title: Population genetics

text: Mutation can have no effect, alter the product of a gene, or prevent the gene from functioning. Studies in the fly "Drosophila melanogaster" suggest that if a mutation changes a protein produced by a gene, this will probably be harmful, with about 70 percent of these mutations having damaging effects, and the remainder being either neutral or weakly beneficial. Most loss of function mutations are selected against. But when selection is weak, mutation bias towards loss of function can affect evolution. For example, pigments are no longer useful when animals live in the darkness of caves, and tend to be lost. This kind of loss of function can occur because of mutation bias, and/or because the function had a cost, and once the benefit of the function disappeared, natural selection leads to the loss. Loss of sporulation ability in a bacterium during laboratory evolution appears to have been caused by mutation bias, rather than natural selection against the cost of maintaining sporulation ability. When there is no selection for loss of function, the speed at which loss evolves depends more on the mutation rate than it does on the effective population size, indicating that it is driven more by mutation bias than by genetic drift.


title: Population genetics

text: Mutations can involve large sections of DNA becoming duplicated, usually through genetic recombination. This leads to copy-number variation within a population. Duplications are a major source of raw material for evolving new genes. Other types of mutation occasionally create new genes from previously noncoding DNA.


title: Population genetics

text: "Genetic drift" is a change in allele frequencies caused by random sampling. That is, the alleles in the offspring are a random sample of those in the parents. Genetic drift may cause gene variants to disappear completely, and thereby reduce genetic variability. In contrast to natural selection, which makes gene variants more common or less common depending on their reproductive success, the changes due to genetic drift are not driven by environmental or adaptive pressures, and are equally likely to make an allele more common as less common.


title: Population genetics

text: The effect of genetic drift is larger for alleles present in few copies than when an allele is present in many copies. The population genetics of genetic drift are described using either branching processes or a diffusion equation describing changes in allele frequency. These approaches are usually applied to the Wright-Fisher and Moran models of population genetics. Assuming genetic drift is the only evolutionary force acting on an allele, after t generations in many replicated populations, starting with allele frequencies of p and q, the variance in allele frequency across those populations is


title: Population genetics

text: Ronald Fisher held the view that genetic drift plays at the most a minor role in evolution, and this remained the dominant view for several decades. No population genetics perspective have ever given genetic drift a central role by itself, but some have made genetic drift important in combination with another non-selective force. The shifting balance theory of Sewall Wright held that the combination of population structure and genetic drift was important. Motoo Kimura's neutral theory of molecular evolution claims that most genetic differences within and between populations are caused by the combination of neutral mutations and genetic drift.


title: Population genetics

text: The role of genetic drift by means of sampling error in evolution has been criticized by John H Gillespie and Will Provine, who argue that selection on linked sites is a more important stochastic force, doing the work traditionally ascribed to genetic drift by means of sampling error. The mathematical properties of genetic draft are different from those of genetic drift. The direction of the random change in allele frequency is autocorrelated across generations.


title: Population genetics

text: Because of physical barriers to migration, along with the limited tendency for individuals to move or spread (vagility), and tendency to remain or come back to natal place (philopatry), natural populations rarely all interbreed as may be assumed in theoretical random models (panmixy). There is usually a geographic range within which individuals are more closely related to one another than those randomly selected from the general population. This is described as the extent to which a population is genetically structured.


title: Population genetics

text: Genetic structuring can be caused by migration due to historical climate change, species range expansion or current availability of habitat. Gene flow is hindered by mountain ranges, oceans and deserts or even man-made structures such as the Great Wall of China, which has hindered the flow of plant genes.


title: Population genetics

text: Gene flow is the exchange of genes between populations or species, breaking down the structure. Examples of gene flow within a species include the migration and then breeding of organisms, or the exchange of pollen. Gene transfer between species includes the formation of hybrid organisms and horizontal gene transfer. Population genetic models can be used to identify which populations show significant genetic isolation from one another, and to reconstruct their history.


title: Population genetics

text: Subjecting a population to isolation leads to inbreeding depression. Migration into a population can introduce new genetic variants, potentially contributing to evolutionary rescue. If a significant proportion of individuals or gametes migrate, it can also change allele frequencies, e.g. giving rise to migration load.


title: Population genetics

text: In the presence of gene flow, other barriers to hybridization between two diverging populations of an outcrossing species are required for the populations to become new species.


title: Population genetics

text: Horizontal gene transfer is the transfer of genetic material from one organism to another organism that is not its offspring; this is most common among prokaryotes. In medicine, this contributes to the spread of antibiotic resistance, as when one bacteria acquires resistance genes it can rapidly transfer them to other species. Horizontal transfer of genes from bacteria to eukaryotes such as the yeast "Saccharomyces cerevisiae" and the adzuki bean beetle "Callosobruchus chinensis" may also have occurred. An example of larger-scale transfers are the eukaryotic bdelloid rotifers, which appear to have received a range of genes from bacteria, fungi, and plants. Viruses can also carry DNA between organisms, allowing transfer of genes even across biological domains. Large-scale gene transfer has also occurred between the ancestors of eukaryotic cells and prokaryotes, during the acquisition of chloroplasts and mitochondria.


title: Population genetics

text: If all genes are in linkage equilibrium, the effect of an allele at one locus can be averaged across the gene pool at other loci. In reality, one allele is frequently found in linkage disequilibrium with genes at other loci, especially with genes located nearby on the same chromosome. Recombination breaks up this linkage disequilibrium too slowly to avoid genetic hitchhiking, where an allele at one locus rises to high frequency because it is linked to an allele under selection at a nearby locus. Linkage also slows down the rate of adaptation, even in sexual populations. The effect of linkage disequilibrium in slowing down the rate of adaptive evolution arises from a combination of the Hill–Robertson effect (delays in bringing beneficial mutations together) and background selection (delays in separating beneficial mutations from deleterious hitchhikers).


title: Population genetics

text: Linkage is a problem for population genetic models that treat one gene locus at a time. It can, however, be exploited as a method for detecting the action of natural selection via selective sweeps.


title: Population genetics

text: In the extreme case of an asexual population, linkage is complete, and population genetic equations can be derived and solved in terms of a travelling wave of genotype frequencies along a simple fitness landscape. Most microbes, such as bacteria, are asexual. The population genetics of their adaptation have two contrasting regimes. When the product of the beneficial mutation rate and population size is small, asexual populations follow a "successional regime" of origin-fixation dynamics, with adaptation rate strongly dependent on this product. When the product is much larger, asexual populations follow a "concurrent mutations" regime with adaptation rate less dependent on the product, characterized by clonal interference and the appearance of a new beneficial mutation before the last one has fixed.


title: Population genetics

text: Neutral theory predicts that the level of nucleotide diversity in a population will be proportional to the product of the population size and the neutral mutation rate. The fact that levels of genetic diversity vary much less than population sizes do is known as the "paradox of variation". While high levels of genetic diversity were one of the original arguments in favor of neutral theory, the paradox of variation has been one of the strongest arguments against neutral theory.


title: Population genetics

text: It is clear that levels of genetic diversity vary greatly within a species as a function of local recombination rate, due to both genetic hitchhiking and background selection. Most current solutions to the paradox of variation invoke some level of selection at linked sites. For example, one analysis suggests that larger populations have more selective sweeps, which remove more neutral genetic diversity. A negative correlation between mutation rate and population size may also contribute.


title: Population genetics

text: Life history affects genetic diversity more than population history does, e.g. r-strategists have more genetic diversity.


title: Population genetics

text: Population genetics models are used to infer which genes are undergoing selection. One common approach is to look for regions of high linkage disequilibrium and low genetic variance along the chromosome, to detect recent selective sweeps.


title: Population genetics

text: A second common approach is the McDonald–Kreitman test which compares the amount of variation within a species (polymorphism) to the divergence between species (substitutions) at two types of sites; one assumed to be neutral. Typically, synonymous sites are assumed to be neutral. Genes undergoing positive selection have an excess of divergent sites relative to polymorphic sites. The test can also be used to obtain a genome-wide estimate of the proportion of substitutions that are fixed by positive selection, α. According to the neutral theory of molecular evolution, this number should be near zero. High numbers have therefore been interpreted as a genome-wide falsification of neutral theory.


title: Population genetics

text: The simplest test for population structure in a sexually reproducing, diploid species, is to see whether genotype frequencies follow Hardy-Weinberg proportions as a function of allele frequencies. For example, in the simplest case of a single locus with two alleles denoted A and a at frequencies "p" and "q", random mating predicts freq(AA) = "p" for the AA homozygotes, freq(aa) = "q" for the aa homozygotes, and freq(Aa) = 2"pq" for the heterozygotes. In the absence of population structure, Hardy-Weinberg proportions are reached within 1-2 generations of random mating. More typically, there is an excess of homozygotes, indicative of population structure. The extent of this excess can be quantified as the inbreeding coefficient, F.


title: Population genetics

text: Individuals can be clustered into "K" subpopulations. The degree of population structure can then be calculated using F, which is a measure of the proportion of genetic variance that can be explained by population structure. Genetic population structure can then be related to geographic structure, and genetic admixture can be detected.


title: Population genetics

text: Coalescent theory relates genetic diversity in a sample to demographic history of the population from which it was taken. It normally assumes neutrality, and so sequences from more neutrally-evolving portions of genomes are therefore selected for such analyses. It can be used to infer the relationships between species (phylogenetics), as well as the population structure, demographic history (e.g. population bottlenecks, population growth), biological dispersal, source–sink dynamics and introgression within a species.


title: Population genetics

text: By assuming that there are loci that control the genetic system itself, population genetic models are created to describe the evolution of dominance and other forms of robustness, the evolution of sexual reproduction and recombination rates, the evolution of mutation rates, the evolution of evolutionary capacitors, the evolution of costly signalling traits, the evolution of ageing, and the evolution of co-operation. For example, most mutations are deleterious, so the optimal mutation rate for a species may be a trade-off between the damage from a high deleterious mutation rate and the metabolic costs of maintaining systems to reduce the mutation rate, such as DNA repair enzymes.


title: Population genetics

text: One important aspect of such models is that selection is only strong enough to purge deleterious mutations and hence overpower mutational bias towards degradation if the selection coefficient s is greater than the inverse of the effective population size. This is known as the drift barrier and is related to the nearly neutral theory of molecular evolution. Drift barrier theory predicts that species with large effective population sizes will have highly streamlined, efficient genetic systems, while those with small population sizes will have bloated and complex genomes containing for example introns and transposable elements. However, somewhat paradoxically, species with large population sizes might be so tolerant to the consequences of certain types of errors that they evolve higher error rates, e.g. in transcription and translation, than small populations.


