title: Rayman Origins

text: Despite the game's positive reviews, it did not live up to its sales expectations. It sold 50,000 copies in its first month in the US. However, Ubisoft revealed that the game has been profitable.


title: Rayman Origins

text: A sequel to "Origins", titled "Rayman Legends", was originally being developed exclusively for the Wii U and was planned for a release in Q1 2013. The game follows on from the gameplay of "Origins" whilst adding new asymmetric gameplay elements via the Wii U GamePad, as well as new characters and an improved graphics engine. The sequel was first hinted at via a marketing survey in April 2012. A leaked teaser video on YouTube confirmed the existence of the sequel, entitled "Rayman Legends". It was later announced that the sequel's release was being delayed until September 2013 and would also be released for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360. The game was also revealed to be released on PlayStation Vita and Microsoft Windows via Steam. Later in September 2017 Ubisoft ported it to the Nintendo Switch.


title: Rayman Origins

text: A mobile platformer developed by Pastagames based on the style of "Origins", titled "Rayman Jungle Run", was released on 20 September 2012 for iOS and on 27 September 2012 for Android devices. The Android version was developed by DotEmu. Retaining the look of "Origins", "Jungle Run" sees Rayman automatically running through 63 levels (plus 7 Land of the Livid Dead levels) with players tasked to jump and punch through obstacles and collect as many lums as possible in each stage. Collecting all 100 lums in each stage earns a skull tooth which go towards unlocking the Land of the Livid Dead level for each world. IGN gave the game a score of 8.8, calling it "a brilliant solution to one-touch platforming." iTunes named it the iPhone game of the year. A version for Windows 8, Windows RT and Windows Phone was released on 7 March 2013. A sequel, "Rayman Fiesta Run", was released on November 7, 2013, featuring additional gameplay features carried over from "Rayman Legends". As of January 2021, the game has been removed from all official platforms.


title: Rust (upcoming film)

text: Rust is an upcoming American Western film written and directed by Joel Souza. The film stars Alec Baldwin (who also produces, and co-wrote the story with Souza), Travis Fimmel, Brady Noon, Frances Fisher, and Jensen Ackles.


title: Rust (upcoming film)

text: In October 2021, production was temporarily suspended after a firearms shooting incident, in which cinematographer Halyna Hutchins was shot and killed when a gun being used as a prop was fired by Baldwin during the preparation for a scene; Souza was injured by the same projectile. Filming is set to resume in January 2023, more than a year after the incident and ongoing lawsuits.


title: Rust (upcoming film)

text: In 1880s Kansas, outlaw Harland Rust rescues his thirteen-year-old grandson Lucas, who has been sentenced to hang for murder after an accidental shooting. Now fugitives, the pair have to outrun U.S. Marshal Wood Helm and bounty hunter Fenton "Preacher" Lang.


title: Rust (upcoming film)

text: In May 2020, it was announced that Alec Baldwin would produce and star in "Rust", a Western based on a story he created with writer and director Joel Souza. Baldwin told "The Hollywood Reporter" that he was elated to work with Souza after missing the opportunity to star in "Crown Vic" (2019). He compared the screenplay to the film "Unforgiven" (1992), and said it was inspired by a true story. When asked about his gun slinging and horse riding skills, he said: "They're always at the ready. I'm an actor of the old school. So if you read my resume – my motorcycle riding, my French, juggling, my horseback riding, my gunplay – is all right at my fingertips at all times."


title: Rust (upcoming film)

text: "Rust" was being produced on a $6–7 million budget and has been described as a "passion project" for Baldwin. The film's distribution rights were sold to The Avenue for $2 million during the pre-production phase. Travis Fimmel, Brady Noon, and Frances Fisher joined the cast in September 2021, with Jensen Ackles being cast the following month. The production involved approximately 150 crew members, half of them local, 22 principal and 230 background actors from New Mexico. The production had a filming schedule of 21 days. Filming began in New Mexico on October 6, 2021. In October 2022, the Hutchins family settled the lawsuit. Filming is set to resume in January 2023 in California, with Matthew Hutchins as an executive producer. Many of the film's crew gave mixed reactions towards the news, with some supporting it and planning on resuming their work on it, while others condemning the decision and deciding to not return.


title: Rust (upcoming film)

text: In November 2021, weeks after the shooting incident, lamp operator and pipe rigger Jason Miller was bitten in the arm by a brown recluse spider while closing the set. Miller suffered necrosis and sepsis. He was hospitalized and underwent multiple ultimately successful surgeries to avoid amputation of his arm.


title: Ashley Banjo

text: Ashley Modurotolu Banjo (born 4 October 1988) is an English street dancer, choreographer and actor. He is the leader of dance troupe Diversity who won the third series of "Britain's Got Talent". Banjo was a judge on the Sky1 talent show "Got to Dance" and co-presenter of the Saturday night BBC game show "Can't Touch This". Since 2018, he has been a judge on "Dancing on Ice".


title: Ashley Banjo

text: Ashley replaced Simon Cowell, who was recovering from an electric motorcycle accident, as a judge on the ITV show "Britain's Got Talent" in September and October 2020 during the live-shows.


title: Ashley Banjo

text: Son of former heavyweight boxer Funso Banjo and Danielle, Banjo was educated at the independent St John's School, Billericay, where he was Head Boy and still holds the high jump sports day record.


title: Ashley Banjo

text: In 2007, Ashley and his younger brother Jordan formed Swift Moves with nine of their friends, before later changing their name to Diversity. He was given the nickname 'Chosen' by his fellow Diversity members. In their first year together, they won the Street Dance Weekend 2007 competition before deciding to enter "Britain's Got Talent".


title: Ashley Banjo

text: After receiving "yes" votes from all three judges in their audition, Diversity went on to compete in the first semi-final on 24 May, losing the public vote-decided first place to Susan Boyle but winning the judges' vote against Natalie Okri. In the final six days later, Diversity were announced as the winners, beating Boyle and Julian Smith (who came second and third respectively). As winners of the competition, Diversity received £100,000 (around £9,090 per member) and went on to perform before Queen Elizabeth at the Royal Variety Show on 7 December 2009.


title: Ashley Banjo

text: Subsequently, Diversity were nominated in the Dance section of the final South Bank Show awards and won an award at the Pride of Britain Awards


title: Ashley Banjo

text: In 2013 Ashley choreographed a tour for Diversity called Limitless. The tour ran from 30 November to 16 December.


title: Ashley Banjo

text: In 2021, Ashley partnered with detergent brand Persil and TV channel Sky Nature to make a series of short films highlighting environmental action.


title: Ashley Banjo

text: Ashley was a judge on Sky1's dancing talent show "Got to Dance" for all five series. Diversity appeared as guest performers at least once every series. In total they did nine performances on the show. In 2015, he presented "Perspectives: Michael Jackson's Thriller with Ashley Banjo".


title: Ashley Banjo

text: In 2016, Banjo co-presented "Can't Touch This", a Saturday night game show for BBC One, alongside Zoë Ball. In 2017, Banjo was a judge on the new ITV series "Dance Dance Dance", presented by Alesha Dixon and Will Best.


title: Ashley Banjo

text: Since January 2018, Banjo has been part of the judging panel on "Dancing on Ice", starting with its tenth series in 2018.


title: Ashley Banjo

text: In August 2020, it was announced that due to Simon Cowell's bike injury and recovery period, Banjo would replace Cowell for the live semi-final and final shows of the 14th series of "Britain's Got Talent".


title: Ashley Banjo

text: After winning "Britain's Got Talent" in 2009, Banjo took a break from his schooling to concentrate on his dancing. He said that "from the age of 14, I started to teach myself routines". Banjo has been in a thirteen-year relationship with Francesca Abbott, who is a member of another dance troupe called Out of the Shadows. They announced their engagement on 2 October 2014. Ashley and Francesa have two children, Rose (born 2019) and Micah (born 2020).


title: Ashley Banjo

text: Banjo was appointed Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) in the 2022 New Year Honours for services to dance.


title: Billy Hill (gangster)

text: William Charles Hill (13 December 1911 – 1 January 1984) was an English criminal, linked to smuggling, protection rackets and extreme violence. He was one of the foremost perpetrators of organised crime in London from the 1920s through to the 1960s. His gang managed cash robberies and, in a scam, defrauded London's high society of millions at the card tables of John Aspinall's Clermont Club.


title: Billy Hill (gangster)

text: Hill was born in St Pancras, London to Amelia Jane (née Sparling) and Septimus James Hill, who married in 1895. Growing up in an established criminal family, Hill committed his first stabbing at age fourteen. He began as a house burglar in the late 1920s and then specialised in smash and grab raids targeting furriers and jewellers in the 1930s.


title: Billy Hill (gangster)

text: During the Second World War, Hill moved into the black market, specialising in foods and petrol. He also supplied forged documents for deserting servicemen and was involved in West End protection rackets with fellow gangster Jack Spot. In the late 1940s, he was charged with burgling a warehouse and fled to South Africa. Following an arrest there for assault, he was extradited to England, where he was convicted for the warehouse robbery and served time in prison. This was his last jail term. After his release, he met Gypsy Riley, better known as "Gyp Hill"; who became his common-law wife.


title: Billy Hill (gangster)

text: In 1952, he planned the Eastcastle St. postal van robbery netting £287,000 (equivalent to £ million in ) and in 1954 he organised a £40,000 bullion heist. No one was ever convicted for these robberies. He also ran smuggling operations from Morocco during this period. In 1955, Hill wrote his memoir "Boss of Britain's Underworld", ghostwritten by the journalist Duncan Webb. In it he described his use of the shiv,


title: Billy Hill (gangster)

text: I was always careful to draw my knife down on the face, never across or upwards. Always down. So that if the knife slips you don't cut an artery. After all, chivving is chivving, but cutting an artery is usually murder. Only mugs do murder.


title: Billy Hill (gangster)

text: In late 1956 Home Secretary Gwilym Lloyd George authorised the tapping of Hill's phone. At the time gang warfare had broken out in London between Hill and erstwhile partner in crime, Jack Spot. In 1956, Spot and wife Rita were attacked by Hill's bodyguard, Frankie Fraser, Bobby Warren and at least half a dozen other men. Fraser and Warren were given seven years for their acts of violence.


