title: Battle for Caen

text: Operation Jupiter, a VIII Corps attack by the 43rd (Wessex) Infantry Division and the 4th Armoured Brigade began on 10 July, to follow up a possible German retreat after Charnwood. The Germans had five infantry battalions, two Tiger detachments, two "Sturmgeschütz" companies and "Nebelwerfer" mostly from the 10th SS-Panzer Division, with elements of the 9th SS Panzer Division and the 12th SS-Panzer Division "Hitlerjugend" in reserve. The attack was intended to capture the villages of Baron-sur-Odon, Fontaine-Étoupefour, Château de Fontaine and recapture the top of Hill 112 by After the first phase, positions on Hill 112 were to cover an advance on Éterville, Maltot and the ground up to the River Orne. A bombardment of mortars and over 100 field guns was to precede the attack. The attack began after a naval bombardment, air attack and artillery fire but the Tiger tanks of the "schwere SS-Panzer Abteilung" 102 (Heavy SS Tank Detachment 102) out-ranged British Churchill and Sherman tanks. Neither side could hold Hill 112, the top of which was left in no-man's-land. Several villages nearby were taken and the 9th SS Panzer Division was sent from reserve to contain the attack, which achieved the Allied operational objective.


title: Battle for Caen

text: On 18 July, VIII Corps began Operation Goodwood, an attack by three armoured divisions towards the German-held Bourguébus Ridge, along with the area between Bretteville-sur-Laize and Vimont, to force the Germans to commit their armoured reserves in costly counter-attacks. Goodwood was preceded further west by the Second Battle of the Odon, attacks by XXX Corps and XII Corps, to inflict casualties and concentrate the attention of "Panzergruppe West" on the east end of the bridgehead. On 18 July, I Corps conducted an advance to secure villages and the eastern flank of VIII Corps. On the western flank, II Canadian Corps conducted Operation Atlantic to capture the remaining German positions in Caen south of the Orne. The Germans were able to stop the British advance short of Bourguébus Ridge but had been shocked by the weight of the attack and preliminary aerial bombardment. The Germans had only the resources to hold ground in great depth south of Caen. The south bank suburbs had been captured by the Canadians in Operation Atlantic and the British had advanced east of Caen and took about of ground to the south of the city.


title: Battle for Caen

text: The attack reinforced the German view that the Allied threat on the eastern flank was the most dangerous and more units were transferred eastwards, including the remaining mobile elements of the 2nd Panzer Division near Caumont. Blumenson wrote that the British force suffered over 4,000 casualties and almost 500 tank losses, about 36 percent of the British tanks in France. Buckley wrote in 2004 that "Goodwood was a flawed plan, poorly executed and with little chance of success", that the Goodwood plan "demonstrated a poor understanding of the employment of armour in terms of manoeuvring space" and that "the tactical considerations for British armour in Goodwood were considerable and quite alarming". Buckley wrote in 2014 that in Goodwood and Atlantic the Anglo-Canadians had 5,500 casualties and about 400 tanks knocked out, but that the German armoured units remained pinned down around Caen as planned. By 25 July, there were 600 panzers (including all the Tiger units) opposite the Second Army and 150 facing the US First Army. The Germans had not been destroyed but the German commanders became fatalistic.


title: Battle for Caen

text: During the battle, the I SS Panzer Corps had turned the high Verrières Ridge into their primary fortification, defending it with hundreds of guns, tanks, "Nebelwerfers", mortars, and infantry from up to three divisions. On 18 July, Operation Atlantic began 45 minutes after Goodwood and the 2nd Canadian Infantry Division with tank support, captured Giberville and the Caen industrial suburbs of Colombelles and Vaucelles south the Orne. By mid-afternoon, two companies of the Black Watch had crossed the river and the 5th Canadian Infantry Brigade managed to push southward to Saint-André-sur-Orne. With the south bank secured, the 4th and 6th Canadian Infantry Brigades moved into position for the second phase, an assault on Verrières Ridge (Bourguébus Ridge to the British). On 19 July, Cormelles was captured with the 7th Armoured Division and the 5th Canadian Brigade took the east slope of Point 67 (the village of Ifs). The 1st SS Panzer Division and the 272nd Infantry Division counter-attacked but were repulsed. On 20 July, The South Saskatchewan Regiment, The Queen's Own Cameron Highlanders of Canada and the 27th Armoured Regiment (The Sherbrooke Fusilier Regiment), supported by Hawker Typhoons, assaulted the ridge. The Cameron Highlanders attacked Saint-André-sur-Orne but were repulsed. Torrential rain immobilised tanks and infantry and grounded aircraft and the South Saskatchewans lost 282 casualties. Battlegroups from four panzer divisions counter-attacked and forced the Canadians back beyond their start lines. The Essex Scottish lost On 21 July, Simonds ordered The Black Watch (Royal Highland Regiment) of Canada and The Calgary Highlanders to stabilise the front along Verrières Ridge. The two battalions and the 3rd Canadian Infantry Division defeated more counter-attacks by the two SS Panzer divisions in costly defensive fighting.