title: Paul R. Ehrlich

text: Paul Ralph Ehrlich (born May 29, 1932) is an American biologist known for his warnings about the consequences of population growth and limited resources. He is the Bing Professor Emeritus of Population Studies of the Department of Biology of Stanford University and President of Stanford's Center for Conservation Biology.


title: Paul R. Ehrlich

text: Ehrlich became well known for the controversial 1968 book "The Population Bomb" which he co-authored with his wife Anne, in which they famously stated that "[i]n the 1970s hundreds of millions of people will starve to death in spite of any crash programs embarked upon now." Among the solutions suggested in that book was population control, including "various forms of coercion" such as eliminating "tax benefits for having additional children," to be used if voluntary methods were to fail. Ehrlich has been criticized for his opinions; for example, Ronald Bailey termed Ehrlich an "irrepressible doomster". Ehrlich has acknowledged that some of what he predicted has not occurred, but maintains that his predictions about disease and climate change were essentially correct and that human overpopulation is a major problem.


title: Paul R. Ehrlich

text: Ehrlich was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, the son of William Ehrlich and Ruth Rosenberg. His father was a shirt salesman, his mother a Greek and Latin scholar and public school teacher. Ehrlich's mother's Reform-Jewish German ancestors arrived in the United States in the 1840s, and his paternal grandparents emigrated there later from the Galician and Romanian part of the Austrian Empire. During his childhood his family moved to Maplewood, New Jersey, where he attended Columbia High School, graduating in 1949.


title: Paul R. Ehrlich

text: Ehrlich earned a bachelor's degree in zoology from the University of Pennsylvania in 1953, an M.A. from the University of Kansas in 1955, and a Ph.D. from the University of Kansas in 1957, supervised by the prominent bee researcher Charles Duncan Michener (the title of his dissertation: "The Morphology, Phylogeny and Higher Classification of the Butterflies (Lepidoptera: Papilionoidea)"). During his studies he participated with surveys of insects in the areas of the Bering Sea and Canadian Arctic, and then with a National Institutes of Health fellowship, investigated the genetics and behavior of parasitic mites. In 1959 he joined the faculty at Stanford University, being promoted to professor of biology in 1966. By training he is an entomologist specializing in Lepidoptera (butterflies). He was appointed to the Bing Professorship in 1977. He is well-known for popularizing the term coevolution in an influential 1964 paper co-authored with the botanist Peter H. Raven, where they proposed that an evolutionary 'arms-race' between plants and insects explains the extreme diversification of plants and insects. This paper was highly influential on the then nascent field of chemical ecology.


title: Paul R. Ehrlich

text: He is president of the Center for Conservation Biology at Stanford University. He is a fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the United States National Academy of Sciences, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and the American Philosophical Society.


title: Paul R. Ehrlich

text: A lecture that Ehrlich gave on the topic of overpopulation at the Commonwealth Club of California was broadcast by radio in April 1967. The success of the lecture caused further publicity, and the suggestion from David Brower the executive director of the environmentalist Sierra Club, and Ian Ballantine of Ballantine Books to write a book concerning the topic. Ehrlich and his wife, Anne H. Ehrlich, collaborated on the book, "The Population Bomb", but the publisher insisted that a single author be credited.


title: Paul R. Ehrlich

text: Although Ehrlich was not the first to warn about population issues — concern had been widespread during the 1950s and 1960s — his charismatic and media-savvy methods helped publicize the topic.


title: Paul R. Ehrlich

text: The original edition of "The Population Bomb" began with this statement: "The battle to feed all of humanity is over. In the 1970s hundreds of millions of people will starve to death in spite of any crash programs embarked upon now. At this late date nothing can prevent a substantial increase in the world death rate ..." Ehrlich argued that the human population was too great, and that while the extent of disaster could be mitigated, humanity could not prevent severe famines, the spread of disease, social unrest, and other negative consequences of overpopulation. By the end of the 1970s, this prediction proved to be incorrect. However, he continued to argue that societies must take strong action to decrease population growth in order to mitigate future disasters, both ecological and social.


title: Paul R. Ehrlich

text: In the book Ehrlich presented a number of "scenarios" detailing possible future events, some of which have been used as examples of errors in the years since. Of these scenarios, Ehrlich has said that although, "we clearly stated that they were not predictions and that 'we can be sure that none of them will come true as stated,' (p. 72) – their failure to occur is often cited as a failure of prediction. In honesty, the scenarios were way off, especially in their timing (we underestimated the resilience of the world system). But they did deal with future issues that people in 1968 should have been thinking about." Ehrlich further states that he still endorses the main thesis of the book, and that its message is as apt now as it was in 1968.


title: Paul R. Ehrlich

text: Ehrlich's opinions have evolved over time, and he has proposed different solutions to the problem of overpopulation. In "The Population Bomb" he wrote, "We must have population control at home, hopefully through a system of incentives and penalties, but by compulsion if voluntary methods fail. We must use our political power to push other countries into programs which combine agricultural development and population control." Voluntary measures he has endorsed include the easiest possible availability of birth control and abortion. In 1967 he had expressed his belief that aid should only be given to those countries that were not considered to be "hopeless" to feed their own populations.


title: Paul R. Ehrlich

text: In their sequel to "The Population Bomb", the Ehrlichs wrote about how the world's growing population dwarfs the Earth's capacity to sustain current living standards. The book calls for action to confront population growth and the ensuing crisis:


title: Paul R. Ehrlich

text: In this paper, the Ehrlichs discuss their opinion on the 'optimal size' for human population, given current technological realities. They refer to establishing "social policies to influence fertility rates."


title: Paul R. Ehrlich

text: During a 2004 interview, Ehrlich answered questions about the predictions he made in "The Population Bomb". He acknowledged that some of what he had published had not occurred, but reaffirmed his basic opinion that overpopulation is a major problem. He noted that, "Fifty-eight academies of science said that same thing in 1994, as did the world scientists' warning to humanity in the same year. My view has become depressingly mainline!" Ehrlich also stated that 600 million people were very hungry, billions were under-nourished, and that his predictions about disease and climate change were essentially correct. Retrospectively, Ehrlich believes that "The Population Bomb" was "way too optimistic".


title: Paul R. Ehrlich

text: In a 2008 discussion hosted by the website "Salon", Paul Ehrlich has become more critical of the United States specifically, claiming that it should control its population and consumption as an example to the rest of the world. He still thinks that governments should discourage people from having more than two children, suggesting, for example, a higher tax rate for larger families.


title: Paul R. Ehrlich

text: In 2011, as the world's population passed the seven billion mark Ehrlich has argued that the next two billion people on Earth would cause more damage than the previous two billion because we are now increasingly having to resort to using more marginal and environmentally damaging resources. As of 2013, Ehrlich continues to perform policy research concerning population and resource issues, with an emphasis upon endangered species, cultural evolution, environmental ethics, and the preservation of genetic resources. Along with Dr. Gretchen Daily, he has performed work in countryside biogeography; that is, the study of making human-disturbed areas hospitable to biodiversity. His research group at Stanford University examines extensively natural populations of the Bay checkerspot butterfly ("Euphydryas editha bayensis"). The population-related disaster that Ehrlich predicted has largely failed to materialize, including the "hundreds of millions" of starvation deaths in the 1970s and the tens of millions of deaths in the United States in the 1970s and 1980s. Slowing of population growth rates and new food production technologies have increased the food supply faster than the population. Nonetheless, Ehrlich continues to stand by his general thesis that the human population is too large, posing a direct threat to human survival and the environment of the planet. Indeed, he states that if he were to write the book today, "My language would be even more apocalyptic." In 2018, he emphasized his view that the optimum population size is between 1.5 and 2 billion people. In 2022, he was a contributor to the "Scientists' warning on population," published by "Science of the Total Environment", which estimated that a sustainable population would be between 2 and 4 billion people.


title: Paul R. Ehrlich

text: Critics have disputed Ehrlich's main thesis about overpopulation and its effects on the environment and human society, and his solutions, as well as some of his specific predictions made since the late 1960s. One criticism concerns Ehrlich's allegedly alarmist and sensational statements and inaccurate "predictions". Ronald Bailey of "Reason" magazine has termed him an "irrepressible doomster ... who, as far as I can tell, has never been right in any of his forecasts of imminent catastrophe." On the first Earth Day in 1970, he warned that "[i]n ten years all important animal life in the sea will be extinct. Large areas of coastline will have to be evacuated because of the stench of dead fish." In a 1971 speech, he predicted that: "By the year 2000 the United Kingdom will be simply a small group of impoverished islands, inhabited by some 70 million hungry people." "If I were a gambler," Professor Ehrlich concluded before boarding an airplane, " I would take even money that England will not exist in the year 2000." When this scenario did not occur, he responded that "When you predict the future, you get things wrong. How wrong is another question. I would have lost if I had had taken the bet. However, if you look closely at England, what can I tell you? They're having all kinds of problems, just like everybody else." Ehrlich wrote in "The Population Bomb" that, "India couldn't possibly feed two hundred million more people by 1980."


title: Paul R. Ehrlich

text: Carl Haub of the Population Reference Bureau has replied that it was precisely the alarmist rhetoric that prevented the catastrophes of which Ehrlich warned. According to Haub, "It makes no sense that Ehrlich is now criticized as being alarmist because his dire warnings did not, in the main, come true. But it was because of such warnings from Ehrlich and others that countries took action to avoid potential disaster." During the 1960s and 70s when Ehrlich made his most alarming warnings, there was a widespread belief among experts that population growth presented an extremely serious threat to the future of human civilization, although differences existed regarding the severity of the situation, and how to decrease it.


