title: LORAN

text: LORAN, short for long range navigation, was a hyperbolic radio navigation system developed in the United States during World War II. It was similar to the UK's Gee system but operated at lower frequencies in order to provide an improved range up to with an accuracy of tens of miles. It was first used for ship convoys crossing the Atlantic Ocean, and then by long-range patrol aircraft, but found its main use on the ships and aircraft operating in the Pacific theater during World War II.


title: LORAN

text: LORAN, in its original form, was an expensive system to implement, requiring a cathode ray tube (CRT) display. This limited use to the military and large commercial users. Automated receivers became available in the 1950s, but the same improved electronics also opened the possibility of new systems with higher accuracy. The U.S. Navy began development of Loran-B, which offered accuracy on the order of a few tens of feet, but ran into significant technical problems. The U.S. Air Force worked on a different concept, Cyclan, which the Navy took over as Loran-C, which offered longer range than LORAN and accuracy of hundreds of feet. The U.S. Coast Guard took over operations of both systems in 1958.


title: LORAN

text: In spite of the dramatically improved performance of Loran-C, LORAN, now known as Loran-A (or "Standard LORAN"), would become much more popular during this period. This was due largely to the large numbers of surplus Loran-A units released from the Navy as ships and aircraft replaced their sets with Loran-C. The widespread introduction of inexpensive microelectronics during the 1960s caused Loran-C receivers to drop in price dramatically, and Loran-A use began to rapidly decline. Loran-A was dismantled starting in the 1970s; it remained active in North America until 1980 and the rest of the world until 1985. A Japanese chain remained on the air until 9 May 1997, and a Chinese chain was still listed as active .


title: LORAN

text: Loran-A used two frequency bands, at 1.85 and 1.95 MHz. These same frequencies were used by radio amateurs, in the amateur radio 160-meter band, and amateur operators were under strict rules to operate at reduced power levels to avoid interference; depending on their location and distance to the shore, U.S. operators were limited to maximums of 200 to 500 watts during the day and 50 to 200 watts at night.


title: LORAN

text: At a 1 October 1940 meeting of the U.S. Army Signal Corps' Technical Committee, Alfred Loomis, chair of the Microwave Committee, proposed building a hyperbolic navigation system. He predicted that such a system could provide an accuracy of at least at a range of , and a maximum range of for high-flying aircraft. This led to the "Precision Navigational Equipment for Guiding Airplanes" specification, which was sent back to the Microwave Committee and formed up as "Project 3". Orders for initial systems were sent out at a follow-up meeting on 20 December 1940. Edward George Bowen, developer of the first airborne radar systems, was also at the 20 December meeting. He stated that he was aware of similar work in the UK, but didn't know enough about it to offer any suggestions.


title: LORAN

text: Project 3 moved to the newly formed Radiation Laboratory's Navigation Group in 1941. Early systems operated around 30 MHz, but it was later decided to try experiments with different equipment that could be tuned from 3 to 8 MHz. These lower frequency systems were found to be much more stable electronically. After first considering setting up transmitters on mountain peaks, the team instead settled on two abandoned Coast Guard stations at Montauk Point, New York, and Fenwick Island, Delaware. On the receiving end, a station wagon was fitted with a simple receiver and sent around the country looking for solid signals, which were found as far away as Springfield, Missouri.


title: LORAN

text: For a production system, the team began working with a system using a circular J-scope display for improved accuracy. The more common A-scope represents distances across the diameter of the tube, while the J-scope presents this as the angle around the cathode ray tube's face. This increases the amount of room on the scale by a factor of π for any given display size, improving accuracy. In spite of using the J-scope, and adopting the lower frequency change for more stability, the team found accurate measurements of range quite difficult. At the time, the procedure for generating sharp pulses of signals was in its infancy, and their signals were considerably spread out in time, making measurements difficult.


title: LORAN

text: By this time the team had become aware of the UK's Gee efforts, and were aware that Gee used a system of electronically generated "strobes" that produced pips on the display that were accurately aligned with system timing. They sent a team to the UK to learn about the strobe concept, and immediately adopted it for their work. As part of this exchange, the Project 3 team also found that Gee was almost identical to their own system in concept and desired performance. Unlike their system, Gee had largely completed development and was proceeding to production. The decision was made to abandon the current efforts, use Gee on their own aircraft, and re-develop their system for the long-range role instead.


title: LORAN

text: The decision to switch to the long-range role meant that the high accuracy of the Gee system was not needed, which greatly reduced the need to address the timing problems. This change in purpose also demanded the use of even lower frequencies, which could reflect off the ionosphere at night and thus provide over-the-horizon operation. Two frequency bands were initially selected, 1.85 and 1.95 MHz for nighttime use (160 meters), and 7.5 MHz (40 meters). The 7.5 MHz, labeled "HF" on early receivers, was never used operationally.


title: LORAN

text: In mid-1942, Robert Dippy, the lead developer of the Gee system at the Telecommunications Research Establishment (TRE) in the UK, was sent to the US for eight months to help with LORAN development. At the time the project was being driven primarily by Captain Harding of the U.S. Navy, and they were concentrating entirely on a shipboard system. Dippy convinced them that an airborne version was definitely possible, leading to some interest by the U.S. Army Air Force. The Navy was unhappy about this turn of events. Dippy also instituted a number of simple changes that would prove extremely useful in practice. Among these, he outright demanded that the airborne LORAN receivers be built physically similar to the Gee receivers, so that they could be swapped out in service simply by replacing the receiver unit. This would prove extremely useful; RAF Transport Command aircraft could swap their receivers when moving to or from the Australian theatre. Dippy also designed the ground station timing equipment.


title: LORAN

text: It was around this time that the project was joined by both the U.S. Coast Guard and the Royal Canadian Navy. The project was still top secret at this time, and little actual information was shared, especially with the Coast Guard. The Canadian liaison was required, as ideal siting for the stations would require several stations in various locations in the Canadian Maritime Provinces. One site in Nova Scotia proved to be a battle; the site was owned by a fisherman whose domineering teetotaler wife was dead set against having anything to do with the sinful Navy men. When the site selection committee of J.A. Waldschmitt and Lt. Cdmr. Argyle were discussing the matter with the husband, a third visitor arrived and he offered the men cigarettes. They refused, and the hostess then asked if they drank. When they said they did not, the land was quickly secured.


title: LORAN

text: LORAN was soon ready for deployment, and the first chain went live in June 1942 at Montauk and Fenwick. This was joined shortly thereafter by two stations in Newfoundland, at Bonavista and Battle Harbour, and then by two stations in Nova Scotia, at Baccaro and Deming Island. Additional stations all along the U.S. and Canadian east coast were installed through October, and the system was declared operational in early 1943. By the end of that year additional stations had been installed in Greenland, Iceland, the Faroe Islands and the Hebrides, offering continuous coverage across the North Atlantic. RAF Coastal Command had another station installed in Shetland, offering coverage over Norway, a major staging ground for German U-boats and capital ships.


title: LORAN

text: The enormous distances and lack of useful navigation points in the Pacific Ocean led to widespread use of LORAN for both ships and aircraft during the Pacific War. In particular, the accuracy offered by LORAN allowed aircraft to reduce the amount of extra fuel they would otherwise have to carry to ensure they could find their base after a long mission. This reduced fuel load allowed the bombload to be increased. By the end of World War II there were 72 LORAN stations, with over 75,000 receivers in use.


title: LORAN

text: Additional chains in the Pacific were added in the post-war era. A spurt in construction followed the opening of the Korean War, including new chains in Japan and one at Busan, Korea. Chains were also installed in China, prior to the ultimate end of the Chinese Communist Revolution, and these stations remained on the air at least into the 1990s. A final major expansion took place in Portugal and the Azores in 1965, offering additional coverage to the mid-Atlantic.


title: LORAN

text: During early experiments with LORAN's skywaves, Jack Pierce noticed that at night the reflective layer in the ionosphere was quite stable. This led to the possibility that two LORAN stations could be synchronized using skywave signals, at least at night, allowing them to be separated over much greater distances. Accuracy of a hyperbolic system is a function of the baseline distance, so if the stations could be spread out, the system would become more accurate, so fewer stations would be needed for any desired navigational task.


title: LORAN

text: A test system was first attempted on 10 April 1943 between the LORAN stations at Fenwick and Bonavista, away. This test demonstrated accuracy of ½ mile, significantly better than normal LORAN. This led to a second round of tests in late 1943, this time using four stations, Montauk, East Brewster, Massachusetts, Gooseberry Falls, Minnesota, and Key West, Florida. Extensive evaluation flights revealed an average error of .


title: LORAN

text: The nighttime mode of operation was a perfect fit for RAF Bomber Command. The four test stations were dismantled and shipped across the Atlantic, and re-installed to form two chains, Aberdeen-Bizerta, and Oran-Benghazi. Known as Skywave-Synchronized LORAN, or SS LORAN, the system provided coverage anywhere south of Scotland and as far east as Poland with an average accuracy of one mile. The system was used operationally in October 1944, and by 1945 it was universally installed in No. 5 Group RAF.


title: LORAN

text: The same basic concept was also tested post-war by the Coast Guard in a system known as "Skywave Long Baseline LORAN". The only difference was the selection of different frequencies, 10.585 MHz in the day, and at 2 MHz at night. Initial tests were carried out in May 1944 between Chatham, Massachusetts, and Fernandina, Florida, and a second set between Hobe Sound, Florida, and Point Chinato, Puerto Rico, in December–January 1945–46. The system was not put into operation, due to a lack of suitable frequency allocations.


title: LORAN

text: LORAN was a simple system that compared the arrival times of pulses to make a measurement. Ideally, perfectly formed rectangular blips would be displayed on the CRT, whose leading edge could be compared with a high degree of accuracy. In practice, the transmitters cannot turn on and off instantly, and due to a variety of factors the resulting blips are spread out in time, forming an "envelope". The sharpness of the envelope is a function of the frequency, meaning the lower-frequency systems like LORAN will always have longer envelopes with less well-defined start and stop points, and thus generally have less accuracy than higher-frequency systems like Gee.


title: LORAN

text: There is an entirely different way to accomplish the same timing measurement, not by comparing the timing of the pulse envelopes, but timing the phase of the signals. This is actually quite easy to perform using simple electronics and can be displayed directly using a simple mechanical pointer. The trick to such a system is to ensure the primary and secondary stations are phase-coherent, a complex proposition during World War II. But by isolating the expensive portions of the system at the few broadcast stations, the Decca Navigation System using this technique went active in 1944, offering accuracy similar to Gee but using low-cost mechanical displays which were also much easier to use.