title: Battle for Caen

text: On 25 July, II Canadian Corps conducted Operation Spring on Verrières (Bourguébus) Ridge simultaneously with the American Operation Cobra in the west. The operation was to capture the ridge and villages on the south slope. The German defences on the ridge and armoured counter-attacks inflicted heavy casualties on the Canadian infantry and tanks, and the attack "fizzled out fairly quickly" later in the day.


title: Battle for Caen

text: Terry Copp wrote in 2004, that the 9th Canadian Infantry Brigade had worked through traffic jams and had captured Villons les Buissons, when Dempsey ordered the invasion divisions to dig in on an intermediate objective, as the 21st Panzer Division counter-attack against the 3rd Division. The panzers were repulsed by the 185th Infantry Brigade and then penetrated between Sword and Juno; the attack cost the Germans 33 percent of their tanks. The German panzer force was still formidable when it was ordered to retire, as another Allied aerial armada appeared overhead; both sides had been given orders which were cautious and events possibly made them premature. Copp called the Allied achievement "extraordinary" but one which failed to impress writers like Chester Wilmot and Charles Stacey, the Canadian official historian. Copp wrote that the Anglo-Canadians had advanced inland by bounds from one secured objective to the next, according to their training, a cautious but sensible tactic. The stop order has been criticised on the assumption that the 9th Canadian Infantry Brigade would not have been overrun on the final objectives, something which happened to some Canadian units the next day. Had the Germans waited to prepare a proper co-ordinated counter-attack, instead of conducting piecemeal attacks on 6 June, it could have been a greater threat but it was impossible to know the effect of hypothetical decisions.


title: Battle for Caen

text: In a 2004 academic study, Robert Citino criticised the British on D-Day, at Villers-Bocage, Epsom and Goodwood, for failing to use mobile warfare tactics and in 2009, Antony Beevor wrote that the British had not been sufficiently ruthless. Buckley wrote that these critics concentrated on British failings; only a few hours after the landings began on 6 June, the British army was "supposedly fluffing its lines"; in 1962 the historian Alexander McKee described the D-Day rush on Caen degenerating into a "plodding advance by a few hundred riflemen", a failure which condemned the British to costly battles of attrition. Buckley wrote that critics had it that the British "bungled matters again" at Villers Bocage a week after D-Day, when the 7th Armoured Division was "stopped dead in its tracks, apparently by the action of a single Tiger tank". For the next few weeks, despite plentiful resources, the British attacks on Caen "seemingly made little headway", while the US First Army captured Cherbourg and the Cotentin Peninsula. After the capture of the Cotentin, the Americans pushed south and were poised for Operation Cobra by 25 July. The British Operation Goodwood, which had taken place east of Caen the week before, was written off as a "humiliating failure", with 400 tanks knocked out. When the Germans were finally driven from Normandy, the British "seemingly made a hash of the pursuit" by not trapping German forces west of Antwerp.


title: Battle for Caen

text: Buckley wrote that criticism of the performance of the British army came to a head in the 1980s and was reflected in popular films, television programmes, board and computer games. The view of the British army as "triumphant and successful" had been replaced by one of an "unimaginative force which only prevailed...through sheer weight of resources and...outmoded attritional methods". Artillery was the main infantry-killer of the war and it was Allied, especially British artillery, which was the most feared by the Germans after 1942; British guns dominated the battlefield and prevented concentration and manoeuvre. The British also emphasised support for the infantry and tanks by all arms and provided plenty of equipment and ammunition, while the Germans had to improvise and lurch from crisis to crisis. In Normandy, the Anglo-Canadians had experienced casualty rates similar to those of the Third Battle of Ypres in 1917 and by the end of August, each of the seven British infantry divisions in France had suffered about 75 percent casualties. Riflemen amounted to 15 percent of the army and bore 70 percent of the losses, yet the human cost of the Battle of Normandy, much of which was fought by the Anglo-Canadians against "Panzergruppe West" for possession of Caen, came within War Office expectations. The Anglo-Canadians played a crucial role in Normandy but managed to avoid a bloodbath like those of the First World War and the Eastern Front from 1941 to 1945.