title: Billy Hill (gangster)

text: The Bar Council approached the police and requested the tapes to provide evidence for an investigation into the professional conduct of Hill's barrister, Patrick Marrinan. Sir Frank Newsam, Permanent Secretary at the Home Office, allowed them access. When this use of tapping powers was revealed to Parliament in June 1957, Leader of the Opposition Hugh Gaitskell demanded a full explanation. Rab Butler pledged that it would not be a precedent and that he would consider withdrawing the evidence and asking the Bar Council to disregard it.


title: Billy Hill (gangster)

text: Marrinan was subsequently disbarred and expelled by Lincoln's Inn but Butler was forced to appoint a committee of Privy Counsellors under Sir Norman Birkett to look into the prerogative power of intercepting telephone communications.


title: Billy Hill (gangster)

text: In the 1960s Hill was busy fleecing aristocrats at card tables. In Douglas Thompson's book "The Hustlers" and the documentary on Channel 4, "The Real Casino Royale", the club's former financial director John Burke and Hill's associate Bobby McKew, claimed that John Aspinall worked with Hill to cheat the players at the Clermont Club. Some of the wealthiest people in Britain were swindled out of millions of pounds, thanks to a gambling con known as "the Big Edge".


title: Billy Hill (gangster)

text: Marked cards could be discovered too easily; instead the low cards were slightly bent across their width in a small mangle before being repackaged. High cards were slightly bent lengthwise. Hill's card sharks were introduced to the tables by Aspinall; they could read whether a card was high, low or an unbent zero card (10 to king) thus gaining a 60–40 advantage. The final stage involved "skimming" the profits from the table to avoid attention. On the first night of the operation, the tax-free winnings for the house were £14,000 ("2007: £280,000"). According to McKew, the 18th Earl of Derby lost £40,000 ("2014: £") in one night.


title: Billy Hill (gangster)

text: The club's former financial director John Burke quit in late 1965, a year into the scam. He had been tipped off about an investigation but Aspinall was determined to carry on. Aspinall no longer had someone to deal with "the dirty end" of the operation. After two years' operation the Big Edge was closed. Hill respected Aspinall's decision, and the partnership dissolved.


title: Billy Hill (gangster)

text: Hill was also involved in property development. He bought the biggest nightclub in Tangier, Churchills, for his wife, who ran it from 1966 until the mid-1970s.


title: Billy Hill (gangster)

text: In 1963, Mickey Spillane was playing Mike Hammer in "The Girl Hunters" in London where he met Hill and showed him around the set. When the prop department could not find Spillane a real M1911 pistol, Hill brought the producers several real pistols to use in the film.


title: Billy Hill (gangster)

text: Hill's only child, Justin, republished his father's memoirs in December 2008 with a modern introduction and previously unpublished photographs.


title: Dot matrix printing

text: Dot matrix printing, sometimes called impact matrix printing, is a computer printing process in which ink is applied to a surface using a relatively low-resolution dot matrix for layout. Dot matrix printers typically use a print head that moves back and forth or in an up-and-down motion on the page and prints by impact, striking an ink-soaked cloth ribbon against the paper, much like the print mechanism on a typewriter or line printer. However, a dot matrix printer is able to print arbitrary patterns and not just specific characters.


title: Dot matrix printing

text: The perceived quality of dot matrix printers depends on the vertical and horizontal resolution and the ability of the printer to overlap adjacent dots. 9-pin and 24-pin are common; this specifies the number of pins in a specific vertically aligned space. With 24-pin printers, the horizontal movement can slightly overlap dots, producing visually superior output ("near letter quality" or "NLQ"), usually at the cost of speed.


title: Dot matrix printing

text: Dot matrix printing is typically distinguished from non-impact methods, such as inkjet, thermal, or laser printing, though they too may use a bitmap to represent the printed work. It is also able to employ endless printing using continuous paper fanfolded with perforations for each page to be easily torn from each other.


title: Dot matrix printing

text: In 1925, Rudolf Hell invented the Hellschreiber, an early facsimile-like dot matrix-based teletypewriter device, patented in 1929.


title: Dot matrix printing

text: Between 1952 and 1954 Fritz Karl Preikschat filed five patent applications for his "teletype writer 7 stylus 35 dot matrix" aka "PKT printer", a dot matrix teletypewriter built between 1954 and 1956 in Germany. Like the earlier Hellschreiber, it still used electromechanical means of coding and decoding, but it used a start-stop method (asynchronous transmission) rather than synchronous transmission for communication. In 1956, while he was employed at Telefonbau und Normalzeit GmbH (TuN, later called Tenovis), the device was introduced to the Deutsche Bundespost (German Post Office), which did not show interest.


title: Dot matrix printing

text: When Preikschat emigrated into the US in 1957 he sold the rights to utilize the applications in any countries (except for the USA) to TuN. The prototype was also shown to General Mills in 1957. An improved transistorized design became the basis for a portable dot matrix facsimile machine, which was prototyped and evaluated for military use by Boeing around 1966–1967.


title: Dot matrix printing

text: IBM marketed its first dot matrix printer in 1957, the same year that the dye-sublimation printer entered the market.


title: Dot matrix printing

text: In 1968, the Japanese manufacturer OKI introduced its first serial impact dot matrix printer (SIDM), the "OKI Wiredot". The printer supported a character generator for 128 characters with a print matrix of 7×5. It was aimed at governmental, financial, scientific and educational markets. For this achievement, OKI received an award from the Information Processing Society of Japan (IPSJ) in 2013.


title: Dot matrix printing

text: In 1970 Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) introduced an impact dot matrix printer, the LA30, as did Centronics (then of Hudson, New Hampshire): the Centronics 101. The search for a reliable printer mechanism led it to develop a relationship with Brother Industries, Ltd of Japan, and the sale of Centronics-badged Brother printer mechanisms equipped with a Centronics print head and Centronics electronics. Unlike Digital, Centronics concentrated on the low-end line printer marketplace with their distinctive units. In the process, they designed the parallel electrical interface that was to become standard on most printers until it began to be replaced by the Universal Serial Bus (USB) in the late 1990s. The Apple ImageWriter was a popular consumer dot matrix printer in the 1980s until the mid 1990s.


title: Dot matrix printing

text: In the 1970s and 1980s, dot matrix printers were generally considered the best combination of expense and versatility, and until the 1990s they were by far the most common form of printer used with personal and home computers.


title: Dot matrix printing

text: Dot matrix printing uses a print head that moves back-and-forth, or in an up-and-down motion, on the page and prints by impact, striking an ink-soaked cloth ribbon against the paper, much like the print mechanism on a typewriter. However, unlike a typewriter or daisy wheel printer, letters are drawn out of a dot matrix, and thus, varied fonts and arbitrary graphics can be produced.


title: Dot matrix printing

text: Each dot is produced by a tiny metal rod, also called a "wire" or "pin", which is driven forward by the power of a tiny electromagnet or solenoid, either directly or through small levers (pawls). Facing the ribbon and the paper is a small guide plate named ribbon mask holder or protector, sometimes also called "butterfly" for its typical shape. It is pierced with holes to serve as guides for the pins. The plate may be made of hard plastic or an artificial jewel such as sapphire or ruby.


title: Dot matrix printing

text: The portion of the printer that contains the pin is called the print head. When running the printer, it generally prints one line of text at a time. The printer head is attached to a metal bar that ensures correct alignment, but horizontal positioning is controlled by a band that attaches to sprockets on two wheels at each side which is then driven with an electric motor. This band may be made of stainless steel, phosphor bronze or beryllium copper alloys, nylon or various synthetic materials with a twisted nylon core to prevent stretching. Actual position can be found out either by dead count using a stepper motor, rotary encoder attached to one wheel or a transparent plastic band with markings that is read by an optical sensor on the printer head (common on inkjets).


title: Dot matrix printing

text: Because the printing involves mechanical pressure, dot matrix printers can create carbon copies and carbonless copies.


title: Dot matrix printing

text: Although nearly all inkjet, thermal, and laser printers also print closely spaced dots rather than continuous lines or characters, it is not customary to call them dot matrix printers.


title: Dot matrix printing

text: Dot matrix printers create noise when the pins or typeface strike the ribbon to the paper, and sound-damping enclosures may have to be used in quiet environments.


title: Dot matrix printing

text: They can only print lower-resolution graphics, with limited color performance, limited quality, and lower speeds compared to non-impact printers.


title: Dot matrix printing

text: The common "serial dot matrix printers" use a horizontally moving print head. The print head can be thought of featuring a single vertical column of seven or more pins approximately the height of a character box. In reality, the pins are arranged in up to four vertically or/and horizontally slightly displaced columns in order to increase the dot density and print speed through interleaving without causing the pins to jam. Thereby, up to 48 pins can be used to form the characters of a line while the print head moves horizontally. The printing speed of serial dot matrix printers with moving heads varies from 30 to 1550 cps.


title: Dot matrix printing

text: In a considerably different configuration, so called "line dot matrix printers" use a fixed print head almost as wide as the paper path utilizing a horizontal line of thousands of pins for printing. Sometimes two horizontally slightly displaced rows are used to improve the effective dot density through interleaving. While still line-oriented, these printers for the professional heavy-duty market effectively print a whole line at once while the paper moves forward below the print head. Line matrix printers are capable of printing much more than 1000 cps, resulting in a throughput of up to 800 pages/hour.


title: Dot matrix printing

text: A variation on the dot matrix printer was the "cross hammer dot printer", patented by Seikosha in 1982. The smooth cylindrical roller of a conventional printer was replaced by a spinning, fluted cylinder. The print head was a simple hammer, with a vertical projecting edge, operated by an electromagnet. Where the vertical edge of the hammer intersected the horizontal flute of the cylinder, compressing the paper and ribbon between them, a single dot was marked on the paper. Characters were built up of multiple dots.


title: The Greatest Canadian

text: The Greatest Canadian is a 2004 television series consisting of 13 episodes produced by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) to determine who is considered to be the greatest Canadian of all time, according to those who watched and participated in the program.


title: The Greatest Canadian

text: The series two-hour debut on 17 October 2004 garnered more than one million viewers, with approximately 500,000 to 700,000 viewers per episode thereafter. The initial nomination phase received more than 10,000 names submitted for consideration. The second phase of the process concluded on 28 November at midnight and the following evening the winner from more than 1.2 million votes was revealed to be Tommy Douglas.