title: Paul R. Ehrlich

text: Dan Gardner argues that Ehrlich has been insufficiently forthright in acknowledging errors he made, while being intellectually dishonest or evasive in taking credit for things he claims he got "right". For example, he rarely acknowledges the mistakes he made in predicting material shortages, massive death tolls from starvation (as many as one billion in the publication "Age of Affluence") or regarding the disastrous effects on specific countries. Meanwhile, he is happy to claim credit for "predicting" the increase of AIDS or global warming. However, in the case of disease, Ehrlich had predicted the increase of a disease based on overcrowding, or the weakened immune systems of starving people, so it is "a stretch to see this as forecasting the emergence of AIDS in the 1980s." Similarly, global warming was one of the scenarios that Ehrlich described, so claiming credit for it, while disavowing responsibility for failed scenarios is a double standard. Gardner believes that Ehrlich is displaying classical signs of cognitive dissonance, and that his failure to acknowledge obvious errors of his own judgement render his current thinking suspect.


title: Paul R. Ehrlich

text: Barry Commoner has criticized Ehrlich's 1970 statement that "When you reach a point where you realize further efforts will be futile, you may as well look after yourself and your friends and enjoy what little time you have left. That point for me is 1972." Gardner has criticized Ehrlich for endorsing the strategies proposed by William and Paul Paddock in their book "". They had proposed a system of "triage" that would end food aid to "hopeless" countries such as India and Egypt. In "Population Bomb", Ehrlich suggests that "there is no rational choice except to adopt some form of the Paddocks' strategy as far as food distribution is concerned." Had this strategy been implemented for countries such as India and Egypt, which were reliant on food aid at that time, they would almost certainly have suffered famines. Instead, both Egypt and India have greatly increased their food production and now feed much larger populations without reliance on food aid.


title: Paul R. Ehrlich

text: Another group of critics, generally of the political left, argues that Ehrlich emphasizes overpopulation too much as a problem in itself instead of distribution of resources. Barry Commoner argued that Ehrlich emphasized overpopulation too much as the source of environmental problems, and that his proposed solutions were politically unacceptable because of the coercion that they implied, and because they would cost poor people disproportionately. He argued that technological, and above all social development would result in a natural decrease of both population growth and environmental damage. Ehrlich denies any type of racism, and has argued that if his policy ideas were implemented properly they would not be repressive.


title: Paul R. Ehrlich

text: In a 2018 interview with "The Guardian", Ehrlich, while still proud of "The Population Bomb" for starting a worldwide debate on the issues of population, acknowledged weaknesses of the book including not placing enough emphasis on overconsumption and inequality, and countering accusations of racism. He argues "too many rich people in the world is a major threat to the human future, and cultural and genetic diversity are great human resources." He advocated for an "unprecedented redistribution of wealth" in order to mitigate the problem of overconsumption of resources by the world's wealthy, but said "the rich who now run the global system — that hold the annual 'world destroyer' meetings in Davos — are unlikely to let it happen."


title: Paul R. Ehrlich

text: The economist Julian Simon argued in 1980 that overpopulation is not a problem as such and that humanity will adapt to changing conditions. Simon argued that eventually human creativity will improve living standards, and that most resources were replaceable. Simon stated that over hundreds of years, the prices of virtually all commodities had decreased significantly and persistently. Ehrlich termed Simon the proponent of a "space-age cargo cult" of economists convinced that human creativity and ingenuity would create substitutes for scarce resources and reasserted the idea that population growth was outstripping the Earth's supplies of food, fresh water and minerals. This exchange resulted in the Simon–Ehrlich wager, a bet about the trend of prices for resources during a ten-year period that was made with Simon in 1980. Ehrlich was allowed to choose ten commodities that he predicted would become scarce and thus increase in price. Ehrlich chose mostly metals, and lost the bet, as their average price decreased by about 30% in the next 10 years. Simon and Ehrlich could not agree about the terms of a second bet.


title: Paul R. Ehrlich

text: Ehrlich has argued that humanity has simply deferred the disaster by the use of more intensive agricultural techniques, such as those introduced during the Green Revolution. Ehrlich claims that increasing populations and affluence are increasingly stressing the global environment, due to such factors as loss of biodiversity, overfishing, global warming, urbanization, chemical pollution and competition for raw materials. He maintains that due to growing global incomes, reducing consumption and human population is critical to protecting the environment and maintaining living standards, and that current rates of growth are still too great for a sustainable future.


title: Paul R. Ehrlich

text: Ehrlich was one of the initiators of the group Zero Population Growth (renamed Population Connection) in 1968, along with Richard Bowers and Charles Lee Remington. In 1971, Ehrlich was elected to the Common Cause National Governing Board. He and his wife Anne were part of the board of advisers of the Federation for American Immigration Reform until 2003. He is currently a patron of Population Matters, (formerly known as the Optimum Population Trust).


title: Paul R. Ehrlich

text: Consistent with his concern about the impact of pollution and in response to a doctoral dissertation by his student Edward Goth III, Ehrlich wrote in 1977 that, "Fluorides have been shown to concentrate in food chains, and evidence suggesting a potential for significant ecological effects is accumulating."


title: Paul R. Ehrlich

text: Ehrlich has spoken at conferences in Israel on the issue of desertification. He has argued "true Zionists should have small families".


title: Paul R. Ehrlich

text: Ehrlich has been married to Anne H. Ehrlich (née Howland) since December 1954; they have one daughter, Lisa Marie.


Man on the Moon II: The Legend of Mr. Rager is the second studio album by American rapper Kid Cudi. It was released on November 9, 2010, through Dream On and GOOD Music, and distributed by Universal Motown Records. It serves as a sequel to his debut studio album "" (2009), and is the second installment of the "Man on the Moon" trilogy. Production for the album took place during 2009 to 2010 at various recording studios and was handled by long-time collaborators Emile Haynie and Plain Pat. It also featured contributions from Anthony Kilhoffer, Blended Babies, Chuck Inglish, Dot da Genius, Jim Jonsin, and Rami Beatz, among others. The album was supported by two singles: "Erase Me" and "Mr. Rager".


title: Man on the Moon II: The Legend of Mr. Rager

text: The album incorporates alternative and psychedelic elements to the sound that Cudi explored in his previous album. It features a blend of dark and emotional lyrics, exploring themes of depression, loneliness, detachment, and isolation. The album also highlights other topics, such as Cudi's former cocaine addiction, fame, and alcoholism, as well as family issues and women. The album features guest appearances from CeeLo Green, Mary J. Blige, Kanye West, Cage, St. Vincent, GLC, Chip tha Ripper, and Nicole Wray. Further contributors include Mike Dean, Larry Gold, Ken Lewis, Frank Romano, and Ray Bradley.


text: "Man on the Moon II: The Legend of Mr. Rager" debuted at number three on the US "Billboard" 200, selling 169,000 copies during its first week of release. The album received generally positive reviews from critics, due to its diverse change to the sound and continuing theme of the album. On March 27, 2018, the album was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for sales of more than a million copies in the United States.


text: On August 25, 2009, Cudi announces that his second album was going to be in a trilogy, it was originally going to be titled "Man on the Moon: The Ghost in the Machine". In the same interview, he was still working on the title for the third "Man on the Moon". Three weeks later, Cudi releases "", it sold 104,000 in the first week and charted at number four. In a MTV interview, Cudi announced that the follow-up to his debut album would be a compilation album entitled "Cudder", which would have many collaborations. He stated he had already recorded songs with Snoop Dogg, Travis Barker, Clipse, Cage and Pharrell, and would also like to work with Drake, Green Day, Kings of Leon, Robin Thicke, The Killers and The Postal Service on the album. On January 7, 2010, Cudi revealed in a video interview with Karmaloop TV that he was working with Pharrell in Miami for the album. A week later, he changes the title from "Cudder" to "Cudder and the Revolution of Evolution" at a show in Milwaukee. Few months later, Cudi took off to his blog to announce that he scrapped the collaborative theme of Cudder for a project that is more personal. He stated:


text: He announces that the album was going to be titled "Man on the Moon II: The Legend of Mr. Rager". Cudi stated that ""Man on the Moon II" is dark by nature and instead of bringing you into my dreams like my first album, I'm bringing you into my reality, good and bad. It will explain more of who I am as well as pushing the envelope musically." In a "Complex" interview for his cover shoot titled ""Mad Man on the Moon"", he talks about the album and stating "It's explicit, but smart explicit. I'm not holding back. I have no regard for what people consider right or wrong. Some things I follow—like the law, from here on out. But other than that, I'm doing whatever the fuck I want to do. I'm not holding back. That's why I've been so excited about this move to L.A., because I just want to keep growing creatively, all over, as a human being." Later in the interview, he talked about why the album changed saying "When I started making records like "Erase Me". I wanted this album to be fun, but the dark shit was my life at that time. I was fighting "not" to write that shit. It got frustrating writing a collab album—I just lost interest, and it became more of a task, rather than something I wanted to do. That's not how it's supposed to feel. The day it becomes work, you need to retire."


text: Recording sessions for the album took place at several recording studios, including Avex Recording Studios in Honolulu, Electric Lady Studios in New York City, Glenwood Place Studios in Burbank, Parkland Playhouse in Parkland, The Broski Room in New York City, Westlake Sound in West Hollywood. The track "We Aite (Wake Your Mind Up)" was recorded at the Germano Studios in New York City, and other tracks like "Marijuana" and "Ashin Kusher" was recorded at the Record Plant in Los Angeles. The title track "Mr. Rager" was recorded at NightBird Recording Studios in West Hollywood. "All Along" was recorded at the MSR Studios in New York City, and the last track "Trapped in My Mind" was recorded at Scott's Crib in New York City. The album was mixed at Larrabee Studios in Los Angeles, Circle House Recording Studios in Miami, Paramount Recording Studios in Los Angeles, and MSR Studios. Prior to the process, it was mixed by Manny Marroquin, along with Christian Plata and Erik Madrid. All the songs were mastered by Vlado Meller at Universal Mastering Studios.


text: Producer Emile Haynie handled most of the tracks' production. Outside of Cudi's longtime collaborator, Cudi also collaborated with Grammy Award winning producer Anthony Kilhoffer, who has worked frequently with Kanye West. Composer Larry Gold arranged and conducted with strings on four tracks, and producer Mike Dean contributed guitar on three tracks for the album. In April 2010, Cudi was in the studio with recording artist Kenna.


text: Jim Jonsin, who produced the album's first single compared Cudi's blending of sounds to B.o.B's genre-bending album "", stating "It's a mix. It's kind of some club stuff, some hip-hop traditional rap stuff, and then some rock-pop stuff. He's goin' everywhere." Cudi later said that Jonsin had misinformed fans about the new album, "I got mad love for Jim but he was misinformed. There is no Kanye & Kid Cudi Duran Duran song, I'd sample a 90s record before a 80s record anyday and when I worked with Jim, I hadn't even started sessions with Plain Pat and Emile yet so the direction of my album was yet to be determined."