title: Battle for Caen

text: In 2006, Stephen Badsey wrote that the 6th Airborne Division achieved its objectives on 6 June but the scattering of the US airborne divisions on the western flank, led the Germans to believe that the Allied "schwerpunkt" (point of main effort) was close to the Cotentin Peninsula. Even as "Kampfgruppe von Luck" was counter-attacking the British paratroops east of the Orne, LXXXIV Corps was sending reinforcements westwards against the Americans. Only when confronted with the advance of the 50th (Northumbrian) Infantry Division inland from Gold, was "Kampfgruppe Meyer" re-directed towards Bayeux. Badsey wrote that had the "kampfgruppe" counter-attack succeeded along with those of the 21st Panzer Division, the arrival of the 12th SS Panzer Division on 7 June, might have led to the Second Army being surrounded. Badsey wrote that after D-Day, historians and writers concentrate on the defence of Caen by the 12th SS and the 21st Panzer divisions but that the Germans also conducted many pincer attacks against the invasion beaches which were devastated by Allied air and naval bombardment, which made it impossible to manoeuvre north of the Caen–Cherbourg road, just as Rommel had predicted.


title: Battle for Caen

text: The Germans persisted with counter-attacks after 6 June and "Kampfgruppe Meyer" and Mobile Brigade 30 were smashed north of Bayeux. The attacks of the 50th (Northumbrian) Infantry Division, combined with those of the 1st US Division on the western flank, destroyed five "kampfgruppen" of the 352nd Infantry Division, creating the Caumont Gap on 8 June, the remnants breaking out during the night. Despite the danger to Caen, "Heeresgruppe B" and the 7th Army HQs thought that the main Allied effort was still in the west. On 9 June, German forces from the Orne to the Vire were ordered onto the defensive, to send reinforcements to Cherbourg and the Panzer-Lehr Division was ordered to recapture Isigny-sur-Mer, until the British advances south of Bayeux forced Rommel to divert the division to the east. Badsey wrote that contrary to the scepticism of US staff officers at Montgomery for calling Caen the "key to Cherbourg", "Heeresgruppe B" planned on 11 June to swap the panzer divisions in the east for infantry divisions and transfer the panzers to the Carentan–Montebourg area, to protect Cherbourg from the First Army. The plan was abandoned because of the risk of an Anglo-Canadian breakout and the directive from Hitler to roll up the beachheads from the east.


title: Battle for Caen

text: Badsey wrote that the invasion could only have been defeated by a fundamental change in the German defensive scheme, implemented several months before the invasion. By 14 June, the arrival of the 12th SS Panzer Division and the Panzer-Lehr Division opposite the Anglo-Canadians and the reinforcement of the defenders opposite the US troops in the west, created the impression of equality in the number of divisions. Reinforcements enabled the Germans to obstruct the Allied advance inland, prompting Tedder to remark that the situation had the "makings of a dangerous crisis". Badsey described the stalemate as an illusion, because counting divisions was a false comparison, not representative of the massive Allied superiority over the Germans. On 10 June, Allied planners at SHAEF recommended that strategic bombers be used to prepare ground attacks.


title: Battle for Caen

text: On 14 June, a period of Anglo-Canadian set-piece attacks and wider-front US attacks began, after which Allied attacks were delayed or weakened only by the weather; Badsey wrote that the German commanders admitted defeat on 17 June but Hitler refused Rommel and Rundstedt permission to retreat. Hitler ordered the generals to hold Cherbourg instead, which condemned the Germans to a series of defeats in "hard-fought" battles that were never "close run"; Dollmann, the 7th Army commander, killed himself the next day. The German commanders interpreted apparent Allied caution according to their military ethos, which took little notice of French civilian and German army casualties, in contrast to the Allied duty to protect French civilians and use tactics which conserved manpower.


