title: Marriage in Pakistan

text: An engagement (called "nisbat" , "mangni" or "habar bandi" ) is a formal ceremony to mark the engagement of the couple. It is usually a small ceremony that takes place in the presence of a few close members of the would-be bride's and groom's families. Rings and other items of jewelry among affluent families are exchanged between the would-be bride and groom. In traditional engagement ceremonies, the bride and the groom are not seated together, and the rings are placed on the bride's finger by the groom's mother or sister, and vice versa. However, segregated engagement ceremonies have become a rarity among the newer generations and rings are usually exchanged between the couple. A prayer (Dua) and blessings are then recited for the couple, and the wedding date is decided.


title: Marriage in Pakistan

text: A typical Pakistani wedding, or "Shaadi" () consists of two main events - the Nikkah and Walima. Arranged and semi-arranged marriages in Pakistan often take long periods of time to finalize and up to a year or more can elapse from the day of engagement until the wedding ceremony. Wedding customs and celebrations vary upon ethnicity and religion.


title: Marriage in Pakistan

text: The "Nikah" () is the formal marriage ceremony where a marriage contract, or "Nikahnama" (), is signed by both the bride and the groom in presence of close family members. The Nikah is typically performed by a religious scholar at a mosque, such as an Imam, Mufti, Sheikh or Mullah, who in Pakistan will be licensed by the government to perform the ceremony. The bride and groom must both have two witnesses present to ensure that the marriage is consensual.


title: Marriage in Pakistan

text: The "Walima" () is the formal reception hosted by the husband and wife and officially makes the marriage public. It is typically a huge celebration with many relatives and as well as invited guests of both families in attendance. Traditionally, the Walima was hosted at home but nowadays are increasingly being held at marriage halls, restaurants or hotels.


title: Marriage in Pakistan

text: Baloch weddings are known to be lavish and short. In Balochi language, the groom is referred to as the "Saloonk", while the bride is referred to as the "Banoor". Baloch marriages often takes only one or two days to complete.


title: Marriage in Pakistan

text: "Zamati" is referred to as the marriage proposal in Balochi language. Under Baloch cultural norms, elders of the potential groom's family visit the home of the potential bride's family and make an official request for their willingness for the two to be married. In the past, the decision to accept a proposal would be made by the family elders of the potential bride. Nowadays, the potential bride is asked if she would be interested in accepting the proposal. Once accepted, the would-be bride is presented with a decorated red scarf and gifts.


title: Marriage in Pakistan

text: "Habar Bandi" is referred to as the engagement in Balochi language. "Habar" translates into decision, while "bandi" translates into union. This period is very important part of Baloch wedding, as legal obligations are fixed.


title: Marriage in Pakistan

text: "Bijjar" ( ) is referred to as cooperation in Balochi language. In actuality, this is the receiving of contributions, whereby the groom (saloonk) or his family members receive financial help from community members (mainly relatives and friends) to smoothly perform the wedding and initial months of the newly weds. Bijjar usually came in the form of cattle or crops but nowadays is mainly money, which is repaid back at weddings of relatives and friends at a later time.


title: Marriage in Pakistan

text: "Lotokhi" is referred to as invitation in Balochi language. Women from both families are given this task to write up a list of all those invited. Later, this list is used to note down the gifts that were given by each invitee. Later, the debt is repaid at future weddings or events.


title: Marriage in Pakistan

text: "Jol Bandi" () is a Baloch wedding ceremony which marks the beginning of the wedding ceremony. It is normally held at the bride's home, and is similar in concept to Rasm-e-Heena. "Jol" translates into large well decorated cloth, while "bandi" in this case means to tie together. During this ceremony, the bride is covered with the decorated cloth, usually sown by the groom's family.


title: Marriage in Pakistan

text: "Dozokhi" and "Heena Bandi" is a Baloch wedding ceremony whereby heena is applied onto the bride's hands. It is often the most energetic part of the wedding, whereby friends and family members put money in a plate above the head of the bride, called "Leth". As evening approaches, the mahfil and khorag occurs.


title: Marriage in Pakistan

text: "Mahfil" is referred to as gathering in Baloch language, while "Khorag" is referred to as food. During the gathering, the traditional Baloch dance called "Chaap" is performed by the men.


title: Marriage in Pakistan

text: "Mobaraki" () is a post-wedding banquet common in Baloch wedding and is hosted by the family of the bride. The entire groom's family, friends and relatives are invited along with relatives and friends of the bride's family.


title: Marriage in Pakistan

text: Pashtun weddings adhere to the customs and values of Pashtunwali. In the past, marriages were based mainly on tribal affiliations.


title: Marriage in Pakistan

text: "Attan" ( ) is a Pashtun dance usually performed at the end of the marriage ceremonies. Traditionally however, the dance was performed twice - once at the beginning of the wedding and once at the end.


title: Marriage in Pakistan

text: "Sammi" is a folk dance mostly performed in Potohar region of upper Punjab (or Panjistan) and Hazara region of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa during weddings.


title: Marriage in Pakistan

text: "Dholki" ( ) is a ceremony that takes its name from the percussion instrument Dholki and is featured heavily during wedding celebrations in Punjab. Traditionally, many days or even weeks before the actual wedding day, women will gather in the house of the bride at night to sing and dance while accompanied by other percussion instruments. Today, this ceremony has also been reduced to a single night of singing and is often combined with the "Rasm-e-Heena" ceremony.


title: Marriage in Pakistan

text: "Maklava" is a predominantly a Punjabi custom. Traditionally, the marriages were arranged and often contracted between people from different cities and villages. This often meant that the bride was unfamiliar with her new family. To ease her into the new life and surroundings, she was brought back to her parents' house a few days after the wedding. She then spent some time at her parents' house before heading back to her new husband's home. This practice is still prevalent in most rural areas of the Punjab. In Northern Punjab and Kashmir, it is called Bad Phera (Exchange cycle).


title: Marriage in Pakistan

text: A Punjabi custom in which the younger brother of the bridegroom holds the knee of the bride and doesn't let go until some acceptable monetary gift is given to him.


title: Marriage in Pakistan

text: "Rasm-e-mehndi/henna" () or "mehndi" () is a ceremony that is named after henna, a dye prepared from the Lawsonia inermis plant which is mixed into a paste form to apply onto the hands of the bride and groom. This event is held a few days before the main wedding ceremony and was traditionally held separately for the bride and the groom. However the ceremony is often now combined and held at a marriage hall. The groom will typically wear a casual black or white shalwar qameez, sherwani or western suit while the bride will typically wear an embroidered brightly colored shalwar kameez, sari or lehnga. The dress may or may not be accompanied by jewelry, depending upon region and ethnic background. In some ceremonies, a certain number of married women who are closely related to the bride may apply henna to her hands, and feed her sweets. This ritual is supposed to bring good luck and longevity to the bride's married life. Sometimes elaborate musical and acting performances are part of the Rasm-e-Heena celebrations, as well as competitions between the bride and groom's families are also quite common these days. Traditionally this was considered a "woman's event" as men did not participate in it. However this has changed substantially in recent generations with males featuring prominently. In some regions, Rasm-e-Heena is not celebrated while in other regions two Rasm-e-Heena celebrations are hosted, one by the groom's family and another by the bride's family.


title: Marriage in Pakistan

text: "Rukhsati" () - "sending off" (sometimes called "Doli" () - "palanquin") takes place when the groom and bride leave the shaadi venue together with the elders of the Family. Before this point the bride and groom will have already been married in the eyes of God by the imam in the nikkah. This is a Bride's farewell by her family. The games and pranks are juxtaposed with the dour occasion for the bride's parents, as the doli marks the departure of their daughter from the family unit, to establish a new home for herself. In order to bless and protect the couple, the Qur'an is held over the bride's head as she leaves, and even though there is no basis in Islam or Muslim tradition for the Rukhsati. In recent times, withholding or delaying the rukhsati has been used to exert control over the couple by the family of the bride or to extract dowry from the groom. Intentionally delaying or not hosting the Shaadi or "Rukhsati" May be used to disavow the relationship. However, in Islam as it is considered haram (impermissible) for any person to restrain a married woman from going with her husband, after the Nikkah has been performed


title: Marriage in Pakistan

text: "Dastar Bandi" ( ) is a ceremony where a turban is placed on the head of the groom and marks the start of manhood. Elders of the groom's family place a turban on his head and formally includes him in the 'circle of men'. This ceremony is commonly performed in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Punjab and northern Balochistan.


title: Marriage in Pakistan

text: "Haldi" () is a Sindhi wedding ritual followed by the bride and groom - a form of purification by pouring oil and haldi all over the bride/groom bodies this is done by the family members of both. After the ceremony has finished, the couple cannot leave the house.


title: Marriage in Pakistan

text: "Paon Dhulai" is a Sindhi wedding tradition, where the bride's brother washes the feet of both of the bride and groom. Some families condemn this tradition as it is seen as an insult to the family of the bride.


title: Marriage in Pakistan

text: The honeymoon, or "Shab-i-Zifaf" (), refers to the couple's first night together and it occurs after the bride has left for the groom's house. On the day of the wedding, the couple's bedroom is decorated with flowers. It is customary for roses or rose petals to be laid across the couple's bed and sometimes for garlands or strings of roses to be used as bed curtains. The groom's female relatives lead the bride to the bedroom and she is left for some time to await the groom's arrival. At this point it is common for the groom to stay with his relatives for a while. After the relatives have left, the groom enters the bedroom where the bride is waiting. Traditionally the bride's veil or head covering (dupatta or chador) is draped over so that it covers her face (). It is customary for the husband to brush the bride's veil aside to reveal her face as one of the first things on that night. It is also customary in some families for the husband to present his newly-wed wife with a small token of affection. This is generally a ring or a family heirloom.


title: Marriage in Pakistan

text: It is customary for a bride and groom to receive wedding presents. Traditionally, an envelope with cash or gifts are given to the bride or groom when wedding guests come to visit them during the shaadi reception. It is also customary for friends and family of the couple to invite guests over for dinner and lunch after the shaadi to formally accept them as a couple. This can often result in the first few weeks of married life for the newly weds being spent hosting further dinner parties with the shaadi guests.