title: The Greatest Canadian

text: The series was inspired by the BBC production the "Great Britons" and has a spiritual sequel, "The Greatest Canadian Invention".


title: The Greatest Canadian

text: The "Greatest Canadian" was chosen through a two-step voting process. The first phase beginning on 5 April 2004, involved the collection of data (nominees for consideration) through polls conducted by mail, phone and the internet. Of these nominees the bottom 40 of 50 individuals, in order of popularity, were revealed during the first episode in October.


title: The Greatest Canadian

text: To prevent bias during the second round of voting; the top ten nominees, also revealed during the first episode, were presented alphabetically rather than by order of first round popularity. This phase was accompanied by a series of hour-long feature documentaries, where 10 Canadian celebrities acting as advocates each presented their case for "The Greatest Canadian". Viewers then submitted votes over the next six weeks supporting their favorite finalists. Importantly, there was no overall limit on the number of times any listener could call in and cast a vote, nor was voting restricted to Canadians.


title: The Greatest Canadian

text: On 17 October 2004 the top 10 nominees were revealed at the end of the first episode in alphabetical order. The winner and all finalists were announced by popularity on 28 November and 29 in a three-hour two part series conclusion.


title: The Greatest Canadian

text: More than 10,000 names were submitted for consideration with the top 100 individuals being revealed online accompanied with a short biography. Of the 100 only the top 50 nominees were featured during the televised broadcast.


title: The Greatest Canadian

text: At least three* members of the nominees as the direct result of an active mass-mailing campaign among that individual's loyal and well-organized followers. Kin Canada founder Harold A. Rogers, DJ Hal Anderson, and Bahá'í activist Mary Maxwell all benefitted from a grassroots campaign to get their names included in the nominees list. CBC openly admitted this during the broadcast, recognizing that these three esoteric individuals are probably quite unknown to the general public.


title: The Greatest Canadian

text: Critics have complained there were only four women and three nonwhites in the top 50, that French Canadian participation was very low and that a large number of modern pop culture celebrities made the list like; Bret Hart, Mike Myers, John Candy, Jim Carrey and Avril Lavigne. Contemporary icons chosen may be reflective of a youthful voting demographic, as the production was family oriented, or there was unwillingness or confusion distinguishing modern popularity with national historic significance among the participants of all ages. In particular, Don Cherry's inclusion in the top 10 upset many Canadians, especially considering it forced out figures they believe more worthy like Louis Riel and Jean Vanier.


title: The Greatest Canadian

text: Other countries have produced similar shows based on the format originated by the BBC. The Tomb of the Unknown Soldier and Alexander Graham Bell were also featured on the 100 Greatest Britons list. A two-hour spin-off series called "The Greatest Canadian Invention" aired in 2007 with Insulin as the winner.


title: Neoclassicism (music)

text: Neoclassicism in music was a twentieth-century trend, particularly current in the interwar period, in which composers sought to return to aesthetic precepts associated with the broadly defined concept of "classicism", namely order, balance, clarity, economy, and emotional restraint. As such, neoclassicism was a reaction against the unrestrained emotionalism and perceived formlessness of late Romanticism, as well as a "call to order" after the experimental ferment of the first two decades of the twentieth century. The neoclassical impulse found its expression in such features as the use of pared-down performing forces, an emphasis on rhythm and on contrapuntal texture, an updated or expanded tonal harmony, and a concentration on absolute music as opposed to Romantic program music.


title: Neoclassicism (music)

text: In form and thematic technique, neoclassical music often drew inspiration from music of the 18th century, though the inspiring canon belonged as frequently to the Baroque and even earlier periods as to the Classical period—for this reason, music which draws inspiration specifically from the Baroque is sometimes termed "neo-Baroque" music. Neoclassicism had two distinct national lines of development, French (proceeding partly from the influence of Erik Satie and represented by Igor Stravinsky, who was in fact Russian-born) and German (proceeding from the "New Objectivity" of Ferruccio Busoni, who was actually Italian, and represented by Paul Hindemith). Neoclassicism was an aesthetic trend rather than an organized movement; even many composers not usually thought of as "neoclassicists" absorbed elements of the style.


title: Neoclassicism (music)

text: Although the term "neoclassicism" refers to a 20th-century movement, there were important 19th-century precursors. In pieces such as Franz Liszt's "À la Chapelle Sixtine" (1862), Edvard Grieg's "Holberg Suite" (1884), Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky's divertissement from "The Queen of Spades" (1890), George Enescu's "Piano Suite in the Old Style" (1897) and Max Reger's "Concerto in the Old Style" (1912), composers "dressed up their music in old clothes in order to create a smiling or pensive evocation of the past".


title: Neoclassicism (music)

text: Sergei Prokofiev's Symphony No. 1 (1917) is sometimes cited as a precursor of neoclassicism. Prokofiev himself thought that his composition was a "passing phase" whereas Stravinsky's neoclassicism was by the 1920s "becoming the basic line of his music". Richard Strauss also introduced neoclassical elements into his music, most notably in his orchestral suite "Le bourgeois gentilhomme" Op. 60, written in an early version in 1911 and its final version in 1917.


title: Neoclassicism (music)

text: Ottorino Respighi was also one of the precursors of neoclassicism with his "Ancient Airs and Dances" Suite No. 1, composed in 1917. Instead of looking at musical forms of the 18th century, Respighi, who, in addition to being a renowned composer and conductor, was also a notable musicologist, reached back to Italian music of the 16th and 17th century. His fellow contemporary composer Gian Francesco Malipiero, also a musicologist, compiled a complete edition of the works of Claudio Monteverdi. Malipiero's relation with ancient Italian music was not simply aiming at a revival of antique forms within the framework of a "return to order", but an attempt to revive an approach to composition that would allow the composer to free himself from the constraints of the sonata form and of the over-exploited mechanisms of thematic development.


title: Neoclassicism (music)

text: Igor Stravinsky's first foray into the style began in 1919/20 when he composed the ballet "Pulcinella", using themes which he believed to be by Giovanni Battista Pergolesi (it later came out that many of them were not, though they were by contemporaries). American Composer Edward T. Cone describes the ballet “[Stravinsky] confronts the evoked historical manner at every point with his own version of contemporary language; the result is a complete reinterpretation and transformation of the earlier style". Later examples are the Octet for winds, the "Dumbarton Oaks" Concerto, the Concerto in D, the Symphony of Psalms, Symphony in C, and Symphony in Three Movements, as well as the opera-oratorio "Oedipus Rex" and the ballets "Apollo" and "Orpheus", in which the neoclassicism took on an explicitly "classical Grecian" aura. Stravinsky's neoclassicism culminated in his opera "The Rake's Progress", with a libretto by W. H. Auden. Stravinskian neoclassicism was a decisive influence on the French composers Darius Milhaud, Francis Poulenc, Arthur Honegger and Germaine Tailleferre, as well as on Bohuslav Martinů, who revived the Baroque concerto grosso form in his works. "Pulcinella", as a subcategory of rearrangement of existing Baroque compositions, spawned a number of similar works, including Alfredo Casella's "Scarlattiana" (1927), Poulenc's "Suite Française", Ottorino Respighi's "Ancient Airs and Dances" and "Gli uccelli", and Richard Strauss's "Dance Suite from Keyboard Pieces by François Couperin" and the related "Divertimento after Keyboard Pieces by Couperin", Op. 86 (1923 and 1943, respectively). Starting around 1926 Béla Bartók's music shows a marked increase in neoclassical traits, and a year or two later acknowledged Stravinsky's "revolutionary" accomplishment in creating novel music by reviving old musical elements while at the same time naming his colleague Zoltán Kodály as another Hungarian adherent of neoclassicism.


title: Neoclassicism (music)

text: A German strain of neoclassicism was developed by Paul Hindemith, who produced chamber music, orchestral works, and operas in a heavily contrapuntal, chromatically inflected style, best exemplified by "Mathis der Maler". Roman Vlad contrasts the "classicism" of Stravinsky, which consists in the external forms and patterns of his works, with the "classicality" of Busoni, which represents an internal disposition and attitude of the artist towards works. Busoni wrote in a letter to Paul Bekker, "By 'Young Classicalism' I mean the mastery, the sifting and the turning to account of all the gains of previous experiments and their inclusion in strong and beautiful forms".


title: Neoclassicism (music)

text: Neoclassicism found a welcome audience in Europe and America, as the school of Nadia Boulanger promulgated ideas about music based on her understanding of Stravinsky's music. Boulanger taught and influenced many notable composers, including Grażyna Bacewicz, Lennox Berkeley, Elliott Carter, Francis Chagrin, Aaron Copland, David Diamond, Irving Fine, Harold Shapero, Jean Françaix, Roy Harris, Igor Markevitch, Darius Milhaud, Astor Piazzolla, Walter Piston, Ned Rorem, and Virgil Thomson.


title: Neoclassicism (music)

text: In Spain, Manuel de Falla's neoclassical Concerto for Harpsichord, Flute, Oboe, Clarinet, Violin, and Cello of 1926 was perceived as an expression of "universalism" ("universalismo"), broadly linked to an international, modernist aesthetic. In the first movement of the concerto, Falla quotes fragments of the 15th-century villancico "De los álamos, vengo madre". He had similarly incorporated quotations from 17th-century music when he first embraced neoclassicism in the puppet-theatre piece "El retablo de maese Pedro" (1919–23), an adaptation from Cervantes's "Don Quixote". Later neoclassical compositions by Falla include the 1924 chamber cantata "Psyché" and incidental music for Pedro Calderón de la Barca's, "El gran teatro del mundo", written in 1927. In the late 1920s and early 1930s, Roberto Gerhard composed in the neoclassical style, including his Concertino for Strings, the Wind Quintet, the cantata "L'alta naixença del rei en Jaume", and the ballet "Ariel". Other important Spanish neoclassical composers are found amongst the members of the Generación de la República (also known as the Generación del 27), including Julián Bautista, Fernando Remacha, Salvador Bacarisse, and Jesús Bal y Gay.