title: LORAN

text: The downside to the phase comparison system is that it is not possible to know from a continuous wave signal, like Decca's, which part of the signal you are measuring. You could be comparing the first waveform from one station to the first from another, but the second waveform looks identical and the operator may line up those two waves instead. This leads to a problem where the operator can generate an accurate measurement, but the actual fix might be at a wide variety of locations. These locations are separated radially around the station, meaning a fix might be within a given radial direction or a fixed distance to either side. Decca referred to these radial areas as "lanes", and used a mechanical system to keep track of which one the receiver was in.


title: LORAN

text: By combining the two concepts, envelope timing and phase comparison, both of these problems could be eliminated. Since phase comparison is generally more accurate at low frequencies due to details of the electronics, taking accurate fixes would be based on this technique. But instead of broadcasting a continuous signal, as in the case of Decca, the signal would be in the form of pulses. These would be used to make a rough fix using the same technique as Gee or LORAN, positively identifying the lane. The only problem from a development standpoint would be selecting frequencies that allowed reasonably accurate pulse envelopes while still having measurable waveforms within the pulses, as well as developing displays capable of showing both the pulses as a whole, and the waves within them.


title: LORAN

text: These concepts led to experiments with Low Frequency LORAN in 1945, using a much lower frequency of 180 kHz. A system with three transmitters was set up on the US east coast using long antennas supported by balloons. The experiments demonstrated that the inaccuracy inherent to the design while working at such low frequencies was simply too great to be useful; operational factors introduced errors that overwhelmed the capabilities. Nevertheless, the three transmitters were re-installed in northern Canada and Alaska for experiments in polar navigation, and ran for three years until shutting down again in March 1950. These experiments demonstrated accuracy on the order of 0.15 microseconds, or about , a great advance over LORAN. Maximum usable range was over land and on the sea. Using cycle matching, the system demonstrated an accuracy of at . But it was also discovered that the system was very difficult to use and the measurements remained subject to confusion over which cycles to match.


title: LORAN

text: During this same period, the U.S. Army Air Force became interested in a very-high accuracy system for bombing pinpoint targets. Raytheon won a contract to develop a system called "Cytac", which used the same basic techniques as LF LORAN, but included considerable automation to handle the timing internally without operator intervention. This proved to be extremely successful, with test-runs placing the aircraft within 10 yards of the target. As the mission changed from short-range tactical bombing to over-the-pole nuclear delivery, the (newly formed) U.S. Air Force lost interest in the concept. Nevertheless, they continued experimentation with the equipment after adapting it to work on LF LORAN frequencies and renaming it "Cyclan", lowering accuracy compared to the original, but providing reasonable accuracy on the order of a mile at greatly increased distances.


title: LORAN

text: The Navy had also been experimenting with a similar concept during this period, but using a different method to extract the timing. This system, later known as Loran-B, ran into significant problems (as did another Air Force system, Whyn and a similar British system, POPI). In 1953 the Navy took over the Cyclan system and began a wide series of studies ranging as far away as Brazil, demonstrating accuracy to about . The system was declared operational in 1957, and operations of LORAN and Cyclan were handed to the U.S. Coast Guard in 1958. At that time, the original LORAN became Loran-A or standard LORAN, and the new system became Loran-C.


title: LORAN

text: In spite of the greatly increased accuracy and ease-of-use of Loran-C, Loran-A remained in widespread use. This was due largely to two important factors. One was that the electronics needed to read a Loran-C signal were complex, and in the era of tube-based electronics, physically very large, generally fragile, and expensive. Further, as military ships and aircraft moved from Loran-A to Loran-C, the older receivers were made surplus. These older units were snapped up by commercial fishermen and other users, keeping it in widespread service.


title: LORAN

text: Loran-A continued to improve as the receivers were transistorized and then automated using microcontroller-based systems that decoded the location directly. By the early 1970s such units were relatively common, although they remained relatively expensive compared to devices like radio direction finders. The improvement of electronics through this period was so rapid that it was only a few years before Loran-C units of similar size and cost were available. This led to the decision to open Loran-C to civilian use in 1974.


title: LORAN

text: By the late 1970s, the Coast Guard was in the midst of phasing out Loran-A in favor of additional Loran-C chains. The Aleutian and Hawaii chains shut down on 1 July 1979, the remaining Alaska and West Coast chains on 31 December 1979, followed by the Atlantic and Caribbean transmitters on 31 December 1980. Several foreign chains in both the Pacific and Atlantic followed suit, and by 1985 most of the original chains were no longer operational. Japanese systems remained on the air longer, until 1991, serving their fishing fleet. Chinese systems were active into the 1990s before their replacement with more modern systems, and their nine chains were still listed as active in Volume 6 (2000 edition) of the "Admiralty List of Radio Signals".


title: LORAN

text: Hyperbolic navigation systems can be divided into two main classes, those that calculate the time difference between two radio pulses, and those that compare the phase difference between two continuous signals. To illustrate the basic concept, this section will consider the pulse method only.


title: LORAN

text: Consider two radio transmitters located at a distance of from each other, which means the radio signal from one will take 1 millisecond to reach the other. One of these stations is equipped with an electronic clock that periodically sends out a trigger signal. When the signal is sent, this station, the "primary", sends out its transmission. 1 ms later that signal arrives at the second station, the "secondary". This station is equipped with a receiver, and when it sees the signal from the primary arrive, it triggers its own transmitter. This ensures that the primary and secondary send out signals precisely 1 ms apart, without the secondary needing an accurate timer of its own or to synchronize its clock with the primary. In practice, a fixed time is added to account for delays in the receiver electronics.


title: LORAN

text: A receiver listening for these signals and displaying them on an oscilloscope will see a series of "blips" on the display. By measuring the distance between them, the delay between the two signals can be calculated. For instance, a receiver might measure the distance between the two blips to represent a delay of 0.5 ms. This implies that the "difference" in the distance to the two stations is 150 km. There are an infinite number of locations where that delay could be measured – 75 km from one station and 225 from the other, 150 km from one and 300 from the other, and so on.


title: LORAN

text: When plotted on a chart, the collection of possible locations for any given time difference forms a hyperbolic curve. The collection of curves for all possible measured delays forms a set of curved radiating lines, centered on the line between the two stations, known as the "baseline". In order to take a fix, the receiver takes two measurements based on two different primary/secondary pairs. The intersections of the two sets of curves normally result in two possible locations. Using some other form of navigation, dead reckoning for instance, one of these possible positions can be eliminated, thus providing an exact fix.


title: LORAN

text: LORAN stations were built in chains, one primary and two secondaries (minimally, some chains were constituted of as many as five stations) typically separated by about . Each pair broadcast on one of four frequencies, 1.75, 1.85, 1.9 or 1.95 MHz (as well as the unused 7.5 MHz). In any given location it was common to be able to receive more than three stations at a time, so some other means of identifying the pairs was needed. LORAN adopted the use of varying the pulse repetition frequency (PRF) for this task, with each station sending out a string of 40 pulses at either 33.3 or 25 pulses per second.


title: LORAN

text: Stations were identified with a simple code, with a number indicating the frequency band, a letter for the pulse repetition frequency, and a number for the station within the chain. For instance, the three stations on the Hawaiian Islands were arranged as two pairs 2L 0 and 2L 1. This indicated that they were on channel 2 (1.85 MHz), used the "L"ow repetition rate (25 Hz), and that two of the stations were on the base repetition rate, while the other two (primary and the third station) used repetition rate 1. The PRF could be adjusted from 25 to 25 and 7/16th for Low, and 33 1/3 to 34 1/9th for High. This system shared the middle tower, which broadcast on both frequencies.


title: LORAN

text: In the case of Gee, signals were direct from the transmitter to receiver, producing a clean signal that was easy to interpret. If displayed on a single CRT trace, the operator would see a string of sharp "blips", first the primary, then one of the secondaries, the primary again, and then the other secondary. Gee CRTs were built to be able to display two traces, and by tuning several delay circuits, the operator could make the first primary-secondary signal appear on the upper display and the second on the lower. They could then take a measurement of both delays at the same time.


title: LORAN

text: In comparison, LORAN was deliberately designed to allow skywaves to be used, and the resulting received signal was far more complex. The groundwave remained fairly sharp, but could be received only at shorter distances and was primarily used during the day. At night, as many as thirty different skywaves might be received from a single transmitter, often overlapped in time, creating a complex return pattern. Since the pattern depended on the atmospherics between the transmitter and receiver, the received pattern was different for the two stations. One might receive a two-bounce skywave from one station at the same time as a three-bounce wave from another, making interpretation of the display quite difficult.


title: LORAN

text: Although LORAN deliberately used the same display as Gee in order to share equipment, the signals were so much longer and more complex than Gee that direct measurement of the two signals was simply not possible. Even the initial signal from the primary station was spread out in time with the initial groundwave signal being sharp (if received), while the skywave receptions could appear anywhere on the display. Accordingly, the LORAN operator set the delays so the primary signal appeared on one trace and the secondary on the second, allowing the complex patterns to be compared. This meant that only one primary/secondary measurement could be made at once; to produce a "fix", the entire measurement procedure had to be repeated a second time using a different set of stations. Measurement times on the order of three to five minutes were typical, requiring the navigator to take into account the motion of the vehicle during this time.


title: LORAN

text: The original airborne receiver unit was AN/APN-4 unit of 1943. It was physically identical to the UK's two-piece Gee set, and could be easily interchanged with these units. The main unit with the display also housed most of the controls. General operation started by selecting one of nine stations, labeled 0 to 8, and setting the sweep speed to 1, the lowest setting. The operator would then use the intensity and focus controls to fine tune the signal and provide a sharp display.


title: LORAN

text: At the lowest sweep speed, the system also produced a local signal that was fed into the display and produced a sharply defined "pedestal", a rectangular shape displayed along the two traces. The amplified signal from the stations would also appear on the display, highly compressed in time so that it displayed as a series of sharp spikes (blips). As the signal was repeating, these spikes appeared many times across the width of the display. Because the display was set to sweep at the pulse repetition rate of the selected station pair, other stations in the area, at different repetition rates, would move across the display while the selected one would remain stationary.


