title: Humanists UK

text: Prior to the creation of a President of the Union of Ethical Societies in 1918, and that of Chair in 1916, several others held the equivalent role of Chair of the Annual Congress. The very first of these was a woman, the philanthropist and activist Lady Elizabeth Swann, who was the wife of a prominent liberal MP. She presided over the founding Congress of the Union in 1896. Other early chairs of the Annual Congress included then-future Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald (1900-1901 and again in 1903).


title: Humanists UK

text: In April 2011, it was announced that Professor A.C. Grayling would succeed Polly Toynbee as president of Humanists UK in July 2011. However, in June Humanists UK announced that Professor Grayling had decided not to take up that position, because of what he described as "controversy generated by activities in another area of my public life." Humanists UK stated that Polly Toynbee would continue as President until a new appointment was made later in 2011; she remained President for a further 18 months until in December 2012 it was announced that physicist Jim Al-Khalili would become President in January 2013.


title: Humanists UK

text: The charity also contracts an officer on the ground both in Wales and Northern Ireland, who coordinate its national sections (or branches) Wales Humanists and Northern Ireland Humanists. These officers are in turn supported by national committees of volunteers whose advice assists the charity's service delivery in those countries, strategic litigation, and lobbying on devolved issues at the Northern Ireland Assembly and National Assembly for Wales.


title: Humanists UK

text: Humanist equivalents of otherwise religious celebrations are conducted by humanist celebrants, trained and accredited by Humanists UK across England, Wales and Northern Ireland, while the Humanist Society Scotland performs similar ceremonies in Scotland. Non-religious funerals are legal within the UK; over 8,000 funerals are carried out by humanist celebrants in England and Wales each year. Between 600 and 900 weddings and 500 baby namings per year are also conducted by Humanists UK-accredited celebrants. In England and Wales, a humanist wedding or partnership ceremony must be supplemented by a process of obtaining a civil marriage or partnership certificate through a Register Office to be legally recognised, but can be led by a Humanist celebrant.


title: Humanists UK

text: The humanist funeral for former Welsh First Minister Rhodri Morgan at the Welsh Assembly was conducted by a Humanists UK celebrant, Lorraine Barrett and was the first national funeral in the United Kingdom to be led by a humanist celebrant.


title: Humanists UK

text: Since 2018, Humanists UK celebrants have been able to conduct legally recognised marriages in Northern Ireland. This came about after Humanists UK supported a court case centring around its patrons, couple Laura Lacole and Eunan O'Kane.


title: Humanists UK

text: Humanists UK maintains a network of roughly 150 trained and accredited volunteers in England, Wales, and Northern Ireland who go into hospitals, hospices, prisons, universities, and other settings to provide like-minded comfort and support to non-religious people during times of distress, much like a traditional religious chaplain. This network is known as the Non-Religious Pastoral Support Network. The project was initiated by data evidence which suggested that non-religious patients and inmates often refused support from a chaplain if they were themselves non-religious. Since 2014, the National Offender Management Service has recognised the legal right of prisoners to access non-religious pastoral carers, and since 2015, NHS England has recommended that every hospital in England offers a voluntary or employed non-religious carer. In 2018, Lindsay van Dijk was appointed as the first humanist to lead an NHS chaplaincy team at the Buckinghamshire Healthcare NHS trust, which includes the world-renowned spinal injuries unit at Stoke Mandeville hospital. The current chair of NRPSN is Amy Walden.


title: Humanists UK

text: Young Humanists is the organisation's youth wing, which launched early in 2015 with a number of events in cities across the UK.


title: Humanists UK

text: Numerous prominent people from the worlds of science, philosophy, the arts, politics, and entertainment are publicly aligned with Humanists UK, including Professor Alice Roberts, Tim Minchin, Stephen Fry, Matty Healy, Sandi Toksvig, Philip Pullman, and Dan Snow.


title: Humanists UK

text: In the 20th century, key members of Humanists UK's "advisory council" included Karl Popper, Vanessa Redgrave, Harold Pinter, E M Forster, Bertrand Russell, John Maynard Smith, Harry Kroto, Ludovic Kennedy, Jacob Bronowski, and Barbara Wootton.


title: Humanists UK

text: In September 2008, Humanists UK joined with religious organisations, teachers' unions, and other human rights campaigns groups to found the Accord Coalition, a diverse coalition made up of groups that oppose religious segregation in education.


title: Humanists UK

text: Humanist Students is a national federation of atheist, humanist, secularist, and skeptic societies at universities and is part of Humanists UK. Its elected delegates traditionally, alongside members of Young Humanists, represent Humanists UK at Young Humanists International events.


title: Humanists UK

text: Humanists UK has traditionally worked closely with the British Pregnancy Advisory Service, which was founded by the President of Birmingham Humanists, sexologist Martin Cole, in 1968. Humanists UK was a founding member of the BPAS "We Trust Women" coalition, which campaigns for the full decriminalisation of abortion throughout the UK.


title: Humanists UK

text: The organisation supports a network of affiliated humanist groups throughout the UK and aims to encourage local campaigning, charity work, socialising, and events on a local level, and provides resources to assist the creation and running of such groups. Some of these groups are formally partnered with Humanists UK, which entitles them to added staff and promotional support, while others maintain a looser affiliate agreement. As of 2017, the number of partner groups stands at 47, with 15 affiliates.


title: Humanists UK

text: Humanists UK runs a prestigious annual events programme, including the Darwin Day Lecture (on themes connected with Darwin's work and humanism), the Rosalind Franklin Lecture (commemorating women in humanism), the Voltaire Lecture (on humanism more generally), the Bentham Lecture (co-hosted with University College London's philosophy department), the Holyoake Lecture (held in Manchester and covering humanism and political thought), and an annual convention which moves around the UK from year to year.


title: Humanists UK

text: Past speakers at these events include top scientists, authors, and academics, including Steven Pinker, Brian Cox, Richard Dawkins, Robert Hinde, AC Grayling, Natalie Haynes, Bonya Ahmed, Bettany Hughes, Alice Roberts, Nick Cohen, Ludovic Kennedy, Michael Foot, Lawrence Krauss, Eugenie Scott, Adam Rutherford, Tom Blundell, and Jerry Coyne, Anne Glover, Angela Saini, Sarah-Jayne Blakemore, Jim Al-Khalili, Owen Jones, and Kate Pickett.


title: Humanists UK

text: From 2011 Humanists UK presented an annual award for special contributions to Humanism. It is known as the Humanist of the Year Award, having been known prior to 2014 as the Services to Humanism Award. The award was customarily presented during Humanists UK annual conference (or, in 2014, the UK-hosted World Humanist Congress). Since 2016 it has been presented at a special reception event. Past winners are:


title: Humanists UK

text: In January 2008 Humanists UK (known as the BHA at the time) and the National Secular Society approached the Scouts Association about a conflict between the claims of inclusivity on their website and their oath. In February 2008 journalists Bryan Appleyard and Deborah Orr criticised both Humanists UK and the National Secular Society for the (ultimately successful) campaign to end discrimination against non-religious children in the Scouts' Oath of Allegiance. In April 2008 Jonathan Petre, The Daily Telegraph religious affairs journalist, countered this position pointing out that the Scout Oath of Allegiance was discriminatory. After consultation with Humanists UK over a five-year period, Girlguiding UK in June 2013 and eventually the UK Scout Association in October 2013 recognised the discrimination and amended their oaths to accommodate non-religious young people from 1 January 2014.


title: Humanists UK

text: Professor Alice Roberts was criticised for sending her child to a faith school, despite Humanists UK's campaign against state-funded religious schools. She responded that this was the very point of the campaign: that she, like many other parents, had little choice over where to send her child and that she would have preferred a non-faith school option local to her.


title: Paul Rhys

text: Rhys was born in Neath to working class Catholic parents, Kathryn Ivory and her husband Richard Charles Rhys, a labourer. At fourteen, he bred and trained horses, becoming a highly accomplished rider. A committed punk during his youth, Rhys sang in several bands. His first acting job was playing Liverpudlian judo expert Ralph in John Godber's hit play "Bouncers", before leaving for London, where he qualified for his Equity card by singing jazz standards at lunchtime for Peter Boizot's Pizza Express and Kettners.


title: Paul Rhys

text: Rhys received a Bernard Shaw Scholarship to study at RADA. In the first term he was spotted by Philip Prowse and was invited to perform in Oscar Wilde's "A Woman of No Importance" at the Glasgow Citizens Theatre, playing the illegitimate son, Gerald. He also appeared as Dean Swift in Julian Temple's film "Absolute Beginners". Rhys completed his education at RADA by winning the William Pole prize and the Bancroft Gold Medal on graduation.


title: Paul Rhys

text: His next film role was in Franklin J. Schaffner's "Lionheart". After a brief spell at the Royal Shakespeare Company he played opposite Colin Firth in Richard Eyre's award-winning film "Tumbledown". Soon after this, he appeared in "Vincent & Theo", directed by the legendary American film director Robert Altman, as Vincent van Gogh's younger brother Theo van Gogh. Continuing the theme of famous brothers, Paul then played Sydney Chaplin opposite Robert Downey, Jr.'s Charlie Chaplin in Richard Attenborough's "Chaplin". He went on to play "Massis" in Alan Bennett's "102 Boulevard Haussmann". He then appeared opposite Peter O'Toole in "Rebecca's Daughters". A series of films then followed including "From Hell", "Food of Love", "Love Lies Bleeding", "" and "".


title: Paul Rhys

text: Running parallel to Rhys's film work has been a diverse and notable television career, working in leading roles with directors such as Mike Hodges, Stephen Frears, Sir Richard Eyre, Philip Martin, Christopher Morahan, Tom Vaughan, Edward Hall, Harry Bradbeer in productions including "Tumbledown", "A Dance to the Music of Time", "The Heroes", "Ghosts", "Gallowglass", "The Healer", "Anna Karenina", "The Deal", "Beethoven", "The Ten Commandments", and more recently the television series "Borgia", "Luther", and "Spooks".