title: Marriage in Pakistan

text: Mehr () is a mandatory payment, in the form of money or possessions that will be paid by the groom to the bride and stipulated in the nikkah contract. While the "mehr" is often money, it can also be anything agreed upon by the bride such as jewelry, home goods, furniture, a dwelling or some land. Mehr is typically specified in the marriage contract signed during an Islamic marriage. The amount of mehr is decided by the family of the bride and the time of the payment is negotiable.


title: Marriage in Pakistan

text: According to Rafia Zakaria in the Dawn dated 2022 January, 5, without option to say 'no' consent for marriages become mere formality or even forced marriages under duress are kind of a norm. If any individuals attempt to chart different path can face forms of social ostracism to abductions and honor killings in extreme cases, minority girls in Pakistan may face forced conversions along with marriage. According to The Express Tribune dated March 22, 2022, a Hindu minority girl named Pooja Kumari, 18, was shot dead at her home for refusal of marriage.


title: Penal labour

text: Penal labour is a term for various kinds of forced labour which prisoners are required to perform, typically manual labour. The work may be light or hard, depending on the context. Forms of sentence involving penal labour have included involuntary servitude, penal servitude, and imprisonment with hard labour. The term may refer to several related scenarios: labour as a form of punishment, the prison system used as a means to secure labour, and labour as providing occupation for convicts. These scenarios can be applied to those imprisoned for political, religious, war, or other reasons as well as to criminal convicts.


title: Penal labour

text: Large-scale implementations of penal labour include labour camps, prison farms, penal colonies, penal military units, penal transportation, or aboard prison ships.


title: Penal labour

text: Punitive labour, also known as convict labour, prison labour, or hard labour, is a form of forced labour used in both past and present as an additional form of punishment beyond imprisonment alone. Punitive labour encompasses two types: productive labour, such as industrial work; and intrinsically pointless tasks used as primitive occupational therapy, punishment and/or physical torment.


title: Penal labour

text: Sometimes authorities turn prison labour into an industry, as on a prison farm or in a prison workshop. In such cases, the pursuit of income from their productive labour may even overtake the preoccupation with punishment and/or reeducation as such of the prisoners, who are then at risk of being exploited as slave-like cheap labour (profit may be minor after expenses, e.g. on security). This is sometimes not the case, and the income goes to defray the costs of the prison.


title: Penal labour

text: Inversely, Victorian inmates commonly worked the treadmill. In some cases, it was productive labour to grind grain (an example of using convict labour to meet costs); in others, it served no purpose. Similar punishments included turning the crank machine or carrying cannonballs. Semi-punitive labour also included oakum-picking: teasing apart old tarry rope to make caulking material for sailing vessels.


title: Penal labour

text: Imprisonment with hard labour was first introduced into English law with the Criminal Law Act 1776 (16 Geo III c 43), also known as the "Hulks Act", which authorised prisoners being put to work on improving the navigation of the River Thames in lieu of transportation to the North American colonies, which had become impossible due to the American War of Independence.


title: Penal labour

text: The Penal Servitude Act 1853 (16 & 17 Vict c 99) substituted penal servitude for transportation to a distant British colony, except in cases where a person could be sentenced to transportation for life or for a term not less than fourteen years. Section 2 of the Penal Servitude Act 1857 (20 & 21 Vict c 3) abolished the sentence of transportation in all cases and provided that in all cases a person who would otherwise have been liable to transportation would be liable to penal servitude instead. Section 1 of the Penal Servitude Act 1891 makes provision for enactments which authorise a sentence of penal servitude but do not specify a maximum duration. It must now be read subject to section 1(1) of the Criminal Justice Act 1948.


title: Penal labour

text: Sentences of penal servitude were served in convict prisons and were controlled by the Home Office and the Prison Commissioners. After sentencing, convicts would be classified according to the seriousness of the offence of which they were convicted and their criminal record. First time offenders would be classified in the Star class; persons not suitable for the Star class, but without serious convictions would be classified in the intermediate class. Habitual offenders would be classified in the Recidivist class. Care was taken to ensure that convicts in one class did not mix with convicts in another.


title: Penal labour

text: Penal servitude included hard labour as a standard feature. Although it was prescribed for severe crimes (e.g. rape, attempted murder, wounding with intent, by the Offences against the Person Act 1861) it was also widely applied in cases of minor crime, such as petty theft and vagrancy, as well as victimless behaviour deemed harmful to the fabric of society. Notable recipients of hard labour under British law include the prolific writer Oscar Wilde (after his conviction for gross indecency), imprisoned in Reading Gaol.


title: Penal labour

text: Labour was sometimes useful. In Inveraray Jail from 1839 prisoners worked up to ten hours a day. Most male prisoners made herring nets or picked oakum (Inveraray was a busy herring port); those with skills were often employed where their skills could be used, such as shoemaking, tailoring or joinery. Female prisoners picked oakum, knitted stockings or sewed.


title: Penal labour

text: Treadmills for punishment were used for decades in British prisons beginning in 1818; they often took the form of large paddle wheels some 20 feet in diameter with 24 steps around a six-foot cylinder. Prisoners had to work six or more hours a day, climbing the equivalent of 5,000 to 14,000 vertical feet. While the purpose was mainly punitive, the mills could have been used to grind grain, pump water, or operate a ventilation system.


title: Penal labour

text: Shot drill involved stooping without bending the knees, lifting a heavy cannonball slowly to chest height, taking three steps to the right, replacing it on the ground, stepping back three paces, and repeating, moving cannonballs from one pile to another.


title: Penal labour

text: The crank machine was a device which turned a crank by hand which in turn forced four large cups or ladles through sand inside a drum, doing nothing useful. Male prisoners had to turn the handle 6,000–14,400 times over the period of six hours a day (1.5–3.6 seconds per turn), as registered on a dial. The warder could make the task harder by tightening an adjusting screw, hence the slang term "screw" for prison warder.


title: Penal labour

text: The British penal colonies in Australia between 1788 and 1868 provide a major historical example of convict labour, as described above: during that period, Australia received thousands of transported convict labourers, many of whom had received harsh sentences for minor misdemeanours in Britain or Ireland.


title: Penal labour

text: As late as 1885, 75% of all prison inmates were involved in some sort of productive endeavour, mostly in private contract and leasing systems. By 1935, the portion of prisoners working had fallen to 44%, and almost 90% of those worked in state-run programmes rather than for private contractors.


title: Penal labour

text: Penal servitude was abolished for England and Wales by section 1(1) of the Criminal Justice Act 1948. Every enactment conferring power on a court to pass a sentence of penal servitude in any case must be construed as conferring power to pass a sentence of imprisonment for a term not exceeding the maximum term of penal servitude for which a sentence could have been passed in that case immediately before the commencement of that Act.


title: Penal labour

text: Penal servitude was abolished for Northern Ireland by section 1(1) of the Criminal Justice Act (Northern Ireland) 1953. Every enactment which operated to empower a court to pass a sentence of penal servitude in any case now operates so as to empower that court to pass a sentence of imprisonment for a term not exceeding the maximum term of penal servitude for which a sentence could have been passed in that case immediately before the commencement of that Act.


title: Penal labour

text: Penal servitude was abolished in Scotland by section 16(1) of the Criminal Justice (Scotland) Act 1949 on 12 June 1950, and imprisonment with hard labour was abolished by section 16(2) of the act.


title: Penal labour

text: Every enactment conferring power on a court to pass a sentence of penal servitude in any case must be construed as conferring power to pass a sentence of imprisonment for a term not exceeding the maximum term of penal servitude for which a sentence could have been passed in that case immediately before 12 June 1950. But this does not empower any court, other than the High Court, to pass a sentence of imprisonment for a term exceeding three years.


title: Penal labour

text: See section 221 of the Criminal Procedure (Scotland) Act 1975 and section 307(4) of the Criminal Procedure (Scotland) Act 1995


title: Penal labour

text: In pre-Maoist China, a system of labour camps for political prisoners operated by the Kuomintang forces of Chiang Kai-shek existed during the Chinese Civil War from 1938 to 1949. Young activists and students accused of supporting Mao Zedong and his communists were arrested and re-educated in the spirit of anti-communism at the Northwestern Youth Labor Camp.


title: Penal labour

text: After the communists took power in 1949 and established the Communist China, "laojiao" (Re-education through labour) and "laogai" (Reform through labour) was (and still is in some cases) used as a way to punish political prisoners. They were intended not only for criminals, but also for those deemed to be counter-revolutionary (political and/or religious prisoners). According to an Al Jazeera special report on slavery, China has the largest penal labour system in the world today. Often these prisoners are used to produce products for export to the West. Xinjiang internment camps represent a major source of penal labour in China according to controversial expert, Adrien Zenz. Since 2002, some prisoners have been eligible to receive payment for their labour.


title: Penal labour

text: Prison inmates can work either for the prison (directly, by performing tasks linked to prison operation, or for the Régie Industrielle des Établissements Pénitentiaires, which produces and sells merchandise) or for a private company, in the framework of a prison/company agreement for leasing inmate labour. Work ceased being compulsory for sentenced inmates in France in 1987. From the French Revolution of 1789, the prison system has been governed by a new penal code. Some prisons became quasi-factories, in the nineteenth century, many discussions focused on the issue of competition between free labour and prison labour. Prison work was temporarily prohibited during the French Revolution of 1848. Prison labour then specialised in the production of goods sold to government departments (and directly to prisons, for example guards' uniforms), or in small low-skilled manual labour (mainly subcontracting to small local industries).


title: Penal labour

text: Forced labour was widely used in the African colonies. One of the most emblematic projects, the construction of the Congo-Ocean railway () cost the lives of 17,000 indigenous workers in 1929. In Cameroon, the 6,000 workers on the Douala-Yaoundé railway line had a mortality rate of 61.7% according to a report by the authorities. Forced labour was officially abolished in the colonies in 1946 under pressure from the Rassemblement démocratique africain and the French Communist Party. In fact, it lasted well into the 1950s.


title: Penal labour

text: Only convicts sentenced to "rigorous imprisonment" have to undertake work during their prison term. A 2011 "Hindustan Times" article reported that 99% of convicts that receive such sentences rarely undertake work because most prisons in India do not have sufficient demand for prison labour.


title: Penal labour

text: Every enactment conferring a power on a court to pass a sentence of penal servitude in any case must be treated as an enactment empowering that court to pass a sentence of imprisonment for a term not exceeding the maximum term of penal servitude for which a sentence could have been passed in that case immediately before the commencement of the Criminal Law Act 1997.


