title: Parallel cinema

text: Parallel cinema, or New Indian Cinema, is a film movement in Indian cinema that originated in the state of West Bengal in the 1950s as an alternative to the mainstream commercial Indian cinema.


title: Parallel cinema

text: Inspired by Italian Neorealism, Parallel Cinema began just before the French New Wave and Japanese New Wave, and was a precursor to the Indian New Wave of the 1960s. The movement was initially led by Bengali cinema and produced internationally acclaimed filmmakers such as Satyajit Ray, Mrinal Sen, Ritwik Ghatak, Tapan Sinha and others. It later gained prominence in other film industries of India.


title: Parallel cinema

text: It is known for its serious content, realism and naturalism, symbolic elements with a keen eye on the sociopolitical climate of the times, and for the general rejection of an inserted dance-and-song routines that are typical of mainstream Indian films.


title: Parallel cinema

text: Realism in Indian cinema dates back to the 1920s and 1930s. One of the earliest examples was Baburao Painter's 1925 silent film classic "Savkari Pash" ("Indian Shylock"), about a poor peasant (portrayed by V. Shantaram) who "loses his land to a greedy moneylender and is forced to migrate to the city to become a mill worker. Acclaimed as a realistic breakthrough, its shot of a howling dog near a hut, has become a milestone in the march of Indian cinema." The 1937 Shantaram film "Duniya Na Mane" ("The Unaccepted") also critiqued the treatment of women in Indian society.


title: Parallel cinema

text: The Parallel Cinema movement began to take shape from the late 1940s, by pioneers such as Satyajit Ray, Ritwik Ghatak, Bimal Roy, Mrinal Sen, Tapan Sinha, Khwaja Ahmad Abbas, Buddhadeb Dasgupta, Chetan Anand, Guru Dutt and V. Shantaram. This period is considered part of the 'Golden Age' of Indian cinema.


title: Parallel cinema

text: This cinema borrowed heavily from the Indian literature of the times, hence became an important study of the contemporary Indian society, and is now used by scholars and historians alike to map the changing demographics and socio-economic as well as political temperament of the Indian populace. Right from its inception, Indian cinema has had people who wanted to and did use the medium for more than entertainment. They used it to highlight prevalent issues and sometimes to throw open new issues for the public.


title: Parallel cinema

text: Early examples of Indian cinema's social realist movement include "Dharti Ke Lal" (1946), a film about the Bengal famine of 1943 directed and written by Khwaja Ahmad Abbas, and "Neecha Nagar" (1946), a film directed by Chetan Anand and written by Khwaja Ahmad Abbas that won the Grand Prize at the first Cannes Film Festival. Since then, Indian independent films were frequently in competition for the Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival throughout the 1950s and early 1960s, with some of them winning major prizes at the festival.


title: Parallel cinema

text: During the 1950s and the 1960s, intellectual filmmakers and story writers became frustrated with musical films. To counter this, they created a genre of films which depicted reality from an artful perspective. Most films made during this period were funded by state governments to promote an authentic art genre from the Indian film fraternity. The most famous Indian "neo-realist" was the Bengali film director Satyajit Ray, followed by Shyam Benegal, Mrinal Sen, Adoor Gopalakrishnan, G. Aravindan and Girish Kasaravalli. Ray's most famous films were "Pather Panchali" (1955), "Aparajito" (1956) and "The World of Apu" (1959), which formed "The Apu Trilogy". Produced on a shoestring budget of Rs. 150,000 ($3000), the three films won major prizes at the Cannes, Berlin and Venice Film Festivals, and are today frequently listed among the greatest films of all time.


title: Parallel cinema

text: Certain art films have also garnered commercial success, in an industry known for its surrealism or 'fantastical' movies, and successfully combined features of both art and commercial cinema. An early example of this was Bimal Roy's "Do Bigha Zamin" (1953), which was both a commercial and critical success. The film won the International Prize at the 1954 Cannes Film Festival and paved the way for the Indian New Wave. Hrishikesh Mukherjee, one of Hindi cinema's most successful filmmakers, was named the pioneer of 'middle cinema', and was renowned for making films that reflected the changing middle-class ethos. According to Encyclopædia Britannica, Mukherjee "carved a middle path between the extravagance of mainstream cinema and the stark realism of art cinema". Renowned Filmmaker Basu Chatterjee also built his plots on middle-class lives and directed films like "Piya Ka Ghar", "Rajnigandha" and "Ek Ruka Hua Faisla". Another filmmaker to integrate art and commercial cinema was Guru Dutt, whose film "Pyaasa" (1957) featured in Time magazine's "All-TIME" 100 best movies list. The most recent example of an impeccable art film becoming commercially successful is Harpreet Sandhu's Canadian Punjabi Film "Work Weather Wife"; it marks the beginning of Cinema in Punjabi Film Industry.


title: Parallel cinema

text: In the 1960s, the Indian government began financing independent art films based on Indian themes. Many of the directors were graduates of the Film and Television Institute of India (FTII), in Pune. The Bengali film director Ritwik Ghatak was a professor at the institute and a well-known director. Unlike Ray, however, Ghatak did not gain international fame during his lifetime. For example, Ghatak's "Nagarik" (1952) was perhaps the earliest example of a Bengali art film, preceding Ray's "Pather Panchali" by three years, but was not released until after his death in 1977. His first commercial release "Ajantrik" (1958) was also one of the earliest films to portray an inanimate object, in this case an automobile, as a character in the story, many years before the Herbie films. The protagonist of "Ajantrik", Bimal, can also be seen as an influence on the cynical cab driver Narasingh (played by Soumitra Chatterjee) in Satyajit Ray's "Abhijan" (1962).


title: Parallel cinema

text: The Cinema of Karnataka saw its first ray of hope of surrealism in N. Lakshminarayan's directorial debut "Naandi" (1964). Featuring mainstream actors like Rajkumar, Kalpana and Harini, the film was both a critical and commercial success. Produced by Vadiraj, it set a landmark by being the first ever Kannada film to screen at an International film festival. The movement gained significant momentum in the 1970s and 1980s resulting in numerous national awards and international recognition to Kannada cinema.


title: Parallel cinema

text: During the 1970s and the 1980s, parallel cinema entered into the limelight of Hindi cinema to a much wider extent. This was led by such directors as Gulzar, Shyam Benegal, Mani Kaul, Rajinder Singh Bedi, Kantilal Rathod and Saeed Akhtar Mirza, and later on directors like Govind Nihalani, becoming the main directors of this period's Indian art cinema. Mani Kaul's first several films "Uski Roti" (1971), "Ashadh Ka Ek Din" (1972), "Duvidha" (1974), and were critically appreciated and held to high esteem in the international spotlight. Benegal's directorial debut, "Ankur" (Seeding, 1974) was a major critical success, and was followed by numerous works that created another field in the movement. Kumar Shahani, a student of Ritwik Ghatak, released his first feature "Maya Darpan" (1972) which became a landmark film of Indian art cinema. These filmmakers tried to promote realism in their own different styles, though many of them often accepted certain conventions of popular cinema. Parallel cinema of this time gave careers to a whole new breed of young actors, including Shabana Azmi, Smita Patil, Amol Palekar, Om Puri, Naseeruddin Shah, Kulbhushan Kharbanda, Pankaj Kapoor, Deepti Naval, Farooq Shaikh, and even actors from commercial cinema like Hema Malini, Raakhee, Rekha ventured into art cinema.


title: Parallel cinema

text: Adoor Gopalakrishnan extended the Indian New Wave to Malayalam cinema with his maiden feature film "Swayamvaram" in 1972. Long after the Golden Age of Indian cinema, Malayalam cinema experienced its own 'Golden Age' in the 1980s and early 1990s. Some of the most acclaimed Indian filmmakers at the time were from the Malayalam industry, including Adoor Gopalakrishnan, K. P. Kumaran, G. Aravindan, John Abraham, Padmarajan, Bharathan, T. V. Chandran and Shaji N. Karun. Gopalakrishnan, who is often considered to be Satyajit Ray's spiritual heir, directed some of his most acclaimed films during this period, including "Elippathayam" (1981) which won the Sutherland Trophy at the London Film Festival, as well as "Mathilukal" (1989) which won major prizes at the Venice Film Festival. Shaji N. Karun's debut film "Piravi" (1989) won the Camera d'Or at the 1989 Cannes Film Festival, while his second film "Swaham" (1994) was in competition for the Palme d'Or at the 1994 Cannes Film Festival. His third film "Vanaprastham" (1999) was also selected to Cannes Film Festival, making him the only Indian film maker who could take consecutively three films to Cannes.


title: Parallel cinema

text: K. Balachander, C.V. Sridhar, Mahendran, Balu Mahendra, Bharathiraja, Mani Ratnam, Kamal Haasan, Bala, Selvaraghavan, Mysskin, Vetrimaaran and Ram have done the same for Tamil cinema, During the domination of commercial cinema in Telugu, Pattabhirami Reddy, K. N. T. Sastry, B. Narsing Rao, and Akkineni Kutumba Rao pioneered Telugu Parallel cinema to international recognition.


title: Parallel cinema

text: Girish Kasaravalli, Girish Karnad and B. V. Karanth led the way for parallel cinema in the Kannada film industry. Many literary stalwarts entered or collaborated with cinema in this period. Some of the other notable filmmakers of this period were P. Lankesh, G. V. Iyer, M. S. Sathyu who were later followed by T. S. Nagabharana, Baraguru Ramachandrappa, Shankar Nag, Chandrashekhara Kambara in the 1980s. Actors like Lokesh, Anant Nag, L. V. Sharada, Vasudeva Rao, Suresh Heblikar, Vaishali Kasaravalli, Arundhati Nag and others rose to fame.


title: Parallel cinema

text: Bhabendra Nath Saikia and Jahnu Barua did it for Assamese cinema, while Aribam Syam Sharma pioneered Parallel Movies in Manipuri cinema.


title: Parallel cinema

text: By the early 1990s, the rising costs involved in film production and the commercialisation of the films had a negative impact on the art films. The fact that investment returns cannot be guaranteed made art films less popular amongst filmmakers.


title: Parallel cinema

text: One of the major reasons for the decline of the parallel cinema in India is that the F.F.C. or the National Film Development Corporation of India did not seriously look into the distribution or exhibition of these films. The mainstream exhibition system did not pick up these films because these films did not have the so-called 'entertainment value' that they were looking for. There was a talk of building small theatres for such film, but there was no serious attempt made to realise this alternative mode of exhibition. Thus, it left to a few Film Societies to screen these film; that too on a single screening basis. The advent of television and its popularity saw the film society movement decline. Gradually, the government reduced the patronage of such films, for they had only unseen films to be shown on their balance sheets.