title: Neoclassicism (music)

text: A neoclassical aesthetic was promoted in Italy by Alfredo Casella, who had been educated in Paris and continued to live there until 1915, when he returned to Italy to teach and organize concerts, introducing modernist composers such as Stravinsky and Arnold Schoenberg to the provincially minded Italian public. His neoclassical compositions were perhaps less important than his organizing activities, but especially representative examples include "Scarlattiana" of 1926, using motifs from Domenico Scarlatti's keyboard sonatas, and the "Concerto romano" of the same year. Casella's colleague Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco wrote neoclassically-inflected works which hark back to early Italian music and classical models: the themes of his "Concerto italiano" in G minor of 1924 for violin and orchestra echo Vivaldi as well as 16th- and 17th-century Italian folksongs, while his highly successful Guitar Concerto No. 1 in D of 1939 consciously follows Mozart's concerto style.


title: Neoclassicism (music)

text: Portuguese representatives of neoclassicism include two members of the "Grupo de Quatro", Armando José Fernandes and Jorge Croner de Vasconcellos, both of whom studied with Nadia Boulanger.


title: Neoclassicism (music)

text: In South America, neoclassicism was of particular importance in Argentina, where it differed from its European model in that it did not seek to redress recent stylistic upheavals which had simply not occurred in Latin America. Argentine composers associated with neoclassicism include Jacobo Ficher, , Luis Gianneo, and Juan José Castro. The most important 20th-century Argentine composer, Alberto Ginastera, turned from nationalistic to neoclassical forms in the 1950s (e.g., Piano Sonata No. 1 and the "Variaciones concertantes") before moving on to a style dominated by atonal and serial techniques. Roberto Caamaño, professor of Gregorian chant at the Institute of Sacred Music in Buenos Aires, employed a dissonant neoclassical style in some works and a serialist style in others.


title: Neoclassicism (music)

text: Although the well-known "Bachianas Brasileiras" of Heitor Villa-Lobos (composed between 1930 and 1947) are cast in the form of Baroque suites, usually beginning with a prelude and ending with a fugal or toccata-like movement and employing neoclassical devices such as ostinato figures and long pedal notes, they were not intended so much as stylized recollections of the style of Bach as a free adaptation of Baroque harmonic and contrapuntal procedures to music in a Brazilian style. Brazilian composers of the generation after Villa-Lobos more particularly associated with neoclassicism include Radamés Gnattali (in his later works), Edino Krieger, and the prolific Camargo Guarnieri, who had contact with but did not study under Nadia Boulanger when he visited Paris in the 1920s. Neoclassical traits figure in Guarnieri's music starting with the second movement of the Piano Sonatina of 1928, and are particularly notable in his five piano concertos.


title: Neoclassicism (music)

text: The Chilean composer Domingo Santa Cruz Wilson was so strongly influenced by the German variety of neoclassicism that he became known as the "Chilean Hindemith".


title: Neoclassicism (music)

text: In Cuba, José Ardévol initiated a neoclassical school, though he himself moved on to a modernistic national style later in his career.


title: Neoclassicism (music)

text: Even the atonal school, represented for example by Arnold Schoenberg, showed the influence of neoclassical ideas. After his early style of 'Late Romanticism' (exemplified by his string sextet "Verklärte Nacht") had been supplanted by his , and immediately before he embraced twelve-tone serialism, the forms of Schoenberg's works after 1920, beginning with opp. 23, 24, and 25 (all composed at the same time), have been described as "openly neoclassical", and represent an effort to integrate the advances of 1908 to 1913 with the inheritance of the 18th and 19th centuries. Schoenberg attempted in those works to offer listeners structural points of reference with which they could identify, beginning with the Serenade, op. 24, and the Suite for piano, op. 25. Schoenberg's pupil Alban Berg actually came to neoclassicism before his teacher, in his Three Pieces for Orchestra, op. 6 (1913–14), and the opera "Wozzeck", which uses closed forms such as suite, passacaglia, and rondo as organizing principles within each scene. Anton Webern also achieved a sort of neoclassical style through an intense concentration on the motif. However, his 1935 orchestration of the six-part ricercar from Bach's "Musical Offering" is not regarded as neoclassical because of its concentration on the fragmentation of instrumental colours.


title: Neoclassicism (music)

text: Some composers below may have only written music in a neoclassical style during a portion of their careers.


title: Royal prerogative

text: The royal prerogative is a body of customary authority, privilege and immunity, recognized in common law and, sometimes, in civil law jurisdictions possessing a monarchy, as belonging to the sovereign and which have become widely vested in the government. It is the means by which some of the executive powers of government, possessed by and vested in a monarch with regard to the process of governance of the state, are carried out.


title: Royal prerogative

text: In most constitutional monarchies, prerogatives can be abolished by Parliament as the courts apply the constitutional near-absolute of the supremacy of Parliament. In the Commonwealth realms this draws on the constitutional statutes at the time of the Glorious Revolution when William III and Mary II were invited to take the throne.


title: Royal prerogative

text: In the United Kingdom the remaining powers of the royal prerogative are devolved to the head of the government which for more than two centuries has been the Prime Minister; the benefits, equally, such as mineral rights in all gold and silver ores, vest in (belong to) the government.


title: Royal prerogative

text: In Britain, prerogative powers were originally exercised by the monarch acting, without an observed requirement for parliamentary consent (after its empowerment in certain matters following Magna Carta). Since the accession of the House of Hanover these powers have been, with minor exceptions in economically unimportant sectors, exercised on the advice of the prime minister or the Cabinet, who are accountable to Parliament, exclusively so, except in matters of the Royal Family, since at least the time of William IV.


title: Royal prerogative

text: Typically in liberal democracies that are constitutional monarchies as well as nation states, such as those of Denmark, Norway, or Sweden, the royal prerogative serves in practice as a prescribed ceremonial function of the "state power".


title: Royal prerogative

text: Some key areas of government are carried out by the royal prerogative but its usage is falling as functions are progressively made statutory.


title: Royal prerogative

text: In the Kingdom of England (up to 1707), the Kingdom of Great Britain (1707–1800), and the United Kingdom (since 1801), the royal prerogative was one of the central features of the realm's governance.


title: Royal prerogative

text: Constitutional theorist A. V. Dicey gives the standard definition of what prerogative powers as follows:


title: Royal prerogative

text: The scope of the royal prerogative is difficult to determine due to the uncodified nature of the constitution. It is clear that the existence and extent of the power is a matter of the common law of England, making the courts the final arbiter of whether a particular type of prerogative exists or not. Nevertheless, certain prerogative powers have been widely acknowledged and accepted over time, while others have fallen out of use.


title: Royal prerogative

text: The royal prerogative is not constitutionally unlimited. In the Case of Proclamations (1611) during the reign of King James VI/I, English common law courts judges emphatically asserted that they possessed the right to determine the limits of the royal prerogative. Since the Glorious Revolution in 1688, which brought co-monarchs King William III and Queen Mary II to power, this interpretation of there being a separate and distinct power of the Judiciary has not been challenged by the Crown. It has been accepted that it is emphatically the province of the court(s) to say what the law is, or means. This is a crucial corollary and foundation to the concept of the judicial power; and its distinct and separate nature from the executive power possessed by the Crown itself, or its ministers. It is important to remember that in most cases, the Monarch exercises the prerogative powers only on the advice of the Government of the day, either directly or through the Privy Council.


title: Royal prerogative

text: Generally, the Crown retains all the power of the state in an overseas territory (or 'dependent territory' from 1983 to 2002 or 'Crown colony' before that), even if in practice it is not directly exercised. Thus the royal prerogative is in theory an unlimited, arbitrary authority. In British overseas territories however, each inhabited territory has a constitution by which the territory is governed locally.


title: Royal prerogative

text: The absoluteness of the royal prerogative in the colonies was however defeated in the case of "Campbell v. Hall" in 1774. This case decided that once a colony gained a representative assembly (or once the governor has been instructed to call one), the royal authority is limited to the familiar prerogatives; without the assembly's consent the Crown could not raise taxation nor change the law. Several of the colonies of the British West Indies thus became "settled colonies", and reverted to "crown colony" status only by Act of Parliament in the nineteenth century.


title: Royal prerogative

text: In August 2009, Michael Misick, first Premier of the Turks and Caicos Islands, a British Overseas Territory, resigned under charges of corruption and abuse of power. In order to restore the rule of law, the UK government took direct control of the government of the territory, under an Order in Council of 18 March 2009, which suspended and amended parts of the Islands' constitution, and vacated all the offices of ministers and the House of Assembly. This action was not an exercise of the royal prerogative, as it was made under "the West Indies Act 1962 and of all other powers enabling Her to do so", but did vest wide discretionary legislative and executive powers in Her Majesty's governor, who as in all British Overseas Territories, acts on the instructions of the UK government, not the monarch. A new constitution was promulgated in October 2012 and the government was returned to full local administration after the November 2012 elections.


title: Royal prerogative

text: In the case of the Chagos Archipelago, in 2000, the High Court of Justice of England and Wales ruled that a local ordinance made by the Commissioner of the British Indian Ocean Territory exiling the islanders was unlawful, a decision which was accepted by the British Foreign Secretary Robin Cook. That Order was legislation passed under authority given by the royal prerogative, not an exercise of the prerogative itself, and was overturned as being beyond the powers given. After this decision, the British government issued an Order in Council, a primary exercise of the royal prerogative, to achieve the same objective. This Order was also ruled unlawful by the High Court, a ruling upheld in the Court of Appeal. However, on Wednesday, 22 October 2008, the government won its appeal in the House of Lords against the previous rulings. The House decided by a three-to-two majority that the Order in Council was a lawful exercise of authority. In their speeches, the Law Lords admitted the government of the day was morally wrong to force out some 2,000 residents of the Chagos Archipelago, a British Crown colony, to make way for a US air base in the 1960s. Nevertheless, the majority could not find legal fault in the Order.


title: Royal prerogative

text: In Canada, the royal prerogative is, for the most part, the same as that in the United Kingdom, as constrained by constitutional convention, although its exercise is usually through the federal governor general in the Privy Council of Canada, or the provincial lieutenant governors in the provincial executive councils. The royal prerogative in Canada is largely set out in Part III of the Constitution Act, 1867, particularly section 9.