title: Paul Rhys

text: In 2014, he played the lead as traitor Aldrich Ames, in "The Assets" miniseries, then as King George III in "" and as Sir John Conroy in "Victoria". He has made a minor industry out of playing vampires: "Being Human" (as Ivan); as Vlad, the Prince of Wallachia aka Dracula in seasons 1-3 of the 2015 series "Da Vinci's Demons"; and as Andrew Hubbard in two seasons of the 2020-21 hit, "A Discovery of Witches".


title: Paul Rhys

text: Rhys’ early stage work included performances at Glasgow Citizen’s Theatre, Royal Shakespeare Company, Riverside Studios, Compass Theatre, and Young Vic. His first appearance at the Royal National Theatre was opposite Ian McKellen in Bent, subsequently playing Angelo in "Measure for Measure" for which he won the Critics' Circle Theatre Award; Houseman in "The Invention of Love;" and Edgar in "King Lear", for which he was nominated for an Olivier Award. He appeared as "Edmund" in "Long Day's Journey into Night" and as "Leo" in "Design for Living" at The Donmar Warehouse, performing opposite Rachel Weisz and Clive Owen. In 2000 he played the title role in "Hamlet" at the Young Vic and later in Tokyo and Osaka. He received several awards for this performance. Rhys continued a collaboration with Theatre de la Complicite's Simon McBurney, starring both as Wolan and The Master in Complicité's "Master and Margarita". The show opened at the Barbican in 2010 and continued on international tour, returning to the Barbican for a second sell-out season in 2012. In 2016, he starred in a new version of Chekhov's Uncle Vanya by Robert Icke at The Almeida Theatre alongside Tobias Menzies, Jessica Brown-Findley and Vanessa Kirby.


title: Paul Rhys

text: Real-life characters played by Rhys have included Vlad Tepes, Ludwig van Beethoven, Peter Mandelson, Paul McCartney, Thomas De Quincey, A. E. Housman, Frédéric Chopin, and Marcus Tullius Cicero.


title: Paul Rhys

text: On two occasions, Rhys was taken to hospital while working on a stage production, once with pneumonia and the other with exhaustion. In the title role in Howard Brenton's play "Paul" at the National Theatre, he was unable to continue as he had lost an unhealthy amount of weight, dropping from 76 to 57 kilos.


title: Paul Rhys

text: From his youth, Rhys has been openly bisexual. His most important long-term relationship was with the late Australian actress Arkie Whiteley, with whom he appeared in "Gallowglass". He is an avid cyclist and practices Transcendental Meditation and Ashtanga yoga. He is a lifelong animal lover and supports PETA. His interests include LGBTQ+ issues, contemporary literature, art and architectural design. Rhys lives in London and in New York City.


title: Emotional support animal

text: An emotional support animal (ESA) is an animal that provides relief to individuals with "psychiatric disability through companionship." Emotional support animals may be any type of pet (not just, e.g., dogs), and are not recognized as service animals under the Americans with Disabilities Act.


title: Emotional support animal

text: While service animals are trained to perform specific tasks such as helping a blind person navigate, an emotional support animal doesn't require any formal training to assist with the mitigation of mental health symptoms. Any animal that provides support, comfort, or aid, to an individual through companionship, unconditional positive regard, and affection may be regarded as an emotional support animal.


title: Emotional support animal

text: In the United States, people with psychiatric disabilities, who own an emotional support animal, may be exempt from federal housing and travel rules. To receive these exemptions, the handler must meet the federal definition of disabled, and the emotional support animal must help alleviate the symptoms or effects of the disability. Often, the individual will need to present a letter from a certified healthcare provider, stating that the emotional support animal is needed for their mental health.


title: Emotional support animal

text: Recent research studies document a correlation between companion animals and the improvement of their owners' mental health.


title: Emotional support animal

text: Emotional support animals are typically cats and dogs, but may be members of other animal species. In relation to whether or not an emotional support animal should be allowed in a rental property, it is thus necessary to perform an individualized assessment of the specific assistance animal to determine if it poses a direct threat of harm or would cause substantial property damage, and not to assume that an animal is excluded based upon breed or species. Although a wild or exotic animal that poses an increase risk of disease or potential attack upon other people may potentially be excluded, courts have recognized species including guinea pigs and miniature horses as emotional support animals.


title: Emotional support animal

text: There is no requirement under US federal law that emotional support animals must wear a tag, harness, or clothing of any type indicating they are emotional support animals.


title: Emotional support animal

text: There are no training requirements for emotional support animals. Emotional support animals typically have no training beyond what would be expected for the same type of animal. Emotional support animals need not perform any tasks other than what a pet of the same species would perform, and may display unwanted behaviors, such as defecating or urinating in inappropriate places, growling and barking at people, or biting them.


title: Emotional support animal

text: Both poorly trained emotional support animals and poorly trained pets that are being fraudulently passed off as emotional support animals represent a threat to the health, safety, and function of both people and trained service animals.


title: Emotional support animal

text: In 2020, the Assistance Dog Center, an assistance dog training service, and CertaPet, a company that connects potential clients with providers of animal-assisted therapy, announced the result of an online international survey of the owners of emotional assistance animals, obtaining responses from 298 people in relation to 307 ESA dogs. All participants reported that their quality of life had improved as a result of having an ESA dog, and almost all reported that having an ESA dog increased their feelings of security, independence and energy, and helped improve their sleep.


title: Emotional support animal

text: A 2020 study, conducted in the UK through an online survey of almost 6,000 people, similarly found that almost 90% of people who had at least one companion animal during the COVID-19 pandemic described their animals as a source of considerable support, with that result being unaffected by the species of companion animal. The authors concluded that having a companion animal seemed to mitigate some of the negative psychological effects of COVID-19 lockdown. Poorer mental health before lockdown was associated with a stronger reported human-animal bond, and animal ownership was associated with smaller reported decreases in mental health and smaller increases in loneliness.


title: Emotional support animal

text: A 2018 review of 17 studies relating to companion animal ownership found that pets provide benefits to those with mental health conditions, and that pets can be a source of calming support and companionship, as well as providing distraction and disruption from upsetting symptoms and experiences, and helping their owners maintain a positive identity and sense of self. The review found potential negative aspects of pet ownership, such as the significant distress associated with the loss of a pet. The authors recommended further rigorous research to test the apparent positive relationship between ownership of a companion animal and mental health.


title: Emotional support animal

text: A 2019 law review article summarized some of the research into the benefits of companion and emotional support animals, for example noting that interactions with companion animals can decrease blood pressure, can mitigate some of the symptoms associated with dementia and Alzheimer's disease, and that animal-assisted classroom activities had been shown to improve the social skills of children with autism spectrum disorders.


title: Emotional support animal

text: Emotional support animals are not considered service animals and are not protected under Canadian law.


title: Emotional support animal

text: Canada's Accessible Transportation for Persons with Disabilities Regulations statute (ATPDR), only gives legal recognition to service dogs, defined as “…a dog that has been individually trained by an organization or person specializing in service dog training to perform a task to assist a person with a disability with a need related to their disability.”


title: Emotional support animal

text: Under the Canadian Human Rights Act, it is illegal to discriminate against a person with a disability who uses a service animal. This means that businesses and organizations must allow service animals to accompany their owners in public places, such as restaurants, stores, and public transportation.


title: Emotional support animal

text: Service animals are trained to perform specific tasks for individuals with disabilities, such as guiding a person who is blind, alerting a person who is deaf, or pulling a wheelchair. In Canada, service animals are typically dogs, but can also include miniature horses in some cases.


title: Emotional support animal

text: While Canada does not recognise ESAs, US airlines operating in Canada do. Some Canadian airlines allow emotional support animals to be transported on flights, but these animals are not considered to be service animals and are subject to different rules and regulations. For example, airlines may require documentation from a licensed mental health professional stating that the animal is necessary for the individual's emotional support.


title: Emotional support animal

text: To qualify for an emotional support animal in the US, its owner must have an emotional or mental disability that is certified by a mental health professional such as a psychiatrist, psychologist, or other licensed mental health care provider. These may be invisible disabilities.


title: Emotional support animal

text: The owner's mental health impairment must be substantial enough to produce disability, rather than discomfort or a desire to have a pet. Furthermore, for the provider to certify the animal non-fraudulently, the emotional support animal's presence must provide a significant benefit that makes the difference between the person functioning adequately and not.


title: Emotional support animal

text: An emotional support animal letter, or an ESA letter, is a document that qualifies people to be accompanied by a support animal in contexts in which pets might not be permitted, such as in rental housing. The letter must be issued by a psychologist, psychiatrist, qualified mental health professional, or physician. The professional who issues an ESA letter need not be the recipient's primary care physician, and some doctors may refer patients who are seeking an ESA to psychologists or other professionals.


title: Emotional support animal

text: Under US Department of Transportation rules, the doctor or mental health professional who issues the letter must be currently providing treatment to the passenger. Airlines are not obligated to accept certificates or letters that are more than one year old, and may require that the certification be provided on the letterhead of a licensed mental health professional or doctor who is specifically treating the passenger's mental or emotional disability. It is unclear whether these rules still stand when accepting ESAs after the newest revision.


title: Emotional support animal

text: Following a debate over the presence of ESAs on airplanes, it is no longer required that airlines allow ESAs to travel on US airlines with their owners. Under the new DOT rules, most airlines have decided to treat ESAs as pets. Under the exceptions previously provided to emotional support animals, some people who did not have a documented need represented their animals to airlines as ESAs. This was one of the prompts for the revision of the Act.


title: Emotional support animal

text: On December 2, 2020, the US Department of Transportation announced that the Air Carrier Access Act was getting a revision which no longer required airlines to accept ESAs, allowing them to be treated as pets. This came into force 30 days after the final ruling. Prior to this, the Air Carrier Access Act had established a procedure for modifying pet policies on aircraft to permit a person with a disability to travel with a prescribed emotional support animal, so long as they have appropriate documentation and the animal is not a danger to others and did not engage in disruptive behavior (for example, jumping on people, barking or growling, urinating or defecating in the cabin or gate area). "Unusual" animals, including all snakes and other reptiles, were legally allowed to be refused.