title: Parallel cinema

text: The "Parallel Cinema" in its true sense was always on the fringes of the mainstream cinema. Since most of the parallel cinema rejected the regressive worldview that was largely embodied the mainstream cinema they never found acceptance in the mainstream production, distribution and exhibition system. With an absence of an alternative exhibition system or an art house circuit as it is called in the west, many of the off beat films made by present generation film makers like Sushant Mishra, Himanshu Khatua, Ashish Avikunthak, Murali Nair, Amitabh Chakraborty, Paresh Kamdar, Priya Krishnaswamy, Vipin Vijay, Ramchandra PN, Ashwini Mallik, Anand Subramanian, Sanjivan Lal, Amit Dutta, Umesh Vinayak Kulkarni, Gurvinder Singh, Bela Negi have never had a large audience.


title: Parallel cinema

text: The term "parallel cinema" has started being applied to off-beat films produced in Bollywood, where art films have begun experiencing a resurgence. This led to the emergence of a distinct genre known as "Mumbai noir", urban films reflecting social problems in the city of Mumbai. The introduction of Mumbai noir was marked by Ram Gopal Varma's "Satya" (1998). However the Mumbai noir is a genre that is not considered artistic in ambition even though it concentrates on realistic portrayal of the Mumbai underworld; these are generally commercial films.


title: Parallel cinema

text: Other modern examples of art films produced in India which are classified as part of the parallel cinema genre include Rituparno Ghosh's "Utsab" (2000) and "Dahan" (1997), Mani Ratnam's "Yuva" (2004), Nagesh Kukunoor's "3 Deewarein" (2003) and "Dor" (2006), Manish Jha's "Matrubhoomi" (2004), Sudhir Mishra's "Hazaaron Khwaishein Aisi" (2005), Jahnu Barua's "Maine Gandhi Ko Nahin Mara" (2005), Pan Nalin's "Valley of Flowers" (2006), Onir's "My Brother… Nikhil" (2005) and "Bas Ek Pal" (2006), Anurag Kashyap's "Black Friday "(2007), Vikramaditya Motwane's "Udaan" (2009), Kiran Rao's "Dhobi Ghat" (2010), Amit Dutta's "Sonchidi "(2011), and Anand Gandhi's "Ship of Theseus "(2013).


title: Parallel cinema

text: Independent films spoken in Indian English include Revathi's "Mitr, My Friend" (2002), Aparna Sen's "Mr. and Mrs. Iyer" (2002) and "15 Park Avenue" (2006), Homi Adajania's "Being Cyrus" (2006), Rituparno Ghosh's "The Last Lear" (2007), and Sooni Taraporevala's "Little Zizou" (2009).


title: Parallel cinema

text: Some of the Indian art film directors active today include Buddhadeb Dasgupta, Aparna Sen, Gautam Ghose, Sandip Ray (Satyajit Ray's son), Kaushik Ganguly, Suman Mukhopadhyay, Kamaleshwar Mukherjee and Soukarya Ghosal in Bengali cinema; Adoor Gopalakrishnan, Shaji N. Karun, T. V. Chandran, M.P. Sukumaran Nair, Shyamaprasad, Dr. Biju and Sanal Kumar Sasidharan in Malayalam cinema; Kumar Shahani, Ketan Mehta, Govind Nihalani, Shyam Benegal, Amit Dutta, Manish Jha, Ashim Ahluwalia, Mudasir Dar, Anurag Kashyap, Anand Gandhi, and Deepa Mehta in Hindi Cinema; Mani Ratnam and Bala in Tamil, Rajnesh Domalpalli and Narasimha Nandi in Telugu cinema, Jahnu Barua in Hindi cinema and Assamese Cinema, Amol Palekar, Umesh Vinayak Kulkarni in Marathi Cinema and Amartya Bhattacharyya who makes independent films in Odia and Bengali.


title: Parallel cinema

text: Aamir Khan, with his production studio, introduced his own brand of social cinema in the early 21st century, blurring the distinction between commercial masala films and realistic parallel cinema, combining the entertainment and production values of the former with the believable narratives and strong messages of the latter. He has helped introduce parallel cinema to mainstream audiences, with his films earning both commercial success and critical acclaim in India and overseas.


title: Parallel cinema

text: During the formative period of Indian parallel cinema in the 1940s and 1950s, the movement was influenced by Italian cinema and French cinema, particularly by Italian neorealism as well as French poetic realism. Satyajit Ray particularly cited Italian filmmaker Vittorio De Sica's "Bicycle Thieves" (1948) and French filmmaker Jean Renoir's "The River" (1951), which he assisted, as influences on his debut film "Pather Panchali" (1955), alongside influences from Bengali literature and classical Indian theatre. Bimal Roy's "Do Bigha Zamin" (1953) was also influenced by De Sica's "Bicycle Thieves". The Indian New Wave also began around the same time as the French New Wave and the Japanese New Wave.


title: Parallel cinema

text: Ever since Chetan Anand's "Neecha Nagar" won the Grand Prize at the inaugural Cannes Film Festival in 1946, Indian parallel cinema films frequently appeared in international fora and film festivals for the next several decades. This allowed Indian independent filmmakers to reach a global audience. The most influential among them was Satyajit Ray, whose films became successful among European, American and Asian audiences. His work subsequently had a worldwide impact, with filmmakers such as Martin Scorsese, James Ivory, Abbas Kiarostami, Elia Kazan, François Truffaut, Carlos Saura and Wes Anderson being influenced by his cinematic style, and many others such as Akira Kurosawa praising his work. The "youthful coming-of-age dramas that have flooded art houses since the mid-fifties owe a tremendous debt to the Apu trilogy" (1955–1959). Ray's film "Kanchenjungha" (1962) introduced a narrative structure that resembles later hyperlink cinema. Ray's 1967 script for a film to be called "The Alien", which was eventually cancelled, is widely believed to have been the inspiration for Steven Spielberg's "ET" (1982). Ira Sachs' "Forty Shades of Blue" (2005) was a loose remake of "Charulata", and in Gregory Nava's "My Family" (1995), the final scene is duplicated from the final scene of "The World of Apu" (1959). Similar references to Ray films are found in recent works such as "Sacred Evil" (2006), the "Elements trilogy" of Deepa Mehta, and in films of Jean-Luc Godard.


title: Parallel cinema

text: Another prominent filmmaker is Mrinal Sen, whose films have been well known for their Marxist views. During his career, Mrinal Sen's film have received awards from almost all major film festivals, including Cannes, Berlin, Venice, Moscow, Karlovy Vary, Montreal, Chicago, and Cairo. Retrospectives of his films have been shown in almost all major cities of the world.


title: Parallel cinema

text: Another Bengali independent filmmaker, Ritwik Ghatak, began reaching a global audience long after his death; beginning in the 1990s, a project to restore Ghatak's films was undertaken, and international exhibitions (and subsequent DVD releases) have belatedly generated an increasingly global audience. Alongside Ray's films, Ghatak's films have also appeared in several all-time greatest film polls. A number of Satyajit Ray films appeared in the "Sight & Sound" Critics' Poll, including "The Apu Trilogy" (ranked No. 4 in 1992 if votes are combined), "The Music Room" (ranked No. 27 in 1992), "Charulata" (ranked No. 41 in 1992) and "Days and Nights in the Forest" (ranked No. 81 in 1982). The 2002 "Sight & Sound" critics' and directors' poll also included the Guru Dutt films "Pyaasa" and "Kaagaz Ke Phool" (both tied at #160), and the Ritwik Ghatak films "Meghe Dhaka Tara" (ranked #231) and "Komal Gandhar" (ranked #346). In 1998, the critics' poll conducted by the Asian film magazine "Cinemaya" included "The Apu Trilogy" (ranked No. 1 if votes are combined), Ray's "Charulata" and "The Music Room" (both tied at #11), and Ghatak's "Subarnarekha" (also tied at #11). In 1999, "The Village Voice" top 250 "Best Film of the Century" critics' poll also included "The Apu Trilogy" (ranked No. 5 if votes are combined). "The Apu Trilogy", "Pyaasa" and Mani Ratnam's "Nayakan" were also included in Time magazine's "All-TIME" 100 best movies list in 2005. In 1992, the "Sight & Sound" Critics' Poll ranked Ray at No. 7 in its list of "Top 10 Directors" of all time, while Dutt was ranked No. 73 in the 2002 "Sight & Sound" greatest directors poll.


title: Parallel cinema

text: The cinematographer Subrata Mitra, who made his debut with Ray's "The Apu Trilogy", also had an importance influence on cinematography across the world. One of his most important techniques was bounce lighting, to recreate the effect of daylight on sets. He pioneered the technique while filming "Aparajito" (1956), the second part of "The Apu Trilogy". Some of the experimental techniques which Satyajit Ray pioneered include photo-negative flashbacks and X-ray digressions while filming "Pratidwandi" (1972).


title: World Englishes

text: World Englishes is a term for emerging localised or indigenised varieties of English, especially varieties that have developed in territories influenced by the United Kingdom or the United States. The study of World Englishes consists of identifying varieties of English used in diverse sociolinguistic contexts globally and analyzing how sociolinguistic histories, multicultural backgrounds and contexts of function influence the use of English in different regions of the world.


title: World Englishes

text: The issue of World Englishes was first raised in 1978 to examine concepts of regional Englishes globally. Pragmatic factors such as appropriateness, comprehensibility and interpretability justified the use of English as an international and intra-national language. In 1988, at a Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL) conference in Honolulu, Hawaii, the International Committee of the Study of World Englishes (ICWE) was formed. In 1992, the ICWE formally launched the International Association for World Englishes (IAWE) at a conference of "World Englishes Today", at the University of Illinois, USA. There are two academic journals devoted to the study of this topic, titled "English World-Wide" (since 1980) and "World Englishes" (since 1982). There are a number of published handbooks and textbooks on the subject.


title: World Englishes

text: Currently, there are approximately 75 territories where English is spoken either as a first language (L1) or as an unofficial or institutionalized second language (L2) in fields such as government, law, and education. It is difficult to establish the total number of Englishes in the world, as new varieties of English are constantly being developed and discovered.


title: World Englishes

text: The notions of World English and World Englishes are far from similar, although the terms are often mistakenly used interchangeably. "World English" refers to the English language as a lingua franca used in business, trade, diplomacy and other spheres of global activity, while "World Englishes" refers to the different varieties of English and English-based creoles developed in different regions of the world. Alternatively, the term "Global Englishes" has been used by scholars in the field to emphasise the more recent spread of English due to globalization, which has resulted in increased usage of English as a lingua franca.


title: World Englishes

text: English is a West Germanic language that originated from the Anglo-Frisian dialects brought by Germanic invaders into Britain. Initially, Old English was a diverse group of dialects, reflecting the varied origins of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England. Eventually, one of these dialects, Late West Saxon, came to dominate.


title: World Englishes

text: The original Old English was then influenced by two further waves of invasion: the first by speakers of the Scandinavian branch of the Germanic language family, who conquered and colonized parts of Britain in the 8th and 9th centuries; the second by the Normans in the 11th century, who spoke Old Norman and ultimately developed a Norman variety called Anglo-Norman. For two centuries after the Norman Conquest, French became the language of everyday life among the upper classes in England. Although the language of the masses remained English, the bilingual character of England in this period was thus formed.


title: World Englishes

text: During the Middle English period, France and England experienced a process of separation. This period of conflicting interests and feelings of resentment was later termed the Hundred Years' War. By the beginning of the 14th century, English had regained universal use and become the principal tongue of all England, but not without having undergone significant change.


title: World Englishes

text: During the Renaissance, patriotic feelings regarding English brought about the recognition of English as the national language of England. The language was advocated as acceptable for learned and literary use. With the Great Vowel Shift, the language in this period matured to a standard and differed significantly from the Middle English period, becoming recognizably "modern".


title: World Englishes

text: By the 18th century, three main forces were driving the direction of the English language: (1) to reduce the language to rule and effect a standard of correct usage; (2) to refine the language by removing supposed defects and introducing certain improvements; and (3) to fix English permanently in the desired form. This desire for system and regularity in the language contrasted with the individualism and spirit of independence characterized by the previous age.


title: World Englishes

text: By the 19th century, the expansion of the British Empire, as well as global trade, had led to the spread of English around the world. The rising importance of some of England's larger colonies and former colonies, such as the rapidly developing United States, enhanced the value of the English varieties spoken in these regions, encouraging the belief, among the local populations, that their distinct varieties of English should be granted equal standing with the standard of Great Britain.


title: World Englishes

text: The first diaspora involved relatively large-scale migrations of mother-tongue English speakers from England, Scotland and Ireland predominantly to North America and the Caribbean, Australia, South Africa and New Zealand. Over time, their own English dialects developed into modern American, Canadian, West Indian, South African, Australian, and New Zealand Englishes. In contrast to the English of Great Britain, the varieties spoken in modern North America and Caribbean, South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand have been modified in response to the changed and changing sociolinguistic contexts of the migrants, for example being in contact with indigenous Native American, Khoisan and Bantu, Aboriginal or Maori populations in the colonies.


title: World Englishes

text: The second diaspora was the result of the colonization of Asia and Africa, which led to the development of 'New Englishes', the second-language varieties of English. In colonial Africa, the history of English is distinct between West and East Africa. English in West Africa began with trade. particularly the slave trade. English soon gained official status in what are today Gambia, Sierra Leone, Ghana, Nigeria and Cameroon, and some of the pidgin and creoles which developed from English contact, including Krio (Sierra Leone) and Cameroon Pidgin, have large numbers of speakers now.


title: World Englishes

text: As for East Africa, extensive British settlements were established in what are now Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe, where English became a crucial language of the government, education and the law. From the early 1960s, the six countries achieved independence in succession; but English remained the official language and had large numbers of second language speakers in Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe and Malawi (along with Chewa).


title: World Englishes

text: English was formally introduced to the sub-continent of South Asia (India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Nepal and Bhutan) during the second half of the eighteenth century. In India, English was given status through the implementation of Macaulay 'Minute' of 1835, which proposed the introduction of an English educational system in India. Over time, the process of 'Indianisation' led to the development of a distinctive national character of English in the Indian sub-continent.


title: World Englishes

text: British influence in South-East Asia and the South Pacific began in the late eighteenth century, involving primarily the territories now known as Singapore, Malaysia and Hong Kong. Papua New Guinea, also a British protectorate, exemplified the English-based pidgin - Tok Pisin.


title: World Englishes

text: The Americans came late in South-East Asia but their influence spread quickly as their reforms on education in the Philippines progressed in their less than half a century colonization of the islands. English has been taught since the American period and is one of the official languages of the Philippines. Ever since English became the official language, a localized variety gradually emerged - Philippine English. Lately, linguist Wilkinson Daniel Wong Gonzales argued that this variety has in itself more varieties, suggesting that we move towards Philippine Englishes paradigm to progress further in Schneider's dynamic model after gathering evidences of such happening.


title: World Englishes

text: Nowadays, English is also learnt in other countries in neighbouring areas, most notably in Taiwan, Japan and Korea, with the latter two having begun to consider the possibility of making English their official second language.


title: World Englishes

text: The spread of English around the world is often discussed in terms of three distinct groups of users, where English is used respectively as:


title: World Englishes

text: The most influential model of the spread of English is Braj Kachru's model of World Englishes. In this model the diffusion of English is captured in terms of three concentric circles of the language: the Inner Circle, the Outer Circle, and the Expanding Circle.


title: World Englishes

text: The Inner Circle refers to English as it originally took shape and was spread across the world in the first diaspora. In this transplantation of English, speakers from England carried the language to Australia, New Zealand, and North America. The Inner Circle thus represents the traditional historical and sociolinguistic bases of English in regions where it is now used as a primary language: the United Kingdom, the United States, Australia, New Zealand, Ireland and anglophone Canada. English is the native language or mother tongue of most people in these countries. The total number of English speakers in the inner circle is as high as 380 million, of whom some 120 million are outside the United States.


title: World Englishes

text: The Outer Circle of English was produced by the second diaspora of English, which spread the language through imperial expansion by Great Britain in Asia and Africa. In these regions, English is not the native tongue, but serves as a useful lingua franca between ethnic and language groups. Higher education, the legislature and judiciary, national commerce and so on may all be carried out predominantly in English. This circle includes India, Nigeria, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Malaysia, Tanzania, Kenya, South Africa, the Philippines (colonized by the US) and others. The total number of English speakers in the outer circle is estimated to range from 150 million to 300 million. Singapore, while in the Outer Circle, may be drifting into the Inner Circle as English becomes more often used as a home language (see Languages of Singapore), much as Ireland did earlier. Countries where most people speak an English-based creole and retain standard English for official purposes, such as Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, Barbados, Guyana, Belize and Papua New Guinea, are also in the Outer Circle.


title: World Englishes

text: Finally, the Expanding Circle encompasses countries where English plays no historical or governmental role, but where it is nevertheless widely used as a medium of international communication. This includes much of the rest of the world's population not categorized above, including territories such as China, Nepal, Russia, Japan, non-Anglophone Europe (especially the Netherlands and Nordic countries), South Korea, and Egypt. The total in this expanding circle is the most difficult to estimate, especially because English may be employed for specific, limited purposes, usually in a business context. The estimates of these users range from 100 million to one billion.


title: World Englishes

text: The inner circle is 'norm-providing'; that means that English language norms are developed in these countries. The outer circle (mainly New Commonwealth countries) is 'norm-developing'. The expanding circle (which includes much of the rest of the world) is 'norm-dependent', because it relies on the standards set by native speakers in the inner circle.


title: World Englishes

text: Edgar Werner Schneider tries to avoid a purely geographical and historical approach evident in the 'circles' models and incorporates sociolinguistic concepts pertaining to acts of identity. His model suggests that, despite all differences in geography and history, there is a fundamentally uniform process underlying all instances of the emergence of new World Englishes, motivated by the changing social relationship between a region's indigenous population and settlers who came to that region.


title: World Englishes

text: The relationship between historical and social conditions and linguistic developments is viewed as a unilateral implicational relationship among four components. The political history of a country, typically from colony to independent nationhood, is reflected in the identity re-writings of the groups involved (indigenous population and settlers). These determine sociolinguistic conditions of language contact (such as the acquisition of the other party’s language), linguistic usage (such as the amount and kind of mutual interaction) and language attitudes. Linguistic developments, and structural changes in the varieties concerned, follow.


title: World Englishes

text: Phase 1 – Foundation: This is the initial stage of the introduction of English to a new territory over an extended period of time. Two linguistic processes are operative at this stage: (a) language contact between English and indigenous languages; (b) contact between different dialects of English of the settlers which eventually results in a new stable dialect (see koiné). At this stage, bilingualism is marginal. A few members of the local populace may play an important role as interpreters, translators and guides. Borrowings are limited to lexical items; with local place names and terms for local fauna and flora being adopted by the English.


title: World Englishes

text: Phase 2 – Exonormative stabilization: At this stage, the settler communities tend to stabilize politically under British rule. English increases in prominence and though the colloquial English is a colonial koiné, the speakers look to England for their formal norms. Local vocabulary continues to be adopted. Bilingualism increases amongst the indigenous population through education and increased contacts with English settlers. Knowledge of English becomes an asset, and a new indigenous elite develops.


title: World Englishes

text: Phase 3 – Nativisation: According to Schneider, this is the stage at which a transition occurs as the English settler population starts to accept a new identity based on present and local realities, rather than sole allegiance to their 'mother country'. By this time, the indigenous strand has also stabilized an L2 system that is a synthesis of substrate effects, interlanguage processes and features adopted from the settlers' koiné English. Neologisms stabilize as English is made to adapt to local sociopolitical and cultural practices.


title: World Englishes

text: Phase 4 – Endonormative stabilization: This stage is characterized by the gradual acceptance of local norms, supported by a new locally rooted linguistic self-confidence. By this time political events have made it clear that the settler and indigenous strands are inextricably bound in a sense of nationhood independent of Britain. Acceptance of local English(es) expresses this new identity. National dictionaries are enthusiastically supported, at least for new lexis (and not always for localized grammar). Literary creativity in local English begins to flourish.


title: World Englishes

text: Phase 5 – Differentiation: At this stage there is a change in the dynamics of identity as the young nation sees itself as less defined by its differences from the former colonial power and more as a composite of subgroups defined on regional, social and ethnic lines. Coupled with the simple effects of time in effecting language change (with the aid of social differentiation) the new English koiné starts to show greater differentiation.


title: World Englishes

text: The oldest map of the spread of English is Strevens's world map of English. His world map, even predating that of Kachru's three circles, showed that since American English became a separate variety from British English, all subsequent Englishes have had affinities with either one or the other.


title: World Englishes

text: McArthur's "wheel model" has an idealized central variety called "World Standard English," which is best represented by "written international English." The next circle is made of regional standards or standards that are emerging. Finally, the outer layer consists of localized varieties which may have similarities with the regional standards or emerging standards.


title: World Englishes

text: Although the model is neat, it raises several problems. Firstly, the three different types of English — ENL, ESL and EFL, are conflated in the second circle. Secondly, the multitude of Englishes in Europe are also missing in this layer. Finally, the outside layer includes pidgins, creoles and L2 Englishes. Most scholars would argue that English pidgins and creoles do not belong to one family: rather they have overlapping multiple memberships.


title: World Englishes

text: Manfred Görlach's and McArthur's models are reasonably similar. Both exclude English varieties in Europe. As Görlach does not include EFLs at all, his model is more consistent, though less comprehensive. Outside the circle are mixed varieties (pidgins, creoles and mixed languages involving English), which are better categorized as having partial membership.


title: World Englishes

text: In Modiano's model of English, the center consists of users of English as an International Language, with a core set of features which are comprehensible to the majority of native and competent non-native speakers of English. The second circle consists of features which may become internationally common or may fall into obscurity. Finally, the outer area consists of five groups (American English, British English, other major varieties, local varieties, foreign varieties) each with features particular to their own speech community and which are unlikely to be understood by most members of the other four groups.


title: World Englishes

text: The World Englishes paradigm is not static, and neither are rapidly changing realities of language use worldwide. The use of English in the Outer and Expanding Circle societies (refer to Kachru's Three Circles of English) continues its rapid spread, while at the same time new patterns of language contact and variety differentiation emerge. The different varieties range from English in the Inner circle societies such as the United States, Canada, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand, to the Outer circle post-colonial societies of Asia and Africa. The "World Englishes" Initiative, in recognizing and describing the New Englishes of the Caribbean, Africa and Asia, has been partly motivated by a consideration of the local linguistic factors and partly by a consideration of the wider cultural and political contexts of language acquisition and use. This, in turn, has involved the creative rewriting of discourses towards a recognition of pluralism and multiple possibilities for scholarship. The notion of varieties in this context is similarly dynamic, as new contexts, new realities, new discourses, and new varieties continue to emerge.


title: World Englishes

text: The terms "language" and "dialect" are not easily defined concepts. It is often suggested that languages are autonomous, while dialects are heteronomous. It is also said that dialects, in contrast with languages, are mutually intelligible, though this is not always the case. Dialects are characteristically spoken, do not have a codified form and are used only in certain domains.


title: World Englishes

text: In order to avoid the difficult dialect-language distinction, linguists tend to prefer a more neutral term, "variety", which covers both concepts and is not butted by popular usage. This term is generally used when discussing World Englishes.


title: World Englishes

text: Two scenarios have been advanced about English's future status as the major world language: it will ultimately fragment into a large number of mutually unintelligible varieties (in effect, languages), or it will converge so that differences across groups of speakers are largely eliminated.


title: World Englishes

text: If English is, numerically speaking, the language of 'others', then the center of gravity of the language is almost certain to shift in the direction of the 'others'. In the words of Widdowson, there is likely to be a paradigm shift from one of language distribution to one of language spread:


title: World Englishes

text: In this new paradigm, English spreads and adapts according to the linguistic and cultural preferences of its users in the Outer and Expanding circles (refer to Kachru's Three Circles of English). However, if English is genuinely to become the language of 'others', then the 'others' have to be accorded – or perhaps more likely, accord themselves – at least the same English language rights as those claimed by mother-tongue speakers.


title: World Englishes

text: The other potential shift in the linguistic center of gravity is that English could lose its international role altogether, or come to share it with a number of equals. Although this would not happen mainly as a result of native-speaker resistance to the spread of non-native speaker Englishes and the consequent abandoning of English by large numbers of non-native speakers, the latter could play a part.


title: World Englishes

text: As evidence that English may eventually give way to another language (or languages) as the world's lingua franca, David Crystal cites Internet data:


title: World Englishes

text: On the other hand, there are at least 1500 languages present on the internet now and that figure is likely to increase. Nevertheless, Crystal predicts that English will retain its dominant presence.


title: The Masked Singer (British series 1)

text: The first series of the British version of "The Masked Singer" premiered on ITV on 4 January 2020, and concluded on 15 February 2020. The series was won by singer Nicola Roberts as "Queen Bee", with comedian Jason Manford finishing second as "Hedgehog", and singer Katherine Jenkins placing third as "Octopus".


title: The Masked Singer (British series 1)

text: On 31 May 2019, it was announced that ITV was producing a local version of the South Korean television singing competition "King of Mask Singer", originally broadcast by the Munhwa Broadcasting Corporation, for the British television market. The production is made by British television production company Bandicoot, part of the Argonon Group.


title: The Masked Singer (British series 1)

text: Following the announcement of the series, it was confirmed by ITV that the panel would consist of presenter and comedian Jonathan Ross, television presenter Davina McCall, US actor and comedian Ken Jeong (who is also a panellist on the American version of the programme), and singer-songwriter and actress Rita Ora. It was also confirmed that Joel Dommett would host the show.


title: The Masked Singer (British series 1)

text: In episode five, Donny Osmond, who appeared as Peacock in the first American series, took Jeong's place on the panel. In episode six, Sharon Osbourne and daughter Kelly Osbourne, the latter of whom appeared as Ladybug in the second American series, filled in.


title: The Masked Singer (British series 1)

text: Official ratings are taken from BARB, utilising the four-screen dashboard which includes viewers who watched the programme on laptops, smartphones, and tablets within 28 days of the original broadcast.


title: Cosmic Cube

text: The Cosmic Cube is a fictional object appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. There are multiple Cubes in the Marvel Universe, all of which are depicted as containment devices that can empower whoever wields them. Although the first version, introduced in "Tales of Suspense" #79 (July 1966) and created by Stan Lee and Jack Kirby, originated on Earth as a weapon built by Advanced Idea Mechanics, most are of alien origins.


title: Cosmic Cube

text: The Cube (renamed the Tesseract) plays a central role in several films of the Marvel Cinematic Universe, in which it is ultimately depicted as containing the Space Stone, one of the six Infinity Stones.


title: Cosmic Cube

text: The first Cosmic Cube appeared in a story in "Tales of Suspense" #79–81 (July–Sept. 1966) and was created by Stan Lee and Jack Kirby. It was established as a device created by A.I.M. and capable of transforming any wish into reality, irrespective of the consequences. The Cube was also a plot device in a story that introduced the character of the Super-Adaptoid in "Tales of Suspense" #82–84 (Oct.–Dec. 1966). The Cube was also featured in a one-off story in "Avengers" #40 (1967) being found and briefly wielded by Namor.


title: Cosmic Cube

text: The Cube reappeared in "Captain America" #115–120 (July–Dec. 1969), and featured in an epic cosmic storyline that starred arch-villain Thanos in "Daredevil" #107 (Jan. 1974) and "Captain Marvel" #25–33 (March 1972–July 1974, bi-monthly). Retrieved after Thanos' defeat, this original Cube featured in several Project Pegasus stories in "Marvel Two-in-One" #42–43 (Aug.–Sept. 1978), "Marvel Two-in-One" #57–58 (Dec. 1979–Jan. 1980), and "Marvel Team-Up Annual" #5 (1982).


title: Cosmic Cube

text: The creation of a second Cube was shown in "Super-Villain Team-Up" #16–17 (May 1979 and June 1980), but this Cube was initially powerless and did not gain any reality-altering ability until years after its creation.


title: Cosmic Cube

text: A major element was added to the Cube's origin—that each is in fact an evolving sentient being—in "Captain America Annual" #7 (1983). The sentient Cube returned in "Avengers" #289–290 (March–April 1988) to end the threat of the Super-Adaptoid (itself originally empowered by a "shard" of a Cosmic Cube), and then in "Fantastic Four" #319 (Oct. 1988). This story revealed that the villain the Molecule Man had ties to the Cube and introduced a new character.


title: Cosmic Cube

text: The miniseries "The Infinity War" #1–6 (June–Nov. 1992) and "Infinity Crusade" #1–6 (June–Nov. 1993) established that the items actually exist in a variety of geometric forms called Cosmic Containment Units.


title: Cosmic Cube

text: A third Cosmic Cube was created during the "Taking A.I.M." storyline that ran through "Avengers" #386–388 (May–July 1995) and "Captain America" (vol. 2) #440–441 (June–July 1995). This unstable Cube has not been seen since it was sealed in a containment chamber at the conclusion of the storyline.


title: Cosmic Cube

text: The previously powerless second Cosmic Cube finally gained an ability to alter reality in "Captain America" (vol. 2) #445–448 (November 1995–February 1996) but it was unstable and exploded at the end of that storyline. The second Cube's power reappeared in a storyline in "Captain America" (vol. 3) #14–19 (Feb.–July 1999) during which its power was internalized within the Red Skull, then stolen by Korvac and taken to an alternate 31st century Earth before being returned to the Red Skull on the present-day Earth, after which it was seemingly destroyed again by exposure to anti-matter energy.


title: Cosmic Cube

text: Doctor Doom acquires the Cosmic Cube in the Fantastic Four miniseries "The World's Greatest Comics Magazine" (2001). Doom uses a time machine to get the Cube from the ocean floor, into which it had dropped during a battle between the Red Skull and Captain America.


title: Cosmic Cube

text: A Cube—together with 11 other items from Marvel and DC Comics continuity—was used once again as a plot device in the intercompany crossover series "JLA/Avengers" #1–4 (Sept. 2003–April 2004, bi-monthly).


title: Cosmic Cube

text: The Cube also shows up in "Captain America" (vol. 5). Aleksander Lukin wants the Cube and is willing to trade the Red Skull for it. The Red Skull claims he does not have it, but has spies out looking for it. Five years later, the Skull is in New York City and is in possession of it. General Lukin sent the Winter Soldier to retrieve the Cube from the Skull, and to kill him. The Skull transfers his mind into the body of Lukin through the powers of the Cube.


title: Cosmic Cube

text: A fragment of a Cube empowered a new character that featured in a single storyline in "Marvel Team-Up" (vol. 3) #20–24 (July–Nov. 2006), and a Cube also appeared in "Guardians of the Galaxy" (vol. 2) #19 (Dec. 2009). The item added a new aspect to the abilities of the villain the Absorbing Man in "The Mighty Avengers" #32–33 (Feb.–March 2010). A new Cosmic Cube was revealed in "Avengers Assemble" #5 (July 2012); it was revealed to be a working facsimile with more limited powers than the 'real thing'.


title: Cosmic Cube

text: The Cosmic Cubes are actually containment devices created by various civilizations throughout the Marvel Universe at various times. Examples including the Skrulls (creators of the Cube that would eventually evolve into the Shaper of Worlds), and various other, unnamed civilizations (whose Cubes were gathered/stolen by unknown means by the Magus in the "Infinity War" story arc and the Goddess in the "Infinity Crusade" story arc). These matrices—which may or may not actually be shaped like a Cube—are suffused with reality-warping energies of unknown composition that comes from the realm of the Beyonders.


title: Cosmic Cube

text: Unknown to almost everyone in the Marvel Universe, including its creators, the nature of the mysterious energies are such that, after a sufficient but undefined period of time, the matrix will become self-aware and evolve into an independent, free-willed being still possessed of the original Cube's tremendous powers; the new being's overall personality is psychically imprinted with the beliefs, desires, and personalities of those who wielded it as a Cube (for example, the Shaper of Worlds, wielded for a long time by an insane and warlike Skrull Emperor, immediately destroyed a large portion of the galaxy that it was located in once it became sentient).


title: Cosmic Cube

text: On Earth, the Cosmic Cube containment matrix was developed and created by an evil society of para-military scientists known as A.I.M. to further their ultimate goal of world conquest. The object is revealed to be so powerful that it drove to insanity its co-creator MODOK. Master villain and former Nazi the Red Skull obtains the device after taking control of the mind of the A.I.M. agent holding it, using a handheld device. Although apparently now all-powerful, the Skull became overconfident and was tricked and defeated by the hero Captain America, who pretended to surrender and ask to be the Skull's slave, then knocked the Cube away, causing it to fall into the ocean. It was found by Prince Namor after Hercules accidentally revealed it to him, but while battling the Avengers he lost contact with it, and it fell into the Earth. The Mole Man found it, but threw it away, not realizing its true value. Later, a shard of the Cube is also used by A.I.M. to power the android known as the Super-Adaptoid, who is sent in an unsuccessful attempt to kill Captain America.


title: Cosmic Cube

text: The Red Skull eventually retrieves the Cube and toys with Captain America, but the Skull is defeated when A.I.M. uses an object called the "Catholite Block" to dissolve the Cube.


title: Cosmic Cube

text: The Cube was eventually found (apparently having reformed) by Thanos who, like the Red Skull, wishes to control the universe (this also attracts the amorous attention of the cosmic entity Death). Although opposed by superhero team the Avengers and the alien Kree warrior Captain Mar-Vell, Thanos becomes supreme when he wills the Cube to make him a part of—and therefore in control of—everything. Thanos discards the Cube, believing it to be drained of power, and is then stripped of the power by the dying superhero named Mar-Vell, who shatters the Cube and restores the universe.


title: Cosmic Cube

text: Brought to research installation Project: Pegasus, the Cube was stolen by villain and cult leader Victorius, and is used to create the being Jude the Entropic Man. Both are neutralized when in simultaneous contact with the Cube (and the swamp monster the Man Thing). The Cube is returned to Pegasus by Captain America and the Fantastic Four member the Thing, where it eventually transforms the alien Wundarr into the entity the Aquarian.


title: Cosmic Cube

text: A second Cube was created on the Island of Exiles by a team of scientists (including Arnim Zola) working for the Red Skull and the Hate-Monger. Planning to transfer his consciousness into the completed Cube, the Hate-Monger secretly arranged for a distraction in the form of a strike team from the spy organization S.H.I.E.L.D. attacking the island in an attempt to retrieve the Cube. However, the Red Skull was aware of his plans and had kept secret the fact that the Cube project had succeeded only in creating a perfect prison, but had failed to capture the mysterious, omnidimensional x-element which gives the Cubes their reality-warping power. As a result, the Hate-Monger's mind was left trapped in a powerless Cube in the Red Skull's possession. This Cube was one of the trophies that the Red Skull kept in his home, Skull House.


title: Cosmic Cube

text: During a battle to stop A.I.M. from using the Cube once again, Captain America witnesses the Cube evolve into the entity called Kubik, which becomes a student of the Shaper of Worlds. Kubik returns to Earth when attracted by an anomaly possessing a fraction of its power, revealed to be the Super-Adaptoid. The Super-Adaptoid uses its abilities to "copy" Kubik's abilities and banishes the entity, intent on creating a race in its own image. The Adaptoid, however, is tricked into shutting down by Captain America. Kubik returns and then removes the sliver of the original Cosmic Cube from the Adaptoid that gave the robot its abilities.


title: Cosmic Cube

text: Kubik also battles the renegade entity the Beyonder, and reveals to the entity and former Fantastic Four villain the Molecule Man that they are in fact both parts of an incomplete Cube (officially retconning the Beyonder's powers as shown in "Secret Wars" in the process), and convinces them to merge their powers. This forms a new being called Kosmos, who becomes the pupil of Kubik.


title: Cosmic Cube

text: The character the Magus—an evil version of anti-hero Adam Warlock—acquires five Cosmic Cubes from neighboring universes, with each appearing in a different geometric form. The Magus uses mechanical aids to manipulate the Cubes, as their combined presence would quickly cause permanent brain damage. The character uses the Cubes to create evil doppelgangers of almost all of the Marvel heroes and then alters the universe, but is tricked and defeated when acquiring the Infinity Gauntlet, as the Reality Gem is revealed to be a fake, thus creating a gap in his powers.


title: Cosmic Cube

text: Although the Magus is defeated, Warlock's "good side"—the female Goddess—also appears and wishes to purge the universe of all evil. To do this, she collects 30 containment units, with each storing the power of a Cosmic Cube, and merges them into a "Cosmic Egg". Despite the fact that the Egg can fulfill the Goddess' wishes—although, unlike the Infinity Gauntlet, it has no power over the soul—the character is defeated by Warlock and Thanos. During this time, the two questioned Mephisto about the origins of the Cubes in exchange for giving a Cube to Mephisto, but they were able to cheat the deal by giving Mephisto a drained Cube, as he never specified that the Cube had to still be functional.


title: Cosmic Cube

text: A third Cosmic Cube was created by an Adaptoid-controlled faction of A.I.M. based on the island of Boca Caliente. This Cube was unstable and its reality-warping ability began to leak out onto the surrounding island, creating Cube constructs of anyone that was in the thoughts of nearby people. An Avengers team attempted to stop the Cube and the dying Captain America was willing to sacrifice himself to do so. In the end, it was an Adaptoid who had been accompanying Captain America and had been impressed by his heroic nature who ended the threat by willingly transforming itself into a non-sentient containment chamber for the Cube's energies.


title: Cosmic Cube

text: The second Cube was eventually recovered by the KubeKult, fanatical followers of the Hate-Monger, who spied upon the A.I.M. Adaptoids and discovered how to power it. Fearing how the Hate-Monger would punish him for his betrayal, the Red Skull allied himself with then-rogue S.H.I.E.L.D. agent Sharon Carter to kidnap the dying Captain America and restore him to health. Reluctantly working together, the trio invaded a KubeKult base to steal the erratically functioning Cube, but the Red Skull seized it and willed Captain America to be drawn inside it into an artificial reality during World War II, where Captain America and Bucky were on a mission to kill Hitler. The Red Skull believed that he would be able to wield the Cube's power only if Captain America killed Hitler's consciousness within the Cube. However, the Bucky within the Cube (actually a projection of Captain America's own mind) revealed what was really going on and Captain America was able to will himself out of the Cube. Appearing before the Skull, Captain America threw his shield in such a way that it first severed the Skull's arm, causing him to drop the Cube, and then struck and shattered the Cube itself, causing an explosion that seemingly destroyed both itself and the Red Skull.


title: Cosmic Cube

text: Months later, the Red Skull reappears, now with the Cube's power internalized within his body. He was approached by the time-traveler Kang the Conqueror (actually the disguised cosmic entity Korvac), who told him that the reason he had failed to completely control the Cube's power in the past was because his knowledge of the universe was incomplete. At the suggestion of "Kang", the Skull willed the starship of Galactus to travel to Earth so he could drain it of the needed information. At the same time, Korvac (now disguised as Uatu the Watcher) appeared to Captain America and Sharon Carter and managed to convince them that the only way to prevent the Skull from becoming unstoppable was for Captain America to kill him during a brief moment of vulnerability. Captain America did so, but as the Skull died, his body released the Cube energy, which flowed into "Uatu", who revealed his true identity and used his increased power to return to his alternate 31st century Earth to conquer it. However, Captain America followed him and fought him repeatedly, with Korvac rebooting the 31st century reality each time Captain America disturbed his perfectly ordered machine world. Eventually, Captain America managed to convince Korvac that the reason he was able to achieve anything at all against Korvac was due to there being too much humanity left within Korvac when he acquired the Cube's power. Accordingly, Korvac transported himself and Captain America back to just before the Skull died, but this time Captain America did not strike the fatal blow. Vulnerable to the Skull's power, Korvac teleported himself, Captain America and Carter aboard the starship, but the Skull soon found him and scattered Korvac across six dimensions. Soon afterwards, the Skull was tricked by Captain America into entering an anti-matter energy beam within the starship's engine room, which separated the Cube energy from him. Before the energy dissipated, Captain America and the Skull were each able to use its wish-granting ability to save themselves and Carter from death.


title: Cosmic Cube

text: A Cosmic Cube was one of the 12 items of power sought by superhero teams the Avengers and the Justice League of America when they competed against each other in a game organized by Krona and the Grandmaster. It was the final item of the quest, found in the Savage Land, where both teams converged for a full-scale fight, during which Green Lantern Kyle Rayner was able to use the Cube as a substitute power source for his power ring when his usual battery had been stolen and the ring was running out of power. Quicksilver was finally able to gain the Cube, bringing the game to a stalemate, but to make sure Krona lost, Captain America helped Batman to take it, because they were the only ones, aside from the Atom, who knew the true stakes of the game: Krona had forced the Grandmaster to take the Justice League as his representatives, so the League had to win in order to prevent Krona from destroying the Marvel Universe. Batman briefly attempted to use the Cube to end the game — having been filled in on its capabilities by Captain America — before the Grandmaster took it from him to tally up the score. Enraged at his loss, Krona attacked the Grandmaster, who then used the Cube along with all other items of power to temporarily fuse the Marvel and DC Universes and imprison Krona in the intersection, hoping he would be unable to destroy a universe if his own existence were linked to it.


title: Cosmic Cube

text: The Red Skull has finally created one by using pieces of the previous Cubes, and Aleksander Lukin wants it as much. The Red Skull is assassinated by the one person that Lukin was willing to trade for the Cube—the Winter Soldier. In the process of being assassinated, the Skull uses the Cube's power to transfer his mind into the body of Lukin for some time.


title: Cosmic Cube

text: A youth called Curtis Doyle becomes the hero Freedom Ring when he finds a fragment of the original Cube in the form of a ring, which allows the altering of reality in a very limited area of 15 feet around the wearer. The character dies in battle saving Captain America, Spider-Man, Spider-Woman, and Wolverine from the villain Iron Maniac. The ring is later found by a friend of Doyle, a Skrull who had settled on Earth and adopts the name the 'Crusader'.


title: Cosmic Cube

text: The powerful entity D'Spayre attempted to enhance his power by using a Cosmic Cube to draw on the grief of the general public in the aftermath of Captain America's assassination, only for his use of the Cube to have an apparently unintended side-effect when it granted the 'wish' of those who wanted Captain America back by drawing the Invaders into the present. He was defeated in a confrontation with the New Avengers when Echo proved immune to his powers due to her deafness, allowing her to take the Cube from him. The Cube is then used by Paul Anslem, a World War II soldier who had traveled with the Invaders against his will. Anslem's intentions to save his friends, who had died during an assault on a Nazi stronghold, allows the Red Skull of the World War II era to gain enough power to take over Earth. Anslem again regains control of the Cube with super-powered assistance and restores the timeline to what it should have been.


title: Cosmic Cube

text: A Cube is also given to Guardians of the Galaxy member Star-Lord by time-traveling villain Kang the Conqueror to use against Adam Warlock's evil alter ego, the Magus. However, the Magus altered perception to make it seem like the Cube's power was used up. Star-Lord used the Cube's last bit of energy for real by subduing the reborn Thanos, rendering it a "cosmic paperweight".


title: Cosmic Cube

text: The Absorbing Man becomes capable of assimilating the abilities of a fraction of a Cube. He is stopped by criminal mastermind Norman Osborn, who uses a magical sword (provided by the Asgardian god Loki) to neutralize the Absorbing Man's abilities.


title: Cosmic Cube

text: A new Cosmic Cube is later revealed to have been created by the U.S. government. It is stolen by members of the Zodiac at the behest of Thanos. Thanos' plot is later foiled by the combined might of the Avengers and the Guardians of the Galaxy.


title: Cosmic Cube

text: During the "" storyline, Maria Hill and the rest of S.H.I.E.L.D. used pieces of a Cosmic Cube to create , a near-omnipotent child, originally conceived by Longshot and the Cosmic Cube "Miss Grapples". With Kobik's help, S.H.I.E.L.D. began brainwashing supervillains into becoming mild-mannered civilians, who were then imprisoned in a gated community called Pleasant Hill. When the villains rebel, Kobik decides to bring Steve Rogers, then reduced to an old man due to the breakdown of his Super-Soldier serum, back to his physical peak, but due to the Red Skull's influence over the Cube from which Kobik was made, she unknowingly replaces Rogers with a covert HYDRA loyalist version of him, believing that to be the "right" version of him. This results in the real Rogers' consciousness becoming trapped within the Cube until he finds Kobik and encourages her to set things right by showing the atrocities his doppelgänger had committed in the name of HYDRA during the "Secret Empire" storyline; she then brings him back to the real world, with some help from the heroes outside.


title: Cosmic Cube

text: Mephisto was later revealed to apparently be able to reenergize with devilishly red hue the cosmic cube that Warlock and Thanos had given him so many years ago, which he named the Pandemonium Cube, otherwise referred to as the Hellahedron. Mephisto then gave the cube to Phil Coulson whom used it to remake the Marvel Universe into the Heroes Reborn Universe where Coulson became President of the United States, the Squadron Supreme replaced the Avengers and Mephisto is worshipped like a God. However the cube wasn't perfect, though. Somehow, Blade the Vampire Hunter of Earth-616 was unaffected by the reality warp and began gathering the Avengers to change reality back to its previous state.


title: Cosmic Cube

text: As their perfect universe began to collapse on itself and the Avengers slowly start to see the cracks in the exposed fraud reality, Coulson decides to use the Pandemonium Cube again as a last-ditch effort to save everything he created only to witness his version of the world come to an end at the hands of Earth's Mightiest Heroes once the cube was apparently destroyed. However this defeat does not seem to have stung Mephisto at all, in fact, once reality has been set right again, Mephisto holding the Pandemonium Cube with Phil Coulson trapped inside, revealed that while his minion was defeated, the whole reality warp was only to bringing together 615 different Mepihstos from across the multiverse and to demonstrate how much reality could be changed by just one Mephisto.


title: Cosmic Cube

text: In the "Heroes Reborn" miniseries, Phil Coulson and Mephisto used the Pandemonium Cube, or Hellahedron, to change reality so that the Squadron Supreme of America are Earth's mightiest heroes instead of the Avengers. After the latter group slowly reform and fight to change reality back however, Coulson attempts to use the Pandemonium Cube to defeat them. Despite his best efforts, Captain America steals it from Coulson and gives it to Echo and Star Brand to change reality back. Following this, Mephisto traps Coulson's soul in the Pandemonium Cube.


title: Cosmic Cube

text: In the Ultimate Marvel imprint alternate universe title "Ultimate Fantastic Four", Mister Fantastic builds a "cuboid volitional lattice" courtesy of a deliberate, subconscious suggestion from the Ultimate version of the Titan Thanos. Another version of the Cube exists as a creation of A.I.M. under the employment of Red Skull, which they stole blueprints of from the Fantastic Four's recently abandoned Baxter Building.


title: Cosmic Cube

text: An adapted version of the Cosmic Cube, referred to as the Tesseract, appears in media set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU). Sources outside of the films reveal that it was originally safeguarded by the Asgardians before it ended up on Earth.


title: Samurai cinema

text: , also commonly spelled "chambara", meaning "sword fighting" films, denotes the Japanese film genre called samurai cinema in English and is roughly equivalent to Western and swashbuckler films. "Chanbara" is a sub-category of "jidaigeki", which equates to period drama. "Jidaigeki" may refer to a story set in a historical period, though not necessarily dealing with a samurai character or depicting swordplay.


title: Samurai cinema

text: While earlier samurai period pieces were more dramatic rather than action-based, samurai films produced after World War II have become more action-based, with darker and more violent characters. Post-war samurai epics tended to portray psychologically or physically scarred warriors. Akira Kurosawa stylized and exaggerated death and violence in samurai epics. His samurai, and many others portrayed in film, were solitary figures, more often concerned with concealing their martial abilities, rather than showing them off.


title: Samurai cinema

text: Historically, the genre is usually set during the Tokugawa era (1600–1868). The samurai film hence often focuses on the end of an entire way of life for the samurai: many of the films deal with masterless "rōnin", or samurai dealing with changes to their status resulting from a changing society.


title: Samurai cinema

text: Samurai films were constantly made into the early 1970s, but by then, overexposure on television, the aging of the big stars of the genre, and the continued decline of the mainstream Japanese film industry put a halt to most of the production of this genre.


title: Samurai cinema

text: Daisuke Itō and Masahiro Makino were central to the development of samurai films in the silent and prewar eras.


title: Samurai cinema

text: Akira Kurosawa is the best known to western audiences, and similarly has directed the samurai films best known in the West. He directed "Seven Samurai", "Rashomon", "Throne of Blood", "Yojimbo" and many others. He had a long association with Toshirō Mifune, arguably Japan's most famous actor. Mifune himself had a production company that produced samurai epics, often with him starring. Two of Kurosawa's samurai movies were based on the works of William Shakespeare, "Throne of Blood" ("Macbeth") and "Ran" ("King Lear"). A number of his films were remade in Italy and the United States as westerns, or as action films set in other contexts. His film "Seven Samurai" is one of the most important touchstones of the genre and the most well known outside Japan. It also illustrates some of the conventions of samurai film in that the main characters are ronin, masterless unemployed samurai, free to act as their conscience dictates. Importantly, these men tend to deal with their problems with their swords and are very skilled at doing so. It also shows the helplessness of the peasantry and the distinction between the two classes.


title: Samurai cinema

text: Masaki Kobayashi directed the films "Harakiri" and "Samurai Rebellion", both cynical films based on flawed loyalty to the clan.


title: Samurai cinema

text: Kihachi Okamoto films focus on violence in a particular fashion. In particular in his films "Samurai Assassin", "Kill!" and "Sword of Doom". The latter is particularly violent, the main character engaging in combat for a lengthy 7 minutes of film at the end of the movie. His characters are often estranged from their environments, and their violence is a flawed reaction to this.


title: Samurai cinema

text: Hideo Gosha, and many of his films helped create the archetype of the samurai outlaw. Gosha's films are as important as Kurosawa's in terms of their influence, visual style and content, yet are not as well known in the West. Gosha's films often portrayed the struggle between traditional and modernist thought and were decidedly anti-feudal. He largely stopped making chambara, switching to the Yakuza genre, in the 1970s. Some of his most noted movies are "Goyokin", "Hitokiri", "Sanbiki no Samurai" and "Kedamono no Ken" ("Sword of the Beast").


title: Samurai cinema

text: Kenji Misumi was active making samurai films from the 1950s to the mid 1970s. He directed roughly 30 films in the genre, including some the "Lone Wolf and Cub" films, and a number in the "Zatoichi" and "Sleepy Eyes of Death" series.


title: Samurai cinema

text: An excellent example of the kind of immediacy and action evident in the best genre is seen Gosha's first film, the "Three Outlaw Samurai", based on a television series. Three farmers kidnap the daughter of the local magistrate in order to call attention to the starvation of local peasants, a ronin appears and decides to help them. In the process, two other ronin with shifting allegiances join the drama, the conflict widens, eventually leading to betrayal, assassination and battles between armies of mercenary "ronin".


title: Samurai cinema

text: Recently, another director, Keishi Ōtomo has directed a live action adaption of Nobuhiro Watsuki's manga series "Rurouni Kenshin", which tells the story of a former Ishin Shishi named Himura Kenshin (formerly known as "Hitokiri Battōsai" (人斬り抜刀斎?) who, after the end of the Bakumatsu, becomes a wanderer of the countryside of Japan offering protection and aid to those in need, as atonement for the murders he once committed as an assassin. The film was a huge success. Rurouni Kenshin was theatrically released on August 25, 2012 in Japan, grossing over $36 million in that country and over $60 million worldwide as of November 2012. It was released in DVD on December 26, 2012. The film has been licensed for distribution in over 60 countries in Europe, Latin America and Asia. The movie premiered in North America as an opening selection for the 2012 LA EigaFest in December 14, 2012. Two sequels titled "" and "" were released in 2014.


title: Samurai cinema

text: A blind burly masseur and yakuza with short hair, he is a skilled swordsman who fights using only his hearing. While less known in the West, he is arguably the most famous "chanbara" character in Japan.


title: Samurai cinema

text: Four movies about another blind character, Oichi a.k.a. "the Crimson Bat", a female sword fighter, was made in response to the huge success of Zatoichi.


title: Samurai cinema

text: Nemuri Kyoshirō, the master of the "Engetsu" ("Full Moon Cut") sword style, was a wandering "lone wolf" warrior plagued by the fact that he was fathered in less than honorable circumstance by a "fallen" Portuguese priest who had turned to worshipping Satan and a Japanese noblewoman whom he had seduced and raped as part of a Black Mass and who had committed suicide after Kyōshirō was born. As a result, Kyōshirō despised both Christianity (which he considered weak and hypocritical) and the shogunal government (which he considered corrupt).


title: Samurai cinema

text: A substantial number of films have been made about Miyamoto Musashi, a famed historical warrior and swordsman, most notably a three-movie series (1954-1956) starring Toshiro Mifune and a six-movie series (1961-1965 and 1971) starring Kinnosuke Nakamura, both based on the novel "Musashi" by Eiji Yoshikawa.


title: Samurai cinema

text: "Lone Wolf and Cub", the tale of a samurai traveling Japan with his son in a wooden pram (which is armed and on occasion used in combat) was made into a six-film series (1972-1974) starring Tomisaburo Wakayama as Ogami Itto and a "live action television series" (1973-1976) starring actor Kinnosuke Yorozuya (formerly Kinnosuke Nakamura) as Ogami Ittō.


title: Samurai cinema

text: Sanjuro, played by Toshiro Mifune, is the wandering ronin character who acts as a yojimbo (bodyguard) in two of Kurosawa's films, "Yojimbo" and "Sanjuro". In both films, 三十郎 Sanjuro (a proper given name but which can also be interpreted as meaning "thirty-years-old") makes up a different surname (桑畑 Kuwabatake which means "mulberry field", and 椿 Tsubaki which means "camellia"), thus leading some to label the character as a "ronin with no name", in reference to the Man with No Name character who was directly inspired by "Yojimbo" and portrayed by Clint Eastwood in Sergio Leone's "Dollars Trilogy" of Spaghetti Western films.


title: Samurai cinema

text: Mifune later played analogous roles in two films released in 1970, the Zatoichi film "Zatoichi Meets Yojimbo" (as 佐々大作 Sasa Daisaku), and "Incident at Blood Pass" (as 鎬刀三郎 Shinogi Tōzaburō = "ridges on a sword" Tozaburo), the two 1972-1974 TV series "Ronin of the Wilderness" and "Yojimbo of the Wilderness" (as 峠九十郎 Tōge Kujūrō = "Mountain pass" Kujuro), the 1975 TV series "The Sword, the Wind, and the Lullaby" (as 砦十三郎 Toride Jūzaburō = "Fortress" Juzaburo), the 1976 TV series "Ronin in a Lawless Town" (as ミスターの旦那 Misutā no Danna = "Mister customer"), the 1981 TV movie series "The Lowly Ronin" (as 春夏秋冬 Shunka Shūtō = "Spring-Summer Autumn-Winter"), and the 1983 TV movie "The Secret of Cruel Valley" (as 素浪人 Surōnin = "Lowly ronin").


title: Samurai cinema

text: "Bored Hatamoto" Saotome Mondonosuke (also known in English as "The Idle Vassal" and "The Crescent-Scarred Samurai"), was a "hatamoto" or direct vassal of Shogun Tsunayoshi, whose 'crescent-scar' on his forehead signifies his right to kill in the name of the shogun and rid Japan of corruption and evil. Saotome craves action to fight the boredom he feels when not pitting his sword skill against those who would corrupt Japan. The character was famously played by Utaemon Ichikawa on film 30 times from 1930-1963 and in a 25 episode TV series from 1973-1974, by Takeo Nakamura in a TV series from 1959-1960, by Hideki Takahashi in a TV series from 1970-1971, by Mikijiro Hira in a 1983 TV movie, and by Kin'ya Kitaōji (Ichikawa's son, who also appeared with his father in some of the films) in 9 made-for-TV movies from 1988-1994 and in a 10 episode TV series in 2001.


title: Samurai cinema

text: Tange Samanosuke, a Sōma clan samurai, is attacked and mutilated as a result of betrayal, losing his right eye and right arm, and becomes a nihilistic ronin, using the pseudonym "Sazen". He has been played in numerous films by Denjirō Ōkōchi, Tsumasaburō Bandō, Ryūtarō Ōtomo, Ryūnosuke Tsukigata, Kinnosuke Nakamura, and Tetsurō Tanba


title: Samurai cinema

text: Himura Kenshin is the protagonist of the "Rurouni Kenshin" manga series created by Nobuhiro Watsuki. Kenshin is a former legendary assassin known as ""Hitokiri Battōsai"". Kenshin wanders the countryside of Japan offering protection and aid to those in need, as atonement for the murders he once committed as an assassin. In Tokyo, he meets a young woman named Kamiya Kaoru, who invites him to live in her dojo despite learning about Kenshin's past. Throughout the series, Kenshin begins to establish lifelong relationships with many people, including ex-enemies, while dealing with his fair share of enemies, new and old. The character is portrayed by actor Takeru Satoh in five live-action films adapting the story, such as "Rurouni Kenshin", "" and "" directed by Keishi Ōtomo.


title: Samurai cinema

text: A samurai film must include samurai warriors, sword fighting, and historical setting. Samurai warriors, in film, are differentiated from other warriors by the code of honor followed to honor the samurai's leader. A samurai must perforce be skilled in warfare and martial arts and ready to defend his honor even to his death. If not able to defend his honor, a samurai may choose to commit self-disembowelment, seppuku, in order to save reputation or "face". Instead, a samurai may exact vengeance in a case of the loss of someone the samurai cared about, such as occurs in the film "Harakiri". In "Harakiri", Hanshiro Tsugumo takes revenge on the house of Kageyu Saito for the loss of his adopted son-in-law, who was forced to commit suicide by the house of Kageyu Saito. The house of Kageyu Saito refused to give the son-in-law money. Because he had asked to commit suicide he was forced to perform self-disembowelment, with a remarkable twist not revealed in this discussion. Hanshiro knows an example was unrightfully made of his son-in-law in order to discourage the asking by impoverished samurai for donations from the house of Kageyu. In film, motivation may vary but the samurai's behavior is to maintain honor even in death and is perpetuated by the code of bushido.


title: Samurai cinema

text: Also, looking at the historical setting of the film the audience can take cultural context of the samurai in that certain period. For instance the Sengoku period (1478–1603) saw Japan torn by civil war as daimyō warlords fought for control of land. In the Tokugawa period (1603–1868), peace from civil war meant there were no wars for the samurai to fight and some samurai became ronin, masterless warriors left to struggle to survive. In the Meiji period (1868–1912), we see a decline of the hereditary existence of the samurai and the rise of westernization. In this period the ideal of the samurai and the code of bushido are popularized into the military warrior's belief. The time frame meant changes in the sorts of conflicts for the samurai to fight and film would capture their resistance against overwhelming odds.


title: Samurai cinema

text: A recurring conflict the ideal samurai encounters is the "ninjō" and giri conflict. "Ninjō" is the human feeling that tells you what is right and giri is the obligation of the samurai to his lord and clan. The conflict originated from overwhelming control of the Tokugawa bakufu government over the samurai's behavior. Often samurai would question the morality of their actions and are torn between duty and conscience. This conflict transcends eras in samurai films and can create the perception of the protagonist as being the moral underdog or steadfast warrior. In "The Last Samurai", Katsumoto is no longer of use to his emperor and sentenced to self-disembowelment. He goes against his duty to follow through with his sentence and flees to fight his final rebellion against the central government's army. Ninjo and giri conflict is dynamic to the character of the samurai.


title: Samurai cinema

text: The samurai warrior is often synonymous with his or her own sword. Although swordsmanship is an important aspect of warfare, idealizing the samurai and the sword as having a bond is an invented ideal, although it is popularized in many dramas. The Tokugawa period saw a change in the type of warfare, as combat shifted from the bow and arrow to close range combat with handheld weapons, and competitive sword competition.


title: Samurai cinema

text: There are a number of themes that occur in samurai film plots. Many feature roaming masterless samurai, seeking work or a place in society. Others are period historical tales of true characters. Others show tales of clan loyalty.


title: Samurai cinema

text: Initially early samurai films were influenced by the still growing Western film genre before and during World War II. Since then both genres have had a healthy impact on one another. Two forefathers of the genre, Akira Kurosawa and Masaki Kobayashi, were influenced by American film directors such as John Ford.


title: Samurai cinema

text: A number of western movies have re-told the samurai movie in a Western context, particularly Spaghetti Westerns. Italian director Sergio Leone's "A Fistful of Dollars" and Walter Hill's "Last Man Standing" are both remakes of "Yojimbo. "Clint Eastwood's Man with No Name character was modeled to some degree on Mifune's wandering ronin character that appeared in so many of his films. "The Hidden Fortress" influenced George Lucas when he made "Star Wars". "Seven Samurai" has been remade as a Western and a science fiction context film, "The Magnificent Seven" and "Battle Beyond the Stars". Other samurai influenced western movies include Charles Bronson and Toshirō Mifune in "Red Sun" (1971), David Mamet's "Ronin" (with Jean Reno and Robert De Niro), "Six-String Samurai" (1998) and "" (1999).


title: Samurai cinema

text: "Seven Samurai" was highly influential, often seen as one of the most "remade, reworked, referenced" films in cinema. It made the "assembling the team" trope popular in movies and other media; this has since become a common trope in many action movies and heist films. The visuals, plot and dialogue of "Seven Samurai" have inspired a wide range of filmmakers, ranging from George Lucas to Quentin Tarantino. Elements from "Seven Samurai" have been borrowed by many films, with examples including plot elements in films such as "Three Amigos" (1986) by John Landis, visual elements in large-scale battle scenes of films such as "" (2002) and "The Matrix Revolutions" (2003), and borrowed scenes in George Miller's "" (2015).


title: Samurai cinema

text: The Zatoichi character was re-made as "Blind Fury" in the United States, starring Rutger Hauer as a blind swordsman living in the modern US. Most recently, "The Last Samurai" (2003), the story being loosely based on the true historical French officer Jules Brunet assisting Japanese samurai in rebellion against the Emperor.


title: Samurai cinema

text: Early "wu xia" weapon martial arts films from Hong Kong action cinema were inspired by Japanese samurai films from the 1940s onwards. By the early 1970s, these "wu xia" films had evolved into hand-to-hand kung fu films, popularized by Bruce Lee. In turn, kung fu films from Hong Kong became popular and influential in Japan from the 1970s onwards.


title: Donnie Andrews

text: Larry Donnell "Donnie" Andrews (April 29, 1954 – December 13, 2012) was an American armed robber, murderer, and anti-crime advocate. He was one of the inspirations for the character Omar Little on the HBO series "The Wire".


title: Donnie Andrews

text: Andrews grew up in a housing project in West Baltimore, Maryland. He was physically abused by his mother. At the age of 9, he witnessed a man being beaten to death over 15 cents.


title: Donnie Andrews

text: Andrews became an armed robber who robbed drug dealers, but his code of ethics included never involving women nor children. He was known to police for armed robbery and drug dealing in the 1970s and early 1980s in Baltimore. In 1986, local drug kingpin Warren Boardley convinced Andrews (who needed to support his heroin addiction) and Reggie Gross to take on the contract killing of Zachary Roach and Rodney "Touche" Young. Filled with guilt, Andrews surrendered himself to Ed Burns, a homicide detective with the Baltimore Police Department. Working with Burns, he agreed to wear a covert listening device, which he used to implicate Boardley and Gross in the killings.


title: Donnie Andrews

text: In 1987, Andrews was sentenced to life in prison for the two murders. He was denied parole on his first attempts, but continued to study, ended his addiction to heroin, and helped other inmates by running an anti-gang workshop.


title: Donnie Andrews

text: While Andrews was in prison, Detective Burns introduced him to Fran Boyd, whose family was prominently featured in "", a 1997 book by Burns and David Simon. Andrews and Boyd's first conversation came in January 1993, when Boyd was still using drugs. Andrews encouraged Boyd to get clean.


title: Donnie Andrews

text: By 1998, Burns and Simon, as well as the lead prosecutor who obtained Andrews' conviction, began to lobby for Andrews' release from prison. While Andrews was in prison, Simon sent him copies of the newspaper, and Andrews gave Simon information about crimes taking place in Baltimore. Simon named Andrews a consultant on "The Wire", an HBO show about crime in Baltimore which ran from 2002 to 2008. Simon used Andrews as one of the inspirations for the character Omar Little, a stickup artist who never targeted innocent bystanders.


title: Donnie Andrews

text: Andrews was released from prison in 2005. He performed youth outreach after his release from prison. His foundation, Why Murder?, attempted to steer children away from a life of crime.


title: Donnie Andrews

text: Andrews and Fran Boyd married on August 11, 2007. Wedding guests included Simon and "The Wire" cast members Dominic West, Sonja Sohn, and Andre Royo.


title: Donnie Andrews

text: Andrews suffered from an aortic dissection, from which he died on December 13, 2012 in Manhattan, New York. He was 58 years old.


title: Five laws of library science

text: The five laws of library science is a theory that S. R. Ranganathan proposed in 1931, detailing the principles of operating a library system. Many librarians from around the world accept the laws as the foundations of their philosophy.


title: Five laws of library science

text: The first law of library science, "Books are for use," constitutes the basis for library services. This law means that books in libraries are not meant to be shut away from users. Ranganathan observed that books were often chained to prevent their removal and that the emphasis was on storage and preservation rather than use. He did not reject the notion that preservation and storage were important, but he asserted that the purpose of such activities should be to promote use. Without user access to materials, there is little value in these items. By emphasizing use, Dr. Ranganathan refocused the attention of the field to access-related issues, such as the library's location, loan policies, hours and days of operation, the quality of staffing, and mundane matters, such as library furniture and temperature control.


title: Five laws of library science

text: The second law of library science, "Every person his or her book," means that librarians are to serve a wide collection of patrons, acquire literature to fit a wide variety of needs, and refrain from prejudice or judging what specific patrons choose to read. Librarians should respect that everyone is different and that everyone has different tastes regarding the books they choose. After the publication of "The Five Laws of Library Science," Ranganathan named children, the physically disabled, artisans, newly-literate adults, the intellectually disabled, working-class individuals, and individuals with niche interests as specific groups of potential readers that are served through the application of the second law. In addition, a library collection must represent the community it serves.


title: Five laws of library science

text: The third law of library science, "Every book its reader," means all books have a place in the library, even if only a small demographic might choose to read them. Ranganathan later clarified that the term "book" could be generalized to mean any document.


title: Five laws of library science

text: The fourth law of library science, "Save the time of the reader," means that all patrons should be able to easily locate the materials they desire quickly and efficiently. The practice of librarianship creates systems, services, workflows, guides and frameworks to the benefit of practicality to the user. Ranganathan said the fourth law in turn saves the time of the library staff through such practices as centralized classification and cataloging, documenting materials before sending them to the library that ordered them, and mechanizing methods for information retrieval.


title: Five laws of library science

text: The fifth law of library science, "A library is a growing organism," means that a library should be a dynamic institution that is never static in its outlook. Ranganathan identified two types of growth: growth that increases the quantity of items in the library's collection, and growth that improves the collection's overall quality through the replacement of materials. Books, methods, and the physical library should be updated over time. There needs to be a consideration of growing physical space, but in the 21st century this has come to mean the multiple formats platforms a collection can encompass.


title: Five laws of library science

text: Ranganathan also wrote about what he called "The Law of Parsimony." According to this law, fiscal resources should generally not be allocated to books that have a limited audience.


title: Five laws of library science

text: In 1998, Michael Gorman, a past president of the American Library Association, recommended the following laws in addition to Ranganathan's five:


title: Five laws of library science

text: Gorman repeated these laws in Chapter 1 of his book "Future Libraries: Dreams, Madness, & Realities", which was co-written by Walt Crawford, and in "Our Singular Strengths: Meditations for Librarians."


title: Five laws of library science

text: In 2008, librarian Carol Simpson recommended the following edits to Ranganathan's laws to reflect the richness of media:


title: Five laws of library science

text: In 2016, Dr. Achala Munigal recommended the following edits to Ranganathan's laws due to the introduction and application of social tools in libraries:


title: Five laws of library science

text: In 2019, Basheerhamad Shadrach proposed the Five Laws of Knowledge, adapted from those of Ranganathan:


title: Barracks

text: Barracks are usually a group of long buildings built to house military personnel or laborers. The English word originates from the 17th century via French and Italian from an old Spanish word "barraca" ("soldier's tent"), but today barracks are usually permanent buildings for military accommodation. The word may apply to separate housing blocks or to complete complexes, and the plural form often refers to a single structure and may be singular in construction.


title: Barracks

text: The main object of barracks is to separate soldiers from the civilian population and reinforce discipline, training, and "esprit de corps". They have been called "discipline factories for soldiers". Like industrial factories, some are considered to be shoddy or dull buildings, although others are known for their magnificent architecture such as Collins Barracks in Dublin and others in Paris, Berlin, Madrid, Vienna, or London. From the rough barracks of 19th-century conscript armies, filled with hazing and illness and barely differentiated from the livestock pens that housed the draft animals, to the clean and Internet-connected barracks of modern all-volunteer militaries, the word can have a variety of connotations.


title: Barracks

text: Early barracks such as those of the Roman Praetorian Guard were built to maintain elite forces. There are a number of remains of Roman army barracks in frontier forts such as Vercovicium and Vindolanda. From these and from contemporary Roman sources we can see that the basics of life in a military camp have remained constant for thousands of years.


title: Barracks

text: In the Early Modern Period, they formed part of the Military Revolution that scholars believe contributed decisively to the formation of the nation state by increasing the expense of maintaining standing armies. Large, permanent barracks were developed in the 18th century by the two dominant states of the period, France the "caserne" and Spain the "cuartel". The English term 'barrack', on the other hand, derives from the Spanish word for a temporary shelter erected by soldiers on campaign, "barraca"; (because of fears that a standing army in barracks would be a threat to the constitution, barracks were not generally built in Great Britain until 1790, on the eve of the Napoleonic Wars).


title: Barracks

text: Early barracks were multi-story blocks, often grouped in a quadrangle around a courtyard or parade ground. A good example is Berwick Barracks, which was among the first in England to be purpose-built and begun in 1717 to the design of the distinguished architect Nicholas Hawksmoor. During the 18th century, the increasing sophistication of military life led to separate housing for different ranks (officers always had larger rooms) and married quarters; as well as the provision of specialized buildings such as dining rooms and cook houses, bath houses, mess rooms, schools, hospitals, armories, gymnasia, riding schools and stables. The pavilion plan concept of hospital design was influential in barrack planning after the Crimean War.


title: Barracks

text: The first large-scale training camps were built in the Kingdom of France and the Germany during the early 18th century. The British Army built Aldershot camps from 1854.


title: Barracks

text: By the First World War, infantry, artillery, and cavalry regiments had separate barracks. The first naval barracks were hulks, old wooden sailing vessels; but these insanitary lodgings were replaced with large naval barracks at the major dockyard towns of Europe and the United States, usually with hammocks instead of beds.


title: Barracks

text: These were inadequate for the enormous armies mobilized after 1914. Hut camps were developed using variations of the eponymous Nissen hut, made from timber or corrugated iron.


title: Barracks

text: In many military forces, both NCO and SNCO personnel will frequently be housed in barracks for service or training. Officers are often charged with ensuring the barracks and personnel are maintained in an orderly fashion. Junior enlisted and sometimes junior NCOs will often receive less space and may be housed in bays, while senior NCOs and officers may share or have their own room. Junior enlisted personnel are typically tasked with the cleanliness of the barracks.


title: Barracks

text: The term "Garrison town" is a common expression for any town that has military barracks, i.e., a permanent military presence nearby.


title: Barracks

text: Barracks were used to house troops in forts during the Upper Canadian period. Leading up to and during the War of 1812, Lieutenant-Governor John Graves Simcoe and Major-General Isaac Brock oversaw the construction of Fort York on the shores of Lake Ontario in present-day Toronto. There are several surviving British Army barracks built between 1814 and 1815 at that site today. Multiple limestone barracks were built half a mile west of Fort York in 1840, only one of which survives. The British Army handed over "New Fort York", as the second fort was called, to the Canadian Militia in 1870 after Confederation.


title: Barracks

text: The Stone Frigate, completed in 1820, served as barracks briefly in 1837–38, and was refitted as a dormitory and classrooms to house the Royal Military College of Canada by 1876. The Stone frigate is a large stone building originally designed to hold gear and rigging from British warships dismantled to comply with the Rush–Bagot Treaty.


title: Barracks

text: In Poland barracks are represented usually as a complex of buildings, each consisting of a separate entity or an administrative or business premises. As an example, the Barracks Complex in Września.