title: Royal prerogative

text: As foreign affairs are a matter of royal prerogative, the power to declare war and deploy the armed forces belongs to the Crown, though only in its federal Cabinet (the federal government), as outlined in sections 9 and 15 of the Constitution Act, 1867. Neither legislation nor any other type of parliamentary approval, beyond budgetary matters, is required for such actions, though the Cabinet has on occasion consulted parliament before engaging Canada or extending Canada's involvement in a conflict. Additionally, the federal Crown may ratify treaties. Again, the endorsement of Parliament is not necessary for these agreements to have force in an international sense, but the federal Parliament and the provincial legislatures must pass statutes in order for them to have domestic effect, under the division of powers set out in sections 91 and 92 of the "Constitution Act, 1867". Proposed treaties have also occasionally been presented to parliament for debate before ratification. Members of Parliament have tabled bills seeking to curtail the use of the royal prerogative in foreign affairs by legislating a greater role for parliament, as have Senate standing committees, from time to time, called for the same.


title: Royal prerogative

text: The issuance of passports also remains within the royal prerogative in Canada. The terms for the issuing of passports by the Minister of Foreign Affairs on behalf of the Crown are set out in the Canadian Passport Order, issued by the Governor General-in-Council. The Canadian government has used the royal prerogative on two occasions to deny a passport to a Canadian citizen, Abdurahman Khadr and Fateh Kamel. Lawsuits filed at the Federal Court, Federal Court of Appeal, and ultimately the Supreme Court of Canada did not find in favour of either Khadr, nor Kamel.


title: Royal prerogative

text: The royal prerogative in Canada extends also to the granting of honours, as explained by the Court of Appeal for Ontario in "Black v. Chrétien" (regarding Conrad Black's entitlement to an appointment to the House of Lords while a Canadian citizen). Other royal prerogatives, such as the prerogative of mercy, also exist in the Canadian context, although largely supplanted for criminal matters by statutory provisions.


title: Royal prerogative

text: In the other Commonwealth realms, the royal prerogative can be or is specifically mandated to be exercised by the monarch's representative, the governor-general. In the case of Australia, the royal prerogative is vested specifically in the governor-general of Australia for military affairs, rather than the monarch, and is defined by the Constitution of Australia.


title: Royal prerogative

text: The constitution of a Commonwealth realm may also sharply limit the prerogative. In some cases, governmental acts which would normally require royal prerogative may be enacted through other means in the constitution, or through a legislative act in a Commonwealth realm.


title: Royal prerogative

text: The Spanish Constitution of 1978, Title II "The Crown", Article 62, delineates the powers of the king, while Title IV "Government and Administration", Article 99, defines the king's role in government. Title VI "Judicial Power", Article 117, Articles 122 through 124, outlines the king's role in the country's independent judiciary. However, by constitutional convention established by Juan Carlos I, the king exercises his prerogatives having solicited government advice while maintaining a politically non-partisan and independent monarchy. Receiving government advice does not necessarily bind the monarch into executing the advice, except where prescribed by the constitution.


title: Deerhunter

text: Deerhunter is an American indie rock band from Atlanta, Georgia, formed in 2001. The band currently consists of Bradford Cox (vocals, guitar, keyboards), Moses Archuleta (drums, electronics, sound treatments), Lockett Pundt (guitar, vocals, keyboards), Josh McKay (bass) and Javier Morales (keyboards, synthesizers, alto saxophone).


title: Deerhunter

text: Founded by Cox and Archuleta, Deerhunter's first stable line-up included guitarist Colin Mee and bass guitarist Justin Bosworth. After recording a split EP with Alphabets, Bosworth died on March 29, 2004, of head injuries suffered during a skateboarding accident. He was 23 years old. The band recorded their first studio album, "Turn It Up Faggot" (2005), with Josh Fauver occupying the vacant role of bass guitarist. Following the album's release, Cox asked childhood friend, Lockett Pundt, to join Deerhunter as a song-writing partner, second guitarist, and occasional lead vocalist.


title: Deerhunter

text: Recorded in two days, the band's follow-up, "Cryptograms" (2007), combined ambient work and more angular garage rock songs. The release was quickly followed by the EP, "Fluorescent Grey". While touring the releases, Mee departed from Deerhunter, due to disagreements over the band's schedule, but rejoined soon after. Deerhunter released two studio albums, "Microcastle" and "Weird Era Cont.", in 2008. Both albums were recorded without the participation of Mee, who again departed for a second and final time. The band enlisted former cheerleader and high school friend of Cox, Whitney Petty, as his touring replacement.


title: Deerhunter

text: Recorded as a four-piece with producer Ben H. Allen and engineer David Barbe the band's fourth studio album, "Halcyon Digest" (2010), was released to widespread critical acclaim, ranked as Pitchfork's 29th and Stereogum's 78th best album of the decade. In 2012, the departure of long-time bassist Fauver placed the band's future in doubt. Cox, Pundt and Archuleta regrouped with new members, bassist Josh McKay and guitarist Frankie Broyles, to record the primitivist garage rock and musique concrète-influenced "Monomania" (2013). The album expanded on a darker and more disturbing sound, complete with treated tape recordings of rats and insects, exploring themes of disassociation and mental illness.


title: Deerhunter

text: The following year, Cox was struck by a vehicle while walking his dog near his home in Atlanta's Grant Park. During his recovery and rehabilitation he focused on writing songs resulting in the album "Fading Frontier" (2015).


title: Deerhunter

text: Deerhunter have described themselves as "ambient punk," though they incorporate a wide range of genres, including noise, garage rock, art rock, as well as significant pop elements.


title: Deerhunter

text: The band was co-founded in 2001 by vocalist Bradford Cox and drummer and keyboardist Moses Archuleta. The name Deerhunter (which Cox has repeatedly remarked upon despising) was chosen by the band's first drummer, Dan Walton. Cox did not care then what the band was called as he thought it to be just another temporary art project. The band was joined by Colin Mee, whom Cox met while Mee was living at the Atlanta label Die Slaughterhaus Records with members of Black Lips. The two bonded over a shared interest in Dada and 20th Century Composers Olivier Messiaen and György Ligeti, as well as British bands The Fall, The Raincoats, and Cabaret Voltaire. In 2004 the group's first bassist, Justin Bosworth, died of head injuries suffered in a skateboarding accident. He appeared on only one Deerhunter release, the "Deerhunter/Alphabets Split", issued before their debut album. Joshua Fauver, of Atlanta punk band Electrosleep International, then took up the position as bassist. Deerhunter's first album, "Turn It Up Faggot", was "the result of a lot of negativity". After the band finished the album, in an indication of how difficult it was to record in the wake of his bandmate's death, Cox said "I don't ever want to make this album again". The album's liner notes are dedicated to Bosworth. After the release of "Turn It Up Faggot," Cox asked his best friend from high school, Lockett Pundt, to join the band.


title: Deerhunter

text: The band, now featuring Pundt's reverb-saturated guitar sound, went on tour, playing shows with the likes of Lightning Bolt and Gang Gang Dance. This tour culminated in a recording session engineered by acclaimed folk musician Samara Lubelski at Rare Book Room, New York City. This session failed to produce anything that could be used, due to Cox's mental and physical state at the time, as well as technical disagreements that emerged with Lubelski. Cox has kept a copy of the sessions on "a scratched CD-R under my bed" and has stated that "nobody will ever hear them". In spite of Cox's claim excerpts from those sessions were later posted as a free download on the band's blog. The band returned to the same studio where they recorded their first album outside Athens, Georgia and decided to give recording their second album another attempt. This was partly due to advice received from the band Liars, who encouraged them to re-record it.


title: Deerhunter

text: It took only two days in November 2005 for the band to record their second album, entitled "Cryptograms". In 2006, before its release, Pitchfork Media added "Spring Hall Convert", a song from the record, to its "Infinite Mix Tape series". The album was released by Kranky in January 2007. The album revealed a more subdued and introverted sound for the band. As with their first album, "Cryptograms" also had a dedication inside the album's liner notes, this time to a friend of Cox's, Bradley Ira Harris, a heroin addict who died in 2005.


title: Deerhunter

text: On May 8, 2007, the group released the "Fluorescent Grey" EP, which was recorded in July 2006. The EP featured more use of rudimentary keyboards, bells, and pianos.


title: Deerhunter

text: On August 29, 2007, the group became a quartet with the loss of guitarist Colin Mee. Mee departed because he "...couldn't make it to a couple of shows we had booked next weekend and that was unacceptable to certain bandmates". Mee rejoined the band four months later, but departed the band for the final time before 2008.


title: Deerhunter

text: Deerhunter contributed the song "After Class" to "Living Bridge", a compilation put together by Rare Book Room Records. The song was recorded in the same place where they attempted to record their second album. They returned to Rare Book Room studios in April 2008 to record "Oh, It's Such A Shame," a Jay Reatard cover that would be released as a split single with Reatard himself covering the "Fluorescent Grey" title track. In the same month they recorded their next album, "Microcastle". Prior to the announced release date for the LP, the band continued to tour, with one date opening for The Smashing Pumpkins and a select of fall shows opening for Nine Inch Nails.


title: Deerhunter

text: The quartet's third offering, "Microcastle", was set to be released on October 27, 2008, although it became available through peer-to peer networks in late May. In an attempt to reward fans who awaited for the street date, the group reconvened to record a new album of material, "Weird Era Cont.", which later leaked before its street date also. However, "Microcastle" did manage to debut at No. 123 on the Billboard 200, a first for Deerhunter. Mee left the band again, for the final time, and the band enlisted former cheerleader and high school friend of Cox, Whitney Petty, as his touring replacement.


title: Deerhunter

text: While touring the "Microcastle" album in the UK, Cox booked an evening in a studio and recorded what would become the "On Platts Eyott" cassette. This was released in two batches of 100 copies each; an edition of pink cassettes was given out to competition winners by his record label and orange cassettes were sold at a special Halloween concert in Atlanta on October 31, 2008. In a comment left on the Deerhunter blog on February 28, Cox announced that Whitney Petty was no longer a member of the band, stating:


title: Deerhunter

text: While on tour, the band managed to release "Rainwater Cassette Exchange", an EP of songs written during the "Microcastle" sessions, and "Vox Celeste 5," a Sub Pop single of songs from "Weird Era Cont." and "Microcastle". To promote the releases, they embarked on a short summer trek with No Age and Dan Deacon as the "No Deachunter Tour." Later during a performance at All Tomorrow's Parties 2009 Music Festival in September (curated by The Flaming Lips), Bradford Cox announced that the band will be going on hiatus to "devote time to some other things," calling the show their last "for a long time." During the hiatus, Bradford Cox continued with Atlas Sound and released his second album "Logos", Josh Fauver resumed work with his record label Army of Bad Luck, Moses Archuleta enrolled in culinary school, and Lockett Pundt performed some shows in celebration of "The Floodlight Collective", his debut album as Lotus Plaza released in March of that year.