title: Penal labour

text: In the case of any enactment in force on 5 August 1891 (the date on which section 1 of the Penal Servitude Act 1891 came into force) whereby a court had, immediately before the commencement of the Criminal Law Act 1997, power to pass a sentence of penal servitude, the maximum term of imprisonment may not exceed five years or any greater term authorised by the enactment.


title: Penal labour

text: Most Japanese prisoners are required to engage in prison labour, often in manufacturing parts which are then sold cheaply to private Japanese companies. This practice has raised charges of unfair competition since the prisoners' wages are far below market rate.


title: Penal labour

text: During the early Meiji era, in Hokkaido many prisoners were forced to engage in road construction (), mining, and railroad construction, which were severe. It was thought to be a form of unfree labour. It was replaced by indentured servitude ().


title: Penal labour

text: (Hard) penal labour does not exist in the Netherlands, but a light variant consisting of community service (Dutch: "taakstraf") is one of the primary punishments which can be imposed on a convicted offender. The maximum punishment is 240 hours, according to article 22c, part 2 of Wetboek van Strafrecht. The labour must be done in their free time. Reclassering Nederland keeps track of those who were sentenced to community services.


title: Penal labour

text: The Criminal Justice Act 1954 abolished the distinction between imprisonment with and without hard labour and replaced 'reformative detention' with 'corrective training', which was later abolished on 30 June 2002.


title: Penal labour

text: North Korean prison camps can be differentiated into internment camps for political prisoners (Kwan-li-so in Korean) and reeducation camps (Kyo-hwa-so in Korean). According to human rights organisations, the prisoners face forced hard labour in all North Korean prison camps. The conditions are harsh and life-threatening and prisoners are subject to torture and inhumane treatment.


title: Penal labour

text: Another historically significant example of forced labour was that of political prisoners and other persecuted people in labour camps, especially in totalitarian regimes since the 20th century where millions of convicts were exploited and often killed by hard labour and bad living conditions. For much of the history of the Soviet Union and other Communist states, political opponents of these governments were often sentenced to forced labour camps. These forced labour camps are called Gulags, an acronym for the government organization that was in charge of them. The Soviet Gulag camps were a continuation of the punitive labour system of Imperial Russia known as "katorga", but on a larger scale. The kulaks were some of the first victims of the Soviet Union's forced labour system. Starting in 1930, nearly two million kulaks were taken to camps in unpopulated regions of the Soviet Union and forced to work in very harsh conditions. Most inmates in the Gulag were ordinary criminals: between 1934 and 1953 there were only two years, 1946 and 1947, when the number of counter-revolutionary prisoners exceeded that of ordinary criminals, partly because the Soviet state had amnestied 1 million ordinary criminals as part of the victory celebrations in 1945. At the height of the purges in the 1930s political prisoners made up 12% of the camp population; at the time of Joseph Stalin's death just over one-quarter. In the 1930s, many ordinary criminals were guilty of crimes that would have been punished with a fine or community service in the 1920s. They were victims of harsher laws from the early 1930s, driven, in part, by the need for more prison camp labour.


title: Penal labour

text: The Gulags constituted a large portion of the Soviet Union's overall economy. Over half of the tin produced in the Soviet Union was produced by the Gulags. In 1951, the Gulags extracted over four times as much gold as the rest of the economy. Gulag camps also produced all of the diamonds and platinum in the Soviet Union, and forced labourers in the Gulags constituted approximately one fifth of all construction labourers in the Soviet Union.


title: Penal labour

text: Between 1930 and 1960, the Soviet regime created many labour camps in Siberia and Central Asia. There were at least 476 separate camp complexes, each one comprising hundreds, even thousands of individual camps. It is estimated that there may have been 5–7 million people in these camps at any one time. In later years the camps also held victims of Joseph Stalin's purges as well as World War II prisoners. It is possible that approximately 10% of prisoners died each year. Out of the 91,000 German soldiers captured after the Battle of Stalingrad, only 6,000 survived the Gulag and returned home. Many of these prisoners, however, had died of illness contracted during the siege of Stalingrad and in the forced march into captivity. More than half of all deaths occurred in 1941–1944, mostly as a result of the deteriorating food and medicine supplies caused by wartime shortages.


title: Penal labour

text: Probably the worst of the camp complexes were the three built north of the Arctic Circle at Kolyma, Norilsk and Vorkuta. Prisoners in Soviet labour camps were sometimes worked to death with a mix of extreme production quotas, brutality, hunger and the harsh elements. In all, more than 18 million people passed through the Gulag, with further millions being deported and exiled to remote areas of the Soviet Union. The fatality rate was as high as 80% during the first months in many camps. Immediately after the start of the German invasion of the Soviet Union during World War II, the NKVD massacred about 100,000 prisoners who awaited deportation either to NKVD prisons in Moscow or to the Gulag.


title: Penal labour

text: Inmates in Taiwan are required to work during their stay in prison but receive a wage for their labour.


title: Penal labour

text: Federal Prison Industries (FPI; doing business as UNICOR since 1977) is a wholly owned United States government corporation created in 1934 that uses penal labour from the Federal Bureau of Prisons (BOP) to produce goods and services. FPI is restricted to selling its products and services, which include clothing, furniture, electrical components and vehicle parts, to federal government agencies and has no access to the commercial market. State prison systems also use penal labour and have their own penal labour divisions.


title: Penal labour

text: The 13th Amendment of the US Constitution, enacted in 1865, explicitly allows penal labour as it states that "neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for a crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction". Unconvicted detainees awaiting trial cannot be forced to participate in forced rehabilitative labour programs in prison as it violates the Thirteenth Amendment.


title: Penal labour

text: The "convict lease" system became popular throughout the South following the American Civil War and into the 20th century. Since the impoverished state governments could not afford penitentiaries, they leased out prisoners to work at private firms. Reformers abolished convict leasing in the 20th-century Progressive Era. At the same time, labour has been required at many prisons.


title: Penal labour

text: In 1934, federal prison officials concerned about growing unrest in prisons lobbied to create a work program. Private companies got involved again in 1979, when Congress passed a law establishing the Prison Industry Enhancement Certification Program which allows employment opportunities for prisoners in some circumstances.


title: Penal labour

text: Over the years, the courts have held that inmates may be required to work and are not protected by the constitutional prohibition against involuntary servitude. Correctional standards promulgated by the American Correctional Association provide that sentenced inmates, who are generally housed in maximum, medium, or minimum security prisons, be required to work and be paid for that work. Some states require, as with Arizona, all able-bodied inmates to work.


title: Penal labour

text: From 2010 to 2015 and again in 2016 and 2018, some prisoners in the US refused to work, protesting for better pay, better conditions and for the end of forced labour. Strike leaders have been punished with indefinite solitary confinement. Forced prison labour occurs in both public and private prisons. The prison labour industry makes over $1 billion per year selling products that inmates make, while inmates are paid very little or nothing in return. In California, 2,500 incarcerated workers fight wildfires for $1 an hour through the CDCR's Conservation Camp Program, saving the state as much as $100 million a year.


title: Penal labour

text: The prison strikes of 2018, sponsored by Jailhouse Lawyers Speak and the Incarcerated Workers Organizing Committee, are considered the largest in the country's history. In particular, inmates objected to being excluded from the 13th Amendment which forces them to work for pennies a day, a condition they assert is tantamount to "modern-day slavery".


title: Penal labour

text: Prison industries today are often operating at a loss. Some reformers want to remove legal restrictions and change federal employment laws so that workers could be hired on a negotiated "laissez-faire" basis to work for wages set by the market and the voluntary choices of prisoners to work and employers to pay wages.


title: Penal labour

text: In a number of penal systems, the inmates have the possibility of a job. This may serve several purposes. One goal is to give an inmate a meaningful way to occupy their prison time and a possibility of earning some money. It may also play an important role in resocialisation as inmates may acquire skills that would help them to find a job after release. It may also have an important penological function: reducing the monotony of prison life for the inmate, keeping inmates busy on productive activities, rather than, for example, potentially violent or antisocial activities, and helping to increase inmate fitness, and thus decrease health problems, rather than letting inmates succumb to a sedentary lifestyle.


title: Penal labour

text: The classic occupation in 20th-century British prisons was sewing mailbags. This has diversified into areas such as engineering, furniture making, desktop publishing, repairing wheelchairs and producing traffic signs, but such opportunities are not widely available, and many prisoners who work perform routine prison maintenance tasks (such as in the prison kitchen) or obsolete unskilled assembly work (such as in the prison laundry) that is argued to be no preparation for work after release. Classic 20th-century American prisoner work involved making license plates; the task is still being performed by inmates in certain areas.


title: Penal labour

text: A significant amount of controversy has arisen with regard to the use of prison labour if the prison in question is privatised. Many of these privatised prisons exist in the Southern United States, where roughly 7% of the prison population are within privately owned institutions. Goods produced through this penal labour are regulated through the Ashurst-Sumners Act which criminalises the interstate transport of such goods.


title: Penal labour

text: The advent of automated production in the 20th and 21st century has reduced the availability of unskilled physical work for inmates.


title: Penal labour

text: ONE3ONE Solutions, formerly the Prison Industries Unit in Britain, has proposed the development of in-house prison call centers.


title: MSC World Europa

text: MSC World Europa is a delivered for MSC Cruises and built at the Chantiers de l'Atlantique shipyard in Saint-Nazaire, France. "MSC World Europa" is set to commence public operations from 20 December 2022 in a 9-day roundtrip from Qatar after serving as a hotel ship in Doha during the 2022 FIFA World Cup. She will become MSC's first World-class ship and be joined by three sister ships in 2024, 2025, and 2027, respectively.


title: MSC World Europa

text: In April 2016, MSC Cruises unveiled its newest class of cruise ships, the World class, after it signed a letter of intent for up to four World-class vessels from STX France, an order worth approximately €4 billion, at Élysée Palace. Each ship in the class is estimated to measure approximately over and house over 2,700 cabins for a guest capacity of around 5,400 passengers, which will make the World class the third largest class of cruise ships in the world. MSC also announced all ships in the class would be powered by liquefied natural gas (LNG).