text: In a September 2010 interview with Spike TV, Cudi spoke on the album's guest appearances: "Man, when it comes to features, I kinda just stick to my homies. My peoples Chip tha Ripper, GLC [who is] a GOOD Music affiliate. Got my boy Cage over there, and Mary J. Blige on the album. We got Cee-Lo on the album. It's just really taking off where we last stopped."


text: "Man on the Moon II: The Legend of Mr. Rager" expands on the spacey, atmospheric aesethetic of its predecessor, "The End of Day". It features an eerie, supernatural production that incorporates alternative rock, psychedelic, post-punk, and new wave. The album's elements consist of; electro-grooves, minimalist beats, somber strings, woozy synths, ghostly samples, distorted guitars, and melancholy melodies.


text: Music writers noted "1990s-era alt-rock" and a "1970s-era sound" in the album's music. "Spin" writer Charles Aaron noted "His cautionary journey takes the music in a makeshift '90s-alt-rock direction, jacked up on jittery beats that eerily mirror the rush and crash of someone who's been given way too much access to way too much ass." Matthew Cole of "Slant Magazine" wrote "it finds that Cudi burrowing deeper into the black hole of spacey psychedelia, fusing the clinical, synthetic hip-hop of "808s & Heartbreak" with rock sounds derived from Hendrix, Pink Floyd, and Zappa." Sputnikmusic writer Channing Freeman commented on the production saying "the beats are slower, they feel somehow more claustrophobic, as if the walls of the songs are closing in around Cudi and he's trying to reach the end before being crushed."


text: Lyricially, it continues on the autobiography track series like its predecessor, and follows the themes like depression, loneliness, detachment, and isolation, but in a darker context. Greg Kot of "Chicago Tribune" commented "He plunges into a world of bravado and after-parties, with their endless supply of drugs and women." Cudi's lyrics on "Man on the Moon II" address his former cocaine addiction, newfound fame, family issues, alcoholism, and women. On the first two songs of the album "Scott Mescudi vs the World" and "Revofev", Cudi provides an introduction to the album where he demonstrates the high and lows, also telling the kids to have hope. "Don't Play This Song" is where Cudi gives a brief explanation of his history of drug use, and he gives an unraveling of his suppressed thoughts hinting at suicide. "Marijuana" is an ode to cannabis where Cudi tactfully presents it as a relief to his mental distress. The lead single "Erase Me" is about a girl who hates Cudi, but can't forget him. Throughout the album, the subject matter of doubt shines, with songs that display emotions of uncertainty ("These Worries", "The End") and the dark experiences that Cudi had ("Maniac", "Mr. Rager"). On "Ghost!" he describes going through life's trials and tribulations and becoming desensitized to the harrowing journey. SgtPeppers of Sputnikmusic notes "Through metaphors, we learn about the rise and fall, and the rise of the alter-ego "Mr. Rager". How he, in the end, paid the price for all of his antagonizing actions, but became a better person because of it. Experience = Wisdom, this is the theme of the album. And though this album is all about "Mr. Rager", this is the most honest he has ever been with us."


text: Originally, the album was tentatively scheduled for an August release, but then later on, it was revealed that the release date was going to be on September 14, 2010. However, in July 2010, it was announced that album would be pushed back to September 28, then it was revealed that it would be settled for October 26 release. Finally, it would be announced that the album would be arriving on the final official release date, November 9, 2010.


text: On Cudi's official website on June 10, 2010, he posts that he will be performing at the Bape Store in New York, and left a message saying "for the revolution". Later on that night, he would go on and perform the track "Revofev", which stands for Revolution of Evolution. Seven days later, the track would be released as a promotional single through Cudi's website on June 17, 2010, the song is produced by Plain Pat. On August 16, 2010, three tracks ("Erase Me", "Wylin Cause I'm Young", "Mr. Rager") would be released through mixtape called "G.O.O.D Ass Mixtape", the next day, "Erase Me" was officially released as a radio single. The song "Wild'n Cuz I'm Young" originally included a verse from Kanye West; years later Cudi revealed Jay-Z had also recorded a verse for the track, which was meant to be remixed.


text: On October 16, 2010, Cudi released the official album cover to "Man on the Moon II". A week later, Cudi reveals the tracklist for the album. On October 29, 2010, the track "These Worries" was released. Three days later, Cudi releases the official trailer for the album. On November 4, 2010, it was revealed that Cudi was releasing a short film for the track "Maniac", and the film was going to be directed by actor Shia LaBeouf. On "The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon", the same night, Cudi along with rapper Cage and musician St. Vincent would perform and debut the track "Maniac". On the night of the release, there was news that Cudi was going to hold an album signing session at the Bape Store in New York, where he'll also unveil a new, limited edition "Mr. Rager" T-shirt for the clothing line. When Cudi arrived, he was kneeling on top of a truck as the driver rode through the crowd until the front of the store, then he proceeded to perform "Revofev" and "Pursuit of Happiness" for the fans.


text: The physical deluxe edition of the album includes a cover with the same design, but a different galaxy. Also it comes packaged alongside a DVD featuring a short film entitled "The Journey of Mr. Rager" which is a full-length 20-minute documentary that gives a glimpse into Cudi's life. It includes video shoots, live performances, and behind the scenes footage. The documentary is directed, shot and edited by Jason Goldwatch. On the iTunes deluxe edition, it includes a bonus track named "Maybe". On April 15, 2011, Cudi announced on his Myspace blog The Cud Life Tour, a United States tour that took place April 18 through August 28, and the supporting act would be Chip tha Ripper. Throughout his tour, Cudi would deliver fans a glimpse into his tour through his vlog by a user named Kev on Vimeo. On October 31, 2011, the short film "Maniac" was released, it features a 10-minute clip of a couple of cold-blooded killers as they go about their business some snowy holiday season. Repeated onscreen references to the camera might appear to indicate some sort of underlying theme about the complicity of the viewer. The video although had very little to do with the song.


text: The album's lead single, "Erase Me" featuring Kanye West, was officially released to rhythm/crossover radio on August 17, 2010. The single spent five weeks and made a hot shot debut on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 at number 22. On the Hot Canadian Digital Song Sales, it spent 10 weeks and peaked at number eight. On September 5, the single debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number 58 and number 18 on the UK R&B Singles Chart. On August 30, the single debuted on the New Zealand Single Charts at number 22. On October 12, 2010, the music video was released, the clip is a tongue-in-cheek performance video reviving the pompous rock days of the late-1960s with the artists dressing up and adopting alter egos. Cudi plays a Jimi Hendrix influenced character, sporting a black curly afro wig and headband. West, who makes a short appearance to drop his verse, appears onstage wearing a black blazer, shades, jewelry, and wears a crown of gold laurels. Christopher Mintz-Plasse and Clark Duke make up the rest of Kid Cudi's band in the video. On September 16, 2016, the single was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA).


text: The album's second single, "Mr. Rager", was officially released as a digital download on October 25, 2010. The single debuted at number 77 on the "Billboard" Hot 100. On September 8, 2011, Cudi released the official music video for "Mr. Rager". The video, directed by Jeremie Rozan from Surface to Air, features a brief cameo appearance from his mentor Kanye West.


text: The track "Scott Mescudi vs the World" debuted at number 92 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and number 20 on the R&B/Hip-Hop Digital Song Sales.<ref name="R&B/Hip-Hop Digital Song Sales"></ref> The track "Marijuana" debuted at number 54 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and number nine on the R&B/Hip-Hop Digital Song Sales, where it spent two weeks on the chart. On June 1, 2010, the music video would be released. On April 10, 2014, the track was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA).


text: "Man on the Moon II: The Legend of Mr. Rager" was met with generally positive reviews. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from professional publications, the album received an average score of 69, based on 20 reviews. Aggregator AnyDecentMusic? gave it 6.6 out of 10, based on their assessment of the critical consensus.


text: "Entertainment Weekly"s Simon Vozick-Levinson called it "a cohesively constructed concept album that will reward repeat listens." "Chicago Tribune" writer Greg Kot complimented Cudi's themes of "the stoned-and-alone rapper" and stated, "the music is as consuming and intoxicating as the lifestyle Cudi describes." Charles Aaron of "Spin" commended it for "boldly reshaping Cudi's sound – with vivid production" and stated "The dizzy friction between rap's grasping for control and rock's desire to lose it entirely give Cudi's confessions a dicey, volatile edge." AllMusic writer David Jeffries said that, "just like on his debut, the soundscape is spacy and far-reaching, making this interstellar therapy session a much more interesting transmission. At its best, it's fascinating." "Slant Magazine"s Matthew Cole expressed that "the hybrid production style proves an atmospheric and eerie delight" and commended Cudi for his unconventional musical approach, writing in conclusion, "Pursuing genius at the expense of consistency might work out just fine for Cudi: I'm not convinced that he's a good rapper, but I'm pretty sure he's an important one." Mark Beaumont of "NME" called it "a grungy, filthy record full of angels and demons." "Pitchfork"s Jayson Greene called "Man on the Moon II" "a bumpy listen", but found it "more fully realized" than Cudi's debut album.


text: In a mixed review, Michaelangelo Matos of "The A.V. Club" found Cudi's delivery insouciant and the music merely "listenable", without "much grasp of any of the styles or modes he tries out." Dave Heaton of "PopMatters" viewed that its "subject matter" is not "delved into as creatively as on the debut album" and stated "Sometimes [Cudi] seems to be falling into the typical trap of sequels: replicating instead of moving forward." "Rolling Stone"s Jonah Weiner commended its "dramatic, breathtakingly stark production", but ultimately panned Cudi's performance and stated "he's grown rote in his self-pity and flat as a singer." Jon Pareles of "The New York Times" viewed that Cudi's rapping "wander[s] away while the track continues without him" and stated "In its utter self-absorption, the album teeters between fascinating and numbing." Nitsuh Abebe of "New York" called it "a weary and sometimes beautiful catalogue of trying times and overindulgence [...] a melodic take on hip-hop that feels woozy and genuinely passionate, inviting you as deeply into his head as the lyrics. [...] But vulnerability loses its power when it's calculated to sound dramatic and masculine."