title: Deerhunter

text: In early January, it was revealed that the group would serve as openers on the upcoming Spoon tour to promote their album "Transference". Along with the Spoon tour, the group also announced some shows of their own, including stops at the 2010 Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival, and All Tomorrow's Parties (curated by Simpsons creator, Matt Groening.) During these shows, the band began to debut some new material, including the songs "Helicopter," "Primitive 3D," "Fountain Stairs" and "Revival," all of which would end up being recorded for their next studio session to follow.


title: Deerhunter

text: In June, Deerhunter took a short break from touring to record "Halcyon Digest". Initial news of the album became public when music industry firm, Milk Money, posted a message on their Twitter account that the band had been mixing the new record with Ben Allen (who also worked on Animal Collective's "Merriweather Post Pavilion" and "Fall Be Kind EP".) A week later the band launched a new website, where they announced the title and release date of the LP, along with a guerilla style marketing campaign. The first single, "Revival," was made available to fans who had assisted the band with promotion for the new album through a link via official email. In the same month, director John Albrecht posted a trailer for an upcoming live video on his Vimeo page set to be released later in the year.


title: Deerhunter

text: In 2012, it was announced that Deerhunter was to provide an original score to "The Curve of Forgotten Things", a short film by the fashion line Rodarte starring Elle Fanning. That same year, bassist Josh Fauver left the band via email in 2012, just prior to the recording of "Monomania".


title: Deerhunter

text: On March 22, 2013, Deerhunter announced their sixth studio album would be released on May 7, 2013. The album, entitled "Monomania", was recorded in New York with frequent collaborator and producer Nicolas Vernhes at his Rare Book Room Studio, where Microcastle and Parallax were taped. For "Monomania", Josh McKay took over bass duties, and Atlanta native Frankie Broyles was brought in to play guitar. Deerhunter's press release described the record as "nocturnal garage" while having an avant garde context. On April 2, 2013, the band performed the song "Monomania" on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon.


title: Deerhunter

text: Deerhunter headlined and curated the All Tomorrow's Parties music festival held at Pontins holiday camp in Camber Sands, England from the June 21–23, 2013. At the event they performed the "Cryptograms", "Microcastle" & "Halcyon Digest" albums in full, with Atlas Sound also performing. Deerhunter was announced as a headliner at Austin Psych Fest, the 6th annual festival held April 26–28, 2013, Heineken Primavera Sound (Barcelona), Optimus Primavera Sound (Porto), and perform live at Dancity Festival (Foligno, Italy) along with FYF Fest in Los Angeles during 2015. Deerhunter have also been asked to play at the Meredith Music Festival this December in Victoria, Australia.


title: Deerhunter

text: On December 4, 2014, frontman Bradford Cox was seriously injured and hospitalized after being hit by a car in Atlanta, GA.


title: Deerhunter

text: On August 16, 2015, Deerhunter released a video for a new song titled "Snakeskin," and announced that their new album, "Fading Frontier", was released on October 16, 2015, on the 4AD label. The song featured alto saxophonist Zumi Rosow and the video was directed by Valentina Tapia. On October 13, Deerhunter shared the video for 'Living My Life', dedicated to Miles Davis. The LP was very well received by critics.


title: Deerhunter

text: In 2018, the band released a cassette-only studio album during their Spring 2018 tour called "Double Dream of Spring". A mostly instrumental album, it was made to fill the void until their next album would be released the following year.


title: Deerhunter

text: Former bass guitarist Joshua Fauver died in November 2018 at age 39. He was a member of the band from 2004 to 2012.


title: Deerhunter

text: Deerhunter's eighth album "Why Hasn't Everything Already Disappeared?" was released on January 18, 2019. The album's first single, "Death in Midsummer", was released in October 2018 co-produced by Cate Le Bon.


title: Deerhunter

text: On Halloween 2019, Deerhunter released the 13-minute long single "Timebends". A separate entity to their eighth studio album, "Why Hasn't Everything Already Disappeared?," "Timebends" is a partly-improvised stream-of-consciousness outpouring, recorded live direct to tape and in one take with minimal overdubs and mastered using a completely analogue signal chain.


title: Deerhunter

text: The next day, Cox released the "Myths 004" EP in collaboration with Cate Le Bon, recorded in Marfa, Texas as part of an ongoing series with Dev Hynes, Ariel Pink and Connan Mockasin.


title: Deerhunter

text: The band has revealed many artists and genres that contribute to Deerhunter's sound. "The New York Times" concert review mentioned "the Breeders, Stereolab, disco rhythm, krautrock, Sonic Youth’s noise breakdowns, girl-group pop, the picked eighth-note bass lines of 1980s indie rock", as influences. The song "Coronado" from "Halcyon Digest" features saxophone sounds inspired by the Rolling Stones' album "Exile on Main St". Cox recalled, "I wanted that sax on there because I was listening to the Stones' "Exile on Main St" reissue a lot...I began to see a pattern forming. Saxophones are becoming this thing. That's why we did it early. Next year everyone's gonna have a saxophone on their record because saxophones are just cool."


title: Deerhunter

text: Deerhunter has been described as indie rock, experimental rock, psychedelic pop, noise rock, garage rock and art rock.


title: Deerhunter

text: During live shows, Cox has worn sundresses and has performed with fake blood smeared over his face and hands, their live show being "much more savage" than their albums. In his explanation of the sundresses Cox has said, "I don't like the idea of going around stage in just jeans and a t-shirt. It seems anticlimactic."


title: Deerhunter

text: Deerhunter have supported many bands on tour, including Nine Inch Nails, TV on the Radio, Project Pat, Liars, Yeah Yeah Yeahs, Spoon, The Smashing Pumpkins, The Fiery Furnaces, Lower Dens, Ex Models, Battles, and Kings of Leon.


title: Curtained hair

text: Curtained hair or curtains is a hairstyle featuring a long fringe divided in either a middle parting or a side parting, with short (or shaved) sides and back. Curtained hair generally applies to males, although an alternative name, the undercut, is used for both male and female haircuts following this style. Variations on this haircut have been popular in Europe, North America, and Japan throughout the 20th century and in the 21st century, peaking between 1986 and 2001.


title: Curtained hair

text: A shorter version of the haircut parted in the middle and kept in place with pomade became popular during the Edwardian era as a more practical alternative to the longer hair and sideburns fashionable from the 1840s to 1890s. This was due in part to the popularity of sporting activities like rugby football among younger men.


title: Curtained hair

text: From the turn of the century until the 1920s, a longer variant of the undercut was popular among young working-class men, especially members of street gangs. In interwar Glasgow, Neds, the precursors to the Teddy Boys, favoured a haircut that was long on top and cropped at the back and sides. Despite the fire risk, much paraffin wax was used to keep the hair in place. Other gangs who favored this haircut were the Scuttlers of Manchester, and the Peaky Blinders of Birmingham because longer hair put the wearer at a disadvantage in a street fight.


title: Curtained hair

text: During the late 1980s centrally parted hair, derived from the bowl cut, made a comeback among fans of new wave, synthpop, and electronic music as an alternative to the mullets and backcombed hair worn by glam metal bands.


title: Curtained hair

text: In the UK, curtains were popularised during the early 1990s by the Baggy or Madchester scene as well as contemporary Shoegaze and Britpop bands such as The Happy Mondays, Inspiral Carpets, early Blur, The Beautiful South, and the Stone Roses. It was also popular in the UK because of David Beckham's hair in the late 1990s.


title: Curtained hair

text: A longer, collar-length version of the haircut went mainstream in the early to mid-1990s and was worn by many celebrities, most notably Tom Cruise.


title: Curtained hair

text: During the early 2020s the haircut had a resurgence in popularity, driven largely by the social media platform TikTok. As a result, the haircut has become favored among youth, and is considered an attractive hairstyle for males. This came with a general revival of 90s fashion by TikTok users.


title: Curtained hair

text: Actors who have worn the longer version of curtained hair include Tom Cruise in "", Brendan Fraser in "The Mummy Returns," Leonardo DiCaprio in "Titanic," River Phoenix in "Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade," and David Duchovny in earlier seasons of "The X-Files".


title: Curtained hair

text: Many manga and anime characters, such as "Dragon Ball" protagonist Trunks, James from "Pokémon's" Team Rocket, "Fullmetal Alchemist's" Edward Elric, Levi Ackermann from Attack on Titan, Vinsmoke Sanji from One Piece, and Naruto's Sasuke and his older brother, Itachi Uchiha have this haircut. Japanese video game characters with this haircut include James Sunderland from "Silent Hill 2", Squall Leonhart from "Final Fantasy VIII", Sothe from "", Raziel from "Legacy of Kain", Leon S. Kennedy from "Resident Evil 4", Kyo Kusanagi and various other characters from "The King of Fighters", and Link from "".


title: Economic geography

text: Economic geography is the subfield of human geography which studies economic activity and factors affecting them. It can also be considered a subfield or method in economics.


title: Economic geography

text: Economic geography takes a variety of approaches to many different topics, including the location of industries, economies of agglomeration (also known as "linkages"), transportation, international trade, development, real estate, gentrification, ethnic economies, gendered economies, core-periphery theory, the economics of urban form, the relationship between the environment and the economy (tying into a long history of geographers studying culture-environment interaction), and globalization.


title: Economic geography

text: There are varied methodological approaches. Neoclassical location theorists, following in the tradition of Alfred Weber, tend to focus on industrial location and use quantitative methods. Since the 1970s, two broad reactions against neoclassical approaches have significantly changed the discipline: Marxist political economy, growing out of the work of David Harvey; and the new economic geography which takes into account social, cultural, and institutional factors in the spatial economy.


title: Economic geography

text: Economists such as Paul Krugman and Jeffrey Sachs have also analyzed many traits related to economic geography. Krugman called his application of spatial thinking to international trade theory the "new economic geography", which directly competes with an approach within the discipline of geography that is also called "new economic geography". The name geographical economics has been suggested as an alternative.