title: LORAN

text: Using the "left-right" switch, the operator would move the upper pedestal until one of the signal spikes was centred within it, and then moved the pedestal on the lower trace to center a second signal using coarse and fine delay controls. Once this was done, the system was set to sweep speed 2, which sped up the traces so that the section outlined by the pedestals filled the entire trace. This process was repeated at sweep speed 3, at which point only a selected part of the signal was visible on the screen. Turning to sweep speed 4 did not change the timing, but instead superimposed the signals on a single trace so final tuning could take place, using the gain and amplifier balance controls. The goal was to perfectly align the two traces.


title: LORAN

text: At that point, measurement starts. The operator switches to sweep speed 5, which returns to a display with two separated traces, with the signals inverted and running at a lower sweep speed so that multiple repetitions of the signal appear on the traces. Mixed into the signal is an electronic scale produced in a time base generator, causing a series of small pips to appear over the now-inverted original signals. At setting 5, the pips on the scale represent differences of 10 microseconds, and the operator measures the distance between positions. This is repeated for setting 6 at 50 microseconds, and again at setting 7 at 500 microseconds. The difference as measured at each of these settings is then added up to produce the total delay between the two signals. This entire procedure was then repeated for a second primary-secondary set, often the second set of the same chain but not always.


title: LORAN

text: Receiver units improved greatly over time. The AN/APN-4 was quickly supplanted by the AN/APN-9 of 1945, an all-in-one unit combining the receiver and display of greatly reduced weight.


title: LORAN

text: During the day the ionosphere only weakly reflects shortwave signals, and LORAN was usable at using the groundwaves. At night these signals were suppressed and the range dropped to . At night the skywaves became useful for measurements, which extended the effective range to .


title: LORAN

text: At long ranges the hyperbolic lines approximate straight lines radiating from the center of the baseline. When two such signals from a single chain are considered, the resulting pattern of lines becomes increasingly parallel as the baseline distance becomes smaller in comparison to the range. Thus at short distances the lines cross at angles close to 90 degrees, and this angle steadily reduces with range. Because the accuracy of the fix depends on the crossing angle, all hyperbolic navigation systems grow increasingly inaccurate with increasing range.


title: LORAN

text: Moreover, the complex series of received signals considerably confused the reading of the LORAN signal, requiring some interpretation. Accuracy was more a matter of signal quality and operator experience than any fundamental limit of the equipment or signals. The only way to express the accuracy was to measure it in practice; average accuracy on the route from Japan to Tinian, a distance of , was , 2% of range.


title: LORAN

text: AT LORAN, for "Air Transportable", was a lightweight LORAN transmitter set that could be rapidly set up as the front moved. Operations were identical to "normal" LORAN, but it was often assumed charts would not be available and would have to be prepared in the field. Mobile LORAN was another lightweight system, mounted on trucks.


title: Roll Tide

text: Roll Tide (or Roll Tide Roll) is the rallying cry for the Alabama Crimson Tide athletic teams. The trademark to the phrase is claimed by the University of Alabama, with licensing and marketing by The Collegiate Licensing Company.


title: Cody Legebokoff

text: Cody Alan Legebokoff (born 21 January 1990) is a Canadian serial killer convicted in 2014 by the British Columbia Supreme Court of murdering three women and one teenage girl, between 2009 and 2010, in or near the city of Prince George, British Columbia. He is one of Canada's youngest convicted serial killers, and his trial drew national attention. One of his victims, the 15-year-old Loren Dawn Leslie, has been included in the list of missing women and girls suspected as victims in the Highway of Tears murders.


title: Cody Legebokoff

text: Cody Legebokoff is a Canadian citizen who was born on 21 January 1990 and raised in Fort St. James, a district municipality in rural British Columbia. He has been described by friends and family members as a popular young man who competed in ice hockey and showed no propensity for violence. Though Legebokoff had a minor criminal record, he was not "on the radar" of local police.


title: Cody Legebokoff

text: After graduating Fort St. James Secondary School, Legebokoff lived briefly in Lethbridge, Alberta, before moving to Prince George, British Columbia. There, he shared an apartment with three close female friends and worked at a Ford dealership. In his spare time, Legebokoff frequented the Canadian social-networking site Nexopia, using the handle "1CountryBoy."


title: Cody Legebokoff

text: On November 27, 2010, at approximately 9:45 p.m., rookie Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) officer, Constable Aaron Kehler, observed Legebokoff pull his truck onto British Columbia Highway 27 from a remote logging road. According to a case report written by Kehler, Legebokoff's 2004 GMC pick-up truck was speeding erratically and, on a hunch, the officer decided to pull over the vehicle for a routine traffic stop. He believed that it was odd and even suspicious that someone would be on that road, that late, in frigid November. Kehler suspected the driver of poaching in the backwoods and signaled for him to pull over.


title: Cody Legebokoff

text: Kehler was joined by a second RCMP officer. Both officers said that upon searching Legebokoff's pickup truck, they discovered a multi-tool and wrench covered in blood, as well as a monkey backpack and a wallet containing a children's hospital card bearing the name Loren Leslie. When questioned about the blood on him, Legebokoff purportedly said that he was poaching and had clubbed a deer to death because: "I'm a redneck, that's what we do for fun." The truck did not contain a deer carcass.


title: Cody Legebokoff

text: The officers arrested Legebokoff under the Canada Wildlife Act and called for a conservation officer with animal tracking skills. The warden traced the tire tracks of Legebokoff's vehicle up the road and in the freshly fallen snow, found footprints leading to the remains of Loren Dawn Leslie. After Legebokoff's arrest in connection with Leslie's death, he was linked by DNA analysis to the deaths of Jill Stacey Stuchenko, Cynthia Frances Maas, and Natasha Lynn Montgomery.


title: Cody Legebokoff

text: The Crown has said Stuchenko, Montgomery and Maas had worked in the sex trade. Legebokoff was addicted to cocaine and used sex workers to get him the drug.


title: Cody Legebokoff

text: Legebokoff's trial on four counts of first-degree murder was originally scheduled to begin in September 2013, but was delayed a month until October, and then again until June 2014. He pleaded not guilty to all four counts. The judge and twelve jurors heard testimony from 93 Crown witnesses and the defendant.


title: Cody Legebokoff

text: Legebokoff testified during the trial that he was "involved" in three of the deaths but claimed that he did not commit the killings. He alleged that a drug dealer and two accomplices, whom he would only name as "X, Y and Z", were the actual murderers. Prosecutors did not accept this attempt to plead guilty to the lesser charge of second-degree murder.


title: Cody Legebokoff

text: Legebokoff was convicted on four counts of first-degree murder on September 11, 2014. On September 16, Legebokoff was sentenced to life in prison with no parole for 25 years. Additionally, British Columbia Supreme Court Justice Glen Parrett added him to the national sex offender registry, given the sexual assaults committed as part of the murders and Legebokoff's apparent degradation of the victims' bodies. "He lacks any shred of empathy or remorse," Parrett said of the killer. "He should never be allowed to walk among us again."


title: Cody Legebokoff

text: In February 2015, Legebokoff filed an appeal due to decisions against change of venue and defendant's legal representation. In September 2016, all three judges in the BC Court of Appeal case endorsed the original judge's decision.


title: Cody Legebokoff

text: Legebokoff was originally imprisoned at the Kent Institution but was transferred in March 2019 to the Warkworth Institution.


title: Cody Legebokoff

text: The Legebokoff case is covered in the 2015 documentary "Highway of Tears". Floridian writer J.T. Hunter profiled Legebokoff in the book "The Country Boy Killer: The True Story of Cody Legebokoff, Canada's Teenage Serial Killer", published in 2015.


title: Ryan Lee (actor)

text: Ryan Lee is an American actor. He is best known for his role as Warren in the show "Trophy Wife" and as Cary in the 2011 film "Super 8".


title: Ryan Lee (actor)

text: He also co-starred in the film "Goosebumps" as Champ, in the show "My Dead Ex" on go90, as well as appearing in the music video for David Guetta's "Titanium".


title: Ryan Lee (actor)

text: Lee was born in Austin, Texas, to a family of Christian background. He relocated to the United Kingdom and gained British citizenship, when he was 22. He attended the Canyon Vista Middle School.


title: Ryan Lee (actor)

text: In 2011 Lee played Cary in the film "Super 8", and in the same year he starred in the music video for David Guetta's song "Titanium". In the following year he played the student Joseph in Judd Apatow's "This is 40". In 2015, he also co-starred in the film "Goosebumps" as Champ.


title: Karlsruhe Institute of Technology

text: The Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT; ) is a public research university in Karlsruhe, Germany. The institute is a national research center of the Helmholtz Association.


title: Karlsruhe Institute of Technology

text: KIT was created in 2009 when the University of Karlsruhe (), founded in 1825 as a public research university and also known as the "Fridericiana", merged with the Karlsruhe Research Center (), which had originally been established in 1956 as a national nuclear research center (, or KfK).


title: Karlsruhe Institute of Technology

text: KIT is a member of the TU9, an incorporated society of the largest and most notable German institutes of technology. As part of the German Universities Excellence Initiative KIT was one of three universities which were awarded excellence status in 2006. In the following "German Excellence Strategy" KIT was awarded as one of eleven "Excellence Universities" in 2019. KIT is among the leading technical universities in Germany and Europe. According to different bibliometric rankings, KIT is the German university with the strongest research in engineering and natural sciences.


title: Karlsruhe Institute of Technology

text: In the university part of today's KIT, science-based mechanical engineering was founded in the mid-19th century under the direction of Ferdinand Redtenbacher, which influenced the foundation of other technical universities, such as ETH Zurich in 1855. The university is also among the pioneers of computer science research in Germany. It established the first German faculty for computer science in 1972. On 2 August 1984, the University received the first-ever German e-mail. In the 1990s, all .de domains were registered and managed at the University of Karlsruhe. The same was true for Chinese .cn domains.


title: Karlsruhe Institute of Technology

text: KIT alumni and faculty members include six Nobel Prize laureates and nine Leibniz Prize winners. The Karlsruhe Institute of Technology is well known for many inventors and entrepreneurs who studied or taught there, including Heinrich Hertz, Karl Friedrich Benz and the founders of SAP SE.