text: According to the site Album of the Year, "Man on the Moon II" was thirtieth-highest-rank album in the year-end lists by music critics, based on 16 lists. "Complex" ranked the album fourth, and it was ranked sixth by "Rap Radar", it was ranked ninth by "Spin", and it was voted seventh best hip-hop album by "Pitchfork"s Reader Poll. On December 23, 2010, "Complex" would place "Wild'n Cuz I'm Young" at number 25 on the 25 best songs of 2010 list. Two years later, they would rank the album in the list of "25 Rap Albums From the Past Decade That Deserve Classic Status".


text: "Man on the Moon II: The Legend of Mr. Rager" debuted at number three on the US "Billboard" 200, with first-week sales of 169,000 copies. In its second week, the album has crossed the 200,000 sales mark. The album also topped the "Billboard" Rap Albums and R&B/Hip-Hop Albums in its debut week. As of December 2011, the album had sold 353,000 copies in the United States. On March 27, 2018, the album was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for sales of more than a million copies in the United States.


text: In Canada, the album debuted at number five on the Canadian Albums Chart. In United Kingdom, the album debuted at number 88 on the UK Albums Chart.


title: Sun Drop

text: Sun Drop is a citrus-flavored soft drink produced by Keurig Dr Pepper with a yellowish-green color. Among soft drinks, it is known for its high caffeine content. Orange juice is an ingredient in the drink, and remaining pulp matter from the orange juice provides some of the soft drink's taste and appearance. Sun Drop competes primarily against The Coca-Cola Company's Mello Yello and PepsiCo's Mountain Dew.


title: Sun Drop

text: Sun Drop was developed in Missouri by Charles Lazier, a salesman of beverage concentrates. While riding around town in the family car, Lazier quickly scribbled a recipe for a new soft drink on a small piece of paper which he handed to his son, Charles Jr. The younger Lazier worked as a lab technician at his father’s plant, and soon began work on the formula. Two years later, Sun Drop Cola debuted at the American Bottlers of Carbonated Beverages Conference in Washington, D.C. The Sun Drop formula was patented on April 15, 1930.


title: Sun Drop

text: The drink was marketed in several Southern states under names such as "Sundrop Golden Cola" or "Golden Girl Cola." The brand was acquired and standardized by Crush International in 1970. Crush International was purchased by Procter & Gamble in 1980, which sold its soft drinks holdings to Cadbury Schweppes plc in 1989. Cadbury Schweppes demerged in 2008, with its beverage unit becoming Keurig Dr Pepper, which currently produces Sun Drop.


title: Sun Drop

text: Prior to the sale to Cadbury Schweppes, Procter & Gamble introduced several new Sun Drop flavors in 1985, including a reformulated Diet Sun Drop brand using aspartame instead of saccharin. A third brand, Cherry-Lemon Sun Drop, was introduced that same year. In February 2002, the brand introduced Caffeine-Free Sun Drop to the portfolio after the company received numerous requests from loyal consumers for a caffeine-free version of their favorite citrus soft drink. A diet variant of Cherry Lemon Sun Drop was introduced 2014.


title: Sun Drop

text: Sun Drop has maintained popularity in many parts of the Southern United States, especially in Kentucky, Tennessee, North Carolina and parts of the Midwestern United States, including Wisconsin and western Minnesota. Similar to other regional drinks with a cult following, fans outside bottling areas have been known to pay large amounts to have the drink shipped to them. Families have sent it to U.S. soldiers serving in Afghanistan.


title: Sun Drop

text: Sun Drop is the official drink of the nationally recognized "Fancy Farm Picnic" in Fancy Farm, Kentucky.


title: Sun Drop

text: In the 1970s until the early 1990s, the drink was promoted in the American South by NASCAR driver Dale Earnhardt. His son Dale Earnhardt Jr. was also sponsored by Sun Drop in the late model series in 1993; they will reunite for the CARS Tour race at North Wilkesboro Speedway on August 31, 2022.


title: Sun Drop

text: The soft drink was a leading sponsor for racecar driver Ryan Hunter-Reay in the IndyCar Series for Andretti Autosport from 2011 to 2013.


title: Sun Drop

text: Carolina Beverage Corp. bought Sun Drop Bottling Co. of Concord effective December 1, 2016. The Concord, North Carolina plant closed.


title: Sun Drop

text: Keurig Dr Pepper distributed Sun Drop nationwide beginning in 2011, with a new campaign that features an updated web site, a Facebook page, and a promotional deal with MTV. The Sun Drop marketing plan is a component of Keurig Dr Pepper's efforts to expand its non-cola soda sales and is targeting drinkers of PepsiCo's Mountain Dew brand of soft drinks in the United States. Sun Drop's expansion occurred several months after Coca-Cola brought its high-caffeine citrus drink Mello Yello nationwide.


title: Sun Drop

text: Dr Pepper Snapple entered into an agreement with Scratch, MTV's marketing agency. Scratch will develop new Sun Drop advertising and branding, including a new design for the can. MTV will also feature Sun Drop in programming, including on its reality series "The Real World".


title: Sun Drop

text: Sun Drop that is bottled in glass bottles is typically sweetened with sugar instead of corn syrup, providing a slightly different taste.


title: Melissa Francis

text: Melissa Ann Francis (born December 12, 1972) is an American television news personality who most recently appeared as an anchor and commentator for the Fox Business Network (FBN) and Fox News (FNC). Previously, she worked as an actress.


title: Melissa Francis

text: Prior to FBN, she worked at CNBC. She had been the co-host of "After The Bell" weekday afternoons with Connell MacShane. She also was most recently an anchor on FNC's "Happening Now" newscast. She most recently had been a regular panelist on FNC's afternoon talk show "Outnumbered". However, in late October 2020, it was reported that she had been pushed out of Fox. Although there was not a formal announcement to that effect, all signs point to her having departed Fox, likely not on her terms.


title: Melissa Francis

text: Born and raised in Los Angeles, Francis graduated from Harvard University in 1995 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in economics.


title: Melissa Francis

text: Francis started her acting career on television by appearing in a Johnson & Johnson shampoo commercial at 6 months old. She was known for her role as Cassandra Cooper Ingalls on "Little House on the Prairie", for two seasons. Other television appearances include two series regular roles: "Morningstar/Eveningstar" and "Joe’s World", and three films including "Man, Woman and Child", where she played Paula Beckwith. She has also had appearances in the television series "St. Elsewhere" in 1986 and the 1988 film "Bad Dreams", where she played young Cynthia. Melissa appeared in nearly 100 commercials during her acting career. She is reportedly the inspiration for the fictional character Avery Jessup (conceived of and played by Elizabeth Banks) in the show "30 Rock", although Banks herself has denied this.


title: Melissa Francis

text: In 2014, Francis became a recurring co-host of Fox News Channel's talk and news commentary program, "Outnumbered". She also anchored FNC's "Happening Now" newscast.


title: Melissa Francis

text: In late October 2020, it was reported that Francis had been pushed out at Fox. She had not been seen on the network since early in the month. Her contract had expired about a year earlier and had not been renewed.


title: Melissa Francis

text: The only communication on the issue from Francis herself came in a tweet, where she thanked her followers for their support. However, her profile on Twitter soon dropped any reference to Fox as well.


title: Melissa Francis

text: In late 2020, Francis filed a pay discrimination action against Fox. Francis claimed that Fox News underpaid her compared to her male colleagues, and she initiated legal claims against Fox. Fox and Francis reached a settlement in June 2022 whereby Fox paid Francis $15 million.


title: Melissa Francis

text: Francis authored a book in November 2012, "Diary of a Stage Mother's Daughter: A Memoir", concerning the trials, tribulations and joys of having an overbearing mother; and in April 2017, published "Lessons from the Prairie", relating childhood experiences from the show as applied to her adult life.


title: The Chambers Brothers

text: The Chambers Brothers are an American psychedelic soul band, best known for their eleven-minute 1967 psychedelic soul hit "Time Has Come Today". The group was part of the wave of new music that integrated American blues and gospel traditions with modern psychedelic and rock elements. Their music has been kept alive through frequent use in film soundtracks.


title: The Chambers Brothers

text: Originally from Carthage, Mississippi, the Chambers Brothers first honed their skills as members of the choir in their Baptist church. This arrangement ended in 1952 when the eldest brother, George, was drafted into the Army. George relocated to Los Angeles after his discharge, and his brothers soon joined him. Beginning in 1954, the foursome played gospel and folk music throughout the Southern California region, but remained little known until 1965 when they began performing in New York City.


title: The Chambers Brothers

text: Consisting of George (September 26, 1931 – October 12, 2019) on washtub bass (later on bass guitar Danelectro and Gibson Thunderbird), Lester (b. April 13, 1940) on harmonica, and Willie (b. March 3, 1938) and Joe (b. August 22, 1942) on guitar, the group started to venture outside the gospel circuit, playing at coffeehouses that booked folk acts. They played at places like The Ash Grove, a very popular Los Angeles folk club. It became one of their favorite haunts and brought them into contact with Hoyt Axton, Ramblin' Jack Elliott, Reverend Gary Davis, and Barbara Dane. When Dane spotted the brothers there, she knew they would be perfect to do these freedom songs that people wanted to hear then. Dane became a great supporter, performing and recording with the brothers. With the addition of Brian Keenan (January 28, 1943 – October 5, 1985) on drums, Dane took them on tour with her and introduced them to Pete Seeger, who helped put the Chambers Brothers on the bill of the 1965 Newport Folk Festival. One of the songs they performed, "I Got It", appeared on the Newport Folk Festival 1965 compilation LP, which was issued on the Vanguard label.


title: The Chambers Brothers

text: They were becoming more accepted in the folk community, but, like many on the folk circuit, were looking to electrify their music and develop more of a rock and roll sound. Joe Chambers recalled in a May 1994 "Goldmine" article that people at the Newport Folk Festival were breaking down fences and rushing to the stage. "Newport had never seen or heard anything like that." After the group finished and the crowd finally settled down, the MC came up and said "Whether you know it or not, that was rock 'n' roll." That night they played at a post-concert party for festival performers and went to a recording session of the newly electrified Bob Dylan. Shortly after appearing at Newport, the group released its debut album, "People Get Ready".


title: The Chambers Brothers

text: The group recorded "All Strung Out Over You" which was composed by Rudy Clark. It was released on Columbia 4-43957 on December 19, 1966.