title: Economic geography

text: Early approaches to economic geography are found in the seven Chinese maps of the State of Qin, which date to the 4th century BC and in the Greek geographer Strabo's "Geographika", compiled almost 2000 years ago. As cartography developed, geographers illuminated many aspects used today in the field; maps created by different European powers described the resources likely to be found in American, African, and Asian territories. The earliest travel journals included descriptions of the native people, the climate, the landscape, and the productivity of various locations. These early accounts encouraged the development of transcontinental trade patterns and ushered in the era of mercantilism.


title: Economic geography

text: Lindley M. Keasbey wrote in 1901 that no discipline of economic geography existed, with scholars either doing geography or economics. Keasbey argued for a discipline of economic geography, writing,On the one hand, the economic activities of man are determined from the first by the phenomena of nature; and, on the other hand, the phenomena of nature are subsequently modified by the economic activities of man. Since this is the case, to start the deductions of economics, the inductions of geography are necessary; and to continue the inductions of geography, the deductions of economics are required. Logically, therefore, economics is impossible without geography, and geography is incomplete without economics.World War II contributed to the popularization of geographical knowledge generally, and post-war economic recovery and development contributed to the growth of economic geography as a discipline. During environmental determinism's time of popularity, Ellsworth Huntington and his theory of climatic determinism, while later greatly criticized, notably influenced the field. Valuable contributions also came from location theorists such as Johann Heinrich von Thünen or Alfred Weber. Other influential theories include Walter Christaller's Central place theory, the theory of core and periphery.


title: Economic geography

text: Fred K. Schaefer's article "Exceptionalism in geography: A Methodological Examination", published in the American journal "Annals of the Association of American Geographers", and his critique of regionalism, made a large impact on the field: the article became a rallying point for the younger generation of economic geographers who were intent on reinventing the discipline as a science, and quantitative methods began to prevail in research. Well-known economic geographers of this period include William Garrison, Brian Berry, Waldo Tobler, Peter Haggett and William Bunge.


title: Economic geography

text: Contemporary economic geographers tend to specialize in areas such as location theory and spatial analysis (with the help of geographic information systems), market research, geography of transportation, real estate price evaluation, regional and global development, planning, Internet geography, innovation, social networks.


title: Economic geography

text: As economic geography is a very broad discipline, with economic geographers using many different methodologies in the study of economic phenomena in the world some distinct approaches to study have evolved over time:


title: Economic geography

text: Economic geography is sometimes approached as a branch of anthropogeography that focuses on regional systems of human economic activity. An alternative description of different approaches to the study of human economic activity can be organized around spatiotemporal analysis, analysis of production/consumption of economic items, and analysis of economic flow. Spatiotemporal systems of analysis include economic activities of region, mixed social spaces, and development.


title: Economic geography

text: Alternatively, analysis may focus on production, exchange, distribution, and consumption of items of economic activity. Allowing parameters of space-time and item to vary, a geographer may also examine material flow, commodity flow, population flow and information flow from different parts of the economic activity system. Through analysis of flow and production, industrial areas, rural and urban residential areas, transportation site, commercial service facilities and finance and other economic centers are linked together in an economic activity system.


title: Economic geography

text: It is traditionally considered the branch of economic geography that investigates those parts of the Earth's surface that are transformed by humans through primary sector activities. It thus focuses on structures of agricultural landscapes and asks for the processes that lead to these spatial patterns. While most research in this area concentrates rather on production than on consumption,[1] a distinction can be made between nomothetic (e.g. distribution of spatial agricultural patterns and processes) and idiographic research (e.g. human-environment interaction and the shaping of agricultural landscapes). The latter approach of agricultural geography is often applied within regional geography.


title: Economic geography

text: Generally, spatially interested economists study the effects of space "on the economy". Geographers, on the other hand, are interested in the economic processes' impact "on spatial structures".


title: Economic geography

text: Moreover, economists and economic geographers differ in their methods in approaching spatial-economic problems in several ways. An economic geographer will often take a more holistic approach to the analysis of economic phenomena, which is to conceptualize a problem in terms of space, place, and scale as well as the overt economic problem that is being examined. The economist approach, according to some economic geographers, has the main drawback of homogenizing the economic world in ways economic geographers try to avoid.


title: Economic geography

text: Industries have different patterns of economic geography. Extractive industries tend to be concentrated around their specific natural resources. In Norway, for example, most oil industry jobs occur within a single electoral district. Industries are geographically concentrated if they do not need to be close to their end customers, such as the automotive industry concentration in Detroit, US. Agriculture also tends to be concentrated. Industries are geographically diffuse if they need to be close to their end customers, such as hairdressers, restaurants, and the hospitality industry.


title: Economic geography

text: With the rise of the New Economy, economic inequalities are increasing spatially. The New Economy, generally characterized by globalization, increasing use of information and communications technology, the growth of knowledge goods, and feminization, has enabled economic geographers to study social and spatial divisions caused by the rising New Economy, including the emerging digital divide.


title: Economic geography

text: The new economic geographies consist of primarily service-based sectors of the economy that use innovative technology, such as industries where people rely on computers and the internet. Within these is a switch from manufacturing-based economies to the digital economy. In these sectors, competition makes technological changes robust. These high technology sectors rely heavily on interpersonal relationships and trust, as developing things like software is very different from other kinds of industrial manufacturing—it requires intense levels of cooperation between many different people, as well as the use of tacit knowledge. As a result of cooperation becoming a necessity, there is a clustering in the high-tech new economy of many firms.


title: Economic geography

text: As characterized through the work of Diane Perrons, in Anglo-American literature, the New Economy consists of two distinct types. New Economic Geography 1 (NEG1) is characterized by sophisticated spatial modelling. It seeks to explain uneven development and the emergence of industrial clusters. It does so through the exploration of linkages between centripetal and centrifugal forces, especially those of economies of scale.


title: Economic geography

text: New Economic Geography 2 (NEG2) also seeks to explain the apparently paradoxical emergence of industrial clusters in a contemporary context, however, it emphasizes relational, social, and contextual aspects of economic behaviour, particularly the importance of tacit knowledge. The main difference between these two types is NEG2's emphasis on aspects of economic behaviour that NEG1 considers intangible.


title: Economic geography

text: Both New Economic Geographies acknowledge transport costs, the importance of knowledge in a new economy, possible effects of externalities, and endogenous processes that generate increases in productivity. The two also share a focus on the firm as the most important unit and on growth rather than development of regions. As a result, the actual impact of clusters on a region is given far less attention, relative to the focus on clustering of related activities in a region.


title: Economic geography

text: However, the focus on the firm as the main entity of significance hinders the discussion of New Economic Geography. It limits the discussion in a national and global context and confines it to a smaller scale context. It also places limits on the nature of the firm's activities and their position within the global value chain. Further work done by Bjorn Asheim (2001) and Gernot Grabher (2002) challenges the idea of the firm through action-research approaches and mapping organizational forms and their linkages. In short, the focus on the firm in new economic geographies is undertheorized in NEG1 and undercontextualized in NEG2, which limits the discussion of its impact on spatial economic development.


title: Economic geography

text: Spatial divisions within these arising New Economic geographies are apparent in the form of the digital divide, as a result of regions attracting talented workers instead of developing skills at a local level (see Creative Class for further reading). Despite increasing inter-connectivity through developing information communication technologies, the contemporary world is still defined through its widening social and spatial divisions, most of which are increasingly gendered. Danny Quah explains these spatial divisions through the characteristics of knowledge goods in the New Economy: goods defined by their infinite expansibility, weightlessness, and nonrivalry. Social divisions are expressed through new spatial segregation that illustrates spatial sorting by income, ethnicity, abilities, needs, and lifestyle preferences. Employment segregation is evidence by the overrepresentation of women and ethnic minorities in lower-paid service sector jobs. These divisions in the new economy are much more difficult to overcome as a result of few clear pathways of progression to higher-skilled work.


title: Algae fuel

text: Algae fuel, algal biofuel, or algal oil is an alternative to liquid fossil fuels that uses algae as its source of energy-rich oils. Also, algae fuels are an alternative to commonly known biofuel sources, such as corn and sugarcane.<ref name="doi10.1016/j.copbio.2010.03.005"></ref> When made from seaweed (macroalgae) it can be known as seaweed fuel or seaweed oil. It is also carbon negative unless the dead plant matter is burned, as the energy (stored as hydrogen gas) is produced by solar photosynthesis and comes from the sun. The emissions from burning the hydrogen make up only water and air.


title: Algae fuel

text: Several companies and government agencies are funding efforts to reduce capital and operating costs and make algae fuel production commercially viable. Like fossil fuel, algae fuel releases when burnt, but unlike fossil fuel, algae fuel and other biofuels only release recently removed from the atmosphere via photosynthesis as the algae or plant grew. The energy crisis and the world food crisis have ignited interest in algaculture (farming algae) for making biodiesel and other biofuels using land unsuitable for agriculture. Among algal fuels' attractive characteristics are that they can be grown with minimal impact on fresh water resources, can be produced using saline and wastewater, have a high flash point, and are biodegradable and relatively harmless to the environment if spilled. Algae cost more per unit mass than other second-generation biofuel crops due to high capital and operating costs, but are claimed to yield between 10 and 100 times more fuel per unit area. The United States Department of Energy estimates that if algae fuel replaced all the petroleum fuel in the United States, it would require , which is only 0.42% of the U.S. map, or about half of the land area of Maine. This is less than the area of corn harvested in the United States in 2000.


title: Algae fuel

text: The head of the Algal Biomass Organization stated in 2010 that algae fuel could reach price parity with oil in 2018 if granted production tax credits. However, in 2013, Exxon Mobil Chairman and CEO Rex Tillerson said that after committing to spend up to $600 million over 10 years on development in a joint venture with J. Craig Venter's Synthetic Genomics in 2009, Exxon pulled back after four years (and $100 million) when it realized that algae fuel is "probably further" than 25 years away from commercial viability. In 2017, Synthetic Genomics and ExxonMobil reported a breakthrough in the joint research into advanced biofuels. The breakthrough was that they managed to double lipid content (from 20% in its natural form to 40-55 percent) in a genetically engineered strain of "Nannochloropsis gaditana". On the other hand, Solazyme, Sapphire Energy, and Algenol, among others have begun commercial sale of algal biofuel in 2012 and 2013, and 2015, respectively. By 2017, most efforts had been abandoned or changed to other applications, with only a few remaining.


title: Algae fuel

text: In 1942 Harder and Von Witsch were the first to propose that microalgae be grown as a source of lipids for food or fuel. Following World War II, research began in the US, Germany, Japan, England, and Israel on culturing techniques and engineering systems for growing microalgae on larger scales, particularly species in the genus "Chlorella". Meanwhile, H. G. Aach showed that "Chlorella pyrenoidosa" could be induced via nitrogen starvation to accumulate as much as 70% of its dry weight as lipids.<ref name="doi10.1007/BF00410827"></ref> Since the need for alternative transportation fuel had subsided after World War II, research at this time focused on culturing algae as a food source or, in some cases, for wastewater treatment.<ref name="doi10.1007/978-94-007-5479-9_1"></ref>


title: Algae fuel

text: Interest in the application of algae for biofuels was rekindled during the oil embargo and oil price surges of the 1970s, leading the US Department of Energy to initiate the Aquatic Species Program in 1978. The Aquatic Species Program spent $25 million over 18 years with the goal of developing liquid transportation fuel from algae that would be price competitive with petroleum-derived fuels. The research program focused on the cultivation of microalgae in open outdoor ponds, systems which are low in cost but vulnerable to environmental disturbances like temperature swings and biological invasions. 3,000 algal strains were collected from around the country and screened for desirable properties such as high productivity, lipid content, and thermal tolerance, and the most promising strains were included in the SERI microalgae collection at the Solar Energy Research Institute (SERI) in Golden, Colorado and used for further research. Among the program's most significant findings were that rapid growth and high lipid production were "mutually exclusive", since the former required high nutrients and the latter required low nutrients. The final report suggested that genetic engineering may be necessary to be able to overcome this and other natural limitations of algal strains, and that the ideal species might vary with place and season. Although it was successfully demonstrated that large-scale production of algae for fuel in outdoor ponds was feasible, the program failed to do so at a cost that would be competitive with petroleum, especially as oil prices sank in the 1990s. Even in the best case scenario, it was estimated that unextracted algal oil would cost $59–186 per barrel, while petroleum cost less than $20 per barrel in 1995. Therefore, under budget pressure in 1996, the Aquatic Species Program was abandoned.


title: Algae fuel

text: Other contributions to algal biofuels research have come indirectly from projects focusing on different applications of algal cultures. For example, in the 1990s Japan's Research Institute of Innovative Technology for the Earth (RITE) implemented a research program with the goal of developing systems to fix using microalgae. Although the goal was not energy production, several studies produced by RITE demonstrated that algae could be grown using flue gas from power plants as a source, an important development for algal biofuel research. Other work focusing on harvesting hydrogen gas, methane, or ethanol from algae, as well as nutritional supplements and pharmaceutical compounds, has also helped inform research on biofuel production from algae.


title: Algae fuel

text: Following the disbanding of the Aquatic Species Program in 1996, there was a relative lull in algal biofuel research. Still, various projects were funded in the US by the Department of Energy, Department of Defense, National Science Foundation, Department of Agriculture, National Laboratories, state funding, and private funding, as well as in other countries. More recently, rising oil prices in the 2000s spurred a revival of interest in algal biofuels and US federal funding has increased, numerous research projects are being funded in Australia, New Zealand, Europe, the Middle East, and other parts of the world, and a wave of private companies has entered the field (see Companies). In November 2012, Solazyme and Propel Fuels made the first retail sales of algae-derived fuel, and in March 2013 Sapphire Energy began commercial sales of algal biofuel to Tesoro.


title: Algae fuel

text: Algal oil is used as a source of fatty acid supplementation in food products, as it contains mono- and polyunsaturated fats, in particular EPA and DHA. Its DHA content is roughly equivalent to that of salmon based fish oil.


title: Algae fuel

text: Algae can be converted into various types of fuels, depending on the production technologies and the part of the cells used. The lipid, or oily part of the algae biomass can be extracted and converted into biodiesel through a process similar to that used for any other vegetable oil, or converted in a refinery into "drop-in" replacements for petroleum-based fuels. Alternatively or following lipid extraction, the carbohydrate content of algae can be fermented into bioethanol or butanol fuel.


title: Algae fuel

text: Biodiesel is a diesel fuel derived from animal or plant lipids (oils and fats). Studies have shown that some species of algae can produce 60% or more of their dry weight in the form of oil. Because the cells grow in aqueous suspension, where they have more efficient access to water, and dissolved nutrients, microalgae are capable of producing large amounts of biomass and usable oil in either high rate algal ponds or photobioreactors. This oil can then be turned into biodiesel which could be sold for use in automobiles. Regional production of microalgae and processing into biofuels will provide economic benefits to rural communities.


title: Algae fuel

text: As they do not have to produce structural compounds such as cellulose for leaves, stems, or roots, and because they can be grown floating in a rich nutritional medium, microalgae can have faster growth rates than terrestrial crops. Also, they can convert a much higher fraction of their biomass to oil than conventional crops, e.g. 60% versus 2-3% for soybeans. The per unit area yield of oil from algae is estimated to be from 58,700 to 136,900 L/ha/year, depending on lipid content, which is 10 to 23 times as high as the next highest yielding crop, oil palm, at 5 950 L/ha/year.<ref name="doi10.1016/j.rser.2012.01.003"></ref>


title: Algae fuel

text: The U.S. Department of Energy's Aquatic Species Program, 1978–1996, focused on biodiesel from microalgae. The final report suggested that biodiesel could be the only viable method by which to produce enough fuel to replace current world diesel usage. If algae-derived biodiesel were to replace the annual global production of 1.1bn tons of conventional diesel then a land mass of 57.3 million hectares would be required, which would be highly favorable compared to other biofuels.


title: Algae fuel

text: Butanol can be made from algae or diatoms using only a solar powered biorefinery. This fuel has an energy density 10% less than gasoline, and greater than that of either ethanol or methanol. In most gasoline engines, butanol can be used in place of gasoline with no modifications. In several tests, butanol consumption is similar to that of gasoline, and when blended with gasoline, provides better performance and corrosion resistance than that of ethanol or E85.


title: Algae fuel

text: The green waste left over from the algae oil extraction can be used to produce butanol. In addition, it has been shown that macroalgae (seaweeds) can be fermented by bacteria of genus "Clostridia" to butanol and other solvents. Transesterification of seaweed oil (into biodiesel) is also possible with species such as "Chaetomorpha linum", "Ulva lactuca", and "Enteromorpha compressa" ("Ulva").


title: Algae fuel

text: The following species are being investigated as suitable species from which to produce ethanol and/or butanol:


title: Algae fuel

text: Biogasoline is gasoline produced from biomass. Like traditionally produced gasoline, it contains between 6 (hexane) and 12 (dodecane) carbon atoms per molecule and can be used in internal-combustion engines.


title: Algae fuel

text: Biogas is composed mainly of methane () and carbon dioxide (), with some traces of hydrogen sulphide, oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen. Macroalgae has high methane production rate compared to plant biomass. Biogas production from macroalgae is more technically viable compared to other fuels, but it is not economically viable due to the high cost of macroalgae feedstock. Carbohydrate and protein in microalgae can be converted into biogas through anaerobic digestion, which includes hydrolysis, fermentation, and methanogenesis steps. The conversion of algal biomass into methane can potentially recover as much energy as it obtains, but it is more profitable when the algal lipid content is lower than 40%. Biogas production from microalgae is relatively low because of the high ratio of protein in microalgae, but microalgae can be co-digested with high C/N ratio products such as wastepaper. Another method to produce biogas is through gasification, where hydrocarbon is converted to syngas through a partial oxidation reaction at high temperature (typically 800 °C to 1000 °C). Gasification is usually performed with catalysts. Uncatalyzed gasification requires temperature to be about 1300 °C. Syngas can be burnt directly to produce energy or used a fuel in turbine engines. It can also be used as feedstock for other chemical productions.


title: Algae fuel

text: Methane, the main constituent of natural gas can be produced from algae in various methods, namely gasification, pyrolysis and anaerobic digestion. In gasification and pyrolysis methods methane is extracted under high temperature and pressure. Anaerobic digestion is a straightforward method involved in decomposition of algae into simple components then transforming it into fatty acids using microbes like acidogenic bacteria followed by removing any solid particles and finally adding methanogenic archaea to release a gas mixture containing methane. A number of studies have successfully shown that biomass from microalgae can be converted into biogas via anaerobic digestion. Therefore, in order to improve the overall energy balance of microalgae cultivation operations, it has been proposed to recover the energy contained in waste biomass via anaerobic digestion to methane for generating electricity.


title: Algae fuel

text: The Algenol system which is being commercialized by BioFields in Puerto Libertad, Sonora, Mexico utilizes seawater and industrial exhaust to produce ethanol. Porphyridium cruentum also have shown to be potentially suitable for ethanol production due to its capacity for accumulating large amount of carbohydrates.


title: Algae fuel

text: Algae can be used to produce 'green diesel' (also known as renewable diesel, hydrotreating vegetable oil or hydrogen-derived renewable diesel) through a hydrotreating refinery process that breaks molecules down into shorter hydrocarbon chains used in diesel engines. It has the same chemical properties as petroleum-based diesel meaning that it does not require new engines, pipelines or infrastructure to distribute and use. It has yet to be produced at a cost that is competitive with petroleum. While hydrotreating is currently the most common pathway to produce fuel-like hydrocarbons via decarboxylation/decarbonylation, there is an alternative process offering a number of important advantages over hydrotreating. In this regard, the work of Crocker et al. and Lercher et al. is particularly noteworthy. For oil refining, research is underway for catalytic conversion of renewable fuels by decarboxylation. As the oxygen is present in crude oil at rather low levels, of the order of 0.5%, deoxygenation in petroleum refining is not of much concern, and no catalysts are specifically formulated for oxygenates hydrotreating. Hence, one of the critical technical challenges to make the hydrodeoxygenation of algae oil process economically feasible is related to the research and development of effective catalysts.


title: Algae fuel

text: Trials of using algae as biofuel were carried out by Lufthansa and Virgin Atlantic as early as 2008, although there is little evidence that using algae is a reasonable source for jet biofuels. By 2015, cultivation of fatty acid methyl esters and alkenones from the algae, "Isochrysis", was under research as a possible jet biofuel feedstock.