title: Weehawken, New Jersey

text: Weehawken is a township in the northern part of Hudson County, in the U.S. state of New Jersey. It is located largely on the Hudson Palisades overlooking the Hudson River. As of the 2020 United States census, the population was 17,197.


title: Weehawken, New Jersey

text: The name "Weehawken" is generally considered to have evolved from the Algonquian language Lenape spoken by the Hackensack and Tappan. It has variously been interpreted as "maize land", "place of gulls", "rocks that look like trees", which would refer to the Palisades, atop which most of the town sits, or "at the end", among other suggested translations.


title: Weehawken, New Jersey

text: Three U.S. Navy ships have been named for the city. The USS "Weehawken", launched on November 5, 1862, was a "Passaic"-class monitor, or ironclad ship, which sailed for the Union Navy during the American Civil War, encountered battles at the Charleston, South Carolina coast, and sank in a moderate gale on December 6, 1863. The "Weehawken" was the last ferry to The West Shore Terminal on March 25, 1959, at 1:10 am, ending 259 years of continuous ferry service. Weehawken Street in Manhattan's Greenwich Village was the site of a colonial Hudson River ferry landing.


title: Weehawken, New Jersey

text: Weehawken was formed as a township by an act of the New Jersey Legislature, on March 15, 1859, from portions of Hoboken and North Bergen. A portion of the township was ceded to Hoboken in 1874. Additional territory was annexed in 1879 from West Hoboken.


title: Weehawken, New Jersey

text: The township's written history began in 1609, when Henry Hudson, on his third voyage to the New World, sailed down what was later named the North River on the Half Moon and weighed anchor in Weehawken Cove. At the time it was the territory of the Hackensack and Tappan, of the Turtle Clan, or Unami, a branch of the Lenni Lenape. They were displaced by immigrants to the province of New Netherland, who had begun to settle the west bank of the Hudson at Pavonia in 1630. On May 11, 1647, Maryn Adriansen received a patent for a plantation (of 169 acres) at "Awiehaken". In 1658, Director-General of New Netherland Peter Stuyvesant negotiated a deal with the Lenape to purchase all the land from ""the great rock above Wiehacken"", west to "Sikakes" (Secaucus) and south to "Konstapels Hoeck" (Constable Hook). In 1661, Weehawken became part of Bergen when it (and most of northeastern New Jersey) came under the jurisdiction of the court at Bergen Square.


title: Weehawken, New Jersey

text: In 1674, New Netherland was ceded to the British, and the town became part of the Province of East Jersey. John Luby, in 1677, acquired several parcels comprising along the Hudson. Most habitation was along the top of the cliffs since the low-lying areas were mostly marshland. Descriptions from the period speak of the dense foliage and forests and excellent land for growing vegetables and orchard fruits. As early as 1700 there was regular, if sporadic ferry service from Weehawken. In 1752, King George II made the first official grant for ferry service, the ferry house north of Hoboken primarily used for farm produce, and likely was sold at the Greenwich Village landing that became Weehawken Street.


title: Weehawken, New Jersey

text: During the American Revolutionary War, Weehawken was used as a lookout for the patriots to check on the British, who were situated in New York and controlled the surrounding waterways. In fact, in July 1778, Lord Stirling asked Aaron Burr, in a letter written on behalf of General George Washington, to employ several persons to "go to Bergen Heights, Weehawk, Hoebuck, or any other heights thereabout to observe the motions of the enemy's shipping" and to gather any other possible intelligence. Early documented inhabitants included a Captain James Deas, whose stately residence at Deas' Point was located atop a knoll along the river. Lafayette had used the mansion as his headquarters and later Washington Irving came to gaze at Manhattan.


title: Weehawken, New Jersey

text: Not far from Deas' was a ledge 11 paces wide and 20 paces long, situated above the Hudson on the Palisades. This ledge, long gone, was the site of 18 documented duels and probably many unrecorded ones in the years 1798–1845. The most famous is the duel between General Alexander Hamilton, first Secretary of the Treasury, and Colonel Aaron Burr, sitting third Vice President of the United States, which took place on July 11, 1804; this duel was re-enacted on its 200th anniversary (July 11, 2004) by descendants of Hamilton and Burr. Three years earlier, a duel was held at this spot between Hamilton's son, Philip Hamilton, and George Eacker. (Another source, however, puts the duel in Paulus Hook in Jersey City.) Phillip, who had been defending his father's honor, suffered a fatal wound in his hip and his left arm and died two days later on November 24, 1801.


title: Weehawken, New Jersey

text: In the mid-19th century, James G. King built his estate Highwood on the bluff that now bears his name, and entertained many political and artistic figures of the era, including Daniel Webster.


title: Weehawken, New Jersey

text: With the ferry, the Hackensack Plank Road (a toll road that was a main artery from Weehawken to Hackensack), and later, the West Shore Railroad, built during the early 1870s, the waterfront became a transportation hub. The wealthy built homes along the top of the New Jersey Palisades, where they might flee from the sweltering heat of New York, and breathe the fresh air of the heights. Weehawken became the playground of the rich during the middle to late 19th century. A series of wagon lifts, stairs, and even a passenger elevator designed by the same engineer as those at the Eiffel Tower (which at the time was the world's largest) were put in place to accommodate the tourists and summer dwellers. The Eldorado Amusement Park, a pleasure garden which opened in 1891, drew massive crowds.


title: Weehawken, New Jersey

text: Weehawken is part of the New York metropolitan area. Situated on the western shore of the Hudson River, along the southern end of the New Jersey Palisades across from Midtown Manhattan, it is the western terminus of the Lincoln Tunnel. Weehawken is one of the towns that comprise North Hudson, sometimes called NoHu in the artistic community.


title: Weehawken, New Jersey

text: According to the United States Census Bureau, the township had a total area of 1.48 square miles (3.82 km), including 0.78 square miles (2.03 km) of land and 0.69 square miles (1.79 km) of water (46.69%).


title: Weehawken, New Jersey

text: The township borders the municipalities of Hoboken, Union City and West New York in Hudson County; and the New York City borough of Manhattan, across the Hudson River.


title: Weehawken, New Jersey

text: While the Palisades defines Weehawken's natural topography, the Lincoln Tunnel (which cuts the town in half) looms as an inescapable man-made feature. Geographically, Weehawken has distinct neighborhoods: Downtown, the Heights, Uptown (which includes Kingswood Bluff, known as "The Bluff"), and the Waterfront, which since the 1990s has been developed for transportation, commercial, recreational and residential uses. Though some are long abandoned (e.g., Grauert Causeway), there are still several outdoor public staircases (e.g., Shippen Steps) throughout the town, and more than 15 "dead-end" streets. At its southeastern corner is Weehawken Cove which, along with the rail tracks farther inland, defines Weehawken's border with Hoboken. Its northern boundary is shared with West New York. Traversing Weehawken is Boulevard East, a scenic thoroughfare offering a sweeping vista of the Hudson River and the Manhattan skyline. Local zoning laws prohibit the construction of high-rise buildings that would obstruct sight-lines from higher points in town. In a 1999 decision that blocked the development of a pair of waterfront towers that would have stood , a judge cited the panoramic vistas from Weehawken as "a world-class amenity that encourages people to live, work and locate businesses in the area". In 2021, the development company Roseland donated 14.5 acres of the Palisades cliff face to the town in order to preserve its beauty and its history.


title: Weehawken, New Jersey

text: The turn of the 20th century saw the end of the large estates, casinos, hotels, and theaters as tourism gave way to subdivisions (such as Highwood Park and Clifton Park) and the construction of many of the private homes still seen in town. This coincided with the influx of the Germans, Austrians, and Swiss, who built them and the breweries and embroidery factories in nearby Union City and West New York. While remaining essentially residential, Weehawken continued to grow as Hudson County became more industrial and more populated. Shortly after World War I, a significant contingent of Syrian immigrants from Homs (a major textile center in its own right) moved into Weehawken to take advantage of the burgeoning textile industry.


title: Weehawken, New Jersey

text: The Census Bureau's 2006–2010 American Community Survey showed that (in 2010 inflation-adjusted dollars) median household income was $62,435 (with a margin of error of +/− $6,887) and the median family income was $90,903 (+/− $17,797). Males had a median income of $53,912 (+/− $7,426) versus $50,129 (+/− $3,238) for females. The per capita income for the township was $45,206 (+/− $5,011). About 10.1% of families and 12.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 15.2% of those under age 18 and 20.4% of those age 65 or over.


title: Weehawken, New Jersey

text: As of the 2000 United States census there were 13,501 people, 5,975 households, and 3,059 families residing in the township. The population density was 15,891.3 people per square mile (6,132.7/km). There were 6,159 housing units at an average density of 7,249.4 per square mile (2,797.7/km). The racial makeup of the township was 73.05% White, 3.58% African American, 0.20% Native American, 4.67% Asian, 0.10% Pacific Islander, 13.94% from other races, and 4.47% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 40.64% of the population.


title: Weehawken, New Jersey

text: There were 5,975 households, out of which 20.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 35.1% were married couples living together, 11.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 48.8% were non-families. 35.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.26 and the average family size was 3.02.


title: Weehawken, New Jersey

text: In the township the population was spread out, with 16.6% under the age of 18, 8.9% from 18 to 24, 42.4% from 25 to 44, 19.9% from 45 to 64, and 12.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females, there were 95.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.9 males.


title: Weehawken, New Jersey

text: The median income for a household in the township was $50,196, and the median income for a family was $52,613. Males had a median income of $41,307 versus $36,063 for females. The per capita income for the township was $29,269. About 9.3% of families and 11.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 18.0% of those under age 18 and 11.3% of those age 65 or over.


title: Weehawken, New Jersey

text: Weehawken, with a population density about equal to that of Jersey City, is among the most densely populated municipalities in the United States.


title: Weehawken, New Jersey

text: Weehawken has a retail district along Park Avenue (its boundary with Union City) and large office and apartment/townhouse developments along the Hudson River. Weehawken is a mostly residential community, but has a business district at Lincoln Harbor between the Lincoln Tunnel and Weehawken Cove. UBS, Swatch Group USA, Hartz Mountain Telx Technologies (colocation center) are among the corporations which maintain offices in the neighborhood, which also hosts a Sheraton Hotels and Resorts-branded hotel.


title: Weehawken, New Jersey

text: Formula One announced plans in 2011 to host a street race on a circuit stretching in Weehawken and West New York called Grand Prix of America, that was planned to have its first event in June 2013. The three-day event was anticipated to attract 100,000 people and bring in approximately $100 million in economic activity. The 2013 race was dropped from the calendar, with Formula One President and CEO Bernie Ecclestone stating that the promoters were in breach of contract and that new proposals from other parties would be welcome. The race was repeatedly added then removed from future Formula One provisional calendars, and dropped completely from the provisional calendar by 2016.


title: Weehawken, New Jersey

text: Though the panoramic view (from the Verrazzano-Narrows Bridge to George Washington Bridge) may be its most famous attraction, Weehawken is also home to other sites of historic, aesthetic, and engineering importance:


title: Weehawken, New Jersey

text: The Alexander Hamilton Monument on Hamilton Avenue, next to Hamilton Park, is the site of the second memorial to the Burr–Hamilton duel between Alexander Hamilton and Aaron Burr. The first, on the original duel site, was constructed in 1806 by the Saint Andrew Society, of which Hamilton had been a member. A 14-foot (4.3-m) marble cenotaph, consisting of an obelisk, topped by a flaming urn and a plaque with a quote from Horace, surrounded by an iron fence, was raised about where Hamilton was believed to have fallen. Duels continued to be fought at the site, and the marble was slowly vandalized and removed for souvenirs, disappearing entirely by 1820. The tablet turned up in a junk store and found its way to the New-York Historical Society in Manhattan, where it still resides.


title: Weehawken, New Jersey

text: From 1820 to 1857, the site was marked by two stones, with the names Hamilton and Burr, placed where they were thought to have stood during the duel. When a road from Hoboken to Fort Lee was built through the site in 1858, an inscription on a boulder where a mortally wounded Hamilton was thought to have rested—one of the many pieces of graffiti left by visitors—was all that remained. No primary accounts of the duel confirm the boulder anecdote. In 1870, railroad tracks were built directly through the site, and the boulder was hauled to the top of the Palisades, where it remains today, located just off the Boulevard East. In 1894, an iron fence was built around the boulder, supplemented by a bust of Hamilton and a plaque. The bust was thrown over the cliff on October 14, 1934, by vandals, and the head was never recovered; a new bust was unveiled on July 12, 1935.


title: Weehawken, New Jersey

text: The plaque was stolen by vandals in the 1980s, and an abbreviated version of the text was inscribed on the indentation left in the boulder, which remained until the early 1990s, when a granite pedestal was added in front of the boulder, and the bust was moved to the top of the pedestal. New historical markers were added on July 11, 2004, the 200th anniversary of the duel.


title: Weehawken, New Jersey

text: Weehawken operates within the Faulkner Act, formally known as the Optional Municipal Charter Law, under the Council-Manager form of municipal government. The township is one of 42 municipalities (of the 564) statewide that use this form of government. The governing body is comprised of a five-member Township Council, whose members are elected to serve four-year terms of office on a concurrent basis in non-partisan elections held in May. Two council members are elected from the township at-large and the remainder are chosen from each of three wards. The council selects a mayor from among its members in a reorganization meeting held in the first week of July after the election.


title: Weehawken, New Jersey

text: , the mayor of Weehawken is Richard F. Turner (at-large), whose term of office ends June 30, 2026. Turner has served in office since he first became mayor in 1990 after Stanley Iacono chose not to run for reelection. Other members of the Township Council are Deputy Mayor Rosemary J. Lavagnino (2nd Ward), David J. Curtis (3rd Ward), Carmela Silvestri-Ehret (1st Ward) and Robert Sosa (at large), all serving terms of office expiring on June 30, 2026.


title: Weehawken, New Jersey

text: In October 2021, the Township Council appointed Robert Sosa to fill the Third Ward seat expiring in June 2022 that had been held by Raul I. Gonzalez until he resigned from office after announcing that he was moving out of Weehawken. Sosa had previously served on the council after initially having been elected to serve in 1978.


title: Weehawken, New Jersey

text: Weehawken is located in the 8th Congressional District and is part of New Jersey's 33rd state legislative district. Prior to the 2010 Census, Weehawken had been part of the , a change made by the New Jersey Redistricting Commission that took effect in January 2013, based on the results of the November 2012 general elections.


title: Weehawken, New Jersey

text: Hudson County Board of County Commissioners District 7 comprises Weehawken, West New York, and Guttenberg and is represented by Caridad Rodriguez.


title: Weehawken, New Jersey

text: As of March 23, 2011, there were a total of 7,335 registered voters in Weehawken, of which 3,717 (50.7%) were registered as Democrats, 850 (11.6%) were registered as Republicans and 2,753 (37.5%) were registered as Unaffiliated. There were 15 voters registered as Libertarians or Greens.


title: Weehawken, New Jersey

text: In the 2012 presidential election, Democrat Barack Obama received 74.7% of the vote (3,692 cast), ahead of Republican Mitt Romney with 23.6% (1,169 votes), and other candidates with 1.7% (83 votes), among the 4,969 ballots cast by the township's 7,995 registered voters (25 ballots were spoiled), for a turnout of 62.2%. In the 2008 presidential election, Democrat Barack Obama received 72.4% of the vote (3,895 cast), ahead of Republican John McCain with 26.1% (1,406 votes) and other candidates with 1.0% (52 votes), among the 5,381 ballots cast by the township's 8,230 registered voters, for a turnout of 65.4%. In the 2004 presidential election, Democrat John Kerry received 65.0% of the vote (3,250 ballots cast), outpolling Republican George W. Bush with 33.8% (1,688 votes) and other candidates with 0.4% (26 votes), among the 4,997 ballots cast by the township's 7,293 registered voters, for a turnout percentage of 68.5.


title: Weehawken, New Jersey

text: In the 2013 gubernatorial election, Democrat Barbara Buono received 55.5% of the vote (1,407 cast), ahead of Republican Chris Christie with 42.2% (1,070 votes), and other candidates with 2.4% (60 votes), among the 2,637 ballots cast by the township's 8,135 registered voters (100 ballots were spoiled), for a turnout of 32.4%. In the 2009 gubernatorial election, Democrat Jon Corzine received 69.9% of the vote (2,209 ballots cast), ahead of Republican Chris Christie with 25.1% (792 votes), Independent Chris Daggett with 3.8% (119 votes) and other candidates with 0.9% (27 votes), among the 3,161 ballots cast by the township's 7,220 registered voters, yielding a 43.8% turnout.


title: Weehawken, New Jersey

text: Weehawken is served by North Hudson Regional Fire and Rescue (NHRFR). Engine 3 and Engine 5 are assigned to two fire stations located in the township.


title: Weehawken, New Jersey

text: Weehawken Volunteer First Aid and the Weehawken Police Department were among the many Hudson County agencies that responded to the January 2009 crash of Flight 1549, for which they received accolades from the survivors.


title: Weehawken, New Jersey

text: The Weehawken School District serves public school students in pre-kindergarten through twelfth grade. As of the 2018–19 school year, the district, comprised of three schools, had an enrollment of 1,458 students and 120.5 classroom teachers (on an FTE basis), for a student–teacher ratio of 12.1:1. Schools in the district (with 2018–19 enrollment data from the National Center for Education Statistics) are


title: Weehawken, New Jersey

text: Weehawken High School served 569 students in grades 7–12 The school system is known for its small classes and high ratings.


title: Weehawken, New Jersey

text: The Woodrow Wilson Arts Integrated School (grades 1–8), located in Weehawken, was part of the Union City School District.


title: Weehawken, New Jersey

text: Hoboken Catholic School, a consolidation of existing Catholic schools, is located in Hoboken. A K–8 school, it was formerly co-sponsored by St. Lawrence Church in Weehawken and four Hoboken churches before the archdiocese's Lighting the Way program changed the allocation of money for schools in the archdiocese.


title: Weehawken, New Jersey

text: The Weehawken Public Library has a collection of approximately 43,000 volumes and circulates 40,600 items annually. and is a member of the Bergen County Cooperative Library System. The landmark building, extensively renovated and updated in 1999.


title: Weehawken, New Jersey

text: , the township had a total of of roadways, of which were maintained by the municipality, by Hudson County and by the Port Authority of NY & NJ.


title: Weehawken, New Jersey

text: Route 495 travels east-west between the Lincoln Tunnel and the New Jersey Turnpike (Interstate 95) with interchanges for Route 3 and U.S. Route 1/9 in North Bergen Township. County Route 505 also passes through the township.


title: Weehawken, New Jersey

text: Bus service is provided along busy north-south corridors on Park Avenue, Boulevard East and Port Imperial Boulevard by NJ Transit and privately operated jitneys within Hudson County, and to Manhattan and Bergen County. NJT 123, 126, 128, 156, 158, 159, 165, 166, 168 originate/terminate at the Port Authority Bus Terminal. NJT 23 and 89 travel between Nungessers and Hoboken Terminal, where transfer is possible to PATH and NJT commuter rail. NJ Transit buses 84 and 86 travel between Nungessers and Journal Square or Pavonia/Newport in Jersey City. Routes 68 and 67 provide minimal peak service from Lincoln Harbor to the Jersey Shore.


title: Weehawken, New Jersey

text: Hudson-Bergen Light Rail (HBLR) service is available westbound to Bergenline and Tonnelle Avenue and southbound to Hoboken, Jersey City and Bayonne at the Lincoln Harbor station and Port Imperial station, where transfer to NY Waterway ferries to Midtown and Lower Manhattan is possible.


title: Weehawken, New Jersey

text: Bieber Transportation Group formerly provided intercity bus service from Reading, Kutztown, Wescosville, and Hellertown in Pennsylvania to Port Imperial in Weehawken, where NY Waterway ferries provided a connection to New York City; the ferry ride was included in the ticket price for the bus. The service started on August 27, 2018 and ended on November 6, 2018, with Bieber resuming direct bus service into New York City.


title: Weehawken, New Jersey

text: In 2013, a planned regional bike share system was announced by the Mayors of Weehawken and two cities to its south. Hudson Bike Share, launched in Hoboken in 2015, expanded to Weehawken in 2017.


title: Weehawken, New Jersey

text: Weehawken is located within the New York media market, with most of its daily papers available for sale or delivery. "The Jersey Journal" is a local daily paper covering news in the county.


title: Weehawken, New Jersey

text: Local weeklies include the free bilingual paper, "Hudson Dispatch Weekly", (named for the former daily "Hudson Dispatch"), "The Hudson Reporter", the "Weehawken Reporter", the Spanish language "El Especialito". and the "River View Observer".


title: Weehawken, New Jersey

text: The "Weehawken Sequence", an early 20th-century series of approximately 100 oil sketches by local artist John Marin, who worked in the city, is considered among, if not the first, abstract paintings done by an American artist. The sketches, which blend aspects of Impressionism, Fauvism and Cubism, have been compared to the work of Jackson Pollock.


title: Weehawken, New Jersey

text: The Hudson Riverfront Performing Arts Center is a non-profit organization whose mission is to build a world-class performing arts center on the waterfront. Since 2004, it has presented both indoor and outdoor events at Lincoln Harbor.


title: Weehawken, New Jersey

text: The name and the place have inspired mention in multiple works of popular culture. For example, on the Fox Channel animated television series, "Futurama", Weehawken is the home of the former DOOP headquarters. In visual art, Weehawken is the subject of the American painter Edward Hopper's "East Wind Over Weehawken". Additionally, the Broadway musical "Hamilton" includes a scene depicting the duel between Aaron Burr and Alexander Hamilton, as well as the duel between Phillip Hamilton and George Eacker.


title: Weehawken, New Jersey

text: In Dr. Seuss's classic children's book "Horton Hatches the Egg", Horton the Elephant visits Weehawken while he is in the circus, and in Dr. Seuss's "The Lorax", the Onceler gives directions to the land of the Truffula trees that include "...turn left at Weehawken." In the Apple TV+ animated musical, "Central Park", a rap about Weehawken recorded by Daveed Diggs is sung by Helen, one of the characters.


title: Weehawken, New Jersey

text: Jazz composer and pianist Thelonious Monk lived during his final decade until his death in 1982 in a modernist home at 63 Kingswood Road owned by Jazz patron and heiress Pannonica de Koenigswarter—which she bought from film director Josef von Sternberg and later dubbed "the Mad Pad" and "the Cathouse."


title: Weehawken, New Jersey

text: The 1980 Italian science fiction/horror film "Contamination" features an Edwardian home on the corner of Boulevard East and 46th Street, in the scene in which a disgraced former astronaut is visited by the colonel who disgraced him.


title: The Good Shepherd (novel)

text: The Good Shepherd is a 1955 nautical and war novel by C. S. Forester. It illustrates the difficulties of the Battle of the Atlantic: the struggle against the sea, the enemy, and the exhaustion brought on by constant vigilance. It also details the problems of the early radar and ASDIC equipment available and the poor communications between the fleet and Admiralty using HF Radio and early manual cryptography. A film adaptation, "Greyhound", was released in 2020 starring Tom Hanks.


title: The Good Shepherd (novel)

text: The hero of "The Good Shepherd" is Commander George Krause, the captain of the fictional US Navy "Mahan"-class destroyer USS "Keeling" in World War II. Krause is in overall command of an escort force protecting an Atlantic convoy in the Battle of the Atlantic, shepherding it through the Mid-Atlantic gap where no antisubmarine aircraft are able to defend convoys. He finds himself in a difficult position. The voyage in question occurs early in 1942, shortly after the United States's entry into the war. Although he is a career Navy officer, with many years of seniority, this is Krause's first wartime mission. The captains of the other vessels in the escort group are junior to him in rank, and much younger, but they have been at war for over two years.


title: The Good Shepherd (novel)

text: The story covers 13 watches (52 hours) aboard the ship's bridge and is told in third person entirely from Krause's point of view as he fights to save his ship, detailing his mood swings from his intense and focused excitement and awareness during combat to his resulting fatigue, depression, and self-doubt as his self-perceived inferiority and inexperience relative to the other captains under his command trouble him—although as the story progresses he is shown to be quite capable. He broods over his career and the wife who left him, partly because of his strict devotion to duty. He is troubled when the press of duty forces him to neglect his prayers (unlike most of Forester's other heroes, Krause is devout). He is troubled by recollections that the Navy review board had twice passed him over for promotion, returning a judgment of "fitted and retained" because there was little or no opportunity in the prewar Navy. His promotion to commander only came when the United States entered the war, leading him to fear that he may be unsuited to his command.


title: The Good Shepherd (novel)

text: The book also focuses on the intense combat between the "Keeling" and multiple U-boats, with the "Keeling" eventually racking up multiple kills, and on the ship's daring rescue missions as the convoy increasingly falls prey to the U-boats, all in a race against time to escape the undefended stretches of the Atlantic. The book is a rich, detailed accounting of naval warfare, ship handling, and the inner logic of an experienced officer wrestling with the many minute judgments necessary to maintain rigid discipline during conditions of relentless tedium punctuated with extreme danger.


title: The Good Shepherd (novel)

text: The book has been turned into an audiobook narrated by Edoardo Ballerini and produced by Podium Audio. The audiobook was released in May 2020.


title: The Good Shepherd (novel)

text: The story was adapted into the feature film "Greyhound", written and produced by and starring Tom Hanks, also featuring Stephen Graham, directed by Aaron Schneider, and produced by Gary Goetzman. Principal photography began in spring 2018 aboard the museum ship , a decommissioned destroyer. The film was released in July 2020.


title: Bureau of Fire Protection

text: The Bureau of Fire Protection (BFP; Filipino: "Kawanihan ng Pagtatanggol sa Sunog") is the government body in the Philippines responsible for the provision of fire services. It is under the jurisdiction of the Department of the Interior and Local Government.


title: Bureau of Fire Protection

text: The BFP is responsible for ensuring public safety through the prevention or suppression of all destructive fires on buildings, houses, and other similar structure, forests, and land transportation vehicles and equipment, ships/vessels docked at piers, wharves or anchored at major seaports, petroleum industry installations. It is also responsible for the enforcement of the Fire Code of the Philippines (PD 1185) and other related laws, conduct investigations involving fire incidents and causes thereof including the filing of appropriate complaints/cases.


title: Bureau of Fire Protection

text: The BFP was formed from the units of the Integrated National Police's Office of Fire Protection Service on January 29, 1991 through Republic Act No. 6975, which created the present Interior Department and placed the provision of fire services under its control.


title: Bureau of Fire Protection

text: Republic Act No. 6975, or the Department of Interior and Local Government Act of 1990, took effect on January 1, 1991 and paved the way for the establishment of the Philippine National Police, BFP and Bureau of Jail Management and Penology as separate entities. Specifically, the Fire Bureau’s charter was created under Chapter IV (Section 53 to 59) and carried-out through the provisions of Rule VII (Sections 49 to 58) of the Implementing Rules and Regulations of the act. The organization was then placed under the direct supervision of the DILG undersecretary for peace and order. The Appropriation Act of 1991 also caused the inaugural operation of the BFP on August 2, 1991 as a distinct agency of the government, with the initial preparation of its operation plans and budget (OPB) undertaken by the staff of the Office of the National Chief Fire Marshal at Camp Crame, Quezon City headed by F/Brigadier General Ernesto Madriaga, INP (1990–1992), which took over from the long reign of F/Major Primo D. Cordeta (Ret.), the first chief fire marshal (1978–1989). Madriaga served as the BFP's first acting fire chief/director from 1991 to 1992.


title: Bureau of Fire Protection

text: In 2021, Republic Act No.11589, or the BFP Modernization Act, was enacted into law, mandating the implementation of a ten year program to modernize the BFP. The law also enabled the creation of security and protection units (SPUs) in each regional and city fire station and allowed 14 members at most per SPU to bare firearms.


title: Bureau of Fire Protection

text: The BFP has a National Headquarters, a Special Rescue/HAZMAT Unit, an Emergency Medical Services, a Special Operations Unit. an Arson Investigation Unit, the Fire Law Enforcement Service, and the Fire National Training Institute.


title: Bureau of Fire Protection

text: Each region in the Philippines has its own BFP fire region, headed by a person with the rank of fire chief superintendent (fire brigadier general) or fire senior superintendent (fire colonel).


title: Bureau of Fire Protection

text: Non-Uniformed Personnel refers to all BFP civilian personnel and employees having no rank. Civil service employees carry their civil service grade.


title: Bureau of Fire Protection

text: The bureau provides fire appliances depending on the jurisdiction's capabilities. Each city and municipality in the Philippines have one or more fire appliances to serve.


title: Bad Boy Bubby

text: Bad Boy Bubby is a 1993 black comedy film written and directed by Rolf de Heer, and starring Nicholas Hope, Claire Benito, Ralph Cotterill and Carmel Johnson.


title: Bad Boy Bubby

text: Hope stars as the titular character, a mentally challenged man who has been held captive in his home by his abusive mother for his entire life. The storyline follows his escape from confinement, and subsequent journey of self-discovery. The film was shot on a low budget in Adelaide, and is an international co-production between Australia and Italy.


title: Bad Boy Bubby

text: "Bad Boy Bubby" premiered at the 50th Venice International Film Festival on 1 September 1993, where it won the Special Jury Prize. It was released in Australia the following year, and was met with positive reviews. Although it was a box office failure, the film has gained a cult following.


title: Bad Boy Bubby

text: In an industrial area of Adelaide, Bubby (Hope) is a mentally challenged 35-year-old man who lives in a squalid house with his abusive and religious fanatic mother, Florence. He has never left the house, due to his mother convincing him that the air outside is toxic, and Jesus will strike him down should he leave. He and his mother regularly have incestuous sex, with his mother often encouraging Bubby to fondle her breasts. The two have no other company except for a pet cat, which Bubby accidentally kills with clingwrap. One night, Bubby's father Harold returns, having abandoned Florence years earlier to pursue a career as a preacher. Harold did not know he had a son, but he quickly comes to disdain Bubby, and mocks him for his presumed mental disorder. Harold frequently beats Bubby, and encourages Florence to do so as well. Tired of the abuse, Bubby suffocates his parents with clingwrap, and decides to venture outside for the first time.


title: Bad Boy Bubby

text: Bubby is picked up by members of The Salvation Army, and wanders into the town centre. However, he is socially inept, and is harassed by members of the public for his strange behaviour. He is later given a lift by a group of men who perform in a rock band, and he helps the band set up a gig. The band take a liking to Bubby, but are also unnerved by his odd actions. After reading a newspaper that reports on the murder of Bubby's parents, the band members decide to send him to stay with their friend Dan. The two go out for dinner, but Bubby fondles a woman and is arrested. He is sent to jail, but is unwilling to talk with the warden. As punishment, he sends Bubby into a separate cell, where he is raped by another inmate, "The Animal" (Michael Constantinou). The prison chief then deems him to be rehabilitated, and lets him go.


title: Bad Boy Bubby

text: Bubby enters a church, and converses with a man there (Norman Kaye; listed in the credits as "The Scientist"), who tells Bubby that God does not exist, and it is the job of humans to "think God out of existence" and take responsibility for themselves. Bubby goes to a pub and fondles another woman, and is beaten by her friends. Overwhelmed, Bubby returns to his home as he believes that there is no place for him in the world. He dons his father's clothes and assumes the personality of "Pop". With newfound confidence, he returns to town and finds a stray cat, who he vows to take care of. He goes to the club where the rock band are performing, and joins them on stage, where he delivers a bizarre performance, repeating phrases he has heard from various people. His performance is a success with the crowd, and he goes back to feed the cat, but is distraught to see that it has been killed by local hoodlums. Upset, Bubby encounters a nurse named Angel, who cares for people with physical disabilities. They return to the care centre, and Bubby becomes infatuated with her breasts, as they remind him of his mother's.


title: Bad Boy Bubby

text: Angel and Bubby become lovers, and Angel invites him to have dinner with her strict and religious parents. Angel's parents humiliate her by mocking her weight, enraging Bubby, who curses at God in retaliation, before her parents demand he leave. Bubby kills Angel's parents with clingwrap, and the two continue their relationship. Bubby returns to performing with the rock band, and becomes a sensation with audiences. Finally at peace with himself, Bubby and Angel later have a child.


title: Bad Boy Bubby

text: Shortly after graduating from film school, Rolf de Heer collaborated with Ritchie Singer on the idea of what would eventually become "Bad Boy Bubby". For most of the 1980s, de Heer collected ideas and wrote them on index cards. In 1987, he took a hiatus from making "Bubby" index cards, but in 1989 he resumed work. In 1989 or 1990 he saw the short film "Confessor Caressor" starring Nicholas Hope (which would eventually be included on the bonus DVD when "Bad Boy Bubby" was first released on DVD in 2004) and tracked him down. In 1991, de Heer began work on the actual script.


title: Bad Boy Bubby

text: After he heard a rumour about the reintroduction of the death penalty to Australia, de Heer was angered and rewrote the ending so that Bubby would be executed at the end of the film. This ending was scrapped when the rumour proved false.


title: Bad Boy Bubby

text: The people with cerebral palsy Bubby meets at the 1 hour 30 minute mark are not actors, but actual disabled people. Hope, who was raised Catholic, found the scenes where Bubby curses God in front of Angel's parents difficult to film.


title: Bad Boy Bubby

text: Director de Heer describes the film as one large experiment, especially in the method used to record the dialogue: binaural microphones were sewn into the wig worn by leading actor Nicholas Hope, one above each ear. This method gave the sound track a unique sound that closely resembled what the character would actually be hearing. The film also used 31 individual directors of photography to shoot different scenes. Once Bubby leaves the apartment a different director of photography is used for every location until the last third of the film, allowing an individual visual slant on everything Bubby sees for the first time. No director of photography was allowed to refer to the work of the others.


title: Bad Boy Bubby

text: When the film was released in Italy, a coalition of animal rights groups tried to set up a boycott of Australian products, alleging that Bubby's pet cat was wrapped in plastic wrapping and suffocated to death on film, but Rolf de Heer has said that none of that is true; the cat scenes were carefully filmed, with a veterinarian and animal cruelty inspector on set. Nicholas Hope, in an on-stage interview included on the DVD of the film, says there were two cats, one of which became a pet of a crew member. The other was a feral cat that was put down by a vet after filming (as with most feral cats that are caught in Australia). Film critic Mark Kermode left the screening due to the apparent animal abuse in the making of the film.


title: Bad Boy Bubby

text: The film first screened in Australian cinemas on 28 July 1994, and was released on VHS by Roadshow Entertainment early the following year.


title: Bad Boy Bubby

text: On 23 April 2007, Eureka Entertainment released "Bad Boy Bubby" on DVD for the UK market with all scenes intact. On the Blue Underground DVD, director Rolf de Heer claims that "Bubby" was the second highest-grossing film in Norway in 1995. In the UK, it was cut for cruelty to a cat. The film was released on DVD in April 2005 in the United States by the Blue Underground company, and a special Two Disc Collectors' Edition was also released in Australia in June 2005 by Umbrella Entertainment. Umbrella reissued the film on Blu-ray in February 2021, newly remastered from the original negative. The Blu-ray contained all the special features from the 2005 DVD, plus a Q&A session with Nicholas Hope and Natalie Carr and a 25th anniversary commentary. The film had previously been released on Blu-ray in Australia in 2011, using the same transfer used for the 2005 DVD and containing all the special features from it.


title: Bad Boy Bubby

text: "Bad Boy Bubby" became a big hit in Norway, second only to "Forrest Gump" with Hope an actor in demand there.


title: Bad Boy Bubby

text: David Stratton, film critic for "The Movie Show", praised "Bad Boy Bubby". He awarded the film five stars out of five, remarking, "I really think this is one of the finest and most original of all Australian films that I've seen. I really think it's a milestone in Australian cinema". It also holds a 100% approval rating on the review aggregation site Rotten Tomatoes, based on 10 reviews, with a weighted average of 7.9/10.


title: Death Race 3: Inferno

text: Death Race 3: Inferno (also known as Death Race 3 and Death Race: Inferno) is a 2013 American science fiction action film directed by Roel Reiné. It is the third installment in the "Death Race" film series and set between the events of "Death Race 2" (2010) and "Death Race" (2008). The film was released direct-to-video on January 22, 2013.


title: Death Race 3: Inferno

text: Death Race owner R. H. Weyland has been forced to sell the rights to Niles York, an ambitious and ruthless British billionaire who acquired the rights by a hostile takeover and who intends to relocate the Death Race to South Africa. Before leaving, Weyland arranges Carl Lucas, also known as Frankenstein, to have his face fixed, which was disfigured during a life-threatening crash in the previous film. With Lucas just one win away from his freedom, York fears losing the huge Frankenstein fanbase and threatens to kill Lucas if he wins his fifth race.


title: Death Race 3: Inferno

text: As the crew from Terminal Island reaches the facility in South Africa, a scuffle breaks out, forcing Lucas in his Frankenstein persona to cut in. However, his mask is knocked off during the fight, revealing to his team of Katrina Banks, Goldberg, and Lists that he has been hiding his identity behind the mask during the previous races.


title: Death Race 3: Inferno

text: Before the first race, the pool of female navigators are pitted against each other to participate in the "Navigator Wars", a gladiator-style armed fight to the death. The show is now hosted and produced by Satana, on behalf of Niles York. Ten surviving navigators, including Katrina, are assigned to their drivers. Afterwards, all race participants are shot on their necks with GPS trackers, so the showrunners can track them and, if necessary, kill them if they attempt to escape.


title: Death Race 3: Inferno

text: The first race, in the Kalahari Desert, reveals how the terrain calls for a racing strategy totally different from the one on the Terminal Island prison course. Lucas manages to regain Goldberg's trust, but not Katrina's. Eleven racers compete, but Jackal makes a jump start, only to be blown up by a tracking missile. Three racers and their navigators die during the race, while Razor beats Frankenstein to win the first day.


title: Death Race 3: Inferno

text: Katrina, still heartbroken that Lucas has kept his survival secret from her all along, distances herself from him. When Goldberg gets a flesh wound from another brawl that follows, the show's surgeon, Olivia, makes advances and the two establish a relationship. In order to make Katrina jealous, Satana orders Psycho's navigator Amber to have sex with Lucas.


title: Death Race 3: Inferno

text: Satana and Niles York grow suspicious that Lucas is up to something due to his non-rebellious attitude to being forced to lose. Elsewhere, Lucas meets with his crew, apologizing and explaining what they were up against. Having regained everyone's trust, Lucas also says that he has made a "new deal".


title: Death Race 3: Inferno

text: The second race commences with the death of three more teams. Fury is killed after being tricked by Olga Braun (Death Race's first-ever female driver) and she is in turn run over by Razor. Razor struggles to handle both Lucas and Psycho before the three are joined by 14K, having disabled Nero's truck, before leaving him to get beaten to death by an angry mob of locals. The second race ends with Lucas victorious, but Goldberg is caught in an explosion caused by stray bullets from local hostile war lords, and Olivia pronounces him dead.


title: Death Race 3: Inferno

text: York reminds Lucas to lose his next race to 14K, or he will have Katrina tortured. Satana discovers York wishes to replace her as producer and remove her from the Death Race so he can assume control. Before the next race, Katrina confesses her love to Lucas, and Lucas reveals he did not sleep with Amber.


title: Death Race 3: Inferno

text: Before the final race, Psycho and Lucas have a chat about the identity of Frankenstein, and whether Lucas was the first or even the last. During the final race, Niles York is determined to keep Lucas from winning at any cost. Razor disables Psycho's car, and Psycho dies in the flames, while an uninjured Amber is left behind to meet an unknown fate. Lucas takes the lead with York going into a frenzy, and ordering him killed with a tracking missile. However, 14K shoots flares to divert the missile and destroy it, saving his life and repaying his "life for a life" debt from the race back in Terminal Island. York has enough of Prudence, his secretary, who was against his ruthless actions all along, and fires her.


title: Death Race 3: Inferno

text: Lucas holds a commanding lead and kills many of the prison guards along the way. In an unexpected twist, Lucas relinquishes the lead to 14K and turns off to find York. Satana handcuffs York to a table for his betrayal. Lucas crashes his car into the control room and explodes, engulfing the room in flames. It appears that everyone, except a facially disfigured Lucas, perished in the crash. However, at the medical facility, Lucas yells that he is Niles York, not Frankenstein. Olivia, Lists and the GPS tracking chip confirm it to be Lucas/Frankenstein, and they report the same to Prudence, who fills in for the late Niles York. She returns the Death Race to Terminal Island and assigns Hennessy in charge of the race, while recruiting "Coach" as the fill-in for the late Goldberg.


title: Death Race 3: Inferno

text: In a set of flashbacks, it is revealed that Lucas' "new deal" was the one with Weyland while at the hospital, providing Olivia as an insider, faking Goldberg's death, having Satana yield to Weyland, trapping Niles York in the control room right before the planned car crash, Lucas and Katrina ejecting secretly from the car before the crash, Olivia planting the GPS tracker with Frankenstein's I.D into York's body, everyone escaping from the prison, and York and Katrina being pronounced dead. With York now officially "dead", Weyland regains control of the Death Race and grants the team their freedom, though Lists refuses and returns to Terminal Island. Weyland pays Lucas and his team (including Olivia) a substantial amount of money for their help, which they use to relocate. Meanwhile, defeated in his own dirty game, York is now forced to wear the identity of Frankenstein, hoping to gain his freedom and have his revenge while racing at Terminal Island in the future (as seen in the first film).


title: Death Race 3: Inferno

text: Scott Foy of Dread Central rated it 3/5 stars and wrote, "Movies like "Death Race 3: Inferno" are like a piece of chewing gum – the flavor is fleeting, you spit it out when you're done without hesitation, but it gave you the minor fix you were after." Jesse Skeen of DVD Talk rated it 3/5 stars and wrote, "This movie probably won't win any awards, but it's great mindless fun." David Johnson of DVD Verdict called it an "ultimately a loud and tedious chore." Scott Weinberg of Fearnet wrote, "Cheap, choppy, and almost shamelessly by-the-numbers, Death Race 3 earns points for the same reason its predecessor did: it's quick, slick, enjoyably empty-headed, just energetic enough to smash through the finish line".


title: Dynasty Warriors (film)

text: Dynasty Warriors is a 2021 Hong Kong fantasy-action film based on the Japanese video game franchise of the same title by Omega Force and Koei Tecmo. Directed by Roy Chow, the film stars an ensemble cast from Hong Kong, China and Taiwan, including Louis Koo, Carina Lau, Wang Kai, Tony Yang, Han Geng, Justin Cheung, Gulnazar and Ray Lui. The film was released on 29 April 2021 in Hong Kong, and in China on 30 April 2021.


title: Dynasty Warriors (film)

text: On 15 March 2016, Suzuki Akihiro, the producer of Koei Tecmo's "Dynasty Warriors" video game series, and the Hong Kong-based company HMV Digital China announced at the 20th Hong Kong International Film and TV Market that they will be making a live-action film adaptation of "Dynasty Warriors". The film will be directed by Roy Chow, produced and written by Christine To, and to be released in 2017.


title: Dynasty Warriors (film)

text: On 8 July 2017, HMV Digital China's executive chairman Stephen Shiu Jr. revealed on his weibo that the film will start shooting on 11 July. He also revealed that he had approached Koei Tecmo four years ago and secured the rights to adapt the "Dynasty Warriors" franchise into a movie. On 11 July, Shiu announced that Han Geng, Wang Kai, Louis Koo, Tony Yang and Gulnazar are part of the main cast.


title: Dynasty Warriors (film)

text: On 28 September 2017, director Roy Chow announced that after 63 days of filming in mainland China, the team will be moving to New Zealand in November 2017 to shoot the background scenes. While shooting in mainland China, Louis Koo sustained an eye injury but he insisted on staying until the end. However, Roy Chow refused to let him stay and sent him back to Hong Kong for medical treatment. As soon as he recovered, Koo rushed to New Zealand to join the rest of the team. Chow later said that he was very impressed with Koo's commitment and professionalism.


title: Dynasty Warriors (film)

text: Shooting for "Dynasty Warriors" wrapped up on 28 November 2017. The pre-production phase took eight months, the principal photography phase lasted five months, and the post-production phase will take up to a year.


title: Dynasty Warriors (film)

text: A teaser trailer for "Dynasty Warriors" was released on 19 March 2018, along with an announcement that the film was scheduled to be shown in 2019.


title: Dynasty Warriors (film)

text: In March 2021, another trailer was released indicating a release on 29 April 2021 in Hong Kong, and in China on 30 April 2021.


title: Dynasty Warriors (film)

text: Netflix purchased the film's global distribution rights with a record breaking eight-figure price for a Chinese-language film and was released for streaming on 1 July 2021.


title: Dynasty Warriors (film)

text: As of 23 May 2021, "Dynasty Warriors" has grossed a total of US$3.31 million worldwide, combining its box office from Hong Kong (US$830,000), China (US$2.4 million) and Taiwan (US$80,000).


title: Dynasty Warriors (film)

text: In Hong Kong, the film debuted at No. 1 on its opening weekend, grossing HK$2,945,449 (US$380,329) during its first four days of release. The film remained at No. 1 on its second weekend, grossing HK$2,224,136, and have grossed a total of HK$5,178,490 (US$670,000) by then. In its third weekend, the film grossed HK$970,601, coming in at No. 3, and have grossed a total of HK$6,149,091 (US$791,623) by then. On its fourth week, the film grossed HK$294,781, coming in at No. 6, and have grossed a total of HK$6,443,872 (US$830,000) so far.


title: Dynasty Warriors (film)

text: In China, the film debuted at No. 9, grossing CNY¥9.29 million (US$1.44 million) after its first three days of release.


title: Dynasty Warriors (film)

text: In Taiwan, the film debuted at No. 13 grossed NT$1.48 million (US$50,000) after its first three days of release. During its second weekend, the film grossed NT$810,000, coming in at No. 23, and have grossed a total of NT$2.33 million (US$80,000) by then. On its third weekend, the film grossed NT$90,000, coming in at No. 30, and have grossed a total of NT$2.42 million (US$80,000) so far.


title: Dynasty Warriors (film)

text: Edmund Lee of the "South China Morning Post" gave the film a score of 2.5/5 stars, criticizing the film's humor and casting choices, but complimented its focus on story over action.


title: Dynasty Warriors (film)

text: Writing for "Polygon", Todd Harper believed the film struggled between its adaptation of "Romance of the Three Kingdoms" and "Dynasty Warriors"; he felt it was inconsistent in its interpretation of the plot, sometimes presented as a historical period drama and sometimes a wuxia, creating a "deep frustration at how scattershot the film is". However, he praised the action sequences and choice of music.


title: Dynasty Warriors (film)

text: Robert Daniels of "IGN" scored the film 2 out of 10, noting a lack of character development, a bloated story that is incomprehensible to those unfamiliar with the games or the original source material, and poor direction and visual effects.


title: Japanese tanks of World War II

text: The Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) initially purchased foreign tanks for evaluation during World War I, and began developing its own indigenous designs during the late 1920s.


title: Japanese tanks of World War II

text: Due to the war with China, Japan produced a large number of tanks. Although initially the Japanese used tanks to good effect in their campaigns, full-scale armored warfare did not occur in the Pacific and Southeast Asian theaters as it did in Europe, and tank development was neglected in favor of naval activities. The best Japanese designs were never used in combat as they were kept back in expectation of defending the Japanese Home Islands.


title: Japanese tanks of World War II

text: Near the end of World War I, the Japanese showed an interest in armored warfare and tanks and obtained a variety of models from foreign sources. These models included one British Heavy Mk IV and six Medium Mark A Whippets, along with thirteen French Renault FTs (later designated "Ko-Gata Sensha" or "Type A Tank"). The Mk IV was purchased in October 1918 while the Whippets and Renaults were acquired in 1919.


title: Japanese tanks of World War II

text: Trials with these vehicles were successful, and the army decided to establish an armored force in 1925, planning to form three light tank battalions and one heavy tank battalion. However, the greatest problem was equipping these units, as the Japanese did not have any indigenous tank production capability at that time. The IJA therefore sent a mission to purchase more tanks from Britain and France, requesting newer designs. However, the newer tanks were not available as these countries had difficulties supplying them to their own armored forces, and the only available model was the older Renault FT. The Japanese reluctantly imported the Renault FT tanks. In March 1927, the IJA also bought a Vickers Medium C to use for design study. During trials, the gasoline engine of the Vickers C caught fire, leading the Japanese design team to call for a diesel engine for use in indigenous produced tanks. Then in 1930 they were able to acquire ten examples of its successor, the Renault NC1 (designated "Otsu-Gata Sensha" or "Type B Tank"). Both types of tanks were still in active service in 1940, and additional vehicles and spare parts were obtained after the Japanese occupation of French Indochina. The Japanese also purchased several Vickers 6-Ton tanks and Carden Loyd tankettes and used these as a basis for further development in tanks.


title: Japanese tanks of World War II

text: As with the Americans and the Italians, the Japanese originally adopted French-designed tanks, and were influenced by their doctrines and employment. As with many other nations at the time, the Japanese viewed the tank as a tool largely used in direct support of their infantry, and were rarely allowed independent action. During the Second Sino-Japanese War, Japanese tanks were successful, especially as the Chinese had no significant armoured forces of their own.


title: Japanese tanks of World War II

text: With their defeat by the Soviet Union at Nomonhan in 1939, the Japanese began to rethink their tank designs and doctrine, although their emphasis would continue to remain on supporting the infantry. However, with the beginning of the Pacific War, Japan's priorities shifted to warship and aircraft production, and resources for the production of armored vehicles for the Army were diverted or curtailed.


title: Japanese tanks of World War II

text: In addition, the terrain of Southeast Asia and the islands of the Pacific were in general not suited to armored warfare, being largely tropical rainforests. Aside from the invasion of Malaya, and the Philippines, large-scale Japanese use of tanks was limited during the early years of the war and therefore development of newer designs were not given high priority as the Japanese strategy shifted to a "defensive orientation" after the 1941-42 victories.


title: Japanese tanks of World War II

text: Older tanks continued to be used as defensive emplacements and infantry support weapons. Advanced Japanese tank designs, which could challenge Allied tanks did not appear until the close of World War II; as with many innovative weapons projects launched by Japan in the final years of the war, production could not advance beyond either small numbers or the prototype stage due to material shortages, and the loss of Japan's industrial infrastructure by the Allied bombing of Japan.


title: Japanese tanks of World War II

text: For both security and logistical reasons, certain officers and engineers in the Japanese Army Technical Bureau during the early 1920s were adamant that future tanks should be made in Japan. General Suzuki (chief of the Technical Bureau) protested at the Ministry of War decision to purchase foreign designs, which ultimately led to that decision being reversed. A special committee of the Imperial General Staff (Daihonei) worked on the feasibility of indigenous design and development of Japanese armor.


title: Japanese tanks of World War II

text: However, indigenous design and production of armored vehicles would prove to be difficult, due to minimal experience with military motor vehicle design (the engineers had only designed several types of trucks and one type of tractor), along with low priority for tank steel production. Moreover, the first design had to be completed in only two years or the program would be canceled.


title: Japanese tanks of World War II

text: Development of the first Japanese-designed tank began in June 1925. A team of engineers of the Technical Bureau participated in the development, including a young army officer, Major Tomio Hara. Hara later became the head of the tank development department and rose to the rank of general. According to Hara, the first tank on the agenda was to develop a medium main battle tank. The team started their design and worked hard to complete the project within the two years allocated. As this was the first tank designed in Japan, they had to begin with almost every component built from scratch.


title: Japanese tanks of World War II

text: The design was completed in May 1926 and production was ordered to begin at the Osaka Army Arsenal. At the time, there was little heavy industry allocated to the production of motor vehicles in Japan, so there were significant difficulties creating the prototype. The prototype Type 87 Chi-I was completed by February 1927. The 20-ton tank underwent field trials, but proved to be under-powered. The weight of the initial prototype and its low speed did not impress the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff Office, so a new requirement was issued for a lighter tank, with a nominal weight. The new design was modeled after a Vickers Medium Mark C tank, which had been purchased by the Japanese Army in March 1927. Along with the Osaka Army Arsenal, Sagami Army Arsenal was also assigned to oversee the design and manufacture of assorted types of armored vehicles and tanks.


title: Japanese tanks of World War II

text: The Chi-I had a complex parallelogram suspension system with two pairs of road bogie wheels per leaf spring arrangement. Hara designed a bell crank scissors suspension that paired the bogie wheels and connected them to a coil spring mounted horizontally outside the hull. This suspension became standard on the majority of the subsequently designed Japanese tanks and can be seen on the Type 95 Ha-Go light tank and Type 97 Chi-Ha medium tank, as examples.


title: Japanese tanks of World War II

text: The IJA decided that the Type 87 Chi-I was too heavy and slow to be used as its main tank, so the Type 89 Chi-Ro was developed to overcome these shortcomings. The new design weighed 12.8 tons and used stronger and lighter steel plate instead of the Type 87's iron armor. Armament was a Type 90 57 mm gun, along with two Type 91 6.5mm machine guns. The Type 89 prototype was completed in 1929, with production starting in 1931, making this the first tank to be mass-produced in Japan. The designation is also known as the Type 89 "I-Go" and sometimes transliterated "Yi-Go".


title: Japanese tanks of World War II

text: The Type 89 had two variants - the Kō ("A"), which used a water-cooled gasoline engine, and the Otsu ("B"), with an air-cooled diesel engine and improved frontal armor. Of the two versions made, a total of 113 Kō tanks and 291 Otsu tanks were produced. The Type 89 served with Japanese infantry divisions and first saw combat use in China during the First Battle of Shanghai in 1932. It was deployed for operations in the Second Sino-Japanese War, beginning in 1937. However, by the late 1930s the Type 89 was shown to be fast becoming obsolete. The IJA therefore began a program to develop a replacement tank for infantry support and with the out-break of war with China, the peacetime budgetary limitations were removed. The Mitsubishi "Chi-Ha" model was thereby accepted as the new Type 97 medium tank by the army as the replacement for the Type 89.


title: Japanese tanks of World War II

text: The Type 95 Ha-Go was a replacement for the Type 89 medium tank, which was considered too slow for mechanized warfare. The prototypes were built by Mitsubishi and production was started in 1936, with 2,300 completed by the end of the war. It was armed with a 37 mm main gun and two 7.7 mm (0.303 inch) machine guns, one in the rear section of the turret and the other hull-mounted. The Type 95 weighed 7.4 tons and had three crewmen.


title: Japanese tanks of World War II

text: Type 95 Ha-Go tanks served during the Battle of Khalkhin Gol (Nomonhan) against the Soviet Red Army in 1939, against the British Army in Burma and India, and throughout the Pacific Theater during World War II. On 22 December 1941 the Type 95 light tank earned the distinction of being the first tank to engage in tank vs tank combat with US manned American tanks (M3 Stuart light tanks in the Philippines) during World War II; and the only enemy tanks to have ever landed on North American soil during any war.


title: Japanese tanks of World War II

text: Several variants were built, among them: the prototype Type 3 Ke-Ri, which mounted a 57 mm Model 97 gun; the Type 4 Ke-Nu, a conversion, re-fitted with the larger Type 97 Chi-Ha medium tank turret with a 57 mm Model 97 gun; and the Type 5 Ho-Ru, a prototype casemate-hulled turretless self-propelled gun similar to the German Hetzer, but with a Type 1 47 mm tank gun.


title: Japanese tanks of World War II

text: The was the most widely produced Japanese medium tank of World War II, with about 25 mm thick armor on its turret sides, and 30 mm on its gun shield, considered average protection in the 1930s. Some 3,000 units were produced by Mitsubishi, including several types of specialized tanks. Initial versions were armed with a low-velocity Type 97 57 mm tank gun that was designed to support the infantry, but its shortcomings became clear during the 1939 Battles of Khalkhin Gol against the Soviet Union. This convinced the army of the need for a more powerful gun. Development of a new 47 mm weapon was completed by 1941. The Type 1 47 mm tank gun was designed specifically to counter the Soviet tanks. From 1942 onwards, the Type 97 was armed with a high-velocity Type 1 47 mm tank gun, mounted in a larger three man turret. This version was designated Shinhoto Chi-Ha ("new turret"). Besides replacing the original model Type 97 tank in production, "about 300" tanks of the initial version were converted.


title: Japanese tanks of World War II

text: Type 97 Shinhoto Chi-Ha tanks were first used in combat during the battle of Corregidor Island of the Philippines in 1942. While shown thereafter to be vulnerable to opposing Allied tanks (US M3 Lee/British M3 Grant, M4 Medium and T-34), the 47 mm high-velocity gun did give the Shinhoto Chi-Ha a fighting chance against them and it is considered to be the best Japanese tank to have seen "combat service" in the Pacific War.


title: Japanese tanks of World War II

text: The was designed to replace the Type 95 Ha-Go light tank. It is also referred to as the Type 98 Chi-Ni light tank by some sources. It was developed in 1938 to address deficiencies in the Type 95 design already apparent from combat experience in Manchukuo and China in the Second Sino-Japanese War. The Imperial Japanese Army General Staff realized that the Type 95 was vulnerable to heavy machinegun fire––so it determined the development of a new light tank with the same weight as the Type 95, but with thicker armor was needed.


title: Japanese tanks of World War II

text: Even though the Hino Motors "Chi-Ni Model A" prototype was accepted after field trials as the new Type 98 light tank, series production did not begin until 1942. The Type 98 had a two-man turret, an improvement on the asymmetrical turret used on the Type 95, carrying a Type 100 37 mm tank gun, with a muzzle velocity of and a 7.7 mm machine-gun in a coaxial mount. A total of 104 Type 98s are known to have been built: 1 in 1941, 24 in 1942 and 79 in 1943. One prototype variant was the Type 98 Ta-Se, an anti-aircraft tank that mounted a 20 mm AA gun. Another variant known as the Type 2 Ke-To light tank, began production in 1944. It mounted an improved Type 1 37 mm gun in an enlarged turret, which gave the tank "slightly better performance". However, only 34 tanks were completed by the end of the war. No Type 2 Ke-To light tanks are known to have engaged in combat prior to Japan's surrender.


title: Japanese tanks of World War II

text: The Type 1 Chi-He was developed in 1942 to replace the Type 97. The three-man turret and 47 mm gun of the Type 1 were retrofitted on the modified hull of the Type 97, which the factories were already producing. Its angled, thicker frontal armor was welded, as opposed to riveted. The Mitsubishi Type 100 diesel engine at 240 hp generated 70 horsepower more than the Mitsubishi Type 97 diesel engine, and was thus more than able to compensate for the additional weight in armor. The Type 1 Chi-He was the first Japanese tank to carry a radio as standard equipment in each tank, eliminating the need to use signal flags by the platoon commander. The newer tank proved to be superior to the Type 97 in design, speed and armor protection.


title: Japanese tanks of World War II

text: Even so, production did not begin until 1943, due to the higher priority of steel allocated to the Imperial Navy for warship construction. After less than one year, production was discontinued in favor of the Type 3 Chi-Nu medium tank, as the Type 1 Chi-He still would underperform against the American M4 Sherman. A total of 170 units were built from 1943–44, but they did not see combat use as they were allocated to the defense of the Japanese home islands.


title: Japanese tanks of World War II

text: The Type 3 Chi-Nu medium tank was urgently developed to counter the American M4 Sherman medium tank. Originally, the next tank in development to replace the Type 1 Chi-He was the Type 4 Chi-To medium tank. However, the development of the Type 4 Chi-To was delayed, and a "stopgap tank" was needed. Development of the Type 3 Chi-Nu occurred in 1943. It was the last design based directly on Type 97 lineage. The low priority given tanks, along with the raw material shortages meant that the Chi-Nu did not enter production until 1944. The Chi-Nu retained the same chassis and suspension of the Type 1 Chi-He, but with a new large hexagonal gun turret and a commander's cupola. The Type 3 75 mm tank gun was one of the largest guns used on Japanese tanks. The thickest armor used was 50 mm on the front hull; it also had 25 mm on the turret, 25 mm on the sides and 20 mm on the rear deck. The Chi-Nu was the best and most powerful IJA tank to go into general production and deployment. However, given the fact available raw materials were in very short supply, and with much of Japan's industrial infrastructure being destroyed by American strategic bombing in 1945, its production run was severely curtailed.


title: Japanese tanks of World War II

text: The Chi-Nu did not see combat during the war. All produced units were retained for the defense of the Japanese Homeland in anticipation of the projected Allied Invasion. They were to be part of the "Mobile Shock Force" to be used for counter-attacks against the anticipated Allied invasion. The 4th Tank Division based in Fukuoka on Kyushu had a "significant" number of the Type 3 Chi-Nu tanks produced at its depot by the end of the war.


title: Japanese tanks of World War II

text: The was one of several new medium and heavy tanks developed by the Imperial Japanese Army towards the end of World War II. It was the most advanced Japanese wartime tank to reach the production phase.


title: Japanese tanks of World War II

text: The Type 4 Chi-To was a thirty-ton, all-welded tank with a maximum armor thickness of about 75 mm. It was much larger than the Type 97 Chi-Ha, with a longer, wider, tall chassis, supported by seven road wheels on each side. The gasoline engine was significantly more powerful than the engine of the Type 3 Chi-Nu, giving it a top speed of . The tank had a range of . The main armament, a Type 5 75 mm tank gun, was based on the Type 4 75 mm AA Gun that was in turn essentially a copy of a Bofors Model 1929 75 mm AA Gun, housed in a large powered, well-armoured hexagonal gun turret. It had one Type 97 heavy tank machine gun mounted in the front hull, and there was a ball mount on the side of the turret for a second one. Two Type 4 Chi-To tanks were completed prior to the end of the war. Neither of the completed tanks saw combat use.


title: Japanese tanks of World War II

text: The was the ultimate medium tank developed by the Imperial Japanese Army in World War II. Intended to be a heavier, lengthened, more powerful version of Japan's sophisticated Type 4 Chi-To medium tank, in performance it was designed to surpass the US M4 Sherman medium tanks being fielded by the Allied forces. Originally, the tank was to be fitted with the same Type 5 75 mm tank gun used on the Type 4 Chi-To. Eventually, an 88 mm gun (based on the Type 99 88 mm AA Gun) was planned for the turret; a secondary weapon of a front hull-mounted Type 1 37 mm tank gun was fitted in the position normally taken by a machine gun. There were also plans for a variant known as the Type 5 Chi-Ri II, which was to be diesel powered and using the Type 5 75 mm tank gun as its main armament.


title: Japanese tanks of World War II

text: Along with the Type 4 Chi-To tanks, the Type 5 Chi-Ri was originally considered for use in the final defense of the Japanese home islands against the expected Allied invasions. However, the project was abandoned to free up manpower and critical resources to concentrate on the development and production of the more practical Type 4 Chi-To medium tank. As with many innovative weapons projects launched by Japan in the final months of World War II, production could not advance due to material shortages, and the loss of Japan's industrial infrastructure to the allied bombing of Japan. With the end of the Pacific War, an incomplete Type 5 prototype was seized by American forces during the occupation of Japan.


title: Japanese tanks of World War II

text: As with other Japanese tanks there were variants of the Type 5 Chi-Ri planned. The experimental Type 5 Ho-Ri tank destroyer was a more powerful tank destroyer (gun tank) than ones already produced, such as, the Type 1 Ho-Ni I, Type 1 Ho-Ni II and Type 3 Ho-Ni III. The Type 5 Ho-Ri was to use a 105 mm cannon with an additional 37 mm gun mounted in the front hull. The superstructure for the main gun was placed at the rear, the engine was positioned in the center of the chassis and the driver's station was in the front hull section; all similar in design to the German Ferdinand/Elefant heavy tank destroyer. Another planned version was to have a twin 25 mm anti-aircraft gun mounted on top of the rear casemate superstructure. There was also a planned variant known as the Ho-Ri II, with the boxy superstructure for the main 105 mm cannon designed to be integral with the hull's sides and placed at the center of the chassis (similar to the German Jagdtiger). The 105 mm main gun was produced and tested. However, according to multiple sources, no prototypes of the Ho-Ri were completed.


title: Japanese tanks of World War II

text: The O-I experimental super-heavy tank had three turrets and weighed 120+ tons, and required a crew of 11 men. It was 10 meters long by 4.2 meters wide with an overall height of 4 meters. The armor was 200 mm at its maximum, and the tank had a top speed of 25 km/h. It had two gasoline engines, and was armed with 1 x 105 mm cannon, 1 x Type 1 47 mm gun (in a forward-mounted sub-turret), and 3 x Type 97 7.7 mm machine guns (one mounted in a forward sub-turret and two in rear hull sub-turrets). It has been reported that a prototype of the O-I was built in 1943, with the project ending after the tank proved to be "impractical". However, the complete development history of the O-I prototype is unknown. No images of the O-I are known to exist.


title: Japanese tanks of World War II

text: During the 1930s and 1940s, Japan produced a number of amphibious tank designs, including prototypes such as the Sumida Amphibious Armored Car (AMP), SR I-Go, SR II Ro-Go, SR III Ha-Go, Type 1 Mi-Sha (a/k/a Type 1 Ka-Mi) and Type 5 To-Ku. Production amphibious tanks included the Type 2 Ka-Mi, and Type 3 Ka-Chi; production amphibious transports included the F B swamp vehicle, and Type 4 Ka-Tsu APC. All production units were for use by the Japanese Special Naval Landing Forces in campaigns in the Pacific with amphibious operations.


title: Japanese tanks of World War II

text: The Type 1 was an early experimental design that led to the first production Japanese amphibious tank known as the Type 2 Ka-Mi, which was based on the Type 95 Ha-Go light tank chassis. Production began in 1942 with only 182 to 184 units were built. Type 2 Ka-Mi was first used in combat on Guadalcanal in late 1942. Later they were encountered by US forces in fighting on the Marshall Islands, the Mariana Islands and on the Philippine island of Leyte in late 1944.


title: Japanese tanks of World War II

text: The Type 3 Ka-Chi was based on an extensively modified Type 1 Chi-He medium tank and was a larger and more capable version of the earlier Type 2 Ka-Mi. However, given the fact the main priorities of the navy were in warship and aircraft production, and lacking in any definite plans for additional amphibious operations, production of the Type 3 Ka-Chi remained a very low priority. Only 12 to 19 Type 3 Ka-Chi tanks were built by the end of the war.


title: Japanese tanks of World War II

text: The Type 5 To-Ku was a large, heavy prototype based on the Type 5 Chi-Ri chassis and Type 3 Ka-Chi. It was fitted with a modified turret of the one used on the Type 97 Shinhoto Chi-Ha medium tank that mounted a Type 1 25 mm gun. In addition, it had a front hull mounted Type 1 47 mm tank gun.


title: Japanese tanks of World War II

text: In the period between 1931 and 1938 the Japanese built nearly 1,700 new tanks By 1939, Japan produced 2,020 operational tanks. In the following year, Japan had the 5th largest tank force in the world. The peak of Japanese tank production was in 1942, but declined afterwards owing to aircraft and warship priorities, along with material shortages. By 1944, total production of tanks and AFV's had fallen to 925 and for 1945, only 256 were produced. Japan developed many experimental and operative armored vehicles, tanks and tank-destroyer types throughout the war; but largely held them in reserve, for home-land defense.


title: Validity (statistics)

text: Validity is the main extent to which a concept, conclusion or measurement is well-founded and likely corresponds accurately to the real world. The word "valid" is derived from the Latin validus, meaning strong. The validity of a measurement tool (for example, a test in education) is the degree to which the tool measures what it claims to measure. Validity is based on the strength of a collection of different types of evidence (e.g. face validity, construct validity, etc.) described in greater detail below.


title: Validity (statistics)

text: In psychometrics, validity has a particular application known as test validity: "the degree to which evidence and theory support the interpretations of test scores" ("as entailed by proposed uses of tests").


title: Validity (statistics)

text: It is generally accepted that the concept of scientific validity addresses the nature of reality in terms of statistical measures and as such is an epistemological and philosophical issue as well as a question of measurement. The use of the term in logic is narrower, relating to the relationship between the premises and conclusion of an argument. In logic, validity refers to the property of an argument whereby if the premises are true then the truth of the conclusion follows by necessity. The conclusion of an argument is true if the argument is sound, which is to say if the argument is valid and its premises are true. By contrast, "scientific or statistical validity" is not a deductive claim that is necessarily truth preserving, but is an inductive claim that remains true or false in an undecided manner. This is why "scientific or statistical validity" is a claim that is qualified as being either strong or weak in its nature, it is never necessary nor certainly true. This has the effect of making claims of "scientific or statistical validity" open to interpretation as to what, in fact, the facts of the matter mean.


title: Validity (statistics)

text: Validity is important because it can help determine what types of tests to use, and help to make sure researchers are using methods that are not only ethical, and cost-effective, but also a method that truly measures the idea or constructs in question.


title: Validity (statistics)

text: Validity of an assessment is the degree to which it measures what it is supposed to measure. This is not the same as reliability, which is the extent to which a measurement gives results that are very consistent. Within validity, the measurement does not always have to be similar, as it does in reliability. However, just because a measure is reliable, it is not necessarily valid. E.g. a scale that is 5 pounds off is reliable but not valid. A test cannot be valid unless it is reliable. Validity is also dependent on the measurement measuring what it was designed to measure, and not something else instead. Validity (similar to reliability) is a relative concept; validity is not an all-or-nothing idea. There are many different types of validity.


title: Validity (statistics)

text: Construct validity refers to the extent to which operationalizations of a construct (e.g., practical tests developed from a theory) measure a construct as defined by a theory. It subsumes all other types of validity. For example, the extent to which a test measures intelligence is a question of construct validity. A measure of intelligence presumes, among other things, that the measure is associated with things it should be associated with (convergent validity), not associated with things it should not be associated with (discriminant validity).


title: Validity (statistics)

text: Construct validity evidence involves the empirical and theoretical support for the interpretation of the construct. Such lines of evidence include statistical analyses of the internal structure of the test including the relationships between responses to different test items. They also include relationships between the test and measures of other constructs. As currently understood, construct validity is not distinct from the support for the substantive theory of the construct that the test is designed to measure. As such, experiments designed to reveal aspects of the causal role of the construct also contribute to constructing validity evidence.


title: Validity (statistics)

text: Content validity is a non-statistical type of validity that involves "the systematic examination of the test content to determine whether it covers a representative sample of the behavior domain to be measured" (Anastasi & Urbina, 1997 p. 114). For example, does an IQ questionnaire have items covering all areas of intelligence discussed in the scientific literature?


title: Validity (statistics)

text: Content validity evidence involves the degree to which the content of the test matches a content domain associated with the construct. For example, a test of the ability to add two numbers should include a range of combinations of digits. A test with only one-digit numbers, or only even numbers, would not have good coverage of the content domain. Content related evidence typically involves a subject matter expert (SME) evaluating test items against the test specifications. Experts should pay attention to any cultural differences. For example, when a driving assessment questionnaire adopts from England (e. g. DBQ), the experts should consider right-hand driving in Britain. Some studies found how this will be critical to get a valid questionnaire. Before going to the final administration of questionnaires, the researcher should consult the validity of items against each of the constructs or variables and accordingly modify measurement instruments on the basis of SME's opinion.


title: Validity (statistics)

text: A test has content validity built into it by careful selection of which items to include (Anastasi & Urbina, 1997). Items are chosen so that they comply with the test specification which is drawn up through a thorough examination of the subject domain. Foxcroft, Paterson, le Roux & Herbst (2004, p. 49) note that by using a panel of experts to review the test specifications and the selection of items the content validity of a test can be improved. The experts will be able to review the items and comment on whether the items cover a representative sample of the behavior domain.


title: Validity (statistics)

text: Face validity is an estimate of whether a test appears to measure a certain criterion; it does not guarantee that the test actually measures phenomena in that domain. Measures may have high validity, but when the test does not appear to be measuring what it is, it has low face validity. Indeed, when a test is subject to faking (malingering), low face validity might make the test more valid. Considering one may get more honest answers with lower face validity, it is sometimes important to make it appear as though there is low face validity whilst administering the measures.


title: Validity (statistics)

text: Face validity is very closely related to content validity. While content validity depends on a theoretical basis for assuming if a test is assessing all domains of a certain criterion (e.g. does assessing addition skills yield in a good measure for mathematical skills? To answer this you have to know, what different kinds of arithmetic skills mathematical skills include) face validity relates to whether a test appears to be a good measure or not. This judgment is made on the "face" of the test, thus it can also be judged by the amateur.


title: Validity (statistics)

text: Face validity is a starting point, but should never be assumed to be probably valid for any given purpose, as the "experts" have been wrong before—the Malleus Malificarum (Hammer of Witches) had no support for its conclusions other than the self-imagined competence of two "experts" in "witchcraft detection," yet it was used as a "test" to condemn and burn at the stake tens of thousands men and women as "witches."


title: Validity (statistics)

text: Criterion validity evidence involves the correlation between the test and a criterion variable (or variables) taken as representative of the construct. In other words, it compares the test with other measures or outcomes (the criteria) already held to be valid. For example, employee selection tests are often validated against measures of job performance (the criterion), and IQ tests are often validated against measures of academic performance (the criterion).


title: Validity (statistics)

text: If the test data and criterion data are collected at the same time, this is referred to as concurrent validity evidence. If the test data are collected first in order to predict criterion data collected at a later point in time, then this is referred to as predictive validity evidence.


title: Validity (statistics)

text: Concurrent validity refers to the degree to which the operationalization correlates with other measures of the same construct that are measured at the same time. When the measure is compared to another measure of the same type, they will be related (or correlated). Returning to the selection test example, this would mean that the tests are administered to current employees and then correlated with their scores on performance reviews.


title: Validity (statistics)

text: Predictive validity refers to the degree to which the operationalization can predict (or correlate with) other measures of the same construct that are measured at some time in the future. Again, with the selection test example, this would mean that the tests are administered to applicants, all applicants are hired, their performance is reviewed at a later time, and then their scores on the two measures are correlated.


title: Validity (statistics)

text: This is also when measurement predicts a relationship between what is measured and something else; predicting whether or not the other thing will happen in the future. High correlation between ex-ante predicted and ex-post actual outcomes is the strongest proof of validity.


title: Validity (statistics)

text: The validity of the design of experimental research studies is a fundamental part of the scientific method, and a concern of research ethics. Without a valid design, valid scientific conclusions cannot be drawn.


title: Validity (statistics)

text: Statistical conclusion validity is the degree to which conclusions about the relationship among variables based on the data are correct or ‘reasonable’. This began as being solely about whether the statistical conclusion about the relationship of the variables was correct, but now there is a movement towards moving to ‘reasonable’ conclusions that use: quantitative, statistical, and qualitative data.


title: Validity (statistics)

text: Statistical conclusion validity involves ensuring the use of adequate sampling procedures, appropriate statistical tests, and reliable measurement procedures. As this type of validity is concerned solely with the relationship that is found among variables, the relationship may be solely a correlation.


title: Validity (statistics)

text: Internal validity is an inductive estimate of the degree to which conclusions about "causal" relationships can be made (e.g. cause and effect), based on the measures used, the research setting, and the whole research design. Good experimental techniques, in which the effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable is studied under highly controlled conditions, usually allow for higher degrees of internal validity than, for example, single-case designs.


title: Validity (statistics)

text: Eight kinds of confounding variable can interfere with internal validity (i.e. with the attempt to isolate causal relationships):


title: Validity (statistics)

text: External validity concerns the extent to which the (internally valid) results of a study can be held to be true for other cases, for example to different people, places or times. In other words, it is about whether findings can be validly generalized. If the same research study was conducted in those other cases, would it get the same results?


title: Validity (statistics)

text: A major factor in this is whether the study sample (e.g. the research participants) are representative of the general population along relevant dimensions. Other factors jeopardizing external validity are:


title: Validity (statistics)

text: Ecological validity is the extent to which research results can be applied to real-life situations outside of research settings. This issue is closely related to external validity but covers the question of to what degree experimental findings mirror what can be observed in the real world (ecology = the science of interaction between organism and its environment). To be ecologically valid, the methods, materials and setting of a study must approximate the real-life situation that is under investigation.


title: Validity (statistics)

text: Ecological validity is partly related to the issue of experiment versus observation. Typically in science, there are two domains of research: observational (passive) and experimental (active). The purpose of experimental designs is to test causality, so that you can infer A causes B or B causes A. But sometimes, ethical and/or methological restrictions prevent you from conducting an experiment (e.g. how does isolation influence a child's cognitive functioning?). Then you can still do research, but it is not causal, it is correlational. You can only conclude that A occurs together with B. Both techniques have their strengths and weaknesses.


title: Validity (statistics)

text: On first glance, internal and external validity seem to contradict each other – to get an experimental design you have to control for all interfering variables. That is why you often conduct your experiment in a laboratory setting. While gaining internal validity (excluding interfering variables by keeping them constant) you lose ecological or external validity because you establish an artificial laboratory setting. On the other hand, with observational research you can not control for interfering variables (low internal validity) but you can measure in the natural (ecological) environment, at the place where behavior normally occurs. However, in doing so, you sacrifice internal validity.


title: Validity (statistics)

text: The apparent contradiction of internal validity and external validity is, however, only superficial. The question of whether results from a particular study generalize to other people, places or times arises only when one follows an inductivist research strategy. If the goal of a study is to deductively test a theory, one is only concerned with factors which might undermine the rigor of the study, i.e. threats to internal validity. In other words, the relevance of external and internal validity to a research study depends on the goals of the study. Furthermore, conflating research goals with validity concerns can lead to the mutual-internal-validity problem, where theories are able to explain only phenomena in artificial laboratory settings but not the real world.


title: Validity (statistics)

text: In psychiatry there is a particular issue with assessing the validity of the diagnostic categories themselves. In this context:


title: Validity (statistics)

text: Robins and Guze proposed in 1970 what were to become influential formal criteria for establishing the validity of psychiatric diagnoses. They listed five criteria:


title: Validity (statistics)

text: These were incorporated into the Feighner Criteria and Research Diagnostic Criteria that have since formed the basis of the DSM and ICD classification systems.


title: Validity (statistics)

text: Nancy Andreasen (1995) listed several additional validators – molecular genetics and molecular biology, neurochemistry, neuroanatomy, neurophysiology, and cognitive neuroscience – that are all potentially capable of linking symptoms and diagnoses to their neural substrates.


title: Validity (statistics)

text: Kendell and Jablinsky (2003) emphasized the importance of distinguishing between validity and utility, and argued that diagnostic categories defined by their syndromes should be regarded as valid only if they have been shown to be discrete entities with natural boundaries that separate them from other disorders.


title: Validity (statistics)

text: Kendler (2006) emphasized that to be useful, a validating criterion must be sensitive enough to validate most syndromes that are true disorders, while also being specific enough to invalidate most syndromes that are not true disorders. On this basis, he argues that a Robins and Guze criterion of "runs in the family" is inadequately specific because most human psychological and physical traits would qualify - for example, an arbitrary syndrome comprising a mixture of "height over 6 ft, red hair, and a large nose" will be found to "run in families" and be "hereditary", but this should not be considered evidence that it is a disorder. Kendler has further suggested that "essentialist" gene models of psychiatric disorders, and the hope that we will be able to validate categorical psychiatric diagnoses by "carving nature at its joints" solely as a result of gene discovery, are implausible.


title: Validity (statistics)

text: In the United States Federal Court System validity and reliability of evidence is evaluated using the Daubert Standard: see Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals. Perri and Lichtenwald (2010) provide a starting point for a discussion about a wide range of reliability and validity topics in their analysis of a wrongful murder conviction.


title: Deaths in May 2022

text: Entries for each day are listed alphabetically by surname. A typical entry lists information in the following sequence:


title: Matt Ryan (basketball)

text: Matthew Richard Ryan (born April 17, 1997) is an American professional basketball player for the Minnesota Timberwolves of the National Basketball Association (NBA), on a two-way contract with the Iowa Wolves of the NBA G League. He played college basketball for Notre Dame, Vanderbilt and Chattanooga. He began his pro career in the NBA G League, before signing a two-way contract with the Boston Celtics.


title: Matt Ryan (basketball)

text: Ryan attended Iona Prep where he led the Gaels to a 22–6 record en route to the program’s first Class AA Archdiocesan Championship while averaging 20.0 points, 8.0 rebounds and 5.0 assists per game as a senior while also being named Mr. New York Basketball. He was also named a first-team "Parade" All-American.


title: Matt Ryan (basketball)

text: Ryan began his college career at Notre Dame, where he played sparingly before transferring to Vanderbilt after his sophomore season. As a junior, he averaged 8.1 points and 2.7 rebounds per game. Following the season, Ryan transferred to Chattanooga. As a senior, he had his best season, playing 33 games and averaging 15.4 points, 4.9 rebounds, and 1.9 assists in 30.6 minutes per game, while shooting 42.3 percent from the field, 35.9 percent from three-point range and 87.9 percent from the free-throw line.


title: Matt Ryan (basketball)

text: Ryan went undrafted in the 2020 NBA draft. His prospects were limited by the COVID-19 pandemic, and he did not land a spot in the G League's bubble in 2020–21. He resorted to working for DoorDash and UberEats while coaching a grassroots basketball team. He also worked at a cemetery in Yonkers, New York.


title: Matt Ryan (basketball)

text: Ryan joined the Cleveland Cavaliers for the 2021 NBA Summer League and spent preseason with the Denver Nuggets. He subsequently joined the Grand Rapids Gold of the G League for the 2021–22 season. He averaged 15.8 points in 28 games for the Gold.


title: Matt Ryan (basketball)

text: On February 28, 2022, Ryan signed a two-way contract with the Boston Celtics. He averaged 20.4 points in 14 games for the Maine Red Claws to finish the 2021–22 NBA G League season. He made his first and only appearance for the Celtics on April 10, 2022, against the Memphis Grizzlies, scoring three points in five minutes. The Celtics made it to the 2022 NBA Finals, where they lost to the Golden State Warriors in six games.


title: Matt Ryan (basketball)

text: On September 26, 2022, Ryan signed with the Los Angeles Lakers. He made 37.5% of his 3-pointers in the preseason and earned the final spot on the team's 15-man roster out of training camp. On November 2, he hit a corner 3-pointer to tie the game at the regulation buzzer against the New Orleans Pelicans, with the Lakers going on to win 120–117 in overtime. He had missed six of his first seven 3-point attempts against the Pelicans and finished the game with 11 points. He was waived on December 1, 2022.


title: Matt Ryan (basketball)

text: He is the son of Richard and Laurie Ryan and has two siblings, Mikela and Michael. He earned a bachelor’s degree in Economics at Vanderbilt and worked on his MBA at Chattanooga.