title: The Chambers Brothers

text: It was rushed out by Columbia after the label had rejected an early version of "Time Has Come Today". "All Strung Out Over You" became a regional hit for the group which gave them the opportunity to re-record "The Time Has Come Today".


title: The Chambers Brothers

text: The band scored its only major hit in the fall of 1968 with "Time Has Come Today", an 11-minute opus written by Joe and Willie Chambers and highlighted by echoing vocal effects and Keenan's drumming which gave the song a psychedelic feel. "Time Has Come Today" was edited for release as a single and spent five consecutive weeks in September–October at #11 on the "Billboard" Hot 100, just missing the Top Ten.


title: The Chambers Brothers

text: Later incarnations of the group included session guitarist Steve Hunter (known for his work with Alice Cooper) An album recorded in 1972 for Columbia, "Oh! My God", has remained unreleased until October 28, 2022 when it was finally made available through multiple digital platforms. Although the group disbanded in 1972, they reformed and moved from Columbia to Avco Records and released "Unbonded" (1974) and "Right Move" (1975). In 1976 the brothers released "Recorded Live In Concert on Mars" for the Roxbury label. They have toured irregularly since.


title: The Chambers Brothers

text: They were signed to support Maria Muldaur on her "Gospel Nights" album. They also made commercials for Levi's Jeans.


title: The Chambers Brothers

text: Lester moved to New York and formed a band with former Electric Flag bassist Harvey Brooks. Guitarists Willie and Joe would find work as session men; George went back to singing gospel music and would later become a deacon of his church. Keenan retired to Stamford, Connecticut where he set up his own recording studio, and died of heart failure in 1985


title: The Chambers Brothers

text: American Session Drummer, Lee Szymborski, also from Stamford Connecticut, was hired by George Chambers to replace Brian Keenan in 1980, in Los Angeles, CA., and performed live with The Chambers Brothers at the Hollywood Bowl's Fourth Annual Survival Sunday Anti-Nuclear Benefit Concert, with Bruce Springsteen, Jackson Browne, Stephen Stills, Bonnie Rait, Graham Nash, Gary U.S. Bonds, Peter Yarrow, Kenny Rankin and others in Los Angeles, CA. on June 14, 1981. Lee Szymborski also performed live with The Chambers Brothers and Etta James for two shows at McCabe's Guitar Shop 3101 Pico Blvd. Santa Monica, CA. July 16, 1981.


title: The Chambers Brothers

text: Art Ramsey was hired as a replacement drummer. He performed live, on-the-road and in many different cities and venues with the Chambers Brothers band after Lee Szymborski's departure. Later, L.A. session drummer Fabian Jolivet joined the band for a 1997 tour that ended with the full line up returning to the Ash Grove and playing a gospel set.


title: The Chambers Brothers

text: In 2006, guitarist Willie Chambers sat in with a group called Vince and the Invinceables at a benefit concert for Arthur Lee of the group Love and delivered an acclaimed performance.


title: The Chambers Brothers

text: In 2015, Joe Chambers was appearing at venues such as Harold's Place on Pacific Ave. San Pedro as The Joe Chambers Experience.


title: The Chambers Brothers

text: In 2016, Willie, Joe, and occasionally George, along with their nephew Jerry Warner on bass, Crazy Tomes on guitar, and LA drummer Jon McCracken, reformed as the Chambers Brothers to do shows in the Los Angeles area; including the Grammy Museum in Los Angeles, CA.


title: The Chambers Brothers

text: In 2021 the Chambers Brothers appeared in the Questlove music documentary "Summer of Soul," about the 1969 Harlem Cultural Festival.


title: Limbal ring

text: A limbal ring is a dark ring around the iris of the eye, where the sclera meets the cornea. It is a dark-colored manifestation of the corneal limbus resulting from optical properties of the region. The appearance and visibility of the limbal ring can be negatively affected by a variety of medical conditions concerning the peripheral cornea. It has been suggested that limbal ring thickness may correlate with health or youthfulness and may contribute to facial attractiveness. Some contact lenses are colored to simulate limbal rings.


title: Limbal ring

text: Both health and age are positively correlated with a prominent limbal ring. For instance, a darker limbal ring tends to be found more attractive than the absence of a limbal ring, suggesting that both sexes "use the limbal ring as a probabilistic indicator of reproductive fitness". Furthermore, limbal rings appear to be most noticeable "for individuals relatively free from chronic health issues".


title: Limbal ring

text: The limbal ring is thought to contain corneal epithelium stem cells. Diseases involving a limbal stem cell deficiency are associated with blindness, as those with such deficiencies are "unable to maintain a stable corneal surface." Transplantation of limbal stem cells is a promising therapy for limbal stem cell deficiency.


title: Pharrell Williams discography

text: The discography of Pharrell Williams, an American recording artist and record producer, consists of two studio albums, two extended plays (EPs), one mixtape, 21 singles (including 50 as a featured artist).


title: Pharrell Williams discography

text: On September 9, 2005, Williams performed the opening single from his first solo album "In My Mind", "Can I Have It Like That" ;featuring Gwen Stefani). The single did poorly in the US, reaching only number 48. It fared better in the UK, reaching number three. Between then and the July 25, 2006 release of "In My Mind", he released "Angel" (in Europe only), and later "Number One" (featuring Kanye West). "That Girl" (featuring Snoop Dogg) was the final single.


title: Pharrell Williams discography

text: In 2013, Williams featured on Daft Punk's fourth studio album "Random Access Memories" on the songs "Get Lucky" and "Lose Yourself to Dance". In addition, Williams contributed to Azealia Banks' debut studio album "Broke with Expensive Taste", featuring on the song "ATM Jam", though it was taken out of the album prior to release. Williams penned three new original songs, included alongside composer Heitor Pereira's score, for the sequel "Despicable Me 2". These were "Just a Cloud Away", "Happy", and "Scream" (featuring CeeLo Green). His two original songs from the first film were also reprised on the soundtrack - "Despicable Me" and "Fun, Fun, Fun". In March 2013, Williams appeared alongside T.I. on Robin Thicke's hit single "Blurred Lines". The song has been a worldwide hit, has peaked at number one on the "Billboard" Hot 100, and has also reached number one in 13 more countries including the United Kingdom and Germany, making it Williams' third "Billboard" Hot 100 number one single. On June 29, 2013, he became the 12th artist in the chart's history to simultaneously hold the number one and two positions (with "Blurred Lines" and "Get Lucky", respectively). By July 2013, only 137 singles in UK chart history had achieved one million sales in the UK - that month Williams scored two million-sellers with "Get Lucky" and "Blurred Lines".


title: Pharrell Williams discography

text: In November 2013, Williams released the first 24-hour music video to his "Despicable Me 2" collaboration song, "Happy". Guest appearances included Magic Johnson, Steve Carell, Jimmy Kimmel, Jamie Foxx, Steve Martin, Odd Future, Miranda Cosgrove, Janelle Monáe, and many others. In December 2013, a press release from Columbia Records announced that Williams had signed a contract with the label and would be releasing an album in 2014, featuring the single "Happy" from the "Despicable Me 2" soundtrack. "Happy" has since become one of the best-selling singles of all time, having sold more than 10 million copies worldwide. It is also the most downloaded song in the United Kingdom, with over 1.65 million copies sold. On March 4, 2014, Williams released his second studio album "Girl", which includes the singles "Happy", "Marilyn Monroe", "Come Get It Bae" and "Gust of Wind".


title: Sanghavi

text: Sanghavi (born Kavya Ramesh) is an Indian actress and a model known for her work predominantly in Telugu and Tamil language films. She was one of the leading actresses in South Indian cinema for a decade from 1993 to 2004. In her career spanning 15 years, she starred in over 80 feature films - 38 in Telugu, 35 films in Tamil, six in Kannada, two in Malayalam and one film in Hindi.


title: Sanghavi

text: Sangavi was born in Mysore, Karnataka. Her father is Dr. D. A. Ramesh, an ENT Professor in Mysore Medical College, and her mother is Mrs. Ranjana. She did her schooling at Marimallappa High School. She is the granddaughter of Kannada film actress Aarathi's elder sister. In 1993, she made her debut with the Tamil film "Amaravathi".


title: Sanghavi

text: Sangavi married IT Professional Venkatesh on 3 February 2016 at Taj Vivanta, Bengaluru. The couple had a baby girl in January 2020.


title: Sanghavi

text: Sangavi suffered an accident in 2005 when she was travelling from Mysore to Chennai: she had a minor injury to her nose and her father, who was an ENT professor in the Mysore Medical College, performed the surgery.


title: HD 189733 b

text: HD 189733 b is an exoplanet approximately away from the Solar System in the constellation of Vulpecula. Astronomers in France discovered the planet orbiting the star HD 189733 on October 5, 2005, by observing its transit across the star's face. With a mass 16.2% higher than that of Jupiter and a radius 13.8% greater, HD 189733 b orbits its host star once every 2.2 days at an orbital speed of , making it a hot Jupiter with poor prospects for extraterrestrial life.


title: HD 189733 b

text: The closest transiting hot Jupiter to Earth, HD 189733 b is a subject of extensive atmospheric examination.


title: HD 189733 b

text: Accordingly, scientists have extensively studied the exoplanet's atmosphere with high- and low-resolution instruments, both from the ground and space. Researchers have found that the planet has an unusual rain of molten glass.


title: HD 189733 b

text: HD 188733 b was also the first exoplanet to have its thermal map constructed (possibly to be detected through polarimetry), its overall color determined (deep blue), transit in the X-ray spectrum, and carbon dioxide confirmed in its atmosphere.


title: HD 189733 b

text: In July 2014, NASA announced finding very dry atmospheres on three exoplanets (HD 189733b, HD 209458b, WASP-12b) orbiting Sun-like stars.


title: HD 189733 b

text: On October 6, 2005, a team of astronomers announced the discovery of transiting planet HD 189733 b. The planet was then detected using Doppler spectroscopy. Real-time radial velocity measurements detected the Rossiter–McLaughlin effect caused by the planet passing in front of its star before photometric measurements confirmed that the planet was transiting. In 2006, a team led by Drake Deming announced detection of strong infrared thermal emission from the transiting exoplanet planet HD 189733 b, by measuring the flux decrement (decrease of total light) during its prominent secondary eclipse (when the planet passes behind the star).


title: HD 189733 b

text: The mass of the planet is estimated to be 16% larger than Jupiter's, with the planet completing an orbit around its host star every 2.2 days and an orbital speed of .