title: Battle for Caen

text: Badsey wrote that accounts of the battle note the effect of terrain and weather but then go on make detailed judgements on Allied commanders, praising Eisenhower for the decision to go on 6 June in doubtful weather. Montgomery is blamed for failing to capture all of the D-Day objectives as if the weather was irrelevant, though it caused all of the airborne drops to be scattered and all of the landing forces to drift eastwards from their beaches. The narrowness of Sword forced the 3rd Infantry Division to land five brigades in series, when the 50th (Northumbrian) and 3rd Canadian divisions could land two brigades at a time on Gold and Juno. Despite the advantage of a wider beach, it was not until D+7 (8 June) that all of the 51st (Highland) Division was ashore. The slow arrival of reinforcements did much to determine the nature of Allied advances into the hinterland after D-Day. The Allies had assumed that the invasion force would be detected before it arrived but the surprise achieved by the Allies nullified the dispute between German commanders over the positioning of the panzer divisions and put criticism of Allied failures into perspective.


title: Battle for Caen

text: Badsey wrote that histories of the battle acknowledge the importance of Cherbourg to the Allies as an entrepôt for supplies and that landing on the Calvados coast, instead of the Cotentin peninsula was a compromise, because of the defensive advantage that the terrain of the peninsula gave to the Germans and the importance of gaining ground south of Caen for airfields. The Germans assumed that Cherbourg was the Allied "Schwerpunkt" (point of main effort) despite being able to see the Allied Mulberry harbours being built. The "Luftwaffe" was ordered to make a maximum effort against Allied shipping on 7 June, yet bombing and mining sorties by "Luftflotte 3" were ineffectual. None of the extant records of "Heeresgruppe B" and the 7th Army show any understanding that the Mulberries had freed the Allies from the need to capture Cherbourg quickly. On 14 June, the First Army surprised the Germans again, by attacking across the Cotentin Peninsula but took until to take the port, rather than the planned and only half the expected tonnage was unloaded from July. Badsey wrote that ignoring the significance of the Mulberries was caused by the German emphasis on battlefield effectiveness at the expense of supply and because orthodox thinking stressed that Cherbourg was the closest big port to the Allied landings.


title: Battle for Caen

text: In "Fields of Fire: The Canadians in Normandy" (2003), Terry Copp wrote that the Canadian performance in Normandy had been underestimated and described the tactical and operational flair of the Canadian army. Copp also wrote that despite demonstrating great powers of resistance, the German armies had shown no skill in defence and that their tactic of immediate counter-attack was persisted with for far too long after its futility in the face of Allied firepower had become obvious. The Germans had singularly failed to rise to the Allied challenge and that much of this was due to the Allies denying them the opportunity, a considerable tactical, operational and strategic achievement. Copp also wrote that the Anglo-Canadian armies had been criticised for a lack of a formal tank-infantry "battlegroup doctrine" similar to that used in the German armies and that this was correct; everything was allowed and armoured unit commanders chose the methods to be used, which turned out to be an advantage when they discovered in the first few days of the invasion that swift reorganisation and improvisation were needed.


title: Battle for Caen

text: In a 2006 essay, Stephen Badsey wrote that "typical" histories of the invasion of Normandy contain material on the debates and planning of the Allies and the Germans, then they describe the experiences of soldiers on D-Day; the accounts then stop at the beach or become judgements on performance of the senior Allied commanders. The unification of the five Allied beachheads is treated as inevitable and some authors then complain about how long it took to capture Caen. Badsey wrote that these accounts tend to jump to 13 June and the "remarkable but massively overwritten" feat by "Obersturmführer" Michael Wittmann at Villers-Bocage. This narrative of the battle was established by senior Allied and German officers in memoirs and in writings by loyal staff officers and sympathetic journalists. Badsey wrote that it was possible to write an alternative account and that on 7 June, Eisenhower, Montgomery and Bradley gave the same orders, that the priority was changed from an advance inland, to a merging of the beachheads. Badsey wrote that these orders were the only ones that the Allied commanders could give and that for the next few days, the commanders on both sides were reduced to waiting on events. Until the Allies achieved a united front around 12 June, events were determined by the Allied plan, the structure and training of the attacking forces and on military and national "cultures", which included the modern definition of doctrine.