title: Karlsruhe Institute of Technology

text: The University of Karlsruhe was founded as a polytechnical school () on 7 October 1825. It was modelled on the École polytechnique in Paris. In 1865, Grand Duke Friedrich I of Baden raised the school to the status of a , an institution of higher education. Since 1902 the university has also been known as the "Fridericiana" in his honour. In 1885, it was declared a , or institute of technology, and in 1967, it became an , a full university, which gave it the right to award regular doctorate degrees. It had hitherto been allowed to award doctorates only in engineering, identified as , a right bestowed on all technical institutes in 1899.


title: Karlsruhe Institute of Technology

text: The University of Karlsruhe is one of the leading German institutions in computer science. A central computer laboratory was founded in 1966. The department of informatics was established three years later, along with the first regular course in informatics. On 2 August 1984, the university received Germany's first email. The (Institute of Meteorology and Climate Research) was founded at the university in 1985.


title: Karlsruhe Institute of Technology

text: The university also cooperated extensively with the Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe (Karlsruhe Research Centre), and this relationship was formalised on 6 April 2006 when Professor Horst Hippler and Dr. Dieter Ertmann from the University of Karlsruhe, and Professor Manfred Popp and Assistant Jur. Sigurd Lettow from Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe signed a contract for the foundation of the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT). The name was inspired by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), the leading technical university in the United States. In February 2008, the merger of the university and the research centre to form KIT was agreed by the state of Baden-Württemberg and Germany's federal government. The necessary state law was passed on 8 July 2009. KIT was formally established on 1 October 2009.


title: Karlsruhe Institute of Technology

text: The main reason for establishing KIT was to strengthen Karlsruhe's position in the German Universities Excellence Initiative, which offered elite universities grants of up to 50 million euros per annum. This aim was not achieved. While the University of Karlsruhe was chosen for the initiative in 2006/2007, KIT failed to secure a place in 2012. It did, however, attract funds from other sources. In 2008, Hans-Werner Hector, co-founder of SAP, raised 200 million euros to support researchers at the institute. (Hector is the only founder of SAP who did not graduate from the University of Karlsruhe; he was given an honorary doctorate for his support of intellectually gifted children in 2003.)


title: Karlsruhe Institute of Technology

text: The (Campus North), the former , was founded in 1956 as (Karlsruhe Nuclear Research Centre). Initial activities focused on Forschungsreaktor 2 (FR2), the first nuclear reactor built by Germany. With the decline of nuclear energy activities in Germany, Kernforschungszentrum Karlsruhe directed its work increasingly towards alternative areas of basic and applied sciences. This change is reflected in the change of name from to with the subheading (technology and environment) added in 1995. This subheading was replaced by (in the Helmholtz Association of German Research Centers) in 2002.


title: Karlsruhe Institute of Technology

text: Campus Nord is the site of the main German national nuclear engineering research centre and the Institute for Transuranium Elements. Also at the site is a nanotechnology research centre and the neutrino experiment KATRIN.


title: Karlsruhe Institute of Technology

text: The university offers a great range of education options with such possibilities as cross studies and work-study programs. A "studium generale" (general studies) program was established in 1949, allowing students to attend lectures not directly pertaining their study field.


title: Karlsruhe Institute of Technology

text: In the first semesters of a course, education tends to be theoretically oriented at KIT, with a high concentration on mathematics for engineering and natural science courses. It is possible to choose between practical and theoretical topics in later semesters.


title: Karlsruhe Institute of Technology

text: Since the winter semester of 2008/2009, KIT has completed the transition from "Diplom" degrees to bachelor's degrees and master's degrees. Students already enrolled for a "Diplom" degree when the transition began were allowed to finish their studies, but new students are allowed to apply only for a bachelor's or master's degree.


title: Karlsruhe Institute of Technology

text: Admission policies differ among the departments. While students are chosen by the quality of their school degree and their extracurricular activities for courses such as industrial engineering and management (27% of admissions in 2008), other departments do not preselect for their courses, including physics, informatics, and meteorology. All courses require a minimum number of passed exams, called or orientation assessments, in the first three semesters before students are allowed to complete their course. There is a substantial drop-out rate in some engineering courses due to the immense study required to meet the prerequisites.


title: Karlsruhe Institute of Technology

text: The Zentrum für Angewandte Kulturwissenschaft und Studium Generale (Centre for Applied Culture and General Studies) was founded in 1989 as a central institution to support students engaged in interdisciplinary study. Nowadays, it offers specialised qualifications in the fields of "Leadership and Entrepreneurship", "Media – Culture – Communication", "Internationalisation and Intercultural Decision-making and Responsibility", "Diversity Management", and "European Integration and Identity Studies", as well as the classical "studium generale". There is also the possibility of concomitant study in applied culture science.


title: Karlsruhe Institute of Technology

text: In 1979, the Interfakultatives Institut für Anwendungen der Informatik (Interfaculty Institute for Informatics Applications) was founded. It brings together research in physics, mathematics, and engineering based on computer science. Its mathematical pendant is the Institut für Wissenschaftliches Rechnen und Mathematische Modellbildung (Institute for Scientific Calculations and Mathematical Modelling). Its aim is to enhance the exchange between mathematics and engineering in the fields of scientific calculations.


title: Karlsruhe Institute of Technology

text: The Interfakultatives Institut für Entrepreneurship (Interfaculty Institute for Entrepreneurship) was established with SAP funding. Its teaching professors were entrepreneurs on their own. Before being shut down in 2010, a former professor of this faculty was Götz Werner, founder of dm-drogerie markt.


title: Karlsruhe Institute of Technology

text: In 2001, the Centre for Functional Nanostructures (CFN) was established. It merges the fields within material sciences, biology, chemistry, engineering, and physics which are related to nanotechnology. CFN is one of the three Exzellenzzentren (English: Excellence Institutions) of the University of Karlsruhe. Another interdisciplinary institution is the Centre for Disaster Management and Risk Reduction Technology (CEDIM).


title: Karlsruhe Institute of Technology

text: The Karlsruhe School of Optics and Photonics (KSOP) was established in 2006 as a publicly funded project by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft under the German Universities Excellence Initiative. KSOP was the first graduate school at the University of Karlsruhe and covers the fields of photonic materials and devices, advanced spectroscopy, biomedical photonics, optical systems and solar energy. It is supported by several of the university's institutes and professors. It is also a partner in the EUROPHOTONICS consortium, which provides scholarship for master's and PhD degrees under the European Commission's prestigious Erasmus Mundus cooperation and mobility program.


title: Karlsruhe Institute of Technology

text: KIT operates several TCCON stations as part of an international collaborative effort to measure greenhouse gases globally. One station is near the campus.


title: Karlsruhe Institute of Technology

text: KIT is partner of the science project for urban and autonomous freight logistics, efeuCampus in Bruchsal, which is funded by the state of Baden-Württemberg and the European Union. At the Institute for Conveying Technology and Logistics Systems (IFL), conveyor systems for intralogistics are being developed for the research project, which are used for mobile robotics and human-machine interaction. The project develops localization and navigation algorithms for an urban environment, which enable vehicles to navigate independently on the basis of laser and video data.


title: Karlsruhe Institute of Technology

text: In the "Nature Index" (1 August 2019 – 31 July 2020), which measures the scientific strength of different institutions on the basis of publications in 82 high-quality scientific journals, the KIT ranks first in the field of physical sciences among the universities in Germany, 6th in Europe, and 50th worldwide. Ranks two to five in Germany are followed by TU Munich and LMU Munich, TU Dresden, and University of Erlangen-Nuremberg.


title: Karlsruhe Institute of Technology

text: According to a 2015 survey, KIT has produced the largest number of top managers among German universities, with 24 board members of the 100 largest German companies. The other places are followed by the University of Cologne (17), the RWTH Aachen (17), the University of Mannheim (13) and the LMU Munich (13).


title: Karlsruhe Institute of Technology

text: In the CWTS Leiden Ranking of the year 2018, which is based exclusively on bibliometrics to measure the research output of universities, KIT is ranked 39th worldwide in the engineering and natural sciences according to the "Impact" indicator and 35th worldwide according to the "Collaboration" indicator. In Germany, KIT is ranked first ahead of RWTH Aachen University (ranked 80th in each case) and TU Munich (ranked 89th and 79th in each case). Europe-wide, KIT is ranked 5th and 7th respectively.


title: Karlsruhe Institute of Technology

text: In the 2019 Performance Ranking of Scientific Papers for World Universities released by the National Taiwan University, KIT is ranked 1st in the fields of natural sciences and engineering in Germany.


title: Karlsruhe Institute of Technology

text: In the ranking of the German magazine Wirtschaftswoche, in which decision-makers of companies are asked about their preferences, KIT regularly occupies a position among the top 3 in the subjects electrical engineering, computer science, mechanical engineering, and industrial engineering in Germany. Especially in the field of computer science, the top position is often achieved. In the "QS Graduate Employability Rankings 2017", which follow a similar approach as the Wirtschaftswoche ranking on a global level, KIT is ranked 20th worldwide. Thus, KIT takes first place in Germany and fifth place in Europe. In the same ranking for 2018, KIT was able to defend its top position in Germany and further extend its lead over other German universities.


title: Karlsruhe Institute of Technology

text: In the Webometrics Ranking of World Universities for the year 2020, KIT ranks fourth among 455 listed universities and scientific institutions in Germany.


title: Karlsruhe Institute of Technology

text: KIT is a member of the TU9 German Institutes of Technology e.V. As part of the German Universities Excellence Initiative KIT was awarded an excellence status in 2006 and 2019. In the 2011 performance-ranking of scientific papers, Karlsruhe ranked first in Germany and among the top 10 universities in Europe in engineering and natural sciences.


title: Karlsruhe Institute of Technology

text: In the worldwide ranking "U-Multirank" funded by the European Union, KIT is ranked 57th out of a total of 1610 universities across all categories in 2019. In Germany, KIT reaches the 1st place out of 99 universities examined. The following state universities are LMU Munich, HU Berlin, and TU Munich.


title: Karlsruhe Institute of Technology

text: In the "Research Ranking of the Association for Information Systems" (AIS), KIT is ranked 5th in the Europe / Africa region for the period 2017–2019. KIT is therefore the best university in Germany and the DACH region in terms of research performance in international business informatics. The research performance is quantified by publications in the top journals of the discipline ISR, MISQ, JMIS, and JAIS. Other German universities represented in the top 20 of the list are the University of Mannheim (7th place) and the TU Darmstadt and University of Cologne (both on place 16).


title: Karlsruhe Institute of Technology

text: In the 2015 QS World University Rankings the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology achieved 93rd place in the global ranking across all disciplines and 62nd and 34th place in engineering and natural sciences, respectively. In the 2013 Taiwan ranking, KIT (world rank 61) retained its position as the best German University in the engineering and natural sciences, ranking in the engineering sciences ahead of the RWTH Aachen (world rank 89), the Technical University of Munich (world rank 94) and the Technical University of Dresden (world rank 108). For the natural sciences KIT (world rank 51) led the domestic comparison against the LMU Munich (world rank 62), the University of Heidelberg (world rank 72) and the Technical University of Munich (world rank 81). Ranked 26th place in computer science in the Times Higher Education Ranking 2016, KIT is one of the leading universities in computer science in Europe as well as worldwide.


title: Karlsruhe Institute of Technology

text: In the Shanghai Ranking by subject, which is also highly regarded internationally, KIT 2017 takes first place among German universities in the fields of "Chemistry", "Chemical Engineering", "Instruments Science & Technology", "Water Resources", and "Transportation Science & Technology" and second place in Germany in the fields of "Biotechnology", "Nanoscience & Nanotechnology", "Materials Science & Engineering", "Energy Science & Engineering", "Environmental Science & Engineering", and "Metallurgical Engineering". A place among the top three German universities is also achieved in the subjects "Mechanical Engineering", "Physics", "Telecommunication Engineering" and "Remote Sensing". In all of these subjects, with the exception of "Environmental Science & Engineering" and "Telecommunication Engineering", KIT is among the 100 best universities in the world, some even among the top 50. In addition, KIT has achieved a top 5 position in Germany in the subjects "Computer Science & Engineering" (4th place), "Electrical & Electronic Engineering", and "Food Science & Technology".


title: Karlsruhe Institute of Technology

text: In the 2018 edition of the Shanghai Ranking, KIT was ranked among the best 100 universities in the world in 13 subjects. The three subjects Atmospheric Science (16th place), Metallurgical Engineering (25th place), and Energy Science & Engineering (28th place) even achieved a place among the world's top 30 universities. In 2018, KIT improved, among other things, from 4th to 2nd place in the field of computer science, from 2nd to 1st place in the field of energy science & engineering, and from 5th to 4th place in the field of electrical & electronic engineering throughout Germany. In the 2019 edition of the Shanghai Ranking, KIT achieved and maintained its top position in the field of computer science. In the 2019 edition of the Shanghai Ranking, the KIT was ranked 8th worldwide in atmospheric research, making it one of the leading institutions in this field of research worldwide, ahead of renowned universities such as the Columbia University University (9th place), the Princeton University (17th place) and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (20th place), the universities in University of Oxford (29th place) and University of Cambridge (place 32) or the Stanford University (place 47). In the Shanghai Ranking 2019, KIT was able to achieve further first places in Germany in the subjects energy sciences, computer science, material sciences, nanotechnology, and transport sciences.


title: Karlsruhe Institute of Technology

text: In the "University Ranking by Academic Performance" (URAP) 2017/2018, KIT is ranked first in Germany in the subjects "Chemical Sciences" (world rank: 49), "Technology" (world rank: 54), "Nanoscience & Nanomaterials" (world rank: 58), "Materials Engineering" (world rank: 48), Chemical Engineering (ranked 43), Mechanical Engineering (ranked 58), Civil Engineering (ranked 76), Environmental Engineering (ranked 98), Meteorology & Atmospheric Sciences (ranked 15) and Transportation Science & Technology (ranked 123) Further top rankings are also achieved in "Physical Sciences" (rank Germany: 3; world rank: 55); "Mathematical Sciences" (rank Germany: 2; world rank: 66); "Engineering" (rank Germany: 3 (after rank 1 last year); world rank 107); "Electrical & Electronics Engineering" (rank Germany: 2; world rank: 70), "Information & Computing Sciences" (rank Germany: 2; world rank: 63), "Earth Sciences" (rank Germany: 2; world rank: 54), "Geology" (rank Germany: 5; world rank: 111), "Metallurgy Engineering" (rank Germany: 2; world rank: 34) and "Architecture" (rank Germany: 2; world rank: 71).


title: Karlsruhe Institute of Technology

text: According to the Ranking of Scientific Impact of Leading European Research Universities, an official document compiled by the European Commission, in 2004 Karlsruhe ranks second nationally and sixth in Europe in terms of scholarly impact.


title: Karlsruhe Institute of Technology

text: With the exception of the department of biology, in 2003 the university received more funding from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft than any other university specializing in the natural sciences in Germany. In the engineering sciences (computer science, electrical and mechanical engineering), the university is in the top three together with the University of Stuttgart and RWTH Aachen.


title: Karlsruhe Institute of Technology

text: In 2005, more than 20% of its students come from other nations and 0.6% of its students receive grants from the German Studienstiftung (German National Academic Foundation).


title: Karlsruhe Institute of Technology

text: The Steinbuch Centre for Computing (SCC), named after Karl Steinbuch, was formed in 2008 when the main computer facilities of the University of Karlsruhe merged with those at Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe. It is responsible for the university's IP connectivity and provides central services (Mail, Web, campus management) for students and employees. It supplies students with 10 fully equipped computer rooms, one professional print office and a wireless network providing access to the whole campus area. Some departments, like computer science, physics, and mathematics, run their own computer facilities as well.


title: Karlsruhe Institute of Technology

text: On 2 August 1984, Michael Rotert, a research fellow at University of Karlsruhe, received the first email ever sent to Germany, at his address "rotert%germany@csnet-relay.csnet".


title: Karlsruhe Institute of Technology

text: The KIT Library with its two branches on Campus South and Campus North provides literature for research and study for about 25,000 students and 8000 scientists with a widespread, interdisciplinary book stock of over 2 million volumes, reports and 28,000 periodicals in print and electronic form. The emphasis of the collection lies in natural and engineering sciences.


title: Karlsruhe Institute of Technology

text: The 24-hour library at Campus South was extended in 2006. It offers many workplaces and an area for relaxing, and is now open around the clock. The combination of a special book security system and an automated issue desk makes it possible to use the 1000 workplaces anytime, day or night. Current and contemporary literature is freely accessible in four specialised reading rooms, each providing cross-linked, modern and well-equipped study and work stations as well as printers, scanners and copy machines.


title: Karlsruhe Institute of Technology

text: The research library at Campus North provides a large specialised book stock (especially reports and primary reports) on energy and nuclear energy. All literature is freely accessible to the user. Thirty modern workplaces, as well as printers, scanners, copy machines and cubicles for individual work are available.


title: Karlsruhe Institute of Technology

text: Additional literature is located in two specialised reading rooms for chemistry and physics, as well as in the Library of the University of Applied Sciences at the Campus at Moltkestrasse, which is administrated by the KIT Library. The faculty of physics, the faculty of mathematics, the faculty of computer science, the faculty of architecture and the faculty of economics and management have their own libraries to supply students and researchers with topic-related literature.


title: Chasing It

text: "Chasing It" is the 81st episode of the HBO television series "The Sopranos", the fourth episode of the second half of the show's sixth season, and the 16th episode of the season overall. Written by executive producer Matthew Weiner and directed by Tim Van Patten, it originally aired on April 29, 2007, and was watched by 6.76 million viewers upon its premiere.


title: Chasing It

text: Tony's losing streak in sports betting continues. When Hesh asks him about repayment of the $200,000 bridge loan, Tony pretends to have forgotten it and offers to pay the vig. Hesh was not charging interest and is insulted that Tony treats the loan as a mere business transaction. Tony calls Hesh a “shylock” in front of his crew. Later, Hesh says to his son-in-law, "At what point is it cheaper for him to settle it another way?"


title: Chasing It

text: Carmela sells the spec house with its sub-standard materials to her cousin Brian Cammarata and his pregnant wife. She tells Tony that she has cleared $600,000 and he assumes that half the profit is his. Tony wants to bet it on a "sure thing" but Carmela refuses and he yields to her. The "sure thing" wins but he only had $10,000 to bet on it. This leads to a furious argument with Carmela about money; he manhandles her and she throws her Lladró figurine at him, breaking it. Later, he apologizes and they reconcile. She is worried about the many threats hanging over them. He says he survived being shot; "Big picture-wise, I'm up, way up."


title: Chasing It

text: Vito's widow, Marie, asks Tony to help her son, Vito Jr., who has been wearing Goth makeup and misbehaving since his father's murder. Marie requests $100,000 to move her family to Maine to start over. Tony is reluctant. Both he and Phil (Marie's second cousin) talk to the boy, without effect. When Vito Jr. is expelled for defecating in the school shower, Tony decides to pay for the relocation. However, he gambles away the $100,000 he had reserved for it. Instead, he offers Marie to send Vito Jr. to a boot camp program in Idaho. He plays down her worries about corporal punishment and says he will pay the $18,000 fee. Marie reluctantly accepts and Vito Jr. is taken away against his will by the boot camp's staff, leaving his mother and sister in tears.


title: Chasing It

text: Driving by, Tony happens to notice Ahmed and Muhammad mingling with traditionally dressed Middle-Easterners on a street.


title: Chasing It

text: Renata, Hesh's girlfriend, dies suddenly. He is grief-stricken. Tony visits him and speaks clichéd words of condolence. He puts down a large paper bag: "I brought your money."


title: Alu Alkhanov

text: Alu Dadashevich Alkhanov (; born 20 January 1957) is a Russian politician and the former president of Russia's Chechen Republic. He is a career police officer who fought within the ranks of the Russian Armed Forces during the First Chechen War. He was elected as president on 30 August 2004. On 15 February 2007, Russian President Vladimir Putin dismissed Alkhanov as the Chechen President and appointed him a Deputy Justice Minister of Russia.


title: Alu Alkhanov

text: Born in Taldykorgan Province, Kazakhstan, Alkhanov joined the Soviet Armed Forces on leaving school. He joined the Soviet Militsiya service in 1983, graduating from the transport police school in Mogilev (now in Belarus). He went on to the High Police School in Rostov-on-Don before becoming Deputy Head of the North Caucasus Transport Department of the former Chechen-Ingushetia government in Grozny in 1992. He was later promoted to head the department, a post which he held until 1997.


title: Alu Alkhanov

text: When the First Chechen War broke out in 1994, Alkhanov supported the Russian side against the separatists. He was decorated with the Order of Courage for his actions during the separatists' assault on Grozny in 1996. In April 2003, he was appointed Interior Minister of Chechnya in the government of Akhmad Kadyrov and was made a Major General of the Chechen police. When Kadyrov was assassinated on 9 May 2004, Akhnanov became the favoured candidate of the Russian government.


title: Alu Alkhanov

text: On 1 June 2006, Alkhanov said he would prefer his republic be governed by Sharia law and suggested adapting the Islamic code.


title: Alu Alkhanov

text: He is widely seen to be in conflict with Ramzan Kadyrov, a former rebel fighter and Chechen Republic's Prime Minister with presidential ambitions. Kadyrov eventually replaced Alkhanov as President in February 2007, following by placing his own people in all the leading positions.


title: Alu Alkhanov

text: Alu Alkhanov's election in August 2004 was controversial from the outset. The election of his predecessor had been marred by allegations of ballot stuffing, voter intimidation by Russian soldiers and the exclusion of possible separatist candidates. As a career bureaucrat, Alkhanov had no obvious popular base and was seen by many observers as the placeman of the government of Russian President Vladimir Putin. Critics of Russian policy in Chechnya claimed that the government would not permit Alkhanov to be defeated, and that the outcome of the vote had been predetermined well in advance.


title: Alu Alkhanov

text: Alkhanov faced seven challengers. The most serious of these, Malik Saidullayev, a Moscow-based Chechen businessman, was barred from standing on the technicality of failing to fill his application correctly. The other six challengers had little recognition within Chechnya and several had ties with the government. They were:


title: Alu Alkhanov

text: Alkhanov's platform was effectively a continuation of his predecessor's policies, with Chechnya continuing to remain part of Russia; economic autonomy; attracting aid and investment; cutting unemployment and the Russian military presence; and opening peace talks with separatist leader Aslan Maskhadov.


title: Alu Alkhanov

text: In the event, Alkhanov won by a landslide majority with 73.67% of the votes on an 85.25% turnout. Khamidov was second, with 8.95 percent, and Abdula Bugayev came third, with 4.5%. Visayev was fourth, Abuyev fifth, Asakov sixth and Aidamarov seventh, gaining between 0.6% to 4.3% of the vote. 1% of voters voted "against all candidates".


title: Alu Alkhanov

text: The results of the election were regarded with scepticism by some outside observers and the Chechen opposition. The U.S. Department of State, and International Helsinki Federation for Human Rights questioned the fairness of the elections and highlighting the disqualification of Saidullayev. The elections was internationally monitored by the monitors from CIS and LAS; western monitors didn't participate in the monitoring of the elections despite being invited. Polling conditions have been questioned; Khamidov has said that his campaign staff had recorded numerous irregularities and will contest the vote results in court.


title: Langar (Sikhism)

text: In Sikhism, a langar (, 'kitchen') is the community kitchen of a gurdwara, which serves meals to all free of charge, regardless of religion, caste, gender, economic status, or ethnicity. People sit on the floor and eat together, and the kitchen is maintained and serviced by Sikh community volunteers. The meals served at a langar are always lacto-vegetarian.


title: Langar (Sikhism)

text: Concept of charity and providing cooked meals or uncooked raw material to ascetics and wandering yogis has been known in eastern cultures for over 2000 years. However, in spite of institutional support from several kings and emperors of the Delhi sultanate (up to the Mughal empire), it could not be institutionalized into a sustainable community kitchen, but continued as volunteer-run free food opportunities. Such distribution of free food was often limited to specific Hindu festivals or events at dargahs of Sufi saints. Exclusion of people based on castes and religion, further limited their outreach, which makes it questionable if they can be truly called 'community kitchens'. However, the community kitchen started by the Sikh Gurus, was universal and accepting of people from all faiths and backgrounds, a tradition which has continued to this day. The type of food served and the method of cooking employed, further helped make Sikh langar universally accepted by all faiths and castes.


title: Langar (Sikhism)

text: Several writers such as Gurinder Singh Mann and Arvind-Pal Singh Mandair have alluded to this fact of cooked food (or raw material) being provided to travelers, ascetics and wandering yogis, free food distribution practices being in vogue in fifteenth century among various religious groups like Hindu Nath Yogis and Muslim Sufi saints. However, no evidence exists of formal institutionalized community kitchens, providing cooked free meals, continuously, over a period of time by any particular community.


title: Langar (Sikhism)

text: The roots of such volunteer-run charitable feeding is very old in Indian tradition; for example: Hindu temples of the Gupta Empire era had attached kitchen and almshouse called "dharma-shala" or "dharma-sattra" to feed the travelers and poor, or whatever donation they may leave. These community kitchens and rest houses are evidenced in epigraphical evidence, and in some cases referred to as "satram" (for example, "Annasya Satram"), "choultry", or "chathram" in parts of India. In fact, Sikh historian Kapur Singh refers to Langar as an Aryan institution. Such kitchens were limited to sangrand or masya or other specific festivals. Often, these kitchens precluded lower castes and hence it's questionable if they can be called 'community kitchens'. Due to the cooking practices of various religions and yogi orders, many would stay away from such 'free-meals'. For example, Hindus would not attend Muslim langars and vice versa. However, the community kitchen started by the Sikh Gurus, was universal and accepting of people from all faiths and backgrounds, a tradition which has continued to this day.


title: Langar (Sikhism)

text: The Chinese Buddhist pilgrim I Ching (7th century CE) wrote about monasteries with such volunteer-run kitchens. The institution of the Langar emerged from Fariduddin Ganjshakar, a Sufi Muslim saint living in the Punjab region during the 13th century. This concept further spread and is documented in "Jawahir al-Faridi" compiled in 1623 CE.


title: Langar (Sikhism)

text: The concept of langar—which was designed to be upheld among all people, regardless of religion, caste, colour, creed, age, gender, or social status—was an innovative charity and symbol of equality introduced into Sikhism by its founder, Guru Nanak around 1500 CE in North Indian state of Punjab.


title: Langar (Sikhism)

text: The second Guru of Sikhism, Guru Angad, is remembered in Sikh tradition for systematizing the institution of langar in all Sikh temple premises, where visitors from near and far could get a free simple meal in a simple and equal seating. He also set rules and training method for volunteers ("sevadars") who operated the kitchen, placing emphasis on treating it as a place of rest and refuge, and being always polite and hospitable to all visitors.


title: Langar (Sikhism)

text: It was the third Guru, Guru Amar Das, who established langar as a prominent institution, and required people to dine together irrespective of their caste and class. He encouraged the practice of langar, and made all those who visited him attend langar before they could speak to him.


title: Langar (Sikhism)

text: Langars are held in gurdwaras all over the world, most of which attract members of the homeless population. The volunteers feed people without any discrimination, alongside the Sikh devotees who gather. Almost all gurdwaras operate langars where local communities, sometimes consisting of hundreds or thousands of visitors, join for a simple vegetarian meal.


title: Telephone numbers in Singapore

text: Telephone numbers in Singapore, also known as the National Numbering Plan, are regulated by the Info-communications Media Development Authority (IMDA). Due to the small geographical size of Singapore, there are no area or trunk codes; all numbers belong to one numbering area, and thus come in the same 8-digit format. Numbers are categorised based on the first digit, thus providing ten possible categories, of which six are currently in use and the remaining four reserved for future usage.


title: Telephone numbers in Singapore

text: Until 1985, subscribers' telephone numbers in Singapore were five and six digits. Five digits were introduced in 1960s, whereas 5-digit and 6-digit phone numbers were introduced in 1960s as fixed lines grew, but in that year, these changed to seven digits as the introduction of new towns arose (Tampines, Jurong East, Bukit Batok, Yishun and Hougang) and a large number of new numbers were required. Rationalisation was based on geographical locale over the 12 years.


title: Telephone numbers in Singapore

text: On 1 September 1995, the digit '9' was added to the front of mobile and pager numbers, making numbers eight digits, and on 1 March 2002, the digit '6' was added to the front of existing fixed line telephone numbers. The migration to the 8-digit numbering plan was planned to be on 2002, ahead of 2004 deadline. Full telecommunication liberalisation in April 2000 led to rapid growth in the market, resulting in increased demand in numbers. The implementation of 8-digit numbering plan, ensured that there would be a sufficient number resource pool to cater to the expanded telecommunication services. Preparation work started in 1999, as an effective approach had to be worked out for the implementation, with minimum service disruption and inconvenience to customers. The public telecommunication service providers - SingTel and StarHub, implemented the 8-digit numbering plan and ensure smooth service continuity for their customers after the migration. There was a parallel run of 7-digit and 8-digit numbers from 1 March 2002 to 31 March 2002. From 1 April 2002 to 30 June 2002, those calling the 7-digit numbers would hear the number change announced, prompting them to add the digit "6" to the old number, after which the call would be disconnected. After 30 June, callers would hear the announcement that the number was unavailable.


title: Telephone numbers in Singapore

text: In March 2004, in response to the growing mobile phone numbering in Singapore, 8-digit mobile phone numbers starting with the digit "8" were introduced.


title: Telephone numbers in Singapore

text: In 2005, Infocomm Development Authority, the regulating authority at that time, introduced a policy framework which would govern IP telephony services, while introducing 8-digit phone numbers starting with the digit '3' for such services at the same time.


title: Telephone numbers in Singapore

text: Until 1995, calls to Malaysia from Singapore were direct and similar to domestic phone calls, with only the area code for fixed line or Malaysian mobile phone code and number being required, hence 03 for Kuala Lumpur fixed line or 019 for Celcom mobile carrier were dialed instead of +60 3 and +60 19. In 1995, owing to the divergence of the two countries' numbering plans, the Subscriber Trunk Dialling prefix 020 was adopted. For example, in order to call a number in Kuala Lumpur, 020 is dialled first, followed by the area code 3 (excluding the leading zero), then the subscriber number.


title: Telephone numbers in Singapore

text: Similarly, calls to Batam, Samarinda, Pekanbaru and Tanjung Pinang in Indonesia require only the code 011, followed by the area code (minus '0') and the subscriber's number, hence to call a number in Batam from Singapore, a subscriber would dial 011 778 xxx xxx, instead of the international code +62 778. Calls to the rest of Indonesia, including those to mobile phones, require international dialling.