title: HD 189733 b

text: On February 21, 2007, NASA released news that the Spitzer Space Telescope had measured detailed spectra from both HD 189733 b and HD 209458 b. The release came simultaneously with the public release of a new issue of "Nature" containing the first publication on the spectroscopic observation of the other exoplanet, HD 209458 b. A paper was submitted and published by the "Astrophysical Journal Letters". The spectroscopic observations of HD 189733 b were led by Carl Grillmair of NASA's Spitzer Science Center.


title: HD 189733 b

text: In 2008, a team of astrophysicists appeared to have detected and monitored the planet's visible light using polarimetry, which would have been the first such success. This result seemed to be confirmed and refined by the same team in 2011. They found that the planet albedo is significantly larger in blue light than in the red, most probably due to Rayleigh scattering and molecular absorption in the red. The blue color of the planet was subsequently confirmed in 2013, which would have made HD 189733 the first planet to have its overall color determined by two different techniques. These measurements in polarized light have since been disputed by two separate teams using more sensitive polarimeters, with upper limits of the polarimetric signal provided therein.


title: HD 189733 b

text: The blueness of the planet may be the result of Rayleigh scattering. In mid January 2008, spectral observation during the planet's transit using that model found that if molecular hydrogen exists, it would have an atmospheric pressure of 410 ± 30 mbar of 0.1564 solar radii. The Mie approximation model also found that there is a possible condensate in its atmosphere, magnesium silicate (MgSiO) with a particle size of approximately 10 to 10 μm. Using both models, the planet's temperature would be between 1340 and 1540 K. The Rayleigh effect is confirmed in other models, and by the apparent lack of a cooler, shaded stratosphere below its outer atmosphere. In the visible region of the spectrum, thanks to their high absorption cross sections, atomic sodium and potassium can be investigated. For example, using high-resolution UVES spectrograph on VLT, sodium has been detected on this atmosphere and further physical characteristics of the atmosphere such as temperature has been investigated.


title: HD 189733 b

text: In July 2013, NASA reported the first observations of planet transit studied in the X-ray spectrum. It was found that the planet's atmosphere blocks three times more X-rays than visible light.


title: HD 189733 b

text: In March 2010, transit observations using HI Lyman-alpha found that this planet is evaporating at a rate of 1-100 gigagrams per second. This indication was found by detecting the extended exosphere of atomic hydrogen. HD 189733 b is the second planet after HD 209458 b for which atmospheric evaporation has been detected.


title: HD 189733 b

text: This planet exhibits one of the largest photometric transit depth (amount of the parent star's light blocked) of extrasolar planets so far observed, approximately 3%. The apparent longitude of ascending node of its orbit is 16 degrees +/- 8 away from the north–south in our sky. It and HD 209458 b were the first two planets to be directly spectroscopically observed. The parent stars of these two planets are the brightest transiting-planet host stars, so these planets will continue to receive the most attention from astronomers. Like most hot Jupiters, this planet is thought to be tidally locked to its parent star, meaning it has a permanent day and night.


title: HD 189733 b

text: The planet is not oblate, and has neither satellites with greater than 0.8 the radius of Earth nor a ring system like that of Saturn.


title: HD 189733 b

text: The international team under the direction of Svetlana Berdyugina of Zurich University of Technology, using the Swedish 60-centimeter telescope KVA, which is located in Spain, was able to directly see the polarized light reflected from the planet. The polarization indicates that the scattering atmosphere is considerably larger (> 30%) than the opaque body of the planet seen during transits.


title: HD 189733 b

text: The atmosphere was at first predicted "pL class", lacking a temperature-inversion stratosphere; like L dwarfs which lack titanium and vanadium oxides. Follow-up measurements, tested against a stratospheric model, yielded inconclusive results. Atmospheric condensates form a haze above the surface as viewed in the infrared. A sunset viewed from that surface would be red. Sodium and potassium signals were predicted by Tinetti 2007. First obscured by the haze of condensates, sodium was eventually observed at three times the concentration of HD 209458 b's sodium layer. The potassium was also detected in 2020, although in significantly smaller concentrations. HD 189733 is also the first extrasolar planet confirmed to have carbon dioxide in its atmosphere.


title: HD 189733 b

text: In 2007, the Spitzer Space Telescope was used to map the planet's temperature emissions. The planet+star system was observed for 33 consecutive hours, starting when only the night side of the planet was in view. Over the course of one-half of the planet's orbit, more and more of the dayside came into view. A temperature range of 973 ± 33 K to 1,212 ± 11 K was discovered, indicating that the absorbed energy from the parent star is distributed fairly evenly through the planet's atmosphere. The region of peak temperature was offset 30 degrees east of the substellar point, as predicted by theoretical models of hot Jupiters taking into account a parameterized day to night redistribution mechanism.


title: HD 189733 b

text: Scientists at the University of Warwick determined that it has winds of up to blowing from the day side to the night side. NASA released a brightness map of the surface temperature of HD 189733 b; it is the first map ever published of an extra-solar planet.


title: HD 189733 b

text: On July 11, 2007, a team led by Giovanna Tinetti published the results of their observations using the Spitzer Space Telescope concluding there is solid evidence for significant amounts of water vapor in the planet's atmosphere. Follow-up observations made using the Hubble Space Telescope confirm the presence of water vapor, neutral oxygen and also the organic compound methane. Later, Very Large Telescope observations also detected the presence of carbon monoxide on the day side of the planet. It is currently unknown how the methane originated as the planet's high temperature should cause the water and methane to react, replacing the atmosphere with carbon monoxide. Nonetheless, the presence of roughly 0.004% of water vapour fraction by volume in atmosphere of HD 189733 b was confirmed with high-resolution emission spectra taken in 2021.


title: HD 189733 b

text: The weather on HD 189733b is deadly. The winds, composed of silicate particles, blow up to . Observations of this planet have also found evidence that it rains molten glass, horizontally.


title: HD 189733 b

text: While transiting the system also clearly exhibits the Rossiter–McLaughlin effect, shifting in photospheric spectral lines caused by the planet occulting a part of the rotating stellar surface. Due to its high mass and close orbit, the parent star has a very large semi-amplitude (K), the "wobble" in the star's radial velocity, of 205 m/s.


title: HD 189733 b

text: The Rossiter–McLaughlin effect allows the measurement of the angle between the planet's orbital plane and the equatorial plane of the star. These are well aligned, misalignment equal to -0.5°. By analogy with HD 149026 b, the formation of the planet was peaceful and probably involved interactions with the protoplanetary disc. A much larger angle would have suggested a violent interplay with other protoplanets.


title: HD 189733 b

text: In 2008, a team of astronomers first described how as the exoplanet orbiting HD 189733 A reaches a certain place in its orbit, it causes increased stellar flaring. In 2010, a different team found that every time they observe the exoplanet at a certain position in its orbit, they also detected X-ray flares. Theoretical research since 2000 suggested that an exoplanet very near to the star that it orbits may cause increased flaring due to the interaction of their magnetic fields, or because of tidal forces. In 2019, astronomers analyzed data from Arecibo Observatory, MOST, and the Automated Photoelectric Telescope, in addition to historical observations of the star at radio, optical, ultraviolet, and X-ray wavelengths to examine these claims. They found that the previous claims were exaggerated and the host star failed to display many of the brightness and spectral characteristics associated with stellar flaring and solar active regions, including sunspots. Their statistical analysis also found that many stellar flares are seen regardless of the position of the exoplanet, therefore debunking the earlier claims. The magnetic fields of the host star and exoplanet do not interact, and this system is no longer believed to have a "star-planet interaction." Some researchers had also suggested that HD 189733 accretes, or pulls, gas from its orbiting exoplanet at a rate similar to those found around young protostars in T Tauri Star systems. Later analysis demonstrated that very little, if any, gas was accreted from the "hot Jupiter" companion.


title: Roy Nissany

text: Roy Nissany (; born 30 November 1994) is an Israeli racing driver who is set to compete in the Formula 2 Championship with PHM Racing by Charouz. He is also currently a Formula 1 test driver with Williams Grand Prix Engineering. He is the son of former racing driver Chanoch Nissany.


title: Roy Nissany

text: Nissany was born in Tel Aviv, Israel, and resides in Herzliya, Israel. He is the son of the former Israeli one-time Minardi Formula One test driver, Chanoch Nissany. Nissany races under the flag of his native Israel, however he also holds a French passport.


title: Roy Nissany

text: Nissany began karting at the age of six. In 2004, he drove for the Hungarian G-Kart Racing Team, and finished fourth overall in the FIA Central European Zone Trophy and in the Hungarian Karting Championship. In 2007, Nissany drove for the Italian Morsicani Racing Team, racing in the Italian Open Masters and 13th Winter Cup in Lonato del Garda. In the following year, he raced for the Gandolfi Racing Team and scored a best finish of second in the Mille Dollari race in Pomposa.


title: Roy Nissany

text: Nissany began his car racing career in 2010, finishing eighth in the 2010 Formula Lista Junior championship and scoring a pole position at Monza. In 2011, he moved to the ADAC Formel Masters series (now ADAC Formula 4) for the Mücke Motorsport team, racing against drivers such as Pascal Wehrlein and Artem Markelov. He finished the season in 11th place, scoring two podium finishes. Nissany competed again in 2012, finishing in ninth place and scoring one win at the Red Bull Ring.


title: Roy Nissany

text: In 2013 Nissany moved up to the FIA Formula 3 European Championship with Mücke Motorsport alongside future IndyCar driver Felix Rosenqvist. Nissany scored 11 points including two eighth-place finishes, and ended the season 22nd in the championship.


title: Roy Nissany

text: He competed again in 2014 alongside Rosenqvist and Lucas Auer. Nissany finished 17th in the championship with 26 points, his best race result being sixth place at the Nürburgring.


title: Roy Nissany

text: In 2015 Nissany moved to the Formula Renault 3.5 Series with Tech 1 Racing alongside Aurélien Panis. Nissany took a podium finish with third place at the Red Bull Ring, and ended the season 13th in the championship with 27 points to Panis' 42.


title: Roy Nissany

text: He moved to Lotus for the 2016 season alongside René Binder. Nissany's 2016 season was more successful; he claimed three pole positions, three race wins and four further podium finishes to end the season fourth in the championship, ahead of Binder and behind future Formula 2 competitor Louis Delétraz.