title: Battle for Caen

text: Post-war debate on German defensive plans concentrated on the plans devised by Rommel which led to a compromise deployment of the panzer divisions and on the surprise achieved by Operation Neptune, which made this meaningless. Badsey wrote that the dispute between the (Eastern Front veterans) who joined LXXXIV Corps late in 1943 and advocated the defensive system used in Russia and the westerners. Infantry held thinly the front line, supported by infantry and anti-tank positions several thousand yards in the rear, with a counter-attacking panzer force in reserve. Rommel and the westerners held that the extravagant quantities of firepower available to the Allies made defence in depth unworkable. The wanted more fortifications inland and complained that troops working on beach defences were being tired out and deprived of training. Despite Rommel, the 709th and 352nd Infantry divisions created reserves, the 352nd Infantry Division also contributing with three battalions near Bayeux as the LXXXIV Corps reserve. With the "WN" network on the coast was a second defensive line on a -high ridge, inland, where reserve companies of the battalions in the beach defences and most of the German artillery were placed. Field guns closer to the beaches were dug into earth and wood emplacements and some were casemated in steel and concrete, particularly at Merville, south-east of Sword. The defensive scheme lacked a line of panzer reserves along the Caen–Cherbourg road, after Rommel sent the 352nd Infantry Division forward in March 1944 to take over some of the 716th Infantry Division frontage, sacrificing a reserve between Bayeux and the Vire estuary to the west.


title: Battle for Caen

text: Buckley wrote that after the war there had been little appetite for an objective study of the British Army of 1944–1945. Some of the main personalities involved in the campaign like Churchill ("The Second World War", published six volumes from 1948 to 1953), published accounts which were "hubristic" and "self-serving". De Guingand went into print with "Operation Victory" in 1947 and Montgomery followed in 1958, both describing a faultless campaign in which the performance of the army had been superb. When the History of the Second World War, the British official history volume of the campaign, "Victory in the West: The Battle of Normandy", was published by Major Lionel Ellis "et al." in 1962, it was criticised by Hubert Essame, who had led the 214th Infantry Brigade in Normandy, because the truth had been "polished out of existence in deference to Monty's subordinate commanders". Buckley called the volume "anodyne and factual" but wrote that such unrealistic accounts were not universal; in "The Other Side of the Hill. Germany's Generals: Their Rise and Fall, with their own Account of Military Events 1939–1945" (1948), B. H. Liddell Hart gave a dissenting view, which portrayed a German Army that had held out for so long because its leaders understood mobile warfare, having absorbed his pre-war ideas. The Allies had used the attrition tactics of the First World War, rather than "speed and dynamism" like the Germans, who had been defeated because of a lack of resources and Hitler's madness. Liddell Hart criticised Allied troops for failing to fight their way forward with their own weapons, instead using lavish artillery and air force firepower as a crutch.


title: Battle for Caen

text: In his 1952 account, Chester Wilmot, an Australian war correspondent who had accompanied the Allies in Normandy, wrote of the concern in the 21st Army Group HQ in late June and July, when British attacks had fallen short, despite the support devoted to them. Wilmot used translated German documents to depict British soldiers suffering from poor morale and lacking in aggression, which forced the British to use artillery and air support as a substitute for infantry fighting their way forward and wrote that German defeats were caused by Allied superiority in resources, rather than German failings. Buckley wrote that the documents were not objective analyses but propaganda to bolster German morale and which reflected the emphasis on close combat in the German army. Anglo-Canadian firepower tactics were interpreted as weakness, rather than a method chosen to exploit plenty, to limit casualties and to exploit German frailties. The book was very popular and helped create the impression of quantity defeating quality, as did "Men Against Fire" (1947) by S.L.A. Marshall. Supposedly only 15 percent of US infantry had engaged their opponents but German "cooks and mechanics" joined in, showing the professionalism of the German Army. Marshall ignored the desperate situation of the Germans by 1944 and his data were later discredited.