title: Telephone numbers in Singapore

text: Following the liberalization of the telecommunications industry, new carriers are assigned new carrier-specific codes for international and regional trunk call services. The codes 020 and 011 are assigned to the incumbent carrier SingTel. The other two major carriers, M1 and StarHub, do not offer any special dialling arrangements for calling to Malaysia and Indonesia, instead requiring full international dialling, the same as calling other countries.


title: Telephone numbers in Singapore

text: 1800 xxx xxxx - Toll-free domestic services (Free if calling from a landline. Airtime charges apply if calling from a mobile line. '1800' is alias for '6'; as such these services can be reached as toll numbers, including from outside of Singapore, by replacing '1800 xxx xxxx' with '+65 6xxx xxxx'.)


title: Telephone numbers in Singapore

text: 993 - Ministry of Health's special ambulance service - previously used for suspected cases of H1N1 and SARS and currently used for cases of COVID-19


title: Telephone numbers in Singapore

text: This is the list of telephone exchanges in Singapore. They also share the telephone exchanges with OpenNet locations, cable TV and '6'-regoed phone lines (each from SingTel and StarHub).


title: Telephone numbers in Singapore

text: The generic international call prefix when making an international call is 000, which all telecommunications service providers are required to share. However, the code is not well known as carrier-specific access codes are generally used, such as 001 for SingTel, 002 for M1 and 008 for StarHub. On a mobile phone, a plus sign (+) can be keyed in as a substitute for the prefix.


title: Telephone numbers in Singapore

text: VoIP services, such as Zone 1511, use prefixes in the 15xx range. For example, to call a number in London using Zone 1511, a subscriber would dial 1511 44 20 xxxx xxxx. Access codes in the 0xx range (for example, 018 - StarHub's VoIP services or 019 - SingTel's VoIP services) indicate a Tier 1 VoIP provider. Access codes like 1xxx (for example, 1511) are indicative of a Tier 2 VoIP provider.


title: Royal Prussia

text: Royal Prussia (; or , ) or Polish Prussia (Polish: ; German: ) was a province of the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland, which was established after the Second Peace of Thorn (1466) from territory in Pomerelia and western Prussia which had previously been part of the State of the Teutonic Order. Royal Prussia retained its autonomy, governing itself and maintaining its own laws, customs, rights and German language.


title: Royal Prussia

text: In 1569, Royal Prussia was fully integrated into the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland and its autonomy was largely abandoned. As a result, the Royal Prussian parliament was incorporated into the Sejm of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. In 1772, the former territory of Royal Prussia was annexed by the Kingdom of Prussia and subsequently re-organized into the province of West Prussia. This occurred at the time of the First Partition of Poland, with other parts of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth being annexed by the Russian Empire and Habsburg Austria.


title: Royal Prussia

text: In contrast, southern remainder of Pomesania and Pogesania, including Marienwerder (Kwidzyn), Deutsch Eylau (Iława), Riesenburg (Prabuty), Rosenberg (Susz), Bischofswerder (Biskupiec), Saalfeld (Zełwałd, later Zalewo), Freystadt (Kisielice), Mohrungen (Morąg), Preußisch Holland (Pasłęk) and Liebstadt (Libsztat, later Miłakowo), formed Upper Prussia (German: , Polish: ) constituting the westernmost part of the Prussian territory left to the Teutonic Knights, known as Teutonic or Monastic Prussia with Königsberg as its capital, later secularized in 1525 to become Ducal Prussia ruled by the Protestant dukes of the Hohenzollern dynasty. From 1618 this area was ruled in personal union with the Electorate of Brandenburg as Brandenburg-Prussia. In 1657 the Treaty of Wehlau granted full independence to the Duchy of Prussia, allowing its later elevation to Kingdom in Prussia.


title: Royal Prussia

text: Originally Polish, the Pomerelian part of the region was gradually emancipating during the fragmentation of Poland upon the death of Bolesław III Wrymouth in 1138, culminating in an almost independent Duchy of Pomerelia in 1227. It was, however, reclaimed by the Polish state by 1282, but retained some grade of autonomy. During the rule of Władysław I the Elbow-high of Poland, the Margraviate of Brandenburg challenged his rule over the territory in 1308, leading Władysław to request assistance from the Teutonic Knights, who had ousted the Brandenburgers, but subsequently seized Pomerelia for themselves and incorporated it into the Teutonic Order state in 1309 (Teutonic takeover of Danzig (Gdańsk) and Treaty of Soldin (Myślibórz)). At the beginning of the 15th century, the lands held by the Teutonic Knights were inhabited as a whole by a mixed population; it is estimated that there were about 200 000 Germans in the state altogether, followed by 140 000 native Prussians located in the Prussia proper (east of Vistula), as well about 140 000 Poles in Pomerelia and Masuria.


title: Royal Prussia

text: The burden of taxation and the arbitrary way of governing caused resistance among the people of Prussia. The burghers of the great Prussian cities began to organize themselves. The first organized body was the Lizard League founded by the Chelmno Land nobility in 1397. After being checked at the Battle of Grunwald, the Teutonic Knights's prestige declined, most towns and castles, as well as three Prussian bishops, swore loyalty to the Polish king. Although the Order soon regained control over most of the territory, by the 1411 Peace of Thorn they were forced to pay large compensation of 100,000 kop groszy for the return of prisoners, which became a financial burden on the citizenry. Facing the opposition the komtur of Danzig ordered to execute the city's mayor Konrad Letzkau along with two councillors and five Chełmno nobles without a trial.


title: Royal Prussia

text: In order to protect their rights nobles and burghers created for the first time a joint assembly in 1412. Subsequent peace treaties (1422 and 1435) with Poland gave the Order's subjects the right to throw off its sovereignty if it violated them. In 1440, as the tax burden rose, indigenous nobles and Hanseatic cities established the Prussian Confederation at Marienwerder (Kwidzyn) in resistance of the Order's domestic and financial policies. Confederation formed a self-governing bicameral institution, representing nobles and burghers of the province, which took decisions unanimously.


title: Royal Prussia

text: The Confederation was led by the citizens of Danzig, Elbing, and Thorn. The gentry from Chełmno Land and Pomerelia participated as well. After the monastic knights complained to the Emperor and Council of Basel, the Prussian parliament had to dissolve itself in 1449, but immediately resumed its clandestine activities. In turn, in February 1454, the Confederation sent a delegation, under Hans von Baysen, to King Casimir IV Jagiellon of Poland, to ask him for support against the Teutonic Order's rule and for incorporation of their homeland into the Kingdom of Poland. In this treaty, Prussian delegates declared the Polish king the only true sovereign of their lands, justified by the historical fact that the king of Poland had earlier ruled them. After lengthy negotiation, on 6 March 1454, the Royal Chancellery issued the "Incorporation Act" by which king Kazimierz Jagiellończyk accepted inhabitants of the Prussian lands Prussians as subjects, incorporated Prussia to the Polish kingdom and granted them a large autonomy.


title: Royal Prussia

text: The Prussian estates received confirmation of their rights and privileges, were exempted from paying the "", received the "ius indigenatus", the right to decide on Prussian affairs at their own estate assemblies and a guarantee of the freedom of trade. Thorn, Elbing, Königsberg and Danzig (Danzig law) were to retain the right to mint coins during the war, although with the image of the Polish king.


title: Royal Prussia

text: After the Prussian Confederation pledged allegiance to Casimir on 6 March 1454, the Thirteen Years' War ("War of the Cities") began. King Casimir IV Jagiellon appointed Baysen as the first war-time governor of Royal Prussia. On 28 May 1454, the king took an oath of allegiance from the citizens of Thorn, and in June a similar oath from the citizens of Elbing and Königsberg was taken.


title: Royal Prussia

text: The rebellion also included major cities from the eastern part of the Order's lands, such as Kneiphof, later a part of Königsberg. Though the Knights were victorious at the Battle of Chojnice in 1454, they were not able to finance more knights in order to reconquer the castles occupied by the insurgents. Thirteen years of attrition warfare ended in October 1466 with the Second Peace of Thorn (1466), which provided for the Order's cession to the Polish Crown of its rights over the western half of Prussia, including Pomerelia and the districts of Elbing, Marienburg, and Chełmno.


title: Royal Prussia

text: According to the 1454 treaty signed by King Casimir IV, Royal Prussia was incorporated into the Polish Crown and their elites enjoyed the same rights and privileges as the elites of the Polish kingdom. At the same time Royal Prussia was granted a considerable degree of autonomy. Already instituted law codes were retained, only Prussians could be appointed on public offices ("ius indigenatus"), borders of the province had to remain intact and all decisions regarding Prussia had to be consulted with the Prussian council. Thorn and Danzig retained the right to mint coins.


title: Royal Prussia

text: The Polish model of political and administrative organisation was introduced into the province. Royal Prussia was divided in 1454 into four voivodeships: Pomeranian, Chełmno,


title: Royal Prussia

text: Elbląg (since 1467 Malbork) and Królewiec (Königsberg), which ceased to exist after the Second Peace of Thorn. Voivodeships were divided subsequently into powiats.


title: Royal Prussia

text: By the decision of the Polish Sejm in 1467 the main governing body of Royal Prussia was the Prussian council (), which emerged from the secret council of the Prussian Confederation. Three voivodes, three castellans (of Kulm, Elbing and Danzig), three chamberlains () and two delegates from each of the main cities: Thorn, Danzig and Elbing were part of the council. Later bishops of Warmia (1479) and Chełmno (1482) were admitted into a council, which ultimately consisted of 17 members. Since the council wasn't able to impose taxes without the consent of the commons, the gathering of all estates shortly emerged, at first known as "Ständetage" and later as "Landtag". In years 1512-1526 it developed into a bicameral Prussian parliament.


title: Royal Prussia

text: At first, the bishop of Warmia claimed that his principality was independent and subordinate only to the Pope. After a short war — the so-called "priests' war" — the matter was settled in the king's favour; in 1479 Warmia was formally incorporated into Poland. The bishop's subjects were given the right to appeal to the king, to whom they swore allegiance. The Bishop of Warmia became, "ex officio", a member of the Prussian council. From 1508 the bishop headed the council. The bishopric of Warmia was a suffragan of the archbishopric of Riga until 1566; after that date it was subordinated directly to the Pope. It was never part of archdiocese of Gniezno.


title: Royal Prussia

text: The Prussian states stood for deep particularism. They were reluctant to participate in the institutions of the kingdom. The members of the council refused to participate in the meetings of the royal council and sent only token delegations to the royal elections in 1492, 1501 and 1506. During the war the king exercised his authority over the province through the position of governor, which was first held by Hans von Baysen, and after his death in 1459 by his brother Stibor. As the governor was elected by the estates and only approved by the king, Casimir abolished this office and appointed Stibor as voivode of Malbork. In 1472, the king introduced in Prussia the office of , who was solely dependent on the king. Son of Stibor Nicholaus was appointed voivode of Malbork and administrator of Prussia. In 1485 Nicholaus resigned his office and led the Prussian opposition against the violation of Prussian privileges, above all the "ius indigenatus". In response, King Casimir strengthened the position of the Malbork starosta, to whom he always appointed a non-Prussian. In 1485 it was a magnate from Lesser Poland, Zbigniew Tęczyński.


title: Royal Prussia

text: The situation changed in 1498 when Frederick of Saxony was elected Grand Master of the Teutonic Order and started a hostile politics against Poland in an attempt to reclaim lost territories in Royal Prussia. As a result, the newly elected bishop of Warmia, Lucas Watzenrode, and Nicholaus von Baysen began to take part in meetings of the royal council. During 1509 Sejm Watzenrode took part in a Senate meeting as the first representative of the Prussian council. Ambroży Pampowski, starosta of Malbork between 1504 and 1510, also bore the title "Haupt des Landes", and although he was non-Prussian, he was accepted as such by the Prussian council. A monument of the reapprochement between Prussia and the rest of the kingdom was the Statute of Prussia, promulgated in 1506, in which many Polish legal solutions were introduced into the Prussian legal system. An important achievement was the establishment of a central Prussian treasury. In 1511, a supreme tribunal was established for the Prussian courts, excluding the courts of Danzig, which denied the right of appeal to the Prussian court and decided cases internally. It sometimes resorted to royal and parliamentary courts. Closer ties with the rest of the kingdom found support primarily among the ordinary nobility, for whom the Polish political and legal solutions were more favourable. In particular, the inheritance rules applied under Kulm law, which guaranteed inheritance also in the female line, resulted in the fragmentation of estates.


title: Royal Prussia

text: In years 1519-1521 Albrecht von Hohenzollern lost the Order's last war against Poland. As a result Order's state was secularised and became a fief of the Polish crown, held by Albrecht and his direct heirs as "dukes in Prussia". Albrecht ruled as a Lutheran ruler. Lutheranism also spread in Royal Prussia, especially in the big cities. Despite the king's attempts to stop Protestantism, it was declared the ruling religion in Danzig, Elbing and Thorn after 1526. During the war, the Polish General Assembly descended to Thorn in 1519 and to Bydgoszcz in 1520. Some Prussian nobles attended it. In 1522 the Prussian nobility gathered in the "Landtag" demanded the introduction of the Polish model of inheritance and land ownership, excluding the burghers. They also demanded the right to send one deputy from each province to the Polish Sejm. In 1526 the Prussian "Landtag", headed by the king, established sejmiks, local assemblies of noblemen, who elected deputies to the Prussian parliament, where they sat together with representatives of 27 smaller towns. The Prussian council formed the upper house – the senate – of this assembly. In 1529 a monetary union was established between Royal Prussia and Ducal Prussia and the rest of the kingdom. From 1537 summons to the Sejm were continuously sent to the Prussian sejmiks. The Prussian nobility appeared permanently at the Sejm as observers. In 1548, after the death of King Sigismund the Old, for the first time, a delegation of both Prussian chambers went to the Sejm as deputies and senators.


title: Royal Prussia

text: In 1569, as a result of the Union of Lublin, which created the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Royal Prussia was integrated fully into the Kingdom of Poland, and its parliament reduced to the status of a provincial assembly, also other separate Prussian institutions were dissolved. The former territory was subsequently governed as Pomeranian Voivodeship, , Malbork Voivodeship, and Prince-Bishopric of Warmia.


title: Royal Prussia

text: At the same time as the 1772 First Partition of Poland, the former lands of Royal Prussia were annexed by the Kingdom of Prussia, the successor state of the Teutonic Order. In 1793, the new Kingdom of Prussia participated in the Second Partition of Poland by temporarily annexing the neighboring regions, which were almost immediately returned to the Tsarist kingdom of Poland and incorporated into the Russian Empire.


title: Rachael Ostovich

text: Rachael Ostovich (born February 25, 1991) is an American mixed martial artist who competes in the Flyweight division. A professional since 2017, she has competed in the UFC and Invicta Fighting Championships. Since her release from the UFC, she has not signed with any other MMA promotion, but did fight in an event for Bare Knuckle Fighting Championship in 2021.


title: Rachael Ostovich

text: Ostovich began her amateur MMA career in 2010. Over the next three years, she amassed an undefeated amateur MMA record of 6–0.


title: Rachael Ostovich

text: Ostovich made her professional MMA debut in January 2014 in her native Hawaii. She went 1–1 before joining Invicta Fighting Championships


title: Rachael Ostovich

text: Ostovich debuted for the all-female Invicta Fighting Championships in December 2014. She faced Evva Johnson at and won the fight by split decision.


title: Rachael Ostovich

text: In her second bout for the promotion, Ostovich faced Andrea Lee on September 12, 2015, at . She lost the bout via verbal submission to an armbar in the third round.


title: Rachael Ostovich

text: In her third bout for the promotion, Ostovich faced Ariel Beck on May 7, 2016, at . She won the bout via a split decision.


title: Rachael Ostovich

text: In her fourth fight for the promotion, Ostovich faced Christine Ferea on January 14, 2017, at . She lost the fight via TKO in the third round, bringing her Invicta FC record to 2–2 before joining "The Ultimate Fighter".


title: Rachael Ostovich

text: In August 2017, it was announced that Ostovich would be one of the fighters featured on "The Ultimate Fighter 26", where the process to crown the UFC's inaugural 125-pound women's champion will take place. In the opening round, Ostovich defeated Melinda Fábián by rear-naked choke submission. In the quarterfinals, she faced Barb Honchak and lost the bout via unanimous decision.


title: Rachael Ostovich

text: Ostovich faced Karine Gevorgyan on December 1, 2017, at . She won the fight via armbar submission in the first round.


title: Rachael Ostovich

text: Ostovich faced Montana De La Rosa on July 6, 2018, at . She lost the fight via rear-naked choke in round three.


title: Rachael Ostovich

text: Ostovich was scheduled to face Paige VanZant on January 19, 2019, at UFC on ESPN+ 1. It was reported on November 18, 2018, that Ostovich was violently assaulted, sustaining a broken orbital bone and other injuries, and due to the injuries she sustained, she pulled out from the fight against VanZant. On November 27, the bout between Ostovich and VanZant was confirmed to push through on January 19, 2019, after Ostovich was cleared to fight by her doctor. Ostovich lost the fight by submission via armbar in the second round.


title: Rachael Ostovich

text: Ostovich was scheduled to face Veronica Macedo on August 10, 2019 at UFC on ESPN+ 14, but Ostovich was replaced by Polyana Viana for unknown reasons.


title: Rachael Ostovich

text: Ostovich was scheduled to face Shana Dobson at UFC Fight Night 168 in Auckland, New Zealand on February 23, 2020 at UFC Fight Night 168. However, Ostovich was removed from the bout due to testing positive for ostarine, and she was replaced by Priscila Cachoeira. On June 18, it was announced that Ostovich had accepted a USADA suspension for one year due to testing positive for ostarine, retroactive to January 3, 2020.


title: Rachael Ostovich

text: Ostovich tested positive for Ostarine and GW1516 on January 3, 2020, and she was suspended by USADA for eight months. The prohibited substance was found in one of her supplements and was not listed on the supplement label.


title: Rachael Ostovich

text: Ostovich faced Gina Mazany on November 28, 2020 at . She lost the fight via third round TKO from body kicks.


title: Rachael Ostovich

text: On April 27, 2021, Ostovich and Bare Knuckle Fighting Championship both announced that she had signed with the organization and is expected to make her debut in July. On May 27, 2021 it was announced that Ostovich is scheduled to face Paige VanZant – whom she lost to in mixed martial arts at – at BKFC 19 on July 23, 2021. She won the bout via unanimous decision.


title: Rachael Ostovich

text: On November 18, 2018, Ostovich was assaulted in her hometown of Honolulu, leaving her with a broken orbital bone. The perpetrator is alleged to be her husband, Arnold Berdon, who is also an MMA fighter. Ostovich filed and was granted a temporary restraining order against her husband effective until May 19, 2019. Berdon was arrested on November 20, 2018, for second-degree assault (felony) and he was released on a bond of $75,000. The case is under investigation currently by the Honolulu Police Department. A nine-minute video taken by a witness and obtained by "Hawaii News Now" captures Berdon repeatedly saying "I’m going to murder you. I’m going to fucking murder you," and Ostovich’s cries for help. On December 20, 2018, Berdon plead not guilty in connection with the case. The trial's next hearing was in March 2019, where Berdon pleaded no contest on the case.


title: Rachael Ostovich

text: The sentencing took place on May 16, 2019, in a Honolulu court and Berdon was sentenced to four-year probation in a domestic assault. Ostovich's divorce decree was filed with full custody of their six-year-old daughter.


title: Australia 108

text: Australia 108 (previously 70 Southbank Boulevard) is a residential supertall skyscraper in the Southbank precinct of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. Having officially topped out in June 2020, it became the tallest building in Australia by roof height, surpassing the Eureka Tower, and the second-tallest building in Australia by full height, surpassed by Q1 Tower.


title: Australia 108

text: The World Class Land development project consists of a tall apartment building with 1,105 apartments over 100 floors. Construction of the revised Fender Katsalidis Architects–design by Brookfield Multiplex commenced in 2015, and was completed in 2020.


title: Australia 108

text: Prior to its current form, plans were initially for a 72–level residential building with a height of . In 2012, these plans were revised and resubmitted in favour of mixed–use residential and hotel skyscraper, reaching and comprising 108 levels. This proposal was approved by the Victorian State Government in March 2013; however, it was shelved four months later after it struggled to meet conditions imposed by state and federal government authorities including VicRoads and the Civil Aviation Safety Authority.


title: Australia 108

text: The 70 Southbank Boulevard site is situated on the corner of City Road and Southbank Boulevard in the Southbank precinct of Melbourne. The land comprised two separately titled buildings, both of which had two levels. The buildings had a total net lettable area of , on a land area of .