title: Roy Nissany

text: Nissany then moved to RP Motorsport for 2017 as the series became the World Series Formula V8 3.5. Nissany was one of only eight full-time drivers in the series, which folded the following year due to a lack of entries. Nissany had another successful season, winning a race at the Circuito de Jerez and claiming five more podium places to finish fifth in the championship.


title: Roy Nissany

text: In 2018, Nissany competed in the FIA Formula 2 Championship with Campos Vexatec Racing. After the tenth round in Monza, Nissany had scored only a single point – a 10th-place finish at the feature race at Spa-Francorchamps. In contrast, teammate Luca Ghiotto had collected 94 points including four podium finishes. Nissany was then replaced by Roberto Merhi for the remaining two rounds of the season.


title: Roy Nissany

text: Nissany suffered a training injury at the beginning of 2019 and did not compete in racing during the year.


title: Roy Nissany

text: In 2020 he returned to Formula 2 to race for Trident Racing alongside Marino Sato. Nissany scored a point in the opening race at the Red Bull Ring, finishing 10th. His next points finish came at the thirteenth race of the season, the feature race at Spa-Francorchamps, where he finished eighth. This put Nissany on reverse-grid pole position for the sprint race, however he was forced to retire from the race after a collision with fellow Williams Driver Academy member Dan Ticktum. Nissany ended the season 19th in the drivers' championship, scoring five of his team's six points that year. In December 2020, Nissany drove for DAMS in the post-season Formula 2 test at the Bahrain International Circuit.


title: Roy Nissany

text: In January 2021 it was confirmed that Nissany would move to DAMS for the season, driving alongside Ferrari Driver Academy member Marcus Armstrong. Nissany qualified seventh for the Monaco round, his best Formula 2 qualifying position. This put him fourth on the grid for the opening sprint race, and an oil leak for Christian Lundgaard during the race elevated Nissany to third place and allowed him to claim his first Formula 2 podium finish. Unfortunately for Nissany, his only other points finish came in Monza, as he ended up 16th in the championship.


title: Roy Nissany

text: Nissany remained with DAMS for a second season, partnering F3 graduate Ayumu Iwasa. Starting the season out at Bahrain, he finished eighth in the feature race, scoring his first points of the season. More points followed in Jeddah, before Nissany qualified sixth in Imola. After taking fourth in the sprint race, Nissany made a sublime start on Sunday, taking the lead going into the first corner. He would ultimately lose his chance of victory, crashing at the final corner on lap 20. He came back with a point at Barcelona, however from this point, Nissany would go three events without finishing in the points. The Israeli driver broke his duck in Austria, taking ninth place in the feature race, and he would score the same result in France. Following the accumulation of 12 penalty points by the conclusion of the round at Zandvoort, he received a ban for the following event in Monza. Nissany returned to action for the season finale at Yas Marina, where he qualified second and finished in the points in both races, leading him to conclude the campaign sitting 19th in the standings.


title: Roy Nissany

text: During the 2022 post-season testing, Nissany reunited with Charouz Racing System. Shortly after, he was announced for the team for the 2023 season, under the new name "PHM Racing by Charouz".


title: Roy Nissany

text: Nissany had his first experience with a Formula One car in October 2014, testing the Sauber C31 at the Circuito Ricardo Tormo. In December 2019, he took part in post-season testing with Williams at Yas Marina Circuit. In January 2020 it was announced that Williams had appointed Nissany as their official test driver for the season. He made his Grand Prix weekend debut at the , taking part in the first practice session (FP1) for the team. He later appeared in FP1 sessions at the Italian and Bahrain Grands Prix, as well as representing Williams at the post-season young driver test at Yas Marina Circuit.


title: Roy Nissany

text: Nissany was retained by Williams in his test driver role for the season. He took part in the first day of pre-season testing with the team, recording 83 laps of the Bahrain International Circuit. He appeared in three FP1 sessions with Williams during the season, at the Spanish, French and Austrian Grands Prix.


title: FIBA Europe

text: FIBA Europe is the administrative body for basketball in Europe, within the International Basketball Federation (FIBA), which includes all 50 national European basketball federations. In reaction to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, FIBA Europe mandated that no official basketball competitions are to be held in either Russia or Belarus, while the teams of the Russian Basketball Federation and of the Belarusian Basketball Federation are being withdrawn from national team competitions and from the club competition season 2022-23.


title: FIBA Europe

text: FIBA Europe is one of five Regions of FIBA and is responsible for controlling and developing the sport of basketball in Europe. Among many tasks, this includes promoting, supervising and directing international competition at the club and national team levels, as well as governing and appointing European international referees. FIBA Europe is an international federation whose membership consists of the national basketball federations of Europe, of which there are currently 50 members.


title: FIBA Europe

text: The highest decision making body is the Board of FIBA Europe which consists of 25 persons elected by the National Federations. The Board of FIBA Europe meets twice a year and is the executive body which represents all 50 Federations that make up the membership of FIBA Europe. All 50 federations meet once a year at the General Assembly of FIBA Europe.


title: Nikesh Arora

text: Nikesh Arora (born February 9, 1968) is an Indian-American business executive. Arora was formerly a senior executive at Google. He served as the president of SoftBank Group from October 2014 to June 2016. On June 1, 2018, Arora took on the role of CEO and chairman at Palo Alto Networks.


title: Nikesh Arora

text: Born to an Indian Air Force officer, Arora completed his schooling from The Air Force School (Subroto Park), and went on to graduate from Indian Institute of Technology, BHU in Varanasi, India, with a Bachelor of Technology degree in electrical engineering in 1989. He holds a degree from Boston College and an MBA from Northeastern University. He has held the CFA designation since 1999.


title: Nikesh Arora

text: In 2000, Arora established T-Motion, a subsidiary within Deutsche Telekom, "providing value-added services to the 3G Services of Deutsche Telekom." A few years after, in 2002, T-Motion was integrated into T-Mobile's core services.


title: Nikesh Arora

text: Arora joined Google in 2004. He held multiple senior operating leadership roles at Google, serving as vice president, Europe operations from 2004 to 2007, president Europe, Middle East and Africa from 2007 to 2009, and president, global sales operations and business development from 2009 to 2010. He was senior vice president and chief business officer of Google Inc. (Google) since January 2011 until July 2014.


title: Nikesh Arora

text: He left Google in July 2014 resigning from the post of senior vice president and chief business officer.


title: Nikesh Arora

text: As president and chief operating officer of SoftBank Corp. Arora received over $200 million in compensation over the last two years" while at the head of Softbank's operations. This pay package made him the world's highest paid executive.


title: Nikesh Arora

text: Arora worked as chief marketing officer and as a Member of the management board at T-Mobile, Bharti Airtel, Europe and serves as a Trustee at the Paley Center for Media in Los Angeles, California.


title: Nikesh Arora

text: Since 2007, Arora has also served as a senior advisor to Silver Lake Partners, a private equity firm.


title: Nikesh Arora

text: From 2001 to 2004, he served as chief marketing officer of the T-Mobile International Division of Deutsche Telekom AG. He was chief executive officer and founder of T-Motion PLC, which merged with T-Mobile International in 2002.


title: Nikesh Arora

text: Arora began his career at Fidelity Investments in 1992, holding a variety of finance and technology management positions, ultimately serving as vice president, finance of Fidelity Technologies.


title: Tequila Sunrise (film)

text: Tequila Sunrise is a 1988 American romantic crime film written and directed by Robert Towne. It stars Mel Gibson, Michelle Pfeiffer, and Kurt Russell, with Raul Julia, J. T. Walsh, Arliss Howard, and Gabriel Damon in supporting roles. The original music score was composed by Dave Grusin.


title: Tequila Sunrise (film)

text: The film, only the second (after "Personal Best") to be both written and directed by Academy Award-winning screenwriter Towne, was commercially successful, grossing over $100 million at the box office worldwide, but critical reception was mixed. One reviewer was of the opinion that, "perhaps because the elements were so irresistible—Robert Towne directing Gibson, Russell and Pfeiffer in a California crime film—an aura of disappointment settled over "Tequila Sunrise", no matter how engaging, and profitable, it turned out to be."


title: Tequila Sunrise (film)

text: "Tequila Sunrise" was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Cinematography. The film's soundtrack spawned the single "Surrender to Me", performed by Ann Wilson (lead singer of Heart) and Robin Zander (lead singer of Cheap Trick), reaching number six on the "Billboard" Hot 100 in early 1989.


title: Tequila Sunrise (film)

text: Dale "Mac" McKussic (Mel Gibson) is a former drug dealer trying to go straight. His close friend Nick Frescia (Kurt Russell) is a Detective Lieutenant with the Los Angeles County Sheriff's Department who, in spite of their long-term relationship going back to high school, is duty-bound to bring Mac to justice if he is selling drugs again, as DEA Agent Hal Maguire (J. T. Walsh) believes to be the case.


title: Tequila Sunrise (film)

text: Mac is attracted to stylish restaurant owner Jo Ann Vallenari (Michelle Pfeiffer). Nick becomes acquainted with Jo Ann while attempting to learn more about Mac's activities, in particular his relationship with the Mexican drug kingpin Carlos, whom the DEA agents and Mexican federal police commandante' Escalante (Raul Julia) believe is coming to town. Mac has a legitimate business and is raising a son, trying to distance himself from his former drug smuggling ways. But he tries to help his lawyer (Arye Gross) sell some cocaine, and feels indebted to his old friend Carlos, who is pressuring Mac to do one last job.


title: Tequila Sunrise (film)

text: Jo Ann succumbs to Nick's charms and a love affair begins. Nick genuinely cares for Jo Ann, but she becomes angry when Mac accuses her of spying on him on Nick's behalf. During a meeting at Jo Ann's restaurant with Maguire and Escalante to discuss Mac and Carlos, Escalante gives Nick a ceremonial pistol as a gesture of good faith. Jo Ann then accuses Nick of using her to gather information on Mac because he often eats at her restaurant, and hired her to cater his son's birthday party. Nick admits he is investigating Mac and that he originally approached her because of that. But he truthfully admits that he really has fallen in love with her. Jo Ann ends her relationship with Nick for his initial deception after catching him trying to listen in on a private telephone conversation. Meanwhile, Maguire and his associates set a trap for Mac and the mysterious Carlos, whose face none of them, except Mac, has ever seen.