title: Battle for Caen

text: During the Cold War and the possibility of hostilities against the USSR by NATO, military analysts reviewed theory, operations and tactics and the NATO armies took the view that German methods used against the Allies from 1943 might be more effective against the Red Army than British offensive methods used from late 1942. Analysts ignored German atrocities and concentrated on theory and training, claiming that the Germans used decentralised "Auftragstaktik" (mission command). Buckley wrote that this failed to take account of German "...brutality, the fear, the overtly poisonous racist ideology….the criminalisation of young soldiers, the extreme coercion and...the desperation of the last year of the war". The tactical effectiveness of the German Army depended as much on these characteristics as good training and sound theory. The Anglo-Canadians were portrayed as dependent on "Befehlstaktik" (top-down command), which explained why the German armies had been better led and more adaptable. Montgomery denied discretion to subordinates to prevent mistakes by his inexperienced, hostilities-only conscript armies. Analysts criticised the command style of Montgomery, because he had denied initiative to subordinates and caused opportunities on the battlefield to be missed, a possibility that could lead to disaster against the Red Army.


title: Battle for Caen

text: Buckley wrote that much of the information on the supposedly better German methods came from the study of Eastern Front battles but was limited until the 1990s to German witnesses, many of whom blamed lack of numbers and Hitler's interference. When the battles in the west from June 1944 were studied, former German commanders were again consulted, who emphasised the greater resources of the Allies, the defeat of the "Luftwaffe" and Hitler's failings. These studies soon called British methods into question; stereotypes of fast German manoeuvres and strategic breakthroughs ("blitzkrieg") led to criticism of the British for not emulating the Germans. In the 1980s, British army tours of battlefields were intended to demonstrate the inferiority of British tactics and operational methods, even when army historians disagreed. Buckley wrote that the British and US armies had selectively picked some aspects of the war to justify their decisions about warfare against the USSR. By the 1980s, a stereotype of the British as slow, predictable and dependent on the Americans had become an orthodoxy, contrasted unfavourably with the "übersoldiers" of the German Army and its Blitzkrieg tactics.


title: Battle for Caen

text: Buckley wrote that in the early 1980s, a watershed in interpretation occurred, in new publications during the fortieth anniversary of the battle. "Decision in Normandy" (1983) by Carlo D'Este contained a chapter describing a British aversion to hand-to-hand fighting in favour of firepower, which caused operations to be clumsy and vulnerable to German defensive methods, which contained attacks despite inferior resources. Montgomery was accused of over-control, which constrained the initiative of subordinate commanders and was also condemned for trying to re-write the history of the campaign after the war to claim the glory. D'Este called the result a longer campaign which was more costly in casualties than a determined approach, which could have brought a speedier victory. D'Este based some of his conclusions on the views of Air Chief Marshal Arthur Tedder, Deputy Supreme Commander to Eisenhower and Lieutenant-General Frederick Morgan, who had grudges against Montgomery. Criticism made prominent the undoubtedly disagreeable personality of Montgomery and his ability to antagonise people emerged again in the memoir literature of the 1950s; his criticism of Eisenhower being taken badly in the US. Resentment led to more scrutiny of the methods used by Montgomery and the Anglo-Canadians, especially apparent contrasts with the techniques of the US forces.


title: Battle for Caen

text: Max Hastings in "Overlord: The Battle for Normandy" (1984), compared British generals against German commanders and found them wanting; Hastings blamed British soldiers too for lacking aggression, because of the "anti-militaristic nature" of British society. The Germans in Normandy had demonstrated an "extraordinary fighting performance" and had been "glorious", despite the evil of the Nazi cause but the British had been slow and cautious, too reliant on attrition to exploit advantages. Hastings also criticised British equipment; Cromwell and Sherman tanks were judged inadequate against Panther and Tiger tanks. Buckley called this a "technocentric" explanation for battlefield performance, in which male historians tried to reduce complicated matters to easily measured technical performance. Buckley wrote that D'Este and Hastings did much to propagate the stereotype of the British army as a slow juggernaut, devoid of the dynamism and flair of the Germans. Buckley wrote that the impression of German excellence rested on a narrow definition of effectiveness, in which "close-combat" prowess, derived from ideology, tactics and greater experience, was considered in isolation. Buckley used a wider definition of effectiveness, in which intelligence, supply, planning, firepower, medical services, liaison, communications and engineering were essential counterparts to battlefield tactics.


title: Battle for Caen

text: Buckley defined operations as the organisation of military units into larger groups as building blocks to campaign objectives, linking minor tactics and politico-strategic aims. "Bewegungskrieg" (war of manoeuvre) the German approach to war, concentrated on manoeuvre by tanks, mechanised infantry and mobile artillery, which, even against greater numbers had achieved great success early in the war but concealed many failings in supply and strategic reality. Before mid-1941, these methods had worked well but in Operation Barbarossa against the USSR, the German armies were exhausted before they could defeat the Red Army. The army failed to conserve its assets to achieve victory and proved unable to create the conditions for success and a durable peace. Buckley wrote of much military history concentrating too much on battle and equipment and not enough on the context of political, social and economic circumstances. In 1944, the British Army in France was affected by diminishing national and military power, yet had to play an important part in the defeat of the German army for Britain to retain its Great Power status. Much British manpower was dispersed in Bomber Command, the defence of the sea communications of the empire, the Italian Campaign, the war in the Far East and the holding down of colonial subjects.


title: Battle for Caen

text: The British had to defeat the Germans with the minimum of casualties to create the circumstances necessary for a lasting peace and since the 1990s the methods used by Montgomery had been re-evaluated, with his "disagreeable...peculiar and difficult personality" being given less prominence. Monographs on parts of the army have shown that they performed well and the Canadians have been rescued from historical oblivion, through the use of "contemporary documents, reports and operational analyses", rather than journalistic writing, apologetics and testimony. In a publication of 2000, David French showed that the British Army had overcome its early defeats and was an effective fighting force in the second half of the war. In Normandy the army knew what it could do and how to defeat German forces which had more experience. In the same year, Stephen Hart published "Montgomery and Colossal Cracks: 21st Army Group in Northwest Europe 1944–5" and judged Montgomery's methods to have been right for the circumstances, that they were highly effective and that despite inadequacies, there were no better alternatives. In 2004, John Buckley argued that British tank forces had performed well in Normandy by adapting better than German armoured units.


title: Battle for Caen

text: Members of the 12th SS Panzer Division shot 156 Canadian prisoners-of-war near Caen during the Battle of Normandy. After the Battle of Le Mesnil-Patry, troops of the 12th SS Panzer Division captured seven Canadians who had been wandering around no-man's land since the battle, tired and hungry. The men were interrogated by an officer of the 12th "SS-Pioniere Battalion" at an ad hoc headquarters in the village of Mouen, about south-east of Le Mesnil-Patry. On 14 June, two crew members of the 1st Hussars reached Canadian lines and reported that they had seen several Canadian prisoners shot in the back after surrendering. At about the men had been led to the outskirts of the village under armed guard. Four Canadian prisoners were killed by a firing squad and the remaining men were shot in the head at close-range. Twenty Canadians were killed near Villons-les-Buissons, north-west of Caen in Ardenne Abbey. The abbey was captured at midnight on 8 July by the Regina Rifles and the soldiers were exhumed and buried in the Bény-sur-Mer Canadian War Cemetery. After the war, Waffen-SS officer, Kurt Meyer, was convicted and sentenced to death on charges of inappropriate behaviour towards civilians and the execution of prisoners, a sentence later commuted to life imprisonment; he was released after serving eight years.


title: Battle for Caen

text: In 2006, Peter Gray wrote that few controversies have left such a long-standing scar of the psyche of a city as the Allied bombing of Caen – the city that considers itself to have been martyred. Before the invasion, Caen had a population of 60,000 people. On 6 June, Allied aircraft dropped leaflets urging the population to leave but only a few hundred did so. Later in the day, British heavy bombers attacked the city to slow the flow of German reinforcements; were killed in the first 48 hours of the invasion. Streets were blocked by rubble, so the injured were taken to an emergency hospital set up in the Bon Sauveur convent. The Palais des Ducs, the church of Saint-Étienne and the railway station were all destroyed or severely damaged. About 15,000 people took refuge for more than a month in medieval quarry tunnels south of the city. Allied bombing turned much of the French countryside and the city of Caen into a wasteland. The German resistance was extremely fierce, and the Germans used the ruins to their advantage.


title: Battle for Caen

text: The "Défense Passive" and other civil defence groups coordinated medical relief. Six surgical teams were alerted on the morning of the invasion and police brought medical supplies to Bon Sauveur and hospitals at and Many buildings caught fire and molten lead dripped from their roofs. About 3,000 people took refuge in Bon Sauveur, Abbaye aux Hommes and Saint Etienne church. Foraging parties were sent out into the countryside for food and old wells were re-opened. On 9 June, the bell tower of Saint Pierre was destroyed by a shell from "Rodney". The Vichy government in Paris managed to send supplies to Caen under the auspices of "Secours Nationale".


title: Battle for Caen

text: The Germans ordered all remaining civilians to leave on 6 July and by the bombing during the evening of 7 July, only 15,000 inhabitants remained. A force of 450 heavy bombers prepared the way for Operation Charnwood. Although the delayed-action bombs were aimed at the northern edge of Caen, massive damage was again inflicted on the city centre. At least two civilian shelters were hit and the University of Caen building was destroyed, being killed by the raid and the fighting in Caen on 8 July, bringing the civilian death toll to 1,150 since D-Day. The Germans withdrew from Caen north of the Orne on 9 July and blew the last bridge. The southern suburbs liberated on 18 July by the 3rd Canadian Infantry Division.


title: Battle for Caen

text: Gray wrote that the bombing created considerable quantities of rubble, which restricted the access for armour and actually impeded the advance into Caen. This prevented the rapid seizure of the Orne bridges, which were then destroyed by the defenders before they could be secured. The military efficacy of the bombing of Caen appears to have been somewhere between negligible and counter-productive, but the effect on the residents was devastating. Montgomery claimed that the bombing of Caen had played a vital part in its subsequent capture but Gray wrote that later assessments of this analysis range "from fantasy to guilty conscience".


title: Battle for Caen

text: Following the capture of Caen, British war correspondents for the "Daily Mail" reported on 28 July that,


title: Battle for Caen

text: By the end of the battle, the civilian population of Caen had fallen from 60,000 to 17,000. Caen and many of the surrounding towns and villages were mostly destroyed; the University of Caen (founded in 1432) was razed. The buildings were eventually rebuilt after the war and the university adopted the phoenix as its symbol. About 35,000 residents were made homeless after the Allied bombing and the destruction of the city caused much resentment.


title: Battle for Caen

text: There are many monuments to the battle and Operation Overlord. For example, on the road to Odon-bridge at Tourmauville, there is a memorial for the 15th (Scottish) Infantry Division; or the monument on hill 112 for the 53rd (Welsh) Infantry Division, as well as one for the 43rd (Wessex) Infantry Division. Near Hill 112, a forest was planted in memory of those who fought there.


title: Battle for Caen

text: The landings at Normandy, the battle and the Second World War are remembered today with many memorials; Caen hosts the "Mémorial" with a peace museum ("Musée de la paix"). The museum was built by the city of Caen on top of where the bunker of General Wilhelm Richter, the commander of the 716th Infantry Division, was located. On 6 June 1988 French President François Mitterrand and twelve ambassadors from countries that took part in the fighting in Normandy joined to open the museum. The museum is dedicated to pacifism and borders the "Parc international pour la Libération de l'Europe", a garden in remembrance of the Allied participants in the invasion.


title: Battle for Caen

text: The fallen are buried in the Brouay War Cemetery (377 graves), the Banneville-la-Campagne War Cemetery (2,170 graves), the Bény-sur-Mer Canadian War Cemetery (2,049 graves), the Bretteville-sur-Laize Canadian War Cemetery (2,957 graves), La Cambe German war cemetery (21,222 graves) as well as many more.


title: Hvar

text: Hvar (; Chakavian: "Hvor" or "For", , , ) is a Croatian island in the Adriatic Sea, located off the Dalmatian coast, lying between the islands of Brač, Vis and Korčula. Approximately long, with a high east–west ridge of Mesozoic limestone and dolomite, the island of Hvar is unusual in the area for having a large fertile coastal plain, and fresh water springs. Its hillsides are covered in pine forests, with vineyards, olive groves, fruit orchards and lavender fields in the agricultural areas. The climate is characterized by mild winters, and warm summers with many hours of sunshine. The island has 10,739 residents according to the 2021 census, making it the 4th most populated of the Croatian islands.


title: Hvar

text: Hvar's location at the centre of the Adriatic sailing routes has long made this island an important base for commanding trade up and down the Adriatic, across to Italy and throughout the wider Mediterranean. It has been inhabited since prehistoric times, originally by a Neolithic people whose distinctive pottery gave rise to the term Hvar culture, and later by the Illyrians. The ancient Greeks founded the colony of Pharos in 384 BC on the site of today's Stari Grad, making it one of the oldest towns in Europe. They were also responsible for setting out the agricultural field divisions of the Stari Grad Plain, now a UNESCