staff with his cell phone and aiding in the "planning, coordination, and preparation of the operation."


title: Mary Landrieu

text: On March 27, 2010, the U.S. Attorney reduced the charges to entering federal property under false pretenses, a misdemeanor charge. On May 26, 2010, all four pleaded guilty before Magistrate Daniel Knowles III in a New Orleans federal court. Three of the four received two years' probation, 75 hours of community service and $1,500 fines; while James O'Keefe received a sentence of three years' probation, 100 hours of community service and a $1,500 fine.


title: Mary Landrieu

text: There was a controversy over Landrieu's payment of airline flights with Senate money, some of which may have violated campaign finance law. Landrieu's opponents called attention to the controversy, launching a campaign called "Air Mary". Activists dressed as pilots, flight attendants, and ground crew workers greeted her at her campaign appearances.


title: Mary Landrieu

text: In August 2014 after it was reported that Landrieu violated federal law by using taxpayer dollars to charter at least four private flights to campaign events Landrieu announced that she had ordered an internal investigation into all of her flights during her time in the Senate. In September 2014, Landrieu revealed that the internal investigation into her flights had concluded that since she had entered the Senate she had improperly charged her Senate office $33,700 for private flights to campaign events. Landrieu originally said the charter company mistakenly billed Landrieu's Senate office instead of her re-election campaign.


title: Mary Landrieu

text: Landrieu was one of the more conservative Democrats in the U.S. Senate. The American Conservative Union rated Landrieu as 40% conservative in 2007, which was the highest score of any sitting Democrat and higher than the scores of two Republicans. As of 2012, her lifetime rating is 21%, which is the fourth highest rating among Democrats in the Senate. For 2012 votes, "National Journal" ranked Landrieu as the 47th-most conservative member of the Senate, while the "Times-Picayune" found that she voted in support of President Obama's positions 97% of the time.


title: Mary Landrieu

text: Landrieu supports abortion rights. She has a 100% rating from the pro-choice group NARAL and a 0% rating from the pro-life group Louisiana Right to Life Federation.


title: Mary Landrieu

text: Landrieu voted to confirm Gina McCarthy as the administrator of the EPA Landrieu supports the Keystone Pipeline and has called for President Obama to approve its construction.


title: Mary Landrieu

text: Landrieu has a "C" rating from the National Rifle Association. The NRA endorsed her opponent, Bill Cassidy, in the 2014 Louisiana Senate race.


title: Mary Landrieu

text: Landrieu voted for the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, commonly known as "Obamacare". But she withheld her vote until she had secured what is now referred to as the "Louisiana Purchase" originally for up to $300,000,000 in additional Medicaid funds to Louisiana, which, due to a typographical error in the healthcare bill, became an additional $4.3 billion for Louisiana's Medicaid program. When asked by reporters in 2013, Sen. Landrieu said that she would vote for it again if she were given a chance.


title: Mary Landrieu

text: Landrieu personally supports same-sex marriage, but defended the state's constitutional ban on the grounds that a majority of Louisianans voted for it.


title: Mary Landrieu

text: Landrieu and her husband, attorney Frank Snellings, have two children, Connor and Mary Shannon, and one grandson, Maddox. In December 2014 Frank was the subject of an article in "The Irish Times", having rediscovered his Irish family 44 years after he was adopted in Ireland by the Snellings family from Louisiana.


title: Mary Landrieu

text: Bill Cassidy ran for the Senate in 2014 against three term incumbent Mary Landrieu. Cassidy was endorsed by Republican Senator David Vitter. Cassidy defeated Landrieu in the run-off election held on December 6, 2014, winning 56% of the vote while Landrieu received 44% of the vote. Cassidy thus became the first Republican to occupy the seat since William P. Kellogg left it in 1883.


title: Mary Landrieu

text: Landrieu is a Senior Policy Advisor for Van Ness Feldman, a DC Law Firm. She became a strategic adviser to the Walton Family Foundation in April 2015. Landrieu is also a member of the pro-Israel group American Israel Public Affairs Committee.


title: Mary Landrieu

text: In December 2018, Landrieu and a bipartisan group of former U.S. Senators co-authored an opinion piece in "The Washington Post" urging the Senate to protect the Special Counsel Investigation led by special counsel Robert Mueller.


title: Environmental ethics

text: In environmental philosophy, environmental ethics is an established field of practical philosophy "which reconstructs the essential types of argumentation that can be made for protecting natural entities and the sustainable use of natural resources." The main competing paradigms are anthropocentrism, physiocentrism (called ecocentrism as well), and theocentrism. Environmental ethics exerts influence on a large range of disciplines including environmental law, environmental sociology, ecotheology, ecological economics, ecology and environmental geography.


title: Environmental ethics

text: There are many ethical decisions that human beings make with respect to the environment. For example:


title: Environmental ethics

text: The academic field of environmental ethics grew up in response to the works of Rachel Carson and Murray Bookchin and events such as the first Earth Day in 1970, when environmentalists started urging philosophers to consider the philosophical aspects of environmental problems. Two papers published in "Science" had a crucial impact: Lynn White's "The Historical Roots of our Ecologic Crisis" (March 1967) and Garrett Hardin's "The Tragedy of the Commons" (December 1968). Also influential was Garett Hardin's later essay called "Exploring New Ethics for Survival", as well as an essay by Aldo Leopold in his "A Sand County Almanac", called "The Land Ethic", in which Leopold explicitly claimed that the roots of the ecological crisis were philosophical (1949).


title: Environmental ethics

text: The first international academic journals in this field emerged from North America in the late 1970s and early 1980s – the US-based journal "Environmental Ethics" in 1979 and the Canadian-based journal "The Trumpeter: Journal of Ecosophy" in 1983. The first British based journal of this kind, "Environmental Values", was launched in 1992.


title: Environmental ethics

text: Some scholars have tried to categorise the various ways the natural environment is valued. Alan Marshall and Michael Smith are two examples of this, as cited by Peter Vardy in "The Puzzle of Ethics". According to Marshall, three general ethical approaches have emerged over the last 40 years: Libertarian Extension, the Ecologic Extension, and Conservation Ethics.


title: Environmental ethics

text: Marshall's libertarian extension echoes a civil liberty approach (i.e. a commitment to extending equal rights to all members of a community). In environmentalism, the community is generally thought to consist of non-humans as well as humans.


title: Environmental ethics

text: Andrew Brennan was an advocate of ecologic humanism (eco-humanism), the argument that all ontological entities, animate and inanimate, can be given ethical worth purely on the basis that they exist. The work of Arne Næss and his collaborator Sessions also falls under the libertarian extension, although they preferred the term "deep ecology". Deep ecology is the argument for the intrinsic value or inherent worth of the environment – the view that it is valuable in itself. Their argument falls under both the libertarian extension and the ecologic extension.


title: Environmental ethics

text: Peter Singer's work can be categorized under Marshall's 'libertarian extension'. He reasoned that the "expanding circle of moral worth" should be redrawn to include the rights of non-human animals, and to not do so would be guilty of speciesism. Singer found it difficult to accept the argument from intrinsic worth of a-biotic or "non-sentient" (non-conscious) entities, and concluded in his first edition of "Practical Ethics" that they should not be included in the expanding circle of moral worth. This approach is essentially then, bio-centric. However, in a later edition of "Practical Ethics" after the work of Næss and Sessions, Singer admits that, although unconvinced by deep ecology, the argument from intrinsic value of non-sentient entities is plausible, but at best problematic. Singer advocated a humanist ethics.


title: Environmental ethics

text: of all biological (and some abiological) entities and their essential diversity. Whereas Libertarian Extension can be thought of as flowing


title: Environmental ethics

text: Ecological Extension is roughly the same classification of Smith's eco-holism, and it argues for the intrinsic value inherent in collective


title: Environmental ethics

text: ecological entities like ecosystems or the global environment as a whole entity. Holmes Rolston, among others, has taken this approach.


title: Environmental ethics

text: This category might include James Lovelock's Gaia hypothesis; the theory that the planet earth alters its geo-physiological structure over time in order to ensure the continuation of an equilibrium of evolving organic and inorganic matter. The planet is characterized as a unified, holistic entity with ethical worth of which the human race is of no particular significance in the long run.


title: Environmental ethics

text: Marshall's category of 'conservation ethics' is an extension of use-value into the non-human biological world. It focuses only on the worth of the environment in terms of its utility or usefulness to humans. It contrasts the intrinsic value ideas of 'deep ecology,' hence is often referred to as 'shallow ecology,' and generally argues for the preservation of the environment on the basis that it has extrinsic value – instrumental to the welfare of human beings. Conservation is therefore a means to an end and purely concerned with mankind and inter-generational considerations. It could be argued that it is this ethic that formed the underlying arguments proposed by Governments at the Kyoto summit in 1997 and three agreements reached in the Rio Earth Summit in 1992.


title: Environmental ethics

text: Peter Singer advocated the preservation of "world heritage sites", unspoilt parts of the world that acquire a "scarcity value" as they diminish over time. Their preservation is a bequest for future generations as they have been inherited from human's ancestors and should be passed down to future generations so they can have the opportunity to decide whether to enjoy unspoilt countryside or an entirely urban landscape. A good example of a world heritage site would be the tropical rainforest, a very specialist ecosystem that has taken centuries to evolve. Clearing the rainforest for farmland often fails due to soil conditions, and once disturbed, can take thousands of years to regenerate.


title: Environmental ethics

text: The Christian world view sees the universe as created by God, and humankind accountable to God for the use of the resources entrusted to humankind. Ultimate values are seen in the light of being valuable to God. This applies both in breadth of scope – caring for people (Matthew 25) and environmental issues, e.g. environmental health (Deuteronomy 22.8; 23.12-14) – and dynamic motivation, the love of Christ controlling (2 Corinthians 5.14f) and dealing with the underlying spiritual disease of sin, which shows itself in selfishness and thoughtlessness. In many countries this relationship of accountability is symbolised at harvest thanksgiving. (B.T. Adeney : Global Ethics in New Dictionary of Christian Ethics and Pastoral Theology 1995 Leicester)


title: Environmental ethics

text: Abrahamic religious scholars have used theology to motivate the public. John L. O'Sullivan, who coined the term manifest destiny, and other influential people like him used Abrahamic ideologies to encourage action. These religious scholars, columnists and politicians historically have used these ideas and continue to do so to justify the consumptive tendencies of a young America around the time of the Industrial Revolution. In order to solidify the understanding that God had intended for humankind to use earths natural resources, environmental writers and religious scholars alike proclaimed that humans are separate from nature, on a higher order. Those that may critique this point of view may ask the same question that John Muir asks ironically in a section of his novel "A Thousand Mile Walk to the Gulf", "why are there so many dangers in the natural world in the form of poisonous plants, animals and natural disasters", The answer is that those creatures are a result of Adam and Eve's sins in the garden of Eden.


title: Environmental ethics

text: Since the turn of the 20th century, the application of theology in environmentalism diverged into two schools of thought. The first system of understanding holds religion as the basis of environmental stewardship. The second sees the use of theology as a means to rationalize the unmanaged consumptions of natural resources. Lynn White and Calvin DeWitt represent each side of this dichotomy.


title: Environmental ethics

text: John Muir personified nature as an inviting place away from the loudness of urban centers. "For Muir and the growing number of Americans who shared his views, Satan's home had become God's Own Temple." The use of Abrahamic religious allusions assisted Muir and the Sierra Club to create support for some of the first public nature preserves.


title: Environmental ethics

text: Authors like Terry Tempest Williams as well as John Muir build on the idea that "...God can be found wherever you are, especially outside. Family worship was not just relegated to Sunday in a chapel." References like these assist the general public to make a connection between paintings done at the Hudson River School, Ansel Adams' photographs, along with other types of media, and their religion or spirituality. Placing intrinsic value upon nature through theology is a fundamental idea of deep ecology.


title: Environmental ethics

text: Normative ethics is a field in Moral Philosophy that investigates how one "ought" to act. What is morally right and wrong, and how moral standards are determined. Superficially, this approach may seem intrinsically anthropocentric. However, theoretical frameworks from traditional normative ethical theories are abundant within contemporary environmental ethics.


title: Environmental ethics

text: Consequentialist theories focus on the consequences of actions, this emphasises not what is 'right', but rather what is of 'value' and 'good'. Act Utilitarianism, for example, expands this formulation to emphasise that what makes an action right is whether it maximises well-being and reduces pain. Thus, actions that result in greater well-being are considered obligatory and permissible. It has been noted that this is an 'instrumentalist' position towards the environment, and as such not fully adequate to the delicate demands of ecological diversity.


title: Environmental ethics

text: Aldo Leopold's "Land Ethic" (1949) tries to avoid this type of instrumentalism by proposing a more holistic approach to the relationship between humans and their 'biotic community', so to create a 'limit' based on the maxim that "a thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability, and beauty of the biotic community; it is wrong when it tends otherwise." Thus, the use of natural resources is permissible as long as it does not disrupt the stability of the ecosystem. Some philosophers have categorised Leopold's views to be within a consequentialist framework, however it is disputed whether this was intentional. Other consequentialist views such as that of Peter Singer tend to emphasise the inclusion of non-human sentient beings into ethical considerations. This view argues that all sentient creates which are by nature able to feel pleasure and pain, are of equal moral consideration for their intrinsic value. Nevertheless, non-sentient beings, such as plants, rivers and ecosystems, are considered to be merely instrumental.


title: Environmental ethics

text: Deontological theories state that an action should be based on duties or obligations to what is "right", instead of what is "good". In strong contrast to consequentialism, this view argues for principles of duty based not on a function of value, but on reasons that stand beyond the consequences of an action. Something of "intrinsic" value, then, has to be protected not because its goodness would maximise a wider good, but because it is valuable in itself; not as a means towards something, but as an end in itself. Thus, if the natural environment is categorised as intrinsically valuable, any destruction or damage to such would be considered wrong as a whole rather than merely due to a calculated loss of net value. It can be said that this approach is more holistic in principle than one of consequentialist nature, as it fits more adequately with the delicate balance of large ecosystems.


title: Environmental ethics

text: Theories of rights, for example, are generally deontological. That is, within this framework an environmental policy that gives rights to non-human sentient beings, would prioritise the conservation of such in their natural state, rather than in an artificial manner. Consider for example, issues in climate engineering; Ocean fertilisation aims to expand marine algae in order to remove higher levels of CO. A complication from this approach is that it creates salient disruptions to local ecosystems. Furthermore, an environmental ethical theory based on the rights of marine animals in those ecosystems, would create a protection against this type of intervention. Environmental deontologists such as Paul W. Taylor, for example, have argued for a Kantian approach to issues of this kind. Taylor argues that all living things are 'teleological centres of life' deserving of rights and respect. His view uses a concept of 'universalizability', to argue that one ought to act only on actions which could be rationally willed as a universal law. Val Plumwood has criticised this approach by noting that the universalisation framework, is not necessarily based on 'respect' for the other, as it's based on duty and 'becoming' part of the environment.


title: Environmental ethics

text: Virtue ethics states that some behaviours should be cultivated, and others avoided. This framework avoids problems of defining what is of intrinsic value, by instead arguing that what is important is to act in accordance with the correct balance of virtue. The Golden mean formulation, for example, states that to be 'generous' (virtue), one should neither be miserly (deficiency) or extravagant (excess). Unlike deontology and consequentialism, theories of virtue focus their formulations on how the individual has to act to live a flourishing life. This presents a 'subjective flexibility' which seems like an adequate position to hold considering the fluctuating demands of sustainability. However, as a consequence, it can also be said that this is an inherently anthropocentric standpoint.


title: Environmental ethics

text: Some Ecofeminist theories such as that of Val Plumwood, have been categorised as a form of virtue ethics. Plumwood argues that a virtue-based ethical framework adapts more fittingly to environmental diversity, as virtues such as 'respect', 'gratitude', and 'sensitivity', are not only suitable to ecological subjectivity but also more applicable to the views of indigenous people. Furthermore, what traits would be considered as part of environmental "vices"? Ronald Sandler argues that detrimental dispositions to human flourishing such as 'greed', 'intemperance' and 'arrogance', lead to detrimental dispositions to the protection of the environment such as 'apathy', against other species, and 'pessimism' about conservation. Views such as this, create a mutualistic connection between virtuous human flourishing, and environmental flourishing.


title: Environmental ethics

text: Anthropocentrism is the position that humans are the most important or critical element in any given situation; that the human race must always be its own primary concern. Detractors of anthropocentrism argue that the Western tradition biases homo sapiens when considering the environmental ethics of a situation and that humans evaluate their environment or other organisms in terms of the utility for them (see speciesism). Many argue that all environmental studies should include an assessment of the intrinsic value of non-human beings, which would entail a reassessment of humans ecocultural identities. In fact, based on this very assumption, a philosophical article has explored recently the possibility of humans' willing extinction as a gesture toward other beings. The authors refer to the idea as a thought experiment that should not be understood as a call for action.


title: Environmental ethics

text: Baruch Spinoza reasoned that if humans were to look at things objectively, they would discover that everything in the universe has a unique value. Likewise, it is possible that a human-centred or anthropocentric/androcentric ethic is not an accurate depiction of reality, and there is a bigger picture that humans may or may not be able to understand from a human perspective.


title: Environmental ethics

text: Peter Vardy distinguished between two types of anthropocentrism. A strong anthropocentric ethic argues that humans are at the center of reality and it is right for them to be so. Weak anthropocentrism, however, argues that reality can only be interpreted from a human point of view, thus humans have to be at the centre of reality as they see it.


title: Environmental ethics

text: Another point of view has been developed by Bryan Norton, who has become one of the essential actors of environmental ethics by launching environmental pragmatism, now one of its leading trends. Environmental pragmatism refuses to take a stance in disputes between defenders of anthropocentrist and non-anthropocentrist ethics. Instead, Norton distinguishes between "strong anthropocentrism" and "weak-or-extended-anthropocentrism" and argues that the former must underestimate the diversity of instrumental values humans may derive from the natural world.


title: Environmental ethics

text: A recent view relates anthropocentrism to the future of life. Biotic ethics are based on the human identity as part of gene/protein organic life whose effective purpose is self-propagation. This implies a human purpose to secure and propagate life. Humans are central because only they can secure life beyond the duration of the Sun, possibly for trillions of eons. Biotic ethics values life itself, as embodied in biological structures and processes. Humans are special because they can secure the future of life on cosmological scales. In particular, humans can continue sentient life that enjoys its existence, adding further motivation to propagate life. Humans can secure the future of life, and this future can give human existence a cosmic purpose.


title: Environmental ethics

text: Only after 1990 did the field gain institutional recognition at programs such as Colorado State University, the University of Montana, Bowling Green State University, and the University of North Texas. In 1991, Schumacher College of Dartington, England, was founded and now provides an MSc in Holistic Science.


title: Environmental ethics

text: These programs began to offer a master's degree with a specialty in environmental ethics/philosophy. Beginning in 2005 the Department of Philosophy and Religion Studies at the University of North Texas offered a PhD program with a concentration in environmental ethics/philosophy.


title: Environmental ethics

text: In Germany, the University of Greifswald has recently established an international program in Landscape Ecology & Nature Conservation with a strong focus on environmental ethics. In 2009, the University of Munich and Deutsches Museum founded the Rachel Carson Center for Environment and Society, an international, interdisciplinary center for research and education in the environmental humanities.


title: Environmental ethics

text: Differing conceptions of the treatment of and obligations towards animals, particularly those living in the wild, within animal ethics and environmental ethics has been a source of controversy between the two ethical positions; some ethicists have asserted that the two positions are incompatible, while others have argued that these disagreements can be overcome.


title: Mellow Man Ace

text: Ulpiano Sergio Reyes (born April 12, 1967), better known as Mellow Man Ace, is a Cuban-American rapper known for bilingual delivery and novelty rhymes. He was born in Cuba and moved to Los Angeles with his family at the age of four.


title: Mellow Man Ace

text: An Afro-Cuban rapper born in Cuba, Mellow Man Ace focused on lovers rap with a blend of urban hip hop and occasional bilingual delivery, and a heady gift for novelty rhymes. Born Ulpiano Sergio Reyes in 1967, he left Cuba with his family at the age of four and resettled in Los Angeles. His family moved to South Gate, California at a very young age. His debut album "Escape from Havana" was released on Capitol on August 29, 1989, and featured production from the Dust Brothers and Def Jef. The single "Mentirosa" was released on March 9, 1990. It was his only hit single, peaking at Number 14 on "Billboard"'s Hot 100 Chart, with Ace rapping over a crafty hook from the Santana songs "No One to Depend On" and "Evil Ways." His use of these songs got him into some legal trouble, as he had not obtained permission to sample Santana's songs, nor were any royalty fees paid to Santana before recording and releasing the track. Ace recorded one additional album, "The Brother with Two Tongues", before virtually retiring from the music scene, but 2000 saw the release of the album "From the Darkness into the Light". Next came the album "Vengo a Cobrar". It was released on June 8, 2004 on Dimelo Records. In 2006, he collaborated with his brother Sen Dog of hip-hop group Cypress Hill, culminating in the album release "Ghetto Therapy". 2010 saw the release of the album "Restoring Order". In 2018, he released the single, "South Gate."


title: Mellow Man Ace

text: He was the first Latino artist to have a hit bilingual single, and has been called "The Godfather of Latin Rap." He was also a founding member of the hip hop group Cypress Hill and member of the Latin Alliance project. Ace has a son named Cazal Organism who produces most of his more recent music, along with one daughter by the name of Havana Reyes.


title: Jamestown, Saint Helena

text: Jamestown is the capital city of the British Overseas Territory of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha, located on the island of Saint Helena in the South Atlantic Ocean. It is also the historic main settlement of the island and is on its north-western coast. Before the development of the port at Rupert's Bay, it was the island's only port and the centre of the island's road and communications network. It was founded when colonists from the English East India Company settled on the island in 1659 and was briefly occupied by the Dutch East India Company in 1673 before being recaptured. Many of the buildings built by the East India Company in the 18th century survive and give the town its distinctive Georgian flavour.


title: Jamestown, Saint Helena

text: The city briefly hosted Napoleon in 1815 during his exile on St. Helena and later served as a base for the Royal Navy's efforts to suppress the slave trade. It had no role during the First World War and only played a minor role during the Second World War.


title: Jamestown, Saint Helena

text: Jamestown was founded in 1659 by the East India Company and is named after James, Duke of York, the future King James II of England. A fort, originally named the Castle of St John, was quickly built and, with the restoration of the monarchy in 1660, the fort was renamed James Fort, the town Jamestown and the valley James Valley. The fort and associated gun batteries dominated James Bay and were sporadically improved over the years. In January 1673 the Dutch East India Company briefly seized control of the island until the English East India Company recaptured it in May. Since then the town has been continuously inhabited under English and then British rule.


title: Jamestown, Saint Helena

text: After his defeat in the Battle of Waterloo in June 1815 and the subsequent occupation of Paris, the Emperor of the French, Napoleon, surrendered to the British and was exiled to St Helena. He arrived on 21 October aboard the 74-gun ship and resided at the Briars in Jamestown for several months until he was transferred to Longwood House in a more remote part of the island in December. Jamestown was chosen to host a vice admiralty court and a naval base for British efforts to interdict the slave traffic between Africa and the Americas. Captured slave ships were often brought to Jamestown to be sold and their cargos were off-loaded in Rupert's Valley. By the time that the naval station was closed in the 1870s, an estimated 25,000 slaves had been rescued, although about 5,000 died shortly after arrival and were buried in Rupert's Valley. Long lost, their graves were rediscovered in 2006 in conjunction with preliminary digging for the airport. A team of archaeologists arrived in mid-2008 to excavate the graves. Some of the finds from the excavations are on exhibit at the International Slavery Museum in Liverpool, England.


title: Jamestown, Saint Helena

text: The island was too isolated to play any role in the First World War and only played a minimal one during the Second World War. The oil tanker RFA "Darkdale" was sunk by the in James Bay on 22 October 1941 with only nine of the 50-man crew surviving. She had been sent to St Helena a few months earlier to refuel ships operating in the South Atlantic. The wreck leaked small amounts of oil until its gradual deterioration caused the Ministry of Defence to send a team of divers to pump out all the remaining oil in June 2015.


title: Jamestown, Saint Helena

text: The city is built on igneous rock in the James Valley, sandwiched between steep cliffs. It is therefore rather long and thin. The walls of the valley are rough and steep, and rockfalls have been a problem, although now minimised by netting. A small stream, the "Run", runs through the valley. The city is commonly divided into lower and upper parts, depending on the distance up James Valley. Being the island's main port (and with the Saint Helena Airport only receiving its first scheduled flight in October 2017) the city is still currently the main entrance to the island to visitors. Despite not being connected to Jamestown proper by road, Rupert's Valley, the next valley north, is also part of the city. It houses much of the island's infrastructure, such as its power station and associated fuel storage, and a one-ship wharf was completed in June 2016.


title: Jamestown, Saint Helena

text: The city has over 100 listed buildings, mostly from the Georgian era. Main Street has been described as "one of the best examples of unspoilt Georgian architecture anywhere in the world." Many buildings are built out of local volcanic rock. St James' Church dates from 1772 and is the oldest Anglican church in the Southern Hemisphere. Another of the city's prominent features is Jacob's Ladder, a staircase of 699 steps, built in 1829 to connect Jamestown to the former fort on Ladder Hill. The ladder is very popular with tourists, is lit at night and a timed run takes place there every year, with people coming from all over the world to take part. The Museum of Saint Helena is situated in Jamestown, one of two museums on the island (the other being Longwood House).


title: Jamestown, Saint Helena

text: Jamestown is formally a city, a status granted by Queen Victoria in 1859, and its full name is the "City of James Town". It is also one of the 8 districts (administrative divisions) and is the capital of both the island of Saint Helena and the British overseas territory of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha. The Castle, one of the oldest buildings in the city, is one of the main government buildings.


title: Jamestown, Saint Helena

text: Jamestown features a tropical hot desert climate (Köppen climate classification: "BWh") with essentially consistent temperatures throughout the year. Despite the fact that the city has a desert climate, its temperatures are moderated by the adjacent ocean and cold currents therein, leading to a cool climate for the deep tropical latitude. As a result, it seldom gets very hot in Jamestown. The temperature in the Jamestown area is some 5 degrees warmer than the rest of the island, because of the difference in altitude. While Jamestown receives less than of rainfall per year, the higher parts of the island are also wetter than the city, which lies on the drier coast and in a sheltered location. The highlands above Jamestown receive up to per year of precipitation and are lush with vegetation. The surrounding waters can be quite rough at times, and there is a sea wall to protect the settlement.


title: Jamestown, Saint Helena

text: As of 2016, the district Jamestown had 629 residents, a significant decline since the 2008 population of 714. The city's population has been shrinking and it is no longer the largest settlement on the island, having been surpassed by Half Tree Hollow, Saint Paul's and Longwood.


title: Jamestown, Saint Helena

text: As a British territory, the island follows the British education system. There is one primary school, serving children ages four to eleven, in Jamestown, Pilling Primary School, which was created by the amalgamation of Jamestown First School and Pilling Middle School in September 2007. The island's only secondary school is Prince Andrew School in Saint Paul's.


title: Jamestown, Saint Helena

text: The Anglican Parish of St. James is one of the three parishes of the Diocese of St Helena on the island. St James' Church is the primary church in the parish and is the oldest Anglican Church in the southern hemisphere; the present building was put up in 1772. There are 3 daughter churches: St John's, in Upper Jamestown, St Mary's, the Briars, and St Michael's, in Rupert's Valley. The sole Catholic Church in St Helena, Sacred Heart Church, is located in Jamestown; as is a Baptist church.


title: Sadma

text: Sadma () is a 1983 Indian Hindi-language romantic drama film, written and directed by Balu Mahendra. It stars Kamal Haasan, Sridevi in the lead roles, with the music composed by Ilaiyaraaja. The film tells the story of Nehalata Malhotra, a young woman who regresses to childhood as result of retrograde amnesia after suffering a head injury in a car crash. She was lost, and ended up trapped in a brothel before being rescued by Somu, a lonely school teacher who falls in love with her. The film was initially released on 8 July 1983.


title: Sadma

text: The film was a remake of Mahendra's own 1982 Tamil film "Moondram Pirai", which also starred Kamal and Sridevi.


title: Sadma

text: Sadma was widely acclaimed by critics for its direction, screenplay, music and performances. Sridevi's performance as an amnesiac woman was widely praised. Although a commercial failure upon release, "Sadma" over the years has gained a cultural following and cult status.


title: Sadma

text: Nehalata, a young woman, has a car accident while returning from a party and is hospitalized with severe head injuries. When she recovers, she is diagnosed with retrograde amnesia. Having mentally regressed to the state of her 6-year-old self, she fails to recognize her elderly parents. While she is undergoing treatment, she is kidnapped and sold to the madam of a brothel.


title: Sadma

text: Somprakash, also known as Somu, visits the brothel with his old friend to relax. The madam sends Nehalata, renamed Reshmi, to his room. Somu realises that she is mentally a child and pities her upon learning how she came to the brothel. He questions her about her family and background, but due to her condition she is unable to reveal enough information for him to locate her parents.


title: Sadma

text: Somu rescues Reshmi from the brothel, under the pretense of a pleasure trip. He takes her to his home in Ooty, where he works as a school teacher. His elderly neighbour, whom he refers to as Grandmother, helps him care for Reshmi. Although Somu is aware of Reshmi's physical beauty, their relationship is strictly that of a child and protective caregiver and she becomes trusting of him. Their bond is briefly threatened when Reshmi accidentally spills ink over Somu's documents, angering him, but they reconcile. Later, a local woodcutter named Balua lusts for Reshmi and nearly assaults her, but she manages to save herself. When Somu learns of it, he becomes livid with rage and almost kills Balua. In a side plot Soni, the lonely younger wife of Somu's middle-aged headmaster, repeatedly attempts and fails to seduce Somu, who does not reciprocate her feelings.


title: Sadma

text: Reshmi's father, who was searching for her through the police, releases a newspaper advertisement about her. He is given a lead by a co-passenger of the train that Somu and Reshmi had taken to Ooty. Meanwhile, Somu takes Reshmi to a medicine man and leaves her with him for a day's treatment. The police arrive at Somu's house searching for Reshmi, eventually tracing her to the medicine man's home. Somu, fearing police action, does not follow them there. The treatment is successful, with Reshmi (now Nehalata again) regaining her memory, recognizing her parents and completely forgetting the period between her accident and recovery. She and her parents rejoice and prepare to leave Ooty. The medicine man informs her father that the man who had brought her to him had been taking good care of his daughter; her father withdraws his police complaint and the family begin their journey home.


title: Sadma

text: After the police leave, Somu chases the car in which Nehalata is traveling, falling and severely injuring himself in the process. Covered in mud, he limps after them to the railway station and tries to get Reshmi's attention at her train seat window, but she does not remember him. Somu repeatedly calls out to her and mimics a dancing monkey that she had developed a liking for but Nehalata, unable to comprehend, thinks he is insane and begging for food. He continues his futile attempts, but the train eventually leaves with Nehalata not recognising him. Somu is left alone at the station, heartbroken.


title: Sadma

text: The music was composed by Ilaiyaraaja, in his Bollywood debut, and the lyrics were penned by Gulzar.Ilaiyaraaja retained two of his compositions from the original Tamil version. The song "Vaanengum Thanga Vinmeengal" was tuned differently for the Hindi version as "Yeh Hawa Yeh Fiza". The song "Narikkathai" was replaced with the song "Ek Dafa Ek Jungle Tha" in the Hindi version. The cult song "Poongatru Puthithanathu" was replaced with slightly different "Ae Zindagi Gale Laga Le" which itself went on to become a cult song in Hindi after which it was used in 1984 Tamil movie "Thambikku Entha Ooru" sung by SPB. Ae Zindagi Gale Laga Le was first remade for the movie "Prague" (2013) by Atif Afzal. It was again remade for the movie "Dear Zindagi" (2016) by Amit Trivedi. Music director A. R. Rahman worked as a keyboard player for this film.


title: Sadma

text: "Sadma" received widespread critical acclaim with major appreciation drawn towards Sridevi's performance.


title: Sadma

text: It is included in iDiva's list of '10 Must Watch Movies That Weren't Blockbusters'. Sridevi's performance as a child-woman suffering from amnesia was called by Indian Express ""a milestone in her illustrious career"". Sridevi also featured in the Mid-Day list of 'Challenging Roles played by Bollywood Actors' describing her act in the film as ""her best performance ever"". In 2012, when Barfi! was being promoted, Anurag Basu said "People might feel so because the last film that featured the actress in a mentally challenged role was of Sadma. But the comparisons are only on the basis of the promo...once you see the film upon its release everything would be clear.". That same year, Adil Hussain, Sridevi's co-star in "English Vinglish" revealed that he became a fan of the actress after watching her in "Sadma". The Sridevi-Kamal Haasan pair also appeared on the CNN-IBN list of 'Greatest Romantic Couples on Celluloid'. The climax of "Sadma" is included in the CNN-IBN list of 'Bollywood's 50 Most Memorable Scenes of All Time'.


title: Bebe Daniels

text: Phyllis Virginia "Bebe" Daniels (January 14, 1901 – March 16, 1971) was an American actress, singer, dancer, writer, and producer.