title: MSC World Europa

text: On 31 October 2019, MSC revealed the name of the first World-class ship as "MSC Europa" and held the ship's steel-cutting ceremony at Chantiers de l'Atlantique, inaugurating the construction for the new ship. On 29 June 2020, MSC held the keel-laying ceremony for the ship renamed as "MSC World Europa", in which two coins were placed under the keel for good luck. In June 2021 she was relocated in a drydock towards the sea.


title: MSC World Europa

text: "MSC World Europa" was floated out in December 2021, and completed her first sea trials using LNG in the Atlantic during June 2022.


title: MSC World Europa

text: The ship was delivered on 24 October 2022. The construction of her sister ship started on the same day.


title: MSC World Europa

text: In November 2019, Qatar signed an agreement with MSC to charter "MSC World Europa" and "MSC Poesia" as accommodations vessels for fans attending the 2022 FIFA World Cup, with the ships berthed at Doha Port during the games.


title: MSC World Europa

text: In May 2017, at the delivery ceremony of held at STX France, MSC released new details and renderings of the World class of ships. In the announcement, MSC revealed that each of the four ships it had ordered would hold a guest capacity of 6,850 passengers across 2,760 passenger cabins, more than any cruise ship. Each ship would measure long and wide and integrate a "Y"-shape hull design for expansive views and a "G"-shape bow design for fuel efficiency and stability. Initial features announced included square cabins, a glass pool lounge, and sections designed specifically for families. The aft of the ships would also be open, with the lower promenade deck flanked by balcony cabin towers. "MSC World Europa" and her sister ships were later revealed to measure approximately .


title: MSC World Europa

text: As "MSC World Europa" is powered by LNG, it would reportedly allow her to sail with a 99% decrease in sulfur dioxide emissions, an 85% decrease in nitric oxide emissions, and a 20% decrease in carbon dioxide emissions, when compared with non-LNG-powered ships. She will also become the world's first ship to implement an LNG-powered fuel cell. The 50-kilowatt fuel cell demonstrator aboard the ship will incorporate solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) technology and use LNG to produce onboard electricity and heat and reportedly further reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 30% when compared with ships powered by conventional LNG engines.


title: Shahbaz Khan (actor)

text: Shahbaz Khan (real name Haider Khan) is an Indian actor from Indore, Madhya Pradesh. He is famous for playing lead roles in television serials such as "Chandrakanta", "The Great Maratha", "The Sword of Tipu Sultan", "Betaal Pachisi", "Yug", "Maharaja Ranjit Singh", "Bharat Ka Veer Putra – Maharana Pratap", "Tenali Rama" . He also appears in the 2018 Chinese film "Dying to Survive".


title: Shahbaz Khan (actor)

text: Khan is originally from Indore, and is a son of Padma Bhushan winner Amir Khan, a doyen of Indian classical music. Khan studied in St Joseph Convent, Kamptee and Hislop College Nagpur, then had worked at Centre Point Hotel Nagpur for few years before moving to Mumbai.


title: HTTP 301

text: The HTTP response status code 301 Moved Permanently is used for permanent redirecting, meaning that links or records returning this response should be updated. The new URL should be provided in the Location field, included with the response. The 301 redirect is considered a best practice for upgrading users from HTTP to HTTPS.


title: HTTP 301

text: Here is an example using a .htaccess file to redirect a non-secure URL to a secure address without the leading "www":


title: HTTP 301

text: Both Bing and Google recommend using a 301 redirect to change the URL of a page as it is shown in search engine results, providing that URL will permanently change and is not due to be changed again any time soon.


title: Waste-to-energy

text: Waste-to-energy (WtE) or energy-from-waste (EfW) is the process of generating energy in the form of electricity and/or heat from the primary treatment of waste, or the processing of waste into a fuel source. WtE is a form of energy recovery. Most WtE processes generate electricity and/or heat directly through combustion, or produce a combustible fuel commodity, such as methane, methanol, ethanol or synthetic fuels.


title: Waste-to-energy

text: The first incinerator or "Destructor" was built in Nottingham, UK, in 1874 by Manlove, Alliott & Co. Ltd. to the design of Alfred Fryer.


title: Waste-to-energy

text: Gasification and pyrolysis processes have been known and used for centuries and for coal as early as the 18th century... Development technologies for processing [residual solid mixed waste] has only become a focus of attention in recent years stimulated by the search for more efficient energy recovery. (2004)


title: Waste-to-energy

text: Incineration, the combustion of organic material such as waste with energy recovery, is the most common WtE implementation. All new WtE plants in OECD countries incinerating waste (residual MSW, commercial, industrial or RDF) must meet strict emission standards, including those on nitrogen oxides (NO), sulphur dioxide (SO), heavy metals and dioxins. Hence, modern incineration plants are vastly different from old types, some of which neither recovered energy nor materials. Modern incinerators reduce the volume of the original waste by 95-96 percent, depending upon composition and degree of recovery of materials such as metals from the ash for recycling.


title: Waste-to-energy

text: Incinerators may emit fine particulate, heavy metals, trace dioxin and acid gas, even though these emissions are relatively low from modern incinerators. Other concerns include proper management of residues: toxic fly ash, which must be handled in hazardous waste disposal installation as well as incinerator bottom ash (IBA), which must be reused properly.


title: Waste-to-energy

text: Critics argue that incinerators destroy valuable resources and they may reduce incentives for recycling. The question, however, is an open one, as European countries which recycle the most (up to 70%) also incinerate to avoid landfilling.


title: Waste-to-energy

text: Incinerators have electric efficiencies of 14-28%. In order to avoid losing the rest of the energy, it can be used for e.g. district heating (cogeneration). The total efficiencies of cogeneration incinerators are typically higher than 80% (based on the lower heating value of the waste).


title: Waste-to-energy

text: The method of incineration to convert municipal solid waste (MSW) is a relatively old method of WtE generation. Incineration generally entails burning waste (residual MSW, commercial, industrial and RDF) to boil water which powers steam generators that generate electric energy and heat to be used in homes, businesses, institutions and industries. One problem associated is the potential for pollutants to enter the atmosphere with the flue gases from the boiler. These pollutants can be acidic and in the 1980s were reported to cause environmental degradation by turning rain into acid rain. Modern incinerators incorporate carefully engineered primary and secondary burn chambers, and controlled burners designed to burn completely with the lowest possible emissions, eliminating, in some cases, the need for lime scrubbers and electro-static precipitators on smokestacks.


title: Waste-to-energy

text: By passing the smoke through the basic lime scrubbers, any acids that might be in the smoke are neutralized which prevents the acid from reaching the atmosphere and hurting the environment. Many other devices, such as fabric filters, reactors, and catalysts destroy or capture other regulated pollutants. According to the New York Times, modern incineration plants are so clean that "many times more dioxin is now released from home fireplaces and backyard barbecues than from incineration. " According to the German Environmental Ministry, "because of stringent regulations, waste incineration plants are no longer significant in terms of emissions of dioxins, dust, and heavy metals".


title: Waste-to-energy

text: Compared with other waste to energy technologies, incineration seems to be the most attractive due to its higher power production efficiency, lower investment costs, and lower emission rates. Additionally, incineration yields the highest amount of electricity with the highest capacity to lessen pile of wastes in landfills through direct combustion.


title: Waste-to-energy

text: It aims to solve major environmental issues namely pollution caused due to plastic waste accumulation and the need for an alternative fuel source. The process that is used to convert plastic into fuel is pyrolysis. It is the thermal decomposition of materials at very high temperatures in an inert atmosphere. It involves change of chemical composition and is mainly used for treatment of organic materials. In large scale production, plastic waste is ground and sent for melt feeding and then the process of pyrolysis takes place, catalytic converters helps in the process and the molecular rearrangement of polymers takes place, the vapours are condensed with oil or fuel and accumulated in settling tanks and filtrated, fuel is obtained after homogenation and can be used for automobiles and machinery. It is commonly termed as thermofuel or energy from plastic.


title: Waste-to-energy

text: There are a number of other new and emerging technologies that are able to produce energy from waste and other fuels without direct combustion. Many of these technologies have the potential to produce more electric power from the same amount of fuel than would be possible by direct combustion. This is mainly due to the separation of corrosive components (ash) from the converted fuel, thereby allowing higher combustion temperatures in e.g. boilers, gas turbines, internal combustion engines, fuel cells. Some are able to efficiently convert the energy into liquid or gaseous fuels:


title: Waste-to-energy

text: During the 2001–2007 period, the waste-to-energy capacity increased by about four million metric tons per year.


title: Waste-to-energy

text: Japan and China each built several plants based on direct smelting or on fluidized bed combustion of solid waste. In China there were about 434 waste-to-energy plants in early 2016. Japan is the largest user in thermal treatment of municipal solid waste in the world, with 40 million tons.


title: Waste-to-energy

text: Some of the newest plants use stoker technology and others use the advanced oxygen enrichment technology. Several treatment plants exist worldwide using relatively novel processes such as direct smelting, the Ebara fluidization process and the Thermoselect JFE gasification and melting technology process.


title: Waste-to-energy

text: As of June 2014, Indonesia had a total of 93.5 MW installed capacity of waste-to-energy, with a pipeline of projects in different preparation phases together amounting to another 373MW of capacity.


title: Waste-to-energy

text: Biofuel Energy Corporation of Denver, Colorado, opened two new biofuel plants in Wood River, Nebraska, and Fairmont, Minnesota, in July 2008. These plants use distillation to make ethanol for use in motor vehicles and other engines. Both plants are currently reported to be working at over 90% capacity. Fulcrum BioEnergy incorporated located in Pleasanton, California, is building a WtE plant near Reno, NV. The plant is scheduled to open in 2019 under the name of Sierra BioFuels plant. BioEnergy incorporated predicts that the plant will produce approximately 10.5 million gallons per year of ethanol from nearly 200,000 tons per year of MSW.


title: Waste-to-energy

text: Waste to energy technology includes fermentation, which can take biomass and create ethanol, using waste cellulosic or organic material. In the fermentation process, the sugar in the waste is converted to carbon dioxide and alcohol, in the same general process that is used to make wine. Normally fermentation occurs with no air present.


title: Waste-to-energy

text: Esterification can also be done using waste to energy technologies, and the result of this process is biodiesel. The cost effectiveness of esterification will depend on the feedstock being used, and all the other relevant factors such as transportation distance, amount of oil present in the feedstock, and others.


title: Waste-to-energy

text: Gasification and pyrolysis by now can reach gross thermal conversion efficiencies (fuel to gas) up to 75%, however a complete combustion is superior in terms of fuel conversion efficiency. Some pyrolysis processes need an outside heat source which may be supplied by the gasification process, making the combined process self-sustaining.


title: Waste-to-energy

text: In thermal WtE technologies, nearly all of the carbon content in the waste is emitted as carbon dioxide () to the atmosphere (when including final combustion of the products from pyrolysis and gasification; except when producing biochar for fertilizer). Municipal solid waste (MSW) contain approximately the same mass fraction of carbon as itself (27%), so treatment of of MSW produce approximately of .


title: Waste-to-energy

text: In the event that the waste was landfilled, of MSW would produce approximately methane via the anaerobic decomposition of the biodegradable part of the waste. This amount of methane has more than twice the global warming potential than the of , which would have been produced by combustion. In some countries, large amounts of landfill gas are collected. However, there is still the global warming potential of the landfill gas being emitted to atmosphere. For example, in the US in 1999 landfill gas emission was approximately 32% higher than the amount of that would have been emitted by combustion.


title: Waste-to-energy

text: In addition, nearly all biodegradable waste is biomass. That is, it has biological origin. This material has been formed by plants using atmospheric typically within the last growing season. If these plants are regrown the emitted from their combustion will be taken out from the atmosphere once more.


title: Waste-to-energy

text: Such considerations are the main reason why several countries administrate WtE of the biomass part of waste as renewable energy. The rest—mainly plastics and other oil and gas derived products—is generally treated as non-renewables.


title: Waste-to-energy

text: MSW to a large extent is of biological origin (biogenic), e.g. paper, cardboard, wood, cloth, food scraps. Typically half of the energy content in MSW is from biogenic material. Consequently, this energy is often recognised as renewable energy according to the waste input.


title: Waste-to-energy

text: Several methods have been developed by the European CEN 343 working group to determine the biomass fraction of waste fuels, such as Refuse Derived Fuel/Solid Recovered Fuel. The initial two methods developed (CEN/TS 15440) were the manual sorting method and the selective dissolution method. A detailed systematic comparison of these two methods was published in 2010. Since each method suffered from limitations in properly characterizing the biomass fraction, two alternative methods have been developed.


title: Waste-to-energy

text: The first method uses the principles of radiocarbon dating. A technical review (CEN/TR 15591:2007) outlining the carbon 14 method was published in 2007. A technical standard of the carbon dating method (CEN/TS 15747:2008) is published in 2008. In the United States, there is already an equivalent carbon 14 method under the standard method ASTM D6866.


title: Waste-to-energy

text: The second method (so-called balance method) employs existing data on materials composition and operating conditions of the WtE plant and calculates the most probable result based on a mathematical-statistical model. Currently the balance method is installed at three Austrian and eight Danish incinerators.


title: Waste-to-energy

text: A comparison between both methods carried out at three full-scale incinerators in Switzerland showed that both methods came to the same results.


title: Waste-to-energy

text: Carbon 14 dating can determine with precision the biomass fraction of waste, and also determine the biomass calorific value. Determining the calorific value is important for green certificate programs such as the Renewable Obligation Certificate program in the United Kingdom. These programs award certificates based on the energy produced from biomass. Several research papers, including the one commissioned by the Renewable Energy Association in the UK, have been published that demonstrate how the carbon 14 result can be used to calculate the biomass calorific value. The UK gas and electricity markets authority, Ofgem, released a statement in 2011 accepting the use of Carbon 14 as a way to determine the biomass energy content of waste feedstock under their administration of the Renewables Obligation. Their Fuel Measurement and Sampling (FMS) questionnaire describes the information they look for when considering such proposals.


title: Waste-to-energy

text: A 2019 report commissioned by the Global Alliance for Incinerator Alternatives (GAIA), done by the Tishman Environment and Design Center at The New School, found that 79% of the then 73 operating waste-to-energy facilities in the U.S. are located in low-income communities and/or communities of color, because "of historic residential, racial segregation and expulsive zoning laws that allowed whiter, wealthier communities to exclude industrial uses and people of color from their boundaries.". In Chester, Pennsylvania, where a community group is actively opposing their local waste-to-energy facility, Sintana Vergara, an assistant professor in the Department of Environmental Resources Engineering at Humboldt State University in California, commented that community resistance is based on both the pollution and the fact that many of these facilities have been sited in communities without any community input, and without any benefits to the community.


title: Waste-to-energy

text: According to a 2019 United Nations Environment Programme report, there are 589 WtE plants in Europe and 82 in the United States.


title: Waste-to-energy

text: The US Air Force once tested a Transportable Plasma Waste to Energy System (TPWES) facility (PyroGenesis technology) at Hurlburt Field, Florida. The plant, which cost $7.4 million to construct, was closed and sold at a government liquidation auction in May 2013, less than three years after its commissioning. The opening bid was $25. The winning bid was sealed.


title: Waste-to-energy

text: Besides large plants, domestic waste-to-energy incinerators also exist. For example, the Refuge de Sarenne has a domestic waste-to-energy plant. It is made by combining a wood-fired gasification boiler with a Stirling motor.


title: Waste-to-energy

text: Renergi will scale up their system of converting waste organic materials into liquid fuels using a thermal treatment process in Collie, Western Australia. The system will process 1.5 tonnes of organic matter per hour. Annually the facility will divert 4000 tonnes of municipal waste from landfill and source an additional 8000 tonnes of organic waste from agricultural and forestry operations. Renergi’s patented “grinding pyrolysis” process aims to converts organic materials into biochar, bio-gases and bio-oil by applying heat in an environment with limited oxygen.


title: Waste-to-energy

text: Another project in the Rockingham Industrial Zone, roughly 45 kilometres south of Perth will see a 29 MW plant built with capacity to power 40,000 homes from an annual feedstock of 300,000 tonnes of municipal, industrial and commercial rubbish. As well as supplying electricity to the South West Interconnected System, 25 MW of the plant’s output has already been committed under a power purchase agreement.


title: Jeff Hendrick

text: Jeffrey Patrick Hendrick (born 31 January 1992) is an Irish professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for club Reading on loan from Newcastle United and for the Republic of Ireland national team.


title: Jeff Hendrick

text: Hendrick spent his childhood years with boyhood club St. Kevin's Boys in his native Dublin. He had a number of unsuccessful trials in England before joining Derby County's youth academy in 2008. He made his professional debut in April 2011 after impressive performances with the reserve team led manager Nigel Clough to include him in the senior setup. He quickly became a regular starter and appeared in the 2014 Championship play-off final where Derby missed out on promotion with a 1–0 loss to Queens Park Rangers. He amassed a total of 214 appearances and 26 goals for Derby over six years.


title: Jeff Hendrick

text: Hendrick joined newly-promoted Premier League side, Burnley, in August 2016, signing a three-year deal. He was part of the team that finished in seventh place in the 2017–18 season which saw them qualify for the second qualifying round of the following season's Europa League. This was Burnley's first taste of European football in 51 years. Hendrick left Burnley in June 2020, having racked up 139 appearances and 10 goals across four seasons. He joined fellow Premier League club Newcastle United in a free transfer on a four-year deal in August 2020. After finding his playing time severely limited at Newcastle, Hendrick had a short spell on loan at Queens Park Rangers in the second half of the 2021–22 season.


title: Jeff Hendrick

text: Hendrick has represented Ireland at all youth levels. Since his senior international debut in February 2013, he has made over 70 appearances for Ireland and represented them at Euro 2016.


title: Jeff Hendrick

text: Hendrick joined Derby County as a youth player in 2008 from St Kevin's Boys in Dublin, having overcome Osgood-Schlatter disease, and played regularly for the club's academy side before breaking into the reserve team during the 2009–10 campaign. He made one start and seven substitute appearances as the club's reserve side successfully captured the 2009–10 Central League Central Section title. At the end of the season his first involvement with the Derby County first team came on 2 May 2010 as he was an unused substitute in a 2–0 victory over Cardiff City in the final match of the 2009–10 season. A few weeks later, on 8 July 2010, he signed his first professional contract, alongside four other Derby County academy graduates, including fellow Republic of Ireland Youth international Ryan Connolly and future League of Ireland player Graham Kelly.


title: Jeff Hendrick

text: Hendrick played a more significant role in Derby's reserve side during the 2010–11 season, making 17 starts in all competitions and scoring 9 goals, including a hat-trick in a 14–1 victory over Shirebrook Town in the Derbyshire Senior Cup and a brace in a 5–0 win over Buxton in the final of the same competition. Throughout the campaign, Hendrick impressed enough to earn a contract extension at Derby, which he signed in January 2011 to take him through until Summer 2012.


title: Jeff Hendrick

text: Approaching the end of the 2010–11 campaign, Derby manager Nigel Clough stated his desire to give Hendrick a run in the first team: "(He's) progressed and done well this season...we would love to see him in the team for three or four games."


title: Jeff Hendrick

text: Hendrick was happy with his progression and knew he would have to sustain his form to nail down a spot in the first team: "It's why we all play football – to get in the first team, so I'm just hoping that I can keep pushing on and doing well."


title: Jeff Hendrick

text: He made his debut in the following match on 23 April 2011, as an 80th-minute replacement for Robbie Savage in a 4–2 home defeat to Burnley.


title: Jeff Hendrick

text: Ahead of the 2011–12 season, Clough stated that Hendrick would feature in the Derby County first team squad more often.<ref name="11/12"></ref> He was allocated the squad number of 23. Despite missing the majority of Derby's pre-season due to his call-up to the European under-19 tournament, Hendrick was involved in first-team duty from the start of the campaign, making substitute appearances in the season's opening two matches, against Birmingham City and Watford. He then claimed a place in the starting line-up from the third match (a 1–0 win at Blackpool) onward.


title: Jeff Hendrick

text: He scored his first professional goal in his fifth start of the season, claiming the winner in a 2–1 victory at local rivals Nottingham Forest. His performance earned him a place in the Championship Team of the Week and his rich vein of form followed into the next match, a 3–0 thumping of Millwall, in which Hendrick grabbed his first goal at Pride Park and secured a second consecutive Team of the Week place.


title: Jeff Hendrick

text: Hendrick's form saw him linked with switches to Premier League duo Aston Villa and West Bromwich Albion. The speculation saw Derby enter into contract talks with the midfielder over a new four-year deal. However, both his and Derby's form tailed off badly over the subsequent six weeks with the team winning just once in nine matches although Nigel Clough told BBC Radio Derby he was not concerned by his side's slump. The following month, the Dublin native signed a new three-and-a-half-year contract, extending his stay at the Pride Park club until the summer of 2015.


title: Jeff Hendrick

text: Hendrick missed Derby's Christmas and New Year programme of fixtures with an ankle ligament injury in a 1–0 defeat against Ipswich Town. He returned to the first team squad as an unused substitute in a 1–0 win against Coventry City on 14 January 2012, returning to playing action a week later in the 0–0 draw at Burnley as a 47th-minute substitute. Hendrick became a mainstay of the Derby team for the remainder of the season after this fixture, displacing James Bailey in central midfield. He scored his third goal of the season in a 3–2 home win against Crystal Palace on 24 March. Hendrick's form throughout the season was rewarded when he won the club's Sammy Crooks Young Player of the Year award.


title: Jeff Hendrick

text: Hendrick began the 2012–13 season in the starting eleven but after poor performances and scoring only once in his first 16 matches, he was dropped for Michael Jacobs in the 3–2 victory over Birmingham City on 24 November 2012. He regained his starting place shortly afterwards, and admitted he was struggling to replicate his previous season's performances. Hendrick's form soon improved and he scored his second goal of the season in a 2–0 win at Bristol City on 15 December.


title: Jeff Hendrick

text: Hendrick started 2013 in good form, scoring three goals in the opening three matches, including a goal against Middlesbrough in a 3–1 home win which was later named Derby's "Goal of the Season". Former Derby teammate Kevin Kilbane stated that Hendrick had the ability to play in the Premier League. He scored again on 9 February 2013, in a 2–2 draw against Sheffield Wednesday. He earned further praise for his performance in Derby's 3–0 win at home to Bristol City on 29 March, where he scored the opening goal.


title: Jeff Hendrick

text: Hendrick finished the season as runner-up for the Derby County Player of the Season Award and was named the 58th-best player in the 2012–13 Championship by the Actim Index.


title: Jeff Hendrick

text: Ahead of the 2013–14 season, Hendrick was set to compete with Craig Bryson, Paul Coutts and Will Hughes for a starting berth, with Clough stating that rotation could be utilised. He started in Derby's first five matches, before succumbing to a chipped ankle bone injury in the 3–0 win at Yeovil Town in late August, with a scan revealing damage worse than expected and was later ruled out for 12 weeks.


title: Jeff Hendrick

text: Hendrick scored four league goals during the 2013–14 season, helping Derby reach the play-offs. In the play-off semi-final, Derby came up against Brighton & Hove Albion. On 11 May 2014, Hendrick scored in the 4–1 home victory in the second leg as Brighton were defeated 6–2 on aggregate. On 24 May, he played in the play-off final as Derby lost 1–0 to Queens Park Rangers thereby missing out on promotion to the Premier League.


title: Jeff Hendrick

text: On 26 June 2014, Hendrick agreed a new four-year contract with Derby, which would keep him at the club until the end of the 2017–18 season.


title: Jeff Hendrick

text: Hendrick scored his first goal of the 2014–15 season in the league opener against Rotherham United on 9 August 2014 which ended in a 1–0 win for Derby. He scored his fourth and fifth goals of the season on 8 November in a 5–0 thrashing of Wolverhampton Wanderers as Derby moved to the top of the Championship. Hendrick's 85th-minute equaliser in the 3–3 draw at Millwall on 25 April 2015 helped keep alive the team's play-off hopes. Derby needed a victory in their final match against Reading to secure a play-off place but lost 3–0 and finished the 2014–15 season in eighth position as ultimately they had earned just 12 points out of a possible 39 since beating Charlton Athletic in February. This season was Hendrick's most fruitful to date in terms of goalscoring as he netted a total of nine goals in 47 matches in all competitions.


title: Jeff Hendrick

text: Hendrick scored his first goal of the 2015–16 season in a 2–2 draw away at Leeds United on 29 December 2015. He scored his second of the season in the 3–1 away win against Brentford on 20 February 2016. After being out of first-team action since March, Hendrick returned for the final league match against Ipswich Town on 7 May but was an unused substitute. Derby finished in fifth place in the Championship and qualified for the play-offs where they would meet Hull City in the semi-final. Hendrick was again an unused substitute in the semi-final first leg but returned to the starting line-up for the second leg and played the full 90 minutes as Derby lost 3–2 on aggregate to the "Tigers".


title: Jeff Hendrick

text: Hendrick's 2016–17 season did not get off to a good start as he picked up a hamstring injury in a 2–0 loss to Barnsley on 13 August 2016.


title: Jeff Hendrick

text: On 31 August 2016, Hendrick joined Premier League side Burnley for a club record £10.5 million fee on a three-year deal. He made his debut on 10 September, coming on as a 75th-minute substitute in a 1–1 draw at home to Hull City. He made his first start for Burnley on 17 September, playing the full 90 minutes in a 3–0 away defeat against reigning Premier League champions Leicester City. Nine days later, Hendrick netted his first goal for Burnley in a 2–0 home win over Watford with a header from a Steven Defour cross.


title: Jeff Hendrick

text: He scored his second goal for his new club on 10 December 2016 with a 25-yard volley in a 3–2 home victory over Bournemouth. Hendrick's strike was nominated for Goal of the Month; it came third in the public vote, behind strikes by Alexis Sánchez in second and Henrikh Mkhitaryan in first and would later earn him the Burnley "Goal of the Season" award. On 4 February 2017, he was sent off against Watford in the sixth minute for a two-footed challenge on José Holebas as Burnley were defeated 2–1 at Vicarage Road.


title: Jeff Hendrick

text: Hendrick opened his 2017–18 goalscoring account on 1 October away at Everton, finishing off a move that consisted of 24 passes. Burnley would go on to win 1–0. He netted his second goal of the season in a 1–0 home victory over Newcastle United on 30 October in what was Sean Dyche's fifth anniversary as Burnley manager.


title: Jeff Hendrick

text: Hendrick had a goal ruled out for offside and was denied a clear penalty in the 0–0 draw at Huddersfield Town on 30 December. Huddersfield goalkeeper Jonas Lössl later admitted he had made contact with the midfielder:


title: Jeff Hendrick

text: "I touched him. I spoke to the referee and I said there was contact. I didn't do it on purpose, but there was contact. I told the referee after but it was his decision."


title: Jeff Hendrick

text: Burnley finished seventh in the 2017–18 Premier League and qualified for the second qualifying round of the 2018–19 Europa League.


title: Jeff Hendrick

text: On 20 June 2018, it was announced that Burnley would face Scottish Premiership club Aberdeen in the second qualifying round of the Europa League. Hendrick made his Europa League debut when he started on 26 July 2018 at Pittodrie Stadium. He was replaced by Sam Vokes in the 67th minute with Vokes eventually going on to score the equaliser to make it 1–1 in the 80th minute. The match ended 1–1, meaning Burnley had the advantage of an away goal. Burnley were eventually eliminated in the play-off round with a 4–2 aggregate defeat to Olympiacos. Hendrick played in all six matches of "The Clarets"' Europa League campaign.


title: Jeff Hendrick

text: His first goal of the 2018–19 season came on 26 August 2018 in a 4–2 away defeat against newly promoted Fulham. With 91 Burnley appearances already made, Hendrick signed a one-year contract extension on 20 December 2018 which would take his stay at the club until the summer of 2020. His manager Sean Dyche stated his praise for the midfielder:


title: Jeff Hendrick

text: "He's done well for us. We have asked a lot of him. We have used him in a number of different positions that sometimes aren't natural to him and over time he has delivered good performances for us."


title: Jeff Hendrick

text: On 22 April 2019, Hendrick opened the scoring in a 2–2 draw against Chelsea at Stamford Bridge with a fine volley for his third goal of the season. This draw saw Burnley reach 40 points, virtually guaranteeing their safety in the Premier League. Hendrick's goal was the 1,000th goal Chelsea had conceded in the Premier League. This strike earned him his second "Goal of the Season" award for the club.


title: Jeff Hendrick

text: On 14 September 2019, Hendrick scored in his 100th Premier League appearance for Burnley with a stoppage-time equaliser in a 1–1 draw at Brighton & Hove Albion. It had appeared that Hendrick was in Sean Dyche's future plans as he had started 22 of Burnley's 29 matches before the 2019–20 season was brought to a sudden halt because of the COVID-19 pandemic. However, on 23 June 2020, it was revealed that Hendrick had turned down an offer to stay at Burnley and would end his four-year stint at the club on the expiration of his contract on 30 June.


title: Jeff Hendrick

text: After leaving Burnley and having been linked to Italian clubs Milan and Roma, Hendrick decided to join fellow Premier League club Newcastle United on 24 August 2020 in a free transfer on a four-year deal. He described Newcastle as 'a massive club' and manager Steve Bruce hailed his new signing by saying: "He’s an experienced international footballer who can play all across the midfield so we welcome him aboard. He’ll be a big asset to us, on and off the pitch."


title: Jeff Hendrick

text: He made his Newcastle debut in a 2–1 win over Barnsley in a pre-season friendly on 29 August 2020. Two weeks later, Hendrick scored and also set up a goal for Callum Wilson on his competitive debut for Newcastle in a 2–0 away win over West Ham United. His second goal of the season came on 16 December as he opened the scoring in a 5–2 away defeat to Leeds United. On 6 February 2021, Hendrick was sent off early in the second half of a 3–2 home win over Southampton for a second bookable offence after pulling back Takumi Minamino. He received criticism from pundit Alex Scott after the red card: "It's stupid. He doesn't even need to pull Takumi Minamino back there. He's not through on goal, there's no reason for him to do what he just did."


title: Jeff Hendrick

text: Hendrick fell out of favour after the sending off and was limited to substitute appearances from March onwards as Newcastle finished in 12th place. He ended the season with 23 appearances in all competitions, scoring twice.


title: Jeff Hendrick

text: He scored his first goal of the 2021–22 season on 2 October 2021 in a 2–1 away defeat to Wolverhampton Wanderers as Newcastle remained winless in the league after seven matches.


title: Jeff Hendrick

text: After finding his game time severely limited at Newcastle, on 31 January 2022 — his 30th birthday — Hendrick joined Championship side Queens Park Rangers on loan until the end of the season. Five days later, he made his QPR debut in a 2–0 FA Cup defeat away at Peterborough United, coming on as a substitute at the start of the second half. He made his league debut for the club on 9 February as a 60th-minute substitute in a 2–2 home draw against Middlesbrough.


title: Jeff Hendrick

text: Ultimately, Hendrick's loan spell at QPR did not go well. He had many poor outings for "The Rs", ranking 19th among 26 players to have featured for the team during the season according to WhoScored.com. On 11 May, Queens Park Rangers confirmed in a club statement that they would not be following up on the loan with a permanent offer. He made 11 appearances in all competitions without scoring a goal.


title: Jeff Hendrick

text: On 12 July 2022, Reading announced the season-long loan signing of Hendrick where he would link up with compatriot and fellow newcomer Shane Long. He scored on his Reading debut in a pre-season friendly against Maidenhead United less than two hours after the loan deal was finalised. He made his competitive debut for the club on 30 July 2022, playing the full match in a 1–0 away loss to Blackpool.


title: Jeff Hendrick

text: Hendrick made his 400th career club appearance in the 3–0 home defeat to Sunderland on 14 September 2022. He then scored his first competitive goal for Reading on 4 October in a 1–1 draw against Norwich City which kept "The Royals" in third position in the table.


title: Jeff Hendrick

text: Born in Dublin, Hendrick has been capped by Ireland at under-15, under-16, under-17, under-18, under-19 and under-21 levels. He was shortlisted for the Republic of Ireland under-17 level International Player of the Year award in July 2010. He played a key role in the U19s successful 2011 European Under-19 Championship qualifying campaign putting in a "string of impressive displays" as he featured in all three group matches and notched the only goal of the match in a 1–0 win over Poland U19s. In July 2011, Hendrick was named in the squad for the European Under-19 Championships. He started in all four of Ireland's matches at the tournament as they were knocked out in the semi-final stage to Spain.


title: Jeff Hendrick

text: Upon his return from the tournament, Hendrick was called up to the Irish U21 squad for the first time. He made his debut in a 2–1 victory against Austria U21s on 9 August 2011.


title: Jeff Hendrick

text: In January 2013, it was reported that Ireland head coach Giovanni Trappatoni was watching Hendrick with the view to giving the player his first call-up to the senior side and later in the month Hendrick was called up to the senior squad to play in a friendly against Poland on 6 February 2013. Hendrick came on as a 71st-minute substitute for James McCarthy in the 2–0 win and provided an assist for Wes Hoolahan for Ireland's second goal in this match, showing great composure in doing so with a well-executed pass. Hendrick received his first Ireland start in his fourth cap, in a match against World and European Champions Spain on 12 June 2013 at the Yankee Stadium in New York City. He played a starring role in the Euro 2016 qualifier against Georgia in the Aviva Stadium on 7 September 2015. His run and nutmeg set up an easy finish for Jonathan Walters which proved to be the only goal of the match.


title: Jeff Hendrick

text: Hendrick started in all four of Ireland's matches at Euro 2016. He hit the crossbar against Sweden and was unlucky not to score against Italy. He earned much praise for his performances as he played a vital role in securing qualification to the knockout stages of the championship. Ireland eventually lost 2–1 to hosts France in the Round of 16.


title: Jeff Hendrick

text: Hendrick scored his first goal for Ireland on 5 September 2016. He opened the scoring in the third minute in the 2–2 away draw against Serbia in a 2018 World Cup qualifying match with a low shot just outside the penalty area which was deflected in off Branislav Ivanović.


title: Jeff Hendrick

text: His second goal for Ireland came on 23 March 2019 with a 12-yard strike in the 49th minute of a 1–0 away triumph against Gibraltar in a Euro 2020 qualifying match. This goal ended Ireland's drought of 446 minutes without finding the net in all competitions. Hendrick won his 50th cap for Ireland on 5 September 2019 in a 1–1 draw at home to Switzerland.


title: Jeff Hendrick

text: On 15 November 2020, in what was his 60th appearance for Ireland, Hendrick was sent off in the 94th minute of a 1–0 away defeat to Wales in a Nations League match.


title: Jeff Hendrick

text: Hendrick is known for being very hard-working, tactically aware and for his ability to pass the ball successfully. He is capable of playing as a central midfielder, out wide on the right of midfield or as an attacking midfielder behind the striker. His big strength is winning second balls from aerial duels and keeping the attack going in advanced positions. Owing to his lack of proficiency in scoring goals, Hendrick's most frequent task is recycling possession high up the pitch to create chances for his teammates.


title: Jeff Hendrick

text: Growing up, Hendrick played Gaelic football for Parnells and has a close friendship with former Dublin county team goalkeeper Stephen Cluxton. He has twin brothers named Ross and Alan.


title: Jeff Hendrick

text: In 2020 Hendrick started dating Scottish model Amanda Hendrick. In 2021 they welcomed a son called Sonny.


title: Nociception

text: Nociception (also nocioception, from Latin "nocere" 'to harm or hurt') is the sensory nervous system's process of encoding noxious stimuli. It deals with a series of events and processes required for an organism to receive a painful stimulus, convert it to a molecular signal, and recognize and characterize the signal in order to trigger an appropriate defense response.


title: Nociception

text: In nociception, intense chemical (e.g., capsaicin present in Chili pepper or Cayenne pepper), mechanical (e.g., cutting, crushing), or thermal (heat and cold) stimulation of sensory neurons called nociceptors produces a signal that travels along a chain of nerve fibers via the spinal cord to the brain. Nociception triggers a variety of physiological and behavioral responses to protect the organism against an aggression and usually results in a subjective experience, or perception, of pain in sentient beings.


title: Nociception

text: Potentially damaging mechanical, thermal, and chemical stimuli are detected by nerve endings called nociceptors, which are found in the skin, on internal surfaces such as the periosteum, joint surfaces, and in some internal organs. Some nociceptors are unspecialized free nerve endings that have their cell bodies outside the spinal column in the dorsal root ganglia. Other nociceptors rely on specialised structures in the skin to transduce noxious information such as nociceptive schwann cells. Nociceptors are categorized according to the axons which travel from the receptors to the spinal cord or brain. After nerve injury it is possible for touch fibres that normally carry non-noxious stimuli to be perceived as noxious.


title: Nociception

text: Nociceptive pain consists of an adaptive alarm system. Nociceptors have a certain threshold; that is, they require a minimum intensity of stimulation before they trigger a signal. Once this threshold is reached a signal is passed along the axon of the neuron into the spinal cord.


title: Nociception

text: Nociceptive threshold testing deliberately applies a noxious stimulus to a human or animal subject in order to study pain. In animals, the technique is often used to study the efficacy of analgesic drugs and to establish dosing levels and period of effect. After establishing a baseline, the drug under test is given and the elevation in threshold recorded at specified time points. When the drug wears off, the threshold should return to the baseline (pre-treatment) value.


title: Nociception

text: In some conditions, excitation of pain fibers becomes greater as the pain stimulus continues, leading to a condition called hyperalgesia.


title: Nociception

text: Nociception can also cause generalized autonomic responses before or without reaching consciousness to cause pallor, sweating, tachycardia, hypertension, lightheadedness, nausea and fainting.


title: Nociception

text: This overview discusses proprioception, thermoception, chemoception and nociception as they are all integrally connected.


title: Nociception

text: Proprioception is determined by using standard mechanoreceptors (especially ruffini corpuscles (stretch) and transient receptor potential (TRP) channels). Proprioception is completely covered within the somatosensory system as the brain processes them together.


title: Nociception

text: , as anything beyond that range is considered pain and moderated by nociceptors. TRP and potassium channels [TRPM (1-8), TRPV (1-6), TRAAK, and TREK] each respond to different temperatures (among other stimuli) which create action potentials in nerves which join the mechano (touch) system in the posterolateral tract. Thermoception, like proprioception, is then covered by the somatosensory system.


title: Nociception

text: TRP channels that detect noxious stimuli (mechanical, thermal, and chemical pain) relay that info to nociceptors that generate an action potential. Mechanical TRP channels react to depression of their cells (like touch), thermal TRP change shape in different temperatures, and chemical TRP act like taste buds, signalling if their receptors bond to certain elements/chemicals.


title: Nociception

text: Nociception has been documented in non-mammalian animals, including fish and a wide range of invertebrates, including leeches, nematode worms, sea slugs, and fruit flies. As in mammals, nociceptive neurons in these species are typically characterized by responding preferentially to high temperature (40° Celsius or more), low pH, capsaicin, and tissue damage.


title: Nociception

text: The term "nociception" was coined by Charles Scott Sherrington to distinguish the physiological process (nervous activity) from pain (a subjective experience). It is derived from the Latin verb ""nocēre"", which means "to harm".


title: Osceola

text: Osceola (1804 – January 30, 1838, Asi-yahola in Creek), named Billy Powell at birth in Alabama, became an influential leader of the Seminole people in Florida. His mother was Muscogee, and his great-grandfather was a Scotsman, James McQueen. He was reared by his mother in the Creek (Muscogee) tradition. When he was a child, they migrated to Florida with other Red Stick refugees, led by a relative, Peter McQueen, after their group's defeat in 1814 in the Creek Wars. There they became part of what was known as the Seminole people.


title: Osceola

text: In 1836, Osceola led a small group of warriors in the Seminole resistance during the Second Seminole War, when the United States tried to remove the tribe from their lands in Florida to Indian Territory west of the Mississippi River. He became an adviser to Micanopy, the principal chief of the Seminole from 1825 to 1849. Osceola led the Seminole resistance to removal until he was captured on October 21, 1837, by deception, under a flag of truce, when he went to a site near Fort Peyton for peace talks. The United States first imprisoned him at Fort Marion in St. Augustine, then transported him to Fort Moultrie in Charleston, South Carolina. He died there a few months later of causes reported as an internal infection or malaria. Because of his renown, Osceola attracted visitors in prison, including renowned artist George Catlin, who painted perhaps the most well-known portrait of the Seminole leader.


title: Osceola

text: Osceola was named Billy Powell at his birth in 1804 in the Creek village of Talisi, which means "Old Town". The village site, now the city of Tallassee, Alabama, was located on the banks of the Tallapoosa River about upstream from Fort Toulouse where the Tallapoosa and the Coosa rivers meet to form the Alabama River. The residents of the original Talisi village and of the current city of Tallassee were a mixture of several ethnicities. The Muscogee Creek were among the Indigenous peoples of the Southeastern Woodlands, and some of them held enslaved black people. Powell was believed to have ancestors from all of these groups. His mother was Polly Coppinger, a mixed-race Creek woman, and his father was most likely William Powell, a Scottish trader.


title: Osceola

text: Polly was also of Muscogee and European ancestry, as the daughter of Ann McQueen and Jose Coppinger. Because the Muscogee had a matrilineal kinship system, Polly and Ann's children were all born into their mother's clan. They were reared by their mothers and their maternal male relatives following Muscogee cultural practices, and they gained their social status from their mother's people. Ann McQueen was also mixed-race Muscogee Creek; her father, James McQueen, was Scottish. Ann was probably the sister or aunt of Peter McQueen, a prominent Muscogee leader and warrior. Like his mother, Billy Powell was raised in the Muscogee Creek confederacy.


title: Osceola

text: Billy Powell's maternal grandfather, James McQueen, was a ship-jumping Scottish sailor who in 1716 became the first recorded white person to trade with the Muscogee Creek Confederacy in Alabama. He stayed in the area as a fur trader and married into a Muscogee family, becoming closely involved with these people. He was buried in 1811 at the Indian cemetery in Franklin, Alabama, near a Methodist missionary church for the Muscogee.


title: Osceola

text: In 1814, after the Red Stick Muscogee Creeks were defeated by United States forces, Polly took Osceola and moved with other Muscogee refugees from Alabama to Florida, where they joined the Seminole. In adulthood, as part of the Seminole, Powell was given his name "Osceola" ( or ). This is an anglicized form of the Creek "Asi-yahola" (pronounced ); the combination of "asi", the ceremonial black drink made from the yaupon holly, and "yahola", meaning "shout" or "shouter".


title: Osceola

text: In 1821, the United States acquired Florida from Spain, and more European-American settlers started moving in, encroaching on the Seminoles' territory. After early military skirmishes and the signing of the 1823 Treaty of Moultrie Creek, by which the US seized the northern Seminole lands, Osceola and his family moved with the Seminole deeper into the unpopulated wilds of central and southern Florida.


title: Osceola

text: As an adult, Osceola took two wives, as did some other high-ranking Muscogee and Seminole leaders. With them, he had at least five children. One of his wives was black, and Osceola fiercely opposed the enslavement of free people. Lt. John T. Sprague mentions in his 1848 history "The Florida War" that Osceola had a wife named "Che-cho-ter" (Morning Dew), who bore him four children.


title: Osceola

text: Through the 1820s and the turn of the decade, American settlers continued pressuring the US government to remove the Seminole from Florida to make way for their desired agricultural development. In 1832, a few Seminole chiefs signed the Treaty of Payne's Landing, by which they agreed to give up their Florida lands in exchange for lands west of the Mississippi River in Indian Territory. According to legend, Osceola stabbed the treaty with his knife, although there are no contemporary reports of this. Donald L. Fixico, an American Indian historian, says he made a research trip to the National Archives to see the original Treaty of Fort Gibson (also known as the Treaty of Payne's Landing), and that upon close inspection, he observed that it had "a small triangular hole shaped like the point of a knife blade".


title: Osceola

text: Five of the most important Seminole chiefs, including Micanopy of the Alachua Seminole, did not agree to removal. In retaliation, the US Indian agent, Wiley Thompson, declared that those chiefs were deposed from their positions. As US relations with the Seminole deteriorated, Thompson forbade the sale of guns and ammunition to them. Osceola, a young warrior rising to prominence, resented this ban. He felt it equated the Seminole with slaves, who were forbidden by law to carry arms.


title: Osceola

text: Thompson considered Osceola to be a friend and gave him a rifle. Osceola had a habit of barging into Thompson's office and shouting complaints at him. On one occasion Osceola quarreled with Thompson, who had the warrior locked up at Fort King for two nights until he agreed to be more respectful. In order to secure his release, Osceola agreed to sign the Treaty of Payne's Landing and to bring his followers into the fort. After his humiliating imprisonment, Osceola secretly prepared vengeance against Thompson.


title: Osceola

text: On December 28, 1835, Osceola, with the same rifle Thompson gave him, killed the Indian agent. Osceola and his followers shot six others outside Fort King, while another group of Seminole ambushed and killed a column of US Army, more than 100 troops, who were marching from Fort Brooke to Fort King. Americans called this event the Dade Massacre. These nearly simultaneous attacks catalyzed the Second Seminole War with the United States.


title: Osceola

text: On October 21, 1837, Osceola and 81 of his followers were captured by General Joseph Hernández on the orders of General Thomas Jesup, under a white flag of truce, when they went for peace talks to Fort Peyton near St. Augustine. He was initially imprisoned at Fort Marion in St. Augustine, before being transferred to Fort Moultrie on Sullivans Island, outside Charleston, South Carolina. Osceola's capture by deceit caused a national uproar. General Jesup's treacherous act and the administration were condemned by many congressional leaders and vilified by international press. Jesup suffered a loss of reputation that lasted for the rest of his life; his betrayal of the truce flag has been described as "one of the most disgraceful acts in American military history."


title: Osceola

text: That December, Osceola and other Seminole prisoners were moved to Fort Moultrie. They were visited by various townspeople. The portraitists George Catlin, W. M. Laning, and Robert John Curtis, the three artists known to have painted Osceola from life, persuaded the Seminole leader to allow his portrait to be painted despite his being gravely ill. Osceola and Curtis developed a close friendship, conversing at length during the painting sessions; Curtis painted two oil portraits of Osceola, one of which remains in the Charleston Museum. These paintings have inspired numerous widely distributed prints and engravings, and cigar store figures were also based on them.


title: Osceola

text: Osceola, having suffered from chronic malaria since 1836, and having acute tonsillitis as well, developed an abscess and died of quinsy on January 30, 1838, three months after his capture. He was buried with military honors at Fort Moultrie.


title: Osceola

text: According to the oral tradition of his descendants, Dr. Frederick Weedon was alone with the body and cut off Osceola's head, placing it in the coffin with the scarf that Osceola had customarily worn being wrapped around the neck, and immediately before the funeral ceremony removed the head and shut the coffin's lid. Weedon kept the head for himself, as well as other objects belonging to Osceola, including a brass pipe and a silver concho. Capt. Pitcairn Morrison, the U.S. Army officer in charge of the Seminole prisoners who had been transported with Osceola, made a last-minute decision to take other items belonging to Osceola. The historical evidence suggests that it was Morrison who decided that a death mask should be made, a European-American custom at the time for prominent persons, but it was done without the permission of Osceola's people. An acquaintance of Morrison, Dr. Benjamin Strobel, a native of Charleston, made a plaster cast of Osceola's face and upper torso. The process of "pulling" the first mold, which was soon displayed in the window of a Charleston drugstore, destroyed the original cast. Weedon apparently preserved Osceola's head in a large jar of alcohol and took it to St. Augustine, where he exhibited it in the family drugstore.


title: Osceola

text: Captain Pitcairn Morrison sent the death mask and some other objects collected by Weedon to an army officer in Washington. By 1885, the death mask and some of Osceola's belongings were being held in the anthropology collection of the Smithsonian Institution. The death mask is currently housed in the Luce collection of the New-York Historical Society.


title: Osceola

text: In 1966, Miami businessman Otis W. Shriver claimed he had dug up Osceola's grave and put his bones into a bank vault to rebury them at a tourist site at the Rainbow Springs in Marion County. Shriver traveled around the state in 1967 to gather support for his project. Archaeologists later proved that Shriver had dug up animal remains; Osceola's body was still in its coffin.


title: Osceola

text: In 1979 the Seminole Nation of Oklahoma bought Osceola's bandolier and other personal items from a Sotheby's auction. Because of the chief's significance, over time some people have created forgeries of Osceola's belongings. Rumors persist that his embalmed head has been found in various locations.


title: Taylor Allderdice High School

text: Taylor Allderdice High School is a public high school in the Squirrel Hill neighborhood of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States. It opened in 1927 and is part of the Pittsburgh Public Schools district. It was named for industrialist and Squirrel Hill resident Taylor Allderdice, who was a member of the city's first school board and president of National Tube Company, a subsidiary of U.S. Steel.


title: Taylor Allderdice High School

text: Allderdice was designated a National Blue Ribbon School by the U.S. Department of Education in 1994, 1995, and 1996.


title: Summer Days (And Summer Nights!!)

text: Summer Days (And Summer Nights!!) is the ninth studio album by American rock band the Beach Boys, released on July 5, 1965, on Capitol. The band's previous album, "The Beach Boys Today!" (released March 1965), represented a departure for the group through its abandonment of themes related to surfing, cars, and teenage love, but it sold below Capitol's expectations. In response, the label pressured the group to produce bigger hits. "Summer Days" thus returned the band's music to simpler themes for one last album, with Brian Wilson combining Capitol's commercial demands with his artistic calling.


title: Summer Days (And Summer Nights!!)

text: Produced by Wilson, "Summer Days" reached number two on the US "Billboard 200" and number four on the UK Albums Chart. Two singles were issued from the album: "Help Me, Rhonda", which became the group's second chart-topper in the US, and "California Girls", which peaked at number three.


title: Summer Days (And Summer Nights!!)

text: Carl Wilson reflected of "Summer Days", "There was a time when it was uncool to be into the Beach Boys, and when we did that album, it started to bother us, doing this same stuff, because we thought we were trapped into having to sing about a certain thing."


title: Summer Days (And Summer Nights!!)

text: One outtake from the album's sessions is known as "Sandy" or "Sherry She Needs Me", and was written by Brian Wilson with Russ Titelman alongside "Guess I'm Dumb". "Sherry She Needs Me" was revisited by the Beach Boys during 1976's "The Beach Boys Love You" sessions. The composition remained dormant until 1998, when it was finally finished by Wilson as "She Says That She Needs Me" for his 1998 "Imagination" solo album. The Beach Boys' version of "Sherry She Needs Me" was released in 2013 for the "Made in California" box set.