title: Emotional support animal

text: Although the issues has not been addressed by the courts, a person's request for accommodation of multiple ESAs would follow the same legal framework as any other request. Thus, if a person with a disability claims a need for multiple emotional support animals, that person will need documentation supporting this claim from their psychologist or other licensed healthcare professional. The practitioner will need to provide documentation that each support animal alleviates some symptom of the disability.


title: Emotional support animal

text: In the US, legal protection against housing discrimination is afforded to people with mental disabilities under two federal statutes: Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and the Federal Fair Housing Amendments Act (FHAA) of 1988. These statutes, and the corresponding case law, create the general rule that a landlord cannot discriminate against people with mental disabilities in housing, and if a reasonable accommodation will enable a person living with a disability to equally enjoy and use the rental unit, the landlord must provide the accommodation. Persons with disabilities may request a reasonable accommodation, such as a waiver of a "no pets policy", for any assistance animal, including an emotional support animal, under both the FHAA and Section 504.


title: Emotional support animal

text: Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act was enacted in 1973 and made broad and sweeping statements that discrimination against the disabled in any program receiving federal financial assistance was illegal. However, it was not until 1988 when the US Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) created regulations under the statute. Section 504 states:


title: Emotional support animal

text: In the context of housing discrimination, this statute creates the rule that public housing authorities cannot deny housing to a person with a disability solely because of his or her disability, and that if a reasonable accommodation can be made to make housing available to a person with a disability, the landlord is required to make the accommodation. Even though the statute does not expressly use the phrase "reasonable accommodation", it has been read into the statute by case law and HUD regulations interpreting the statute.


title: Emotional support animal

text: To establish that a "no pets" waiver for an emotional support animal is a reasonable accommodation under Section 504, the tenant must: have a disability, be "otherwise qualified" to receive the benefit, be denied the benefit solely because of the disability, and the housing authority must receive federal financial assistance. Courts have held that "otherwise qualified" means that the tenant must be able to meet the requirements of the program in spite of the handicap. Also, the tenant must be able to meet the general rules of tenancy, such as cleaning up after the animal and walking the animal in designated areas.


title: Emotional support animal

text: The "Majors" and "Whittier Terrace" courts established the foundational principles that a tenant can be "otherwise qualified" under Section 504 despite an inability to comply with a "no pets" policy, and that a waiver of a "no pets" policy can be a reasonable accommodation under Section 504. However, several courts have consistently held that a tenant requesting an emotional support animal as a reasonable accommodation must demonstrate a relationship between his or her ability to function and the companionship of the animal. This required nexus between the disability and the emotional support animal has been refined by several courts. For instance, in "Janush v. Charities Housing Development Corp" (N.D. Ca., 2000), the US Northern District Court of California held the reasonable accommodation is a fact-based, and not species-based, issue. In "Nason v. Stone Hill Realty Association" (1996), a Massachusetts trial court recognized that there were more reasonable accommodations to lessen the effects of a person's disability, other than keeping an emotional support animal, and therefore denied the tenant's motion for preliminary injunction. Courts have held the emotional distress expected to occur if a person is forced to give up his or her emotional support animal will not support a reasonable accommodation claim.


title: Emotional support animal

text: Since a violation of Section 504 requires the housing authority to receive federal funding, this act did not cover private housing providers. This legislative gap existed until 1988 when Congress passed the Fair Housing Act Amendments.


title: Emotional support animal

text: Whereas only housing authorities receiving federal financial assistance are subject to Section 504, both public and private housing authorities are subject to the provisions of the Fair Housing Act. Enacted as part of the Civil Rights Act of 1968 legislation, the Fair Housing Act (FHA) focused on housing discrimination on the basis of race, color, national origin, or gender; in 1988, however, the Federal Fair Housing Act Amendments (FHAA) expanded this scope to include disabled persons. The FHAA states that it is unlawful "to discriminate in the sale or rental ... of a dwelling to any buyer or renter because of a handicap of that buyer or renter, a person residing in or intending to reside in that dwelling after it is so sold, rented, or made available, or any person associated with that buyer or renter." Further, it is discrimination for any person to: "refuse to make reasonable accommodations in rules, policies, practices, or services, when such accommodations may be necessary to afford a handicapped person equal opportunity to use and enjoy a dwelling unit, including public and common use areas." Thus, like Section 504, the FHAA requires landlords to make reasonable accommodations for tenants.


title: Emotional support animal

text: The term "major life activities" has been interpreted broadly to include those "activities that are of central importance to daily life," such as "seeing, hearing, walking, breathing, performing manual tasks, caring for one's self, learning, speaking, and reproducing." The United States Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) is responsible for administering the FHAA; the Attorney General and private individuals may enforce it.


title: Emotional support animal

text: To establish a "prima facie" case of housing discrimination under the FHAA: the tenant must have a qualifying disability, the landlord knew of the handicap or should reasonably be expected to know of it, accommodation of the handicap may be necessary to afford the tenant an equal opportunity to use and enjoy the dwelling, and the landlord must deny the request, such as refusing to waive the "no pets" policy.


title: Emotional support animal

text: The second element, that the landlord knew of the handicap or should have known of it, places an affirmative burden on the tenant to request the reasonable accommodation, such as a waiver of a "no pets" policy for an emotional support animal. A tenant wishing to obtain a waiver of a "no pets" policy for an emotional support animal may meet this burden by providing a letter from his or her physician or mental health professional: stating that the tenant has a mental disability, explaining that the animal is needed to lessen the effects of the disability, and requesting that the animal be allowed in the rental unit as a reasonable accommodation for the disability. Landlords are entitled to ask for supporting materials which document the need for an emotional support animal. Mere emotional distress that would result from having to give up an animal because of a "no pets" policy will not qualify under federal law. Instead, there must be a link, or a nexus, between the animal and the disability. The nexus between the animal and the disability is analyzed under the third element of an FHAA housing discrimination case, known as the necessity requirement, and requires that the accommodation will affirmatively enhance a disabled tenant's quality of life by ameliorating the effects of the disability. So long as the requested accommodation does not constitute an undue financial or administrative burden for the landlord, or fundamentally alter the nature of the housing, the landlord must provide the accommodation.


title: Emotional support animal

text: Although the Fair Housing Act covers both multi- and single-family detached home, the sale or rental of a single-family dwelling by an owner is exempt from the statute. There are two exceptions to this exemption, however. One is that the exception will not apply if the private individual owner owns more than three single-family homes. The other exception to this exemption is the use of a real estate agent or a broker to rent out the home.


title: Emotional support animal

text: A tenant may be awarded actual and punitive damages, injunctions, and attorney fees at the discretion of the court for a landlord's violation of the FHAA.


title: Emotional support animal

text: It is important to note that, though in most cases, landlords do grant ESAs the same reasonable housing accommodations as service animals, there have been instances where they do not. There are some court cases, such as the "Kenna Homes" case in West Virginia, where the court has said it is not a violation of Fair Housing rules for a landlord to require an assistance animal to have some form of training.


title: Emotional support animal

text: The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) allows people with disabilities to bring their service animals in public places. However, the ADA only extends these protections to dogs that have been "individually trained" to "perform tasks for the benefit of an individual with a disability," which is the definition of service animals under 28 C.F.R. § 36.104. Since emotional support animals are typically not trained for an individual's specific disability and since emotional support animals might not be dogs, they do not receive the protections of the ADA. A public place can therefore deny admission to an emotional support animal.


title: Emotional support animal

text: In situations where the ADA and the FHAA/Section 504 apply simultaneously (e.g., a public housing agency, sales or leasing offices, or housing associated with a university or other place of education), housing providers must meet their obligations under both the reasonable accommodation standard of the FHAct/Section 504 and the service animal provisions of the ADA.


title: Emotional support animal

text: Current ADA rules require employers not to discriminate on the grounds of a disability. Employers are required to accommodate service animals brought on the job with their owner. Legal requirements for ESAs in the workplace are not settled. At present, a person can have their ESA at work as long as they can provide documentation supporting the need and it is deemed a "reasonable accommodation" under the ADA.


title: Emotional support animal

text: The lack of training for emotional support animals has led to litigation. For example, there is controversy over whether the ADA definition of service animal, with its requirement of training, applies to reasonable accommodation claims for animals under the FHAA. However, HUD administrative judges have ruled in favor of emotional support animals, despite their lack of training, as being reasonable accommodations. Additionally, several courts have also ruled that untrained assistance animals are reasonable accommodations under the FHAA. Yet, there are cases that have held an assistance animal, in order to be considered a reasonable accommodation under the FHAA, must be trained.


title: Emotional support animal

text: Under U.S. law, only service animals must be allowed access to health care facilities. The grant of access fir therapy animals and ESAs thus reflects a considered decision by the healthcare provider in relation to patient care, as opposed to a legal mandate.


title: Emotional support animal

text: In some US states, providing a letter, registry, or certificate to a person who is not disabled is a crime. Many states have made it a criminal misdemeanor to make false claims stating that their animal is an assistance animal or to say they are a handler training an assistance animal. States that have passed laws criminalizing the misrepresentation of service and assistance animals include Alabama, Arizona, California, Colorado, Florida, Idaho, Iowa, Kansas, Maine, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, Nevada, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, North Carolina, Texas, Utah, Virginia, and Washington State.


title: Emotional support animal

text: Some people have misrepresented their pets as ESAs in order to avoid extra costs, such as paying damage deposits for pets in a rental apartment or extra baggage fees for taking an animal on an airplane. This was one of the reasons which prompted the revision of the Air Carrier Access Act in December 2020.


title: Emotional support animal

text: Controversies include the behavior of some animals, harm to other people, the problem of widespread fraud, and the scientific inquiry about the benefit of emotional support animals.


title: Emotional support animal

text: The rise of ESAs over the past decade has sparked controversy since animal owners receive ESA certifications from internet sites with little or no psychiatric evaluation, fueling fraudulent ESA claims by airline passengers and tenants. The presence of animals in these spaces poses risks to passengers and neighbors, such as allergic reactions, animal bites, hygiene issues, or emotional distress for those with a cultural or physical aversion to animals.


title: Emotional support animal

text: Emotional support animals may behave differently to trained assistance animals. For instance, due to the lack of training, an emotional support animal may bark or sniff at other people, whereas service dogs are trained not to do so.


title: Emotional support animal

text: People with unique disabilities (invisible disability), such as allergy to animal dander, have had allergic attacks triggered by emotional support animals.


title: Emotional support animal

text: There is also a concern about people fraudulently acquiring emotional support animals though they are legally not considered disabled. According to one survey, Americans generally believe that a majority of emotional support animals serve a legitimate need, but the more experience the respondents had with service animals and emotional support animals, the more aware they were of fraud. The prevalence of fraud, and the rising popularity of emotional support animals, has increased the number of animals in public places where animals are normally not allowed. Several well-publicized incidents involving emotional support dogs causing injuries to passengers or airline employees on flights have led to further controversy, stricter policies for flights, and a growing movement to institute a national registry and certification process for service dogs and emotional support animals.


title: Emotional support animal

text: Many landlords have "no pets" policies for their rental properties, and many landlords who allow pets impose restrictions on the type and size of pets that tenants are allowed to bring into the rental property. Many landlords are reluctant to waive their pet policies and restrictions, even when requested by a tenant who is requesting accommodation of a mental or emotional disability. Nonetheless, most landlords may not legally reject a tenant who has documented qualification for an emotional support animal, nor may a landlord charge any form of pet fee to that tenant.


title: Emotional support animal

text: Landlords may be concerned that waiving a "no pet" policy for one tenant will inspire many others to claim mental illnesses and the need for emotional support animals. Landlords may believe that as more tenants have animals on the property, odors and noises from the animals may deter other tenants from renting and thus lower the value of the rental property. Landlords may also believe that making exceptions to a "no pets" policy for a tenant's emotional support animal may confuse other tenants who do not understand why one person was allowed an animal while they were not. However, if a tenant documents the need for an emotional support animal under the Fair Housing act or state law, and the landlord is not exempt from those laws, the landlord must allow the tenant to possess an emotional support animal. The FHA does not have a conclusive definition of what type of animal an assistance or companion animal must be, plus the animal does not need to be trained to perform any specific task to be considered an emotional support or companion animal. This means dogs, cats, birds, and other types of companion animals can be considered use for emotional support.


title: Emotional support animal

text: The US Department of Housing and Urban Development and Department of Justice have held that "providers may not require persons with disabilities to pay extra fees or deposits as a condition of receiving a reasonable accommodation." In 1990, a HUD administrative judge enjoined owners of an apartment complex from charging a person with a disability a pet deposit fee. The judge held that an auxiliary aid, like a service, guide, or signal dog, may be necessary to afford the individual an equal opportunity to use and enjoy the dwelling unit, including public and common areas. Accordingly, when a tenant qualifies for a service animal or emotional support animal, a landlord may not charge the tenant additional fees in association with the presence of the animal in the rental property. This prohibition extends to pet deposits and fees, even when those fees are charged to other tenants who have pets.


title: Emotional support animal

text: A landlord may charge a tenant for damage caused to a rental property by the tenant's emotional support animal, and may deduct the cost of repairs from the tenant's security deposit, but may not increase the security deposit based upon the tenant's possession of an emotional support animal.


title: Emotional support animal

text: Exceptions may apply to a landlord's obligation to allow a tenant to possess an emotional support animal. For example, owner-occupied buildings with four or fewer rental units are exempt from the federal Fair Housing Act. The Fair Housing Act also exempts private owners of single-family housing sold or rented without the use of a broker, as long as the owner does not own more than three single-family homes, as well as housing operated by organizations and private clubs that restrict occupancy to members. Exemptions under state law may be more restrictive than federal exemptions.


title: Emotional support animal

text: Even when the Fair Housing Act applies, circumstances may arise under which a landlord may restrict a tenant from possessing an emotional support animal.


title: Emotional support animal

text: If the requested accommodation (i.e., the waiver of a "no pets" policy for an emotional support animal) constitutes an undue financial or administrative burden for the landlord, or fundamentally alters the nature of the housing, the landlord may not have to provide the reasonable accommodation. However, as the burden of allowing emotional support animals is generally modest, most landlords have been unsuccessful in opposing a waiver of a "no pets" policy on the basis of a claimed extreme burden.


title: Emotional support animal

text: On April 25, 2013, the US Department of Housing and Urban Development sent notice to its regional offices that public universities are required to comply with the Fair Housing Act, which includes allowing emotional support animals into college dormitories and residence halls. , colleges in the United States such as St. Mary's College of Maryland were trying to accommodate students with a documented need for emotional support animals.


title: Emotional support animal

text: While a number of institutions traditionally held a "no pets" policy, students with ESAs assert that an animal provides them therapeutic benefit. Some professors have expressed concern that animals in classrooms and academic settings will cause classroom distraction.


title: Emotional support animal

text: Emotional support animals are only one type of animal that is used for people with disabilities or similar issues. Other types of animals used by and for people with disabilities include:


title: Alien: Isolation – The Digital Series

text: Alien: Isolation – The Digital Series (also known simply as Alien: Isolation) is an American adult animated science fiction horror streaming television series directed by Fabien Dubois, based on the "Alien" franchise created by Dan O'Bannon and Ronald Shusett, and the by Alistair Hope, that premiered on February 28, 2019, on IGN. The series was created by Kinga Smith and Fabien Dubois and stars much of the cast of the video game. It takes place 15 years after the events of the 1979 "Alien" film and follows Amanda Ripley, daughter of "Alien" protagonist Ellen Ripley, as she investigates the disappearance of her mother.


title: Alien: Isolation – The Digital Series

text: "Alien: Isolation" takes place 15 years after the original film and follows Amanda Ripley, daughter of Ellen Ripley, as she accompanies a Weyland-Yutani team being sent to retrieve the flight recorder of her mother's ship, the "Nostromo", recently located by the crew of a salvage vessel "Anesidora" and being held aboard the Seegson corporation remote "Sevastopol" space station in orbit around the KG-348 gas giant, on request of Christopher Samuels, an android working for the Weyland-Yutani corporation, so that Ripley can have closure regarding the fate of her missing mother. Ripley, Samuels, and Weyland-Yutani executive Nina Taylor travel to "Sevastopol" on board the "Torrens" courier ship, only to find the station damaged and its communications offline. After attempting to spacewalk over to the station to investigate, their EVA line is severed by debris, and Ripley is separated from the others and forced to enter the station on her own, encountering hostile androids, humans, and an unknown alien organism.


title: Alien: Isolation – The Digital Series

text: On February 13, 2019, "Bloody Disgusting" reported that two "Alien" television series were in development, one animated, one live-action. On February 20, 2019, Axis Animation reported that a seven-episode animated adaption of the 2014 video game "" was in development. On February 27, 2019, it was announced that IGN had given the production of "Alien: Isolation – The Digital Series" a series order to consist of seven quarter hour episodes, each consisting of a combination of cut scenes from the game, newly rendered scenes, and first-person segments in the game that were re-shot and edited for the purposes of the streaming television series, to be exclusively released on IGN the following day. The series was set to be written by Jeff Juhasz and produced by Reverse Engineering Studios (RES) and DVgroup.


title: Alien: Isolation – The Digital Series

text: Alongside the initial series announcement, it was reported that the cast of the original "Alien: Isolation" game would reprise their characters for the series, including Andrea Deck as Amanda and Ellen Ripley.


title: Alien: Isolation – The Digital Series

text: On February 27, 2019, the official trailer was released which included the announcement that the show would premiere on February 28, 2019.


title: Oomycete

text: Oomycota forms a distinct phylogenetic lineage of fungus-like eukaryotic microorganisms, called oomycetes (). They are filamentous and heterotrophic, and can reproduce both sexually and asexually. Sexual reproduction of an oospore is the result of contact between hyphae of male antheridia and female oogonia; these spores can overwinter and are known as resting spores. Asexual reproduction involves the formation of chlamydospores and sporangia, producing motile zoospores. Oomycetes occupy both saprophytic and pathogenic lifestyles, and include some of the most notorious pathogens of plants, causing devastating diseases such as late blight of potato and sudden oak death. One oomycete, the mycoparasite "Pythium oligandrum", is used for biocontrol, attacking plant pathogenic fungi. The oomycetes are also often referred to as water molds (or water moulds), although the water-preferring nature which led to that name is not true of most species, which are terrestrial pathogens.


title: Oomycete

text: Oomycetes were originally grouped with fungi due to similarities in morphology and lifestyle. However, molecular and phylogenetic studies revealed significant differences between fungi and oomycetes which means the latter are now grouped with the stramenopiles (which include some types of algae). The Oomycota have a very sparse fossil record; a possible oomycete has been described from Cretaceous amber.


title: Oomycete

text: Oomycota comes from the Greek ωόν (oon, 'egg') and μύκητας (mykitas, 'fungus'), referring to the large round oogonia, structures containing the female gametes, that are characteristic of the oomycetes.


title: Oomycete

text: The name "water mold" refers to their earlier classification as fungi and their preference for conditions of high humidity and running surface water, which is characteristic for the basal taxa of the oomycetes.


title: Oomycete

text: The oomycetes rarely have septa (see hypha), and if they do, they are scarce, appearing at the bases of sporangia, and sometimes in older parts of the filaments. Some are unicellular, while others are filamentous and branching.


title: Oomycete

text: This group was originally classified among the fungi (the name "oomycota" means "egg fungus") and later treated as protists, based on general morphology and lifestyle. A cladistic analysis based on modern discoveries about the biology of these organisms supports a relatively close relationship with some photosynthetic organisms, such as brown algae and diatoms. A common taxonomic classification based on these data, places the class Oomycota along with other classes such as Phaeophyceae (brown algae) within the phylum Heterokonta.


title: Oomycete

text: This relationship is supported by a number of observed differences between the characteristics of oomycetes and fungi. For instance, the cell walls of oomycetes are composed of cellulose rather than chitin and generally do not have septations. Also, in the vegetative state they have diploid nuclei, whereas fungi have haploid nuclei. Most oomycetes produce self-motile zoospores with two flagella. One flagellum has a "whiplash" morphology, and the other a branched "tinsel" morphology. The "tinsel" flagellum is unique to the Kingdom Heterokonta. Spores of the few fungal groups which retain flagella (such as the Chytridiomycetes) have only one whiplash flagellum. Oomycota and fungi have different metabolic pathways for synthesizing lysine and have a number of enzymes that differ. The ultrastructure is also different, with oomycota having tubular mitochondrial cristae and fungi having flattened cristae.


title: Oomycete

text: In spite of this, many species of oomycetes are still described or listed as types of fungi and may sometimes be referred to as pseudofungi, or lower fungi.


title: Oomycete

text: Most of the oomycetes produce two distinct types of spores. The main dispersive spores are asexual, self-motile spores called zoospores, which are capable of chemotaxis (movement toward or away from a chemical signal, such as those released by potential food sources) in surface water (including precipitation on plant surfaces). A few oomycetes produce aerial asexual spores that are distributed by wind. They also produce sexual spores, called oospores, that are translucent, double-walled, spherical structures used to survive adverse environmental conditions.


title: Oomycete

text: Many oomycetes species are economically important, aggressive algae and plant pathogens. Some species can cause disease in fish, and at least one is a pathogen of mammals. The majority of the plant pathogenic species can be classified into four groups, although more exist.


title: Digamma function

text: It is the first of the polygamma functions. It is strictly increasing and strictly concave on formula_2.


title: Digamma function

text: The digamma function is often denoted as formula_3 or (the uppercase form of the archaic Greek consonant digamma meaning double-gamma).


title: Digamma function

text: where and is the Euler–Mascheroni constant. For half-integer arguments the digamma function takes the values


title: Digamma function

text: If the real part of is positive then the digamma function has the following integral representation due to Gauss:


title: Digamma function

text: Combining this expression with an integral identity for the Euler–Mascheroni constant formula_12 gives:


title: Digamma function

text: Gauss's integral representation can be manipulated to give the start of the asymptotic expansion of formula_18.


title: Digamma function

text: This formula is also a consequence of Binet's first integral for the gamma function. The integral may be recognized as a Laplace transform.


title: Digamma function

text: Binet's second integral for the gamma function gives a different formula for formula_18 which also gives the first few terms of the asymptotic expansion:


title: Digamma function

text: Here formula_27 is the "k"th zero of formula_18 (see below), and formula_12 is the Euler–Mascheroni constant.


title: Digamma function

text: Euler's product formula for the gamma function, combined with the functional equation and an identity for the Euler–Mascheroni constant, yields the following expression for the digamma function, valid in the complex plane outside the negative integers (Abramowitz and Stegun 6.3.16):


title: Digamma function

text: which converges for . Here, is the Riemann zeta function. This series is easily derived from the corresponding Taylor's series for the Hurwitz zeta function.


title: Digamma function

text: There exist various series for the digamma containing rational coefficients only for the rational arguments. In particular, the series with Gregory's coefficients is


title: Digamma function

text: where is the "rising factorial" , are the Gregory coefficients of higher order with , is the gamma function and is the Hurwitz zeta function.


title: Digamma function

text: where is the forward difference operator. This satisfies the recurrence relation of a partial sum of the harmonic series, thus implying the formula


title: Digamma function

text: where formula_62 are the Bernoulli numbers. This series diverges for all and is known as the "Stirling series".


title: Digamma function

text: that is monotonic on and satisfies . This fact follows immediately from the uniqueness of the function given its recurrence equation and convexity restriction. This implies the useful difference equation:


title: Digamma function

text: There are numerous finite summation formulas for the digamma function. Basic summation formulas, such as


title: Digamma function

text: For positive integers and (), the digamma function may be expressed in terms of Euler's constant and a finite number of elementary functions


title: Digamma function

text: where is the th Bernoulli number and is the Riemann zeta function. The first few terms of this expansion are:


title: Digamma function

text: Although the infinite sum does not converge for any , any finite partial sum becomes increasingly accurate as increases.


title: Digamma function

text: The expansion can also be derived from the integral representation coming from Binet's second integral formula for the gamma function. Expanding formula_80 as a geometric series and substituting an integral representation of the Bernoulli numbers leads to the same asymptotic series as above. Furthermore, expanding only finitely many terms of the series gives a formula with an explicit error term:


title: Digamma function

text: is completely monotonic and in particular positive. This is a consequence of Bernstein's theorem on monotone functions applied to the integral representation coming from Binet's first integral for the gamma function. Additionally, by the convexity inequality formula_83, the integrand in this representation is bounded above by formula_84.


title: Digamma function

text: where formula_12 is the Euler–Mascheroni constant. The constants appearing in these bounds are the best possible.


title: Digamma function

text: The mean value theorem implies the following analog of Gautschi's inequality: If , where is the unique positive real root of the digamma function, and if , then


title: Digamma function

text: Inspired by the harmonic mean value inequality for the classical gamma function, Horzt Alzer and Graham Jameson proved, among other things, a harmonic mean-value inequality for the digamma function:


title: Digamma function

text: The asymptotic expansion gives an easy way to compute when the real part of is large. To compute for small , the recurrence relation


title: Digamma function

text: can be used to shift the value of to a higher value. Beal suggests using the above recurrence to shift to a value greater than 6 and then applying the above expansion with terms above cut off, which yields "more than enough precision" (at least 12 digits except near the zeroes).


title: Digamma function

text: As goes to infinity, gets arbitrarily close to both and . Going down from to , decreases by , decreases by , which is more than , and decreases by , which is less than . From this we see that for any positive greater than ,


title: Digamma function

text: From the above asymptotic series for , one can derive an asymptotic series for . The series matches the overall behaviour well, that is, it behaves asymptotically as it should for large arguments, and has a zero of unbounded multiplicity at the origin too.


title: Digamma function

text: This is similar to a Taylor expansion of at , but it does not converge. (The function is not analytic at infinity.) A similar series exists for which starts with formula_100


title: Digamma function

text: If one calculates the asymptotic series for it turns out that there are no odd powers of (there is no term). This leads to the following asymptotic expansion, which saves computing terms of even order.


title: Digamma function

text: The digamma function has values in closed form for rational numbers, as a result of Gauss's digamma theorem. Some are listed below:


title: Digamma function

text: Moreover, by taking the logarithmic derivative of formula_103 or formula_104 where formula_105 is real-valued, it can easily be deduced that


title: Digamma function

text: Apart from Gauss's digamma theorem, no such closed formula is known for the real part in general. We have, for example, at the imaginary unit the numerical approximation


title: Digamma function

text: The roots of the digamma function are the saddle points of the complex-valued gamma function. Thus they lie all on the real axis. The only one on the positive real axis is the unique minimum of the real-valued gamma function on at . All others occur single between the poles on the negative axis:


title: Digamma function

text: and substituting by its not convergent asymptotic expansion. The correct second term of this expansion is , where the given one works good to approximate roots with small .


title: Digamma function

text: Regarding the zeros, the following infinite sum identities were recently proved by István Mező and Michael Hoffman


title: Digamma function

text: this integral can be approximated by a divergent general Harmonic series, but the following value can be attached to the series


title: Meitei people

text: The Meitei people, also known as the Manipuri people, is the predominant ethnic group of Manipur in Northeast India. They speak Meitei language (officially called Manipuri), one of the 22 official languages of the Indian Republic and the sole official language of Manipur.


title: Meitei people

text: The Meiteis primarily settled in the Imphal Valley region in modern-day Manipur, though a sizable population has settled in the other Indian states of Assam, Tripura, Nagaland, Meghalaya, and Mizoram. There is also a notable presence of Meitei in the neighboring countries of Myanmar and Bangladesh. The Meitei ethnic group represents about 53% of Manipur's population.


title: Meitei people

text: The Meitei are known by a number of endonyms, "Meitei", "Meetei", "Meithei" (Meitei), and as well as by numerous exonyms, such as "Meckley", "Manipuri", "Cassay-Shan", and "Kathe" (Burmese). Mee and Mei are used interchangeably, together with atei form Meetei and Meitei. According to Cheitharon Kumbaba, Meitei means Mei+atei, where atei in Manipuri means others. The term "Manipuri" is widely used, but problematic because of its ambiguous scope: next to being a synonym for "Meitei"/"Meetei", it can also refer in a wider sense to the native ethnic groups in the hills of Manipur.


title: Meitei people

text: The earliest sections of the "Cheitharol Kumbaba", a Meitei chronicle, record the gradual spread of Meitei across Manipur and their assimilation of other clans into a confederacy.


title: Meitei people

text: Little documentation exists in the form of written records about Manipuri history concerning the spans between the Iron Age and the first millennium in Northeast India. The geopolitical history of the region along with the ethno-linguistic background of the inhabitants are largely unknown.


title: Meitei people

text: The Meitei people speak the Meitei language (also known as the Manipuri language), a Tibeto-Burman language. Meitei is one of the officially recognized languages of India, and was included in the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India in 1992.


title: Meitei people

text: There are many Meitei language movements, including classical language movement (predominantly in Manipur), associate official language movement (in Assam), linguistic purism movement (predominantly in Manipur), etc.


title: Meitei people

text: Historically and then after a long gap, presently, Meitei was written in an indigenous Meitei Mayek script. The script was replaced by an alphabet based on the Bengali script in the early 18th century. The Meitei Mayek script has seen a revival in recent decades, and is now seen in street signs, newspapers, literature, and legislative proceeding records.


title: Meitei people

text: In Assam, Manipuri is taught at the primary level, and at the graduate level in Gauhati University. It is not, however, an officially recognized language of the state. In Bangladesh, Manipuri is generally not spoken and the ethnic Manipuri are educated in Bengali rather than in their native Manipuri.


title: Meitei people

text: The Meitei follow a traditional calendar called Maliyafam Palcha Kumsing, which has 12 months and a 7-day week, like the Gregorian calendar.


title: Meitei people

text: Most of the rich culture of Manipur can be credited to the Meiteis. Since ancient times the valley region of Manipur was trading crossroads between India and Myanmar and gradually the valley portion of Manipur became the melting pot of Indo-Burmese culture. The famous Manipuri dance form had its roots from the Lai Haraoba dance form.


title: Meitei people

text: They are also known for their contribution to art, literature and cinema. M K Binodini Devi, Khwairakpam Chaoba Singh, Ratan Thiyam, Aribam Syam Sharma, Rajkumar Shitaljit Singh, Elangbam Nilakanta Singh, Heisnam Kanhailal and Sabitri Heisnam are some of the prominent personalities in the field.


title: Meitei people

text: The Manipuri martial art "Thang-ta" is a combative sport which had its origin from the Meitei knights during the kings rule. It involves various fighting techniques with swords and spears.


title: Meitei people

text: The first Manipuri film, "Matamgi Manipur", was released on 9 April 1972. Paokhum Ama (1983) is the first full-length colour feature film (according to the Academy's definition of a feature film) of Manipur and was directed by Aribam Syam Sharma. "Lammei" (2002) is the first Manipuri Video film to have a commercial screening at a theatre. As the production of video films gained momentum, the Manipur film industry got expanded and around 40–50 films are made each year.


title: Meitei people

text: According to the 2011 census, Meiteis follow only two religions, with overwhelming majority of Meiteis practicing variants of Hinduism. Around 16% of Meiteis traditionally believe in Sanamahi religion named after god Sanamahi. Meiteis follow both Hinduism as well as Sanamahi religious traditions and rituals. For example, they worship Sanamahi in the south-west corners of their homes. The various types of festivals that are the most significant, and are celebrated with great joy by meiteis are Rasalila, Janmastami, Holi, Lai Haraoba, Cheiraoba, Yaosang, Jagannath Rath Yatra, Holi, Diwali, Ram Navami .


title: Meitei people

text: Rice, vegetables and fish are staple food of the Meiteis, although meat is also consumed but in traditional meitei dishes meat is never used in non-veg dishes. In traditional and cultural gatherings fish, snails, oysters, crabs, eels etc are the only non-veg used and a significant number of meiteis follow it where meat is cooked and eaten outside the house if consumed. Rice is the main carbohydrate source in a Meitei dish served with vegetables, fish, freshwater snails, crabs, oyesters, eels etc. Among the most famous species of fishes Manipuri Sareng (Wallago attu) or commonly known as Helicopter catfish, Hilsa (ilish Tenualosa ilisha), freshwater snails (pila (gastropod)) and edible oyesters are considered a delicacy. The vegetables are either made as stews (Kangsoi) with less oil/no oil used in sauteing, or stir fried directly in oil with various added spices to make an oily spicy side dish (Kanghou). Roasted/Smoked and Sun-dried fish or fried fresh fish is usually added in most of the stews and curry to impart special taste. The vegetables, herbs and fruits consumed in the region are more similar to those in Southeast/East/Central Asian, Siberian, Arctic, Polynesian and Micronesian cuisines such as Myanmar, Thailand, Inuit, etc. E.g. treebean (yongchak), galangal (loklei), culantro (awa phadigom), lime basil (mayangton), fishwort (tokningkhok) and many others, which are not cultivated in northern India. One of the most important ingredients in Meitei cooking is Ngari (fermented fish). Roasted ngari is used in the singju (a kind of salad), morok metpa (chilli chutney), iromba (boiled and mashed veggies with chillies). A variety of fermented bamboo shoots (soibum) as well as fresh bamboo shoots (Ushoi/Shoidon), and fermented soya beans (hawaijaar) also form an important part of Meitei cuisines. All meals are served with some fresh aromatic herbs on the side.


title: Meitei people

text: A typical every day Meitei meal will have rice, vegetable or fish curry, a piquant side dish (either morok metpa or iromba accompanied with herbs), a champhut (a steamed/boiled vegetable with little sugar, e.g., carrot, pumpkin or cucumber slices or steamed/boiled mustard green stems, etc without sugar), and a Kanghou. Meat cuisines are also popular amongst the Meiteis and some of the common meat curries are Yen Thongba (Chicken Curry) and Nganu Thongba (Duck Curry) and depending on regions Oak Thongba(Pork curry) and Shan Thongba(Beef curry).


title: Meitei people

text: The Meitei are mainly agriculturists in which rice is a staple crop. However, they also grow mangoes, lemons, pineapples, oranges, guavas, and other fruits. Fishing is also common among the Meitei that can either be a profession or a hobby. Women tend to dominate the local markets as sellers of food items, textiles, and traditional clothing.


title: Meitei people

text: They introduced polo to the west when the British came to Manipur valley during the kings rule. It is locally called Sagol Kangjei. It is believed that the game was played by the Gods of Meiteis as a practice of warfare.


title: Meitei people

text: Yubi lakpi is a traditional full contact game played by Meiteis using a coconut, which has some notable similarities to rugby. Yubi lakpi literally means "coconut snatching". The coconut is greased to make it slippery. There are rules of the game, as with all Manipur sports. It is played on the lush green turf. Each side has 7 players in a field with about 45x18 meters in area. The goal post is 4.5x3 meters box in the central portion of the goal line. The coconut serves the purpose of a ball and is offered to the king, the chief guest or the judges before the game begins. The aim is to run while carrying the greased coconut and physically cross over the goal line, while the other team tackles and blocks any such attempt as well as tries to grab the coconut and score on its own.


title: Meitei people

text: Myanmar is home to a sizable community of Meiteis, who are called "Kathe" in Burmese. Unlike other Hindu communities in Myanmar, the Meitei resemble other Burmese ethnic groups in terms of physical appearance, which has accelerated their assimilation and integration into Burmese society. In the early 1950s, Burmese Meiteis numbered approximately 40,000, with a third of them residing in Mandalay. Current estimates are approximately 25,000. Meiteis have resettled throughout the country, including in villages near Myitkyina to the north, Homalin, Kalewa, Pyay, in the center of the country, and Yangon to the south. They continue to practice Hinduism in Myanmar.


title: Meitei people

text: As a result of wars between Meitei kingdom and the Konbaung dynasty between the 17th and 18th centuries, many Meiteis were resettled in the Burmese kingdom. Some Meitei settlements in modern-day Myanmar originate from the 1758–1759 war, and from the Burmese occupation of Manipur from 1819 to 1826. Alaungpaya, during the former campaign, resettled Meiteis in Sagaing and Amarapura. The Meitei people's horsemanship skills were employed in the Burmese royal army, where they formed the elite Cassay cavalry (ကသည်းမြင်းတပ်) and artillery regiments (ကသည်းအမြောက်တပ်) which were employed during the Burmese–Siamese wars. The Burmese court also retained a retinue of Meitei Brahmins called Bamons, also called "Kathe Ponna" (ကသည်းပုဏ္ဏား) to advise and conduct court rituals.


title: Mr. Osomatsu

text: The original "Osomatsu-kun" series followed the Matsuno brothers; Osomatsu, Karamatsu, Choromatsu, Ichimatsu, Jyushimatsu, and Todomatsu, who are all identical sextuplets who cause mischief. "Mr. Osomatsu" depicts the brothers as being ten years older than their original counterparts (with the action taking place in a contemporary setting). All of the brothers have now grown up into lazy NEETs, with each brother having developed their own distinguishing personality. The series follows the brothers in their everyday (and occasionally made up) lives.


title: Mr. Osomatsu

text: "Mr. Osomatsu", produced by Pierrot, aired between October 6, 2015 and March 29, 2016 and was simulcast by Crunchyroll, making it the first piece of "Osomatsu-kun" media to receive an official English release. The series' first episode, which featured multiple parodies, was removed from streaming sites on November 12, 2015 and is replaced by an original video animation in its home video release. Additionally, the third episode, which features a crude parody of "Anpanman", was edited for its BS Japan broadcast and is altered in its home video release. In September 2016, Kanchi Suzuki revealed on his Twitter account that he is interested to make a second season. A special episode, produced in collaboration with the Japan Racing Association, aired on December 12, 2016. A second season was announced in April 2017, having previously been teased in a listing for the Blu-ray release of , and aired between October 3, 2017 and March 27, 2018.


title: Mr. Osomatsu

text: In Australia and New Zealand, Madman Entertainment released the first season on DVD on December 7, 2016, and made the series available on AnimeLab. At their panel in Otakon 2017, Viz Media announced that they have licensed the first two seasons in North, Central and South America and simulcast the second season.


title: Mr. Osomatsu

text: In North America, Viz Media released the first season on Blu-Ray on March 9, 2021. It does not include episode 1. The dub was initially written (including episode 1) and directed by Patrick Seitz, but left the project for other commitments, leaving Christopher Bevins to re-write and re-record the series minus the first episode. Viz Media released the second season on Blu-ray on September 14, 2021.


title: Mr. Osomatsu

text: An anime theatrical film for the franchise was announced in August 2018, with the main staff and cast from the television series returning to reprise their roles. Titled , the film was released on March 15, 2019.


title: Mr. Osomatsu

text: A new 7-episode short series was announced in February 2019, with the main staff and cast from the television series returning to reprise their roles. The shorts ran from March 1 to March 15, 2019.


title: Mr. Osomatsu

text: Two new animated theatrical films were announced in June 2021. The first film, titled "Mr. Osomatsu: Hipipo-Zoku to Kagayaku Kajitsu", premiered on July 8, 2022. Yoshinori Odaka is directing the film, with the main staff and cast reprising their roles. The second film will premiere in 2023.


title: Mr. Osomatsu

text: A manga adaptation of "Mr. Osomatsu", illustrated by Masako Shitara, began serialization in Shueisha's "You" magazine on January 15, 2016. It transferred to Shueisha's "Cookie" magazine in November 2018 after "You" ended its publication in October of the same year. The manga ended in "Cookie" on November 26, 2020. A novelization of the anime, written by Yū Mitsuru and illustrated by Naoyuki Asano, was published on July 29, 2016. A serialization focusing on the series' collaboration with the "Ultraman" franchise, "Ultramatsu", is an ongoing manga published on LINE that takes place after the Season 1 finale.


title: Mr. Osomatsu

text: Bandai Namco released a party game based on the series for the Nintendo 3DS on December 22, 2016. An otome game developed by Idea Factory was released for the PlayStation Vita in 2017.


title: Mr. Osomatsu

text: A live action adaptation movie, titled "Osomatsu San Movie", was announced in August 2021. This marks the first official live action iteration of the franchise. It is directed by Tsutomu Hanabusa and stars the nine member boy band Snow Man as the Matsuno sextuplets with members Ryōta Miyadate, Shōta Watanabe, and Ryōhei Abe as original characters Period, End, and Close respectively. The group also provided the film's theme song "Brother Beat." The film premiered on March 25, 2022.


title: Toto (Oz)

text: Toto is a fictional dog in L. Frank Baum's "Oz" series of children's books, and works derived from them. His name is pronounced with a long "O", a homophone of "toe toe". He was originally a small terrier drawn by W. W. Denslow for the first edition of "The Wonderful Wizard of Oz" (1900). He reappears in numerous adaptations, such as "The Wizard of Oz" (1939) and "The Wiz" (1978).


title: Toto (Oz)

text: Toto belongs to Dorothy Gale, the heroine of the first and many subsequent books. In the first book, he never spoke, although other animals, native to Oz, did. In subsequent books, other animals gained the ability to speak upon reaching Oz or similar lands, but he remained speechless. In "Tik-Tok of Oz", continuity is restored: he reveals that he is able to talk, just like other animals in the Land of Oz, and simply chooses not to. In "The Lost Princess of Oz", he often talks continuously. Other major appearances include "The Road to Oz", "The Emerald City of Oz", "Grampa in Oz" and "The Magical Mimics in Oz", in which he is the first to recognize the Mimics.


title: Toto (Oz)

text: In "The Wonderful Wizard of Oz", Baum did not specifically state Toto's breed, but wrote "he was a little black dog with long silky hair and small black eyes that twinkled merrily on either side of his funny, wee nose." However, from the illustrations in the first book many have concluded that he is a Cairn Terrier while others believe he is a Yorkshire Terrier as this breed was very popular at the time and it fits the illustration quite well. In subsequent books he becomes a Boston Terrier for reasons that are never explained, but then resumes the earlier look in later books.


title: Toto (Oz)

text: Toto plays a central role in several critical points: he runs away at the beginning and end of the book and Dorothy changes plans to catch him; he pulls away the curtain to reveal the Wizard is a fake. Scholar Keri Weil analyzes the role: Toto is the driving force behind Frank Baum’s narrative because it is Dorothy’s love for the dog that leads her to run away and escape the dreary moral landscape of Kansas and its arbiter, Miss Gulch. “It was Toto who made Dorothy laugh and saved her from growing as grey as her surroundings,” wrote Baum in the original version of the story.


title: Toto (Oz)

text: In Gregory Maguire's novel "", Toto is a minor character who is only described as being vile and annoying. In the musical adaption "Wicked", he is only mentioned briefly when Glinda mistakenly calls him "Dodo".


title: Toto (Oz)

text: In the 1939 movie "The Wizard of Oz", Toto was played by a female brindle Cairn Terrier named Terry. She was paid a $125 salary each week, which was more than some of the human actors (the Singer Midgets who played the Munchkins reportedly received $50 to $100 a week).


title: Toto (Oz)

text: During production, Terry's foot was broken when one of the Winkie guards accidentally stepped on it. A second dog had to be used while she healed. Due to the popularity of the movie, and because that role was the one she was most remembered for, her owner and trainer changed her official name to Toto. She actually appeared in 13 films. She died at age 11. Willard Carroll wrote her "autobiography," "I, Toto" (2001).


title: Toto (Oz)

text: When Terry died in 1945, Carl Spitz buried her on his ranch in Studio City, California. However, the construction of the Ventura Freeway in 1958 destroyed her grave. On June 18, 2011, a permanent memorial for her was dedicated at the Hollywood Forever Cemetery in Los Angeles.


title: Toto (Oz)

text: In "Wizard101", Toto is adapted as Mr. Toto, a dog man that appears to resemble a terrier. In the sidequest "Not in Kansas Anymore", players meet Dorothy Gale, who asks them to check up on her friends Mr. Toto and the Tin Man, who she was having over dinner. Toto tells them that they haven't left yet because Tin Man couldn't find his oil can, and that he is afraid of seizing up on the way to Dorothy's house. Toto then tells the player to tell Dorothy that they are simply running "late as usual".


title: Toto (Oz)

text: Toto has been widely recognized as one of the most famous of all dogs in movies and television. For example "Time" magazine in 2015 includes Toto in "The Most Famous Dogs in Movies and Television". Also in England, Neil Oliver. writes in "The Sunday Times" that 2020 has been. ”A tornado of anxieties...Like Toto, the little dog in The Wizard of Oz, we find ourselves far from home. I've a feeling we're not in Kansas any more. Also like Toto, no one understands our small voices. In this incomprehensible new place, we are to be silent while others speak." The last point emphasizes how important it is to be a quiet observer.


title: Toto (Oz)

text: Members of the American rock band Toto have said the band was named after the dog. Though it was perhaps the original source for the name appearing on their demo tapes, they chose their name based upon the meaning of the Latin word "toto" ("all-encompassing").


title: Toto (Oz)

text: TOTO is a backronym for 'TOtable Tornado Observatory', adapted from the name of Dorothy's dog from "The Wizard of Oz". It is an "in situ" instrument for recording data from tornadoes.


title: Kevin White (American football)

text: Kevin Romone White Jr. (born June 25, 1992) is an American football wide receiver for the New Orleans Saints of the National Football League (NFL). He played college football at West Virginia.


title: Kevin White (American football)

text: A highly-rated prospect coming out of college, White was drafted by the Chicago Bears in the first round of the 2015 NFL Draft with the seventh overall selection. His first three seasons with the Bears were injury plagued, and he was released by the Bears following the 2018 season. He has since been a member of the Arizona Cardinals (2019), San Francisco 49ers (2020), and New Orleans Saints (2021–2022).


title: Kevin White (American football)

text: He was born Kevin Romone White Jr. on June 25, 1992. White played high school football at Emmaus High School in Emmaus, Pennsylvania, which competes in the East Penn Conference.


title: Kevin White (American football)

text: After graduating high school, he attended Lackawanna College for two seasons before attending West Virginia University. In his first season at West Virginia in 2013, he started nine of 11 games and had 35 receptions for 507 yards and five touchdowns. White returned his senior season in 2014 as a starter. He finished the season with 109 receptions for 1,447 yards and 10 touchdowns. He was named an All-American by numerous publications and was a finalist for the Fred Biletnikoff Award.


title: Kevin White (American football)

text: White was considered one of the two best wide receivers of the 2015 class, together with Amari Cooper.


title: Kevin White (American football)

text: He was drafted by the Chicago Bears with the seventh overall draft pick in the 2015 NFL Draft. On May 6, 2015, White signed a four-year, $15 million contract with the team.


title: Kevin White (American football)

text: While participating in the Bears off-season program, White received a minor injury to his shin that held him out of several training camp practices. Shortly after returning, Bears general manager Ryan Pace announced on August 15, 2015, that White had suffered a stress fracture in his shin while participating in organized team activities that would require surgery. On August 23, 2015, White had a steel rod inserted into his left tibia and was placed on the Bears physically unable to perform (PUP) list. White did not play a single game during his rookie season of 2015.


title: Kevin White (American football)

text: After playing the first four games in the 2016 season, it was announced on October 5, 2016, that White had fractured the fibula in his left leg, the same leg he had injured the year before, and that he has been placed on injured reserve.


title: Kevin White (American football)

text: White was a starter in the Bears' 2017 season-opener against the Atlanta Falcons. However, he fractured his left shoulder blade in the game. He recorded only two receptions for six yards during the game. White was placed on injured reserve for the third straight year on September 10, 2017.


title: Kevin White (American football)

text: On May 2, 2018, the Bears declined White's fifth-year option. On October 21, 2018, with the Bears trailing the New England Patriots 38–31 late in the game, White caught a 54-yard Hail Mary pass from quarterback Mitchell Trubisky as time expired. However, he was stopped one yard short, ensuring a Bears loss.


title: Kevin White (American football)

text: On March 15, 2019, White signed a one-year contract with the Arizona Cardinals, but was released on August 21, 2019. After sitting out the 2019 NFL season, White had a tryout with the New York Jets on August 20, 2020.


title: Kevin White (American football)

text: White signed with the San Francisco 49ers on August 27, 2020. He was released on September 5, 2020, and signed to the practice squad the next day. He was elevated to the active roster for the team's weeks 5, 6, and 9 games against the Miami Dolphins, Los Angeles Rams, and Green Bay Packers, and reverted to the practice squad after each game. He was placed on the practice squad/COVID-19 list by the team on December 22, 2020, and restored to the practice squad on December 31. He signed a reserve/future contract on January 4, 2021. He was released by the 49ers on August 11, 2021.


title: Kevin White (American football)

text: White signed with the New Orleans Saints on August 17, 2021. He was released on August 31, 2021, and re-signed to the practice squad. On October 31, 2021, White made his first reception in three years, for 38 yards against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers from quarterback Trevor Siemian. The Saints went on to win 36-27. He was signed to the active roster on November 13 and released a week later, on November 20. He was again resigned three days later, but released on November 30 and reassigned to the practice squad. He signed a reserve/future contract with the Saints on January 12, 2022.


title: Kevin White (American football)

text: On August 23, 2022, White was placed on injured reserve. He was released four days later, on August 27. He was re-signed to the practice squad on October 5. White was activated from the practice squad and made his 2022 debut for the Saints on October 20, where he recorded a career-long 64-yard reception in a 42–34 loss to the Arizona Cardinals. He was signed to the active roster on November 7, 2022. He was released on December 5, 2022. He was signed back to the practice squad on December 7, 2022.


title: Kevin White (American football)

text: White has two younger brothers, Ka'Raun and Kyzir, who both played football at West Virginia. Kyzir is a linebacker who was drafted by the Los Angeles Chargers in the fourth round of the 2018 NFL Draft and currently plays for the Philadelphia Eagles.


title: Public law

text: Public law is the part of law that governs relations between legal persons and a government, between different institutions within a state, between different branches of governments, as well as relationships between persons that are of direct concern to society. Public law comprises constitutional law, administrative law, tax law and criminal law, as well as all procedural law. Laws concerning relationships between individuals belong to private law.


title: Public law

text: The relationships public law governs are asymmetric and inequalized. Government bodies (central or local) can make decisions about the rights of persons. However, as a consequence of the rule-of-law doctrine, authorities may only act within the law ("secundum et intra legem"). The government must obey the law. For example, a citizen unhappy with a decision of an administrative authority can ask a court for judicial review.


title: Public law

text: The distinction between public law and private law dates back to Roman law, where the Roman jurist Ulpian ( 170 – 228) first noted it. It was later adopted to understand the legal systems both of countries that adhere to the civil-law tradition, and of those that adhere to common-law tradition.


title: Public law

text: The borderline between public law and private law is not always clear. Law as a whole cannot neatly be divided into "law for the State" and "law for everyone else". As such, the distinction between public and private law is largely functional rather than factual, classifying laws according to which domain the activities, participants, and principal concerns involved best fit into. This has given rise to attempts to establish a theoretical understanding for the basis of public law.


title: Public law

text: The distinction between public and private law was first made by Roman jurist Ulpian, who argues in the "Institutes" (in a passage preserved by Justinian in the "Digest" ) that "[p]ublic law is that which respects the establishment of the Roman commonwealth, private that which respects individuals' interests, some matters being of public and others of private interest." Furthermore, he defines public law as the law concerning religious affairs, the priesthood, and offices of the State. Roman Law conceived of the law as a series of relationships between persons and persons, persons and things, and persons and the State. Public law consisted of the latter of these three relationships. However, Roman lawyers devoted little attention to this area, and instead focussed largely on areas of private law. It was, however, of great importance in Teutonic society, as noted by German legal historian Otto von Gierke, who defined the Teutons as the fathers of public law.


title: Public law

text: Drawing a line between public and private law largely fell out of favor in the ensuing millennium, though, as Ernst Kantorowicz notes, Medieval saw a concern with the Roman conception of the "res publica" inherent in the legal fiction of the king's two bodies. However, legal philosophers during this period consisted largely of theologians who operated within the realm of Canon Law, and were instead concerned with distinctions between divine law, natural law, and human law. The "public/private" divide in law would not return until the 17th and 18th centuries. Through the emergence of the nation-state and new theories of sovereignty, notions of a distinctly public realm began to crystalize. However, the claims made by monarchs, and later parliaments, to an unrestrained power to make law spurred attempts to establish a distinctly private sphere that would be free from encroaching State power in return.


title: Public law

text: Traditionally, the division between public and private law has been made in the context of the legal systems found in Continental Europe, whose laws all fall within the tradition of civil law. However, the public/private divide does not apply strictly to civil law systems. Given public law's emphasis on aspects of the State that are true of all systems of government and law, common law legal systems acknowledge, even if they do so unconsciously, that actions which must be prohibited by the State need not necessarily be prohibited for private parties as well. As such, legal scholars commenting on common law systems, such as England and Canada, have made this distinction as well.


title: Public law

text: For many years, public law occupied a marginal position in continental European law. By and large, private law was considered "general law". Public law, on the other hand, was considered to consist of exceptions to this general law. It was not until the second half of the twentieth century that public law began to play a prominent role in European society through the constitutionalization of private law, as well as the development of administrative law and various functional fields of law, including labor law, medical law, and consumer law. Though this began to blur the distinction between public and private law, it did not erode the former. Instead, it elevated public law from its once marginal state, with an acknowledgment that there are few, if any, areas of the law that are free from potential State intervention. In Italy, for example, the development of public law was considered a project of state-building, following the ideas of Vittorio Emanuele Orlando. Indeed, many early Italian public lawyers were also politicians, including Orlando himself. Now, in countries such as France, public law now refers to the areas of constitutional law, administrative law, and criminal law.


title: Public law

text: In modern states, constitutional law lays out the foundations of the state. Above all, it postulates the supremacy of law in the functioning of the state – the rule of law.


title: Public law

text: Secondly, it sets out the form of government – how its different branches work, how they are elected or appointed, and the division of powers and responsibilities between them. Traditionally, the basic elements of government are the executive, the legislature and the judiciary.


title: Public law

text: And thirdly, in describing what are the basic human rights, which must be protected for every person, and what further civil and political rights citizens have, it sets the fundamental borders to what "any" government must and must not do.


title: Public law

text: In most jurisdictions, constitutional law is enshrined in a written document, the Constitution, sometimes together with amendments or other constitutional laws. In some countries, however, such a supreme entrenched written document does not exist for historical and political reasons – the Constitution of the United Kingdom is an unwritten one.


title: Public law

text: Administrative law refers to the body of law that regulates bureaucratic managerial procedures and defines the powers of administrative agencies. These laws are enforced by the executive branch of a government rather than the judicial or legislative branches (if they are different in that particular jurisdiction). This body of law regulates international trade, manufacturing, pollution, taxation, and the like. This is sometimes seen as a subcategory of civil law and sometimes seen as public law as it deals with regulation and public institutions


title: Public law

text: Tax law first became an area of public law during the 17th century, as a consequence of new theories of sovereignty that began to emerge. Until this point, taxes were considered gifts under the law, given to the State by a private donor – the taxpayer. It is now considered an area of public law, as it concerns a relationship between persons and the State.


title: Public law

text: The analytical and historical distinction between public and private law has emerged predominantly in the legal systems of continental Europe. As a result, German-language legal literature has produced extensive discussion on the precise nature of the distinction between public law and private law. Several theories have evolved, which are neither exhaustive nor mutually exclusive or separate.


title: Public law

text: The interest theory of public law emerges from the work of Roman jurist Ulpian, who stated ""Publicum ius est, quod ad statum rei Romanae spectat, privatum quod ad singulorum utilitatem." (Public law is that, which concerns Roman state, private law is concerned with the interests of citizens.) Charles-Louis Montesquieu elaborates upon this theory in "The Spirit of the Laws", published during the 18th century, wherein Montesquieu establishes a distinction between international (right of nations), public (political right), and private (civil right) law according to various actors interests and rights. There, he writes: “Considered as inhabitants of a planet so large that different peoples are necessary, they have laws bearing on the relation that these peoples have with one another, and this is the . Considered as living in a society that must be maintained, they have laws concerning the relation between those who govern and those who are governed, and this is the . Further, they have laws concerning the relation that alI citizens have with one another, and this is the ."


title: Public law

text: Criticisms of interest theory include the difficulty in establishing a clear distinction between private and public interest, if such a distinction does exist, and categorizing laws accordingly.


title: Public law

text: The subjection theory focuses on explaining the distinction by emphasizing the subordination of private persons to the state. Public law is supposed to govern this relationship, whereas private law is considered to govern relationships where the parties involved meet on a level playing field. However, some areas commonly considered private law also imply subordination, such as employment law. Moreover, legal proceedings wherein the State is a party may undermine the totality of the State's authority, and the degree to which private persons are subordinate to the State, if a Court finds in favor of a non-State party (see Carpenter v. United States, for example).


title: Public law

text: The subject theory is concerned with the position of the subject of law in the legal relationship in question. If it finds itself in a particular situation as a public person (due to membership in some public body, such as a state or a municipality), public law applies, otherwise it is private law.


title: Public law

text: A combination of the subjection theory and the subject theory arguably provides a workable distinction. Under this approach, a field of law is considered public law where one actor is a public authority endowed with the power to act unilaterally ("imperium") and this actor uses that "imperium" in the particular relationship. In other words, all depends whether the public authority is acting as a public or a private entity, say when ordering office supplies. This latest theory considers public law a special instance.


title: Public law

text: There are areas of law that do not seem to fit into either public or private law, such as employment law – parts of it look like private law (the employment contract) while other parts look like public law (the activities of an employment inspectorate when investigating workplace safety).


title: Public law

text: The distinction between public and private law might purely academic, but it also affects legal practice. It has bearing on the delineation between competences of different courts and administrative bodies. Under the Austrian constitution, for example, private law is among the exclusive competences of federal legislation, whereas public law is partly a matter of state legislation.


title: Brad Goreski

text: Brad Goreski (born August 15, 1977) is a Canadian-American celebrity fashion stylist and television personality. In 2015, he joined "Fashion Police" as a new co-host. Since 2021, he has been one of the regular judges on "Canada's Drag Race".


title: Brad Goreski

text: In June 2021, it was announced that Goreski would join the panel of "Canada's Drag Race" as a main judge, replacing Jeffrey Bowyer-Chapman and Stacey McKenzie, who announced their departures in March and June 2021, respectively.


title: Brad Goreski

text: He studied art history at the University of Southern California after moving to Los Angeles from Canada, then interned at Vogue and W magazines in New York. As soon as he graduated, Goreski joined Vogue's west coast staff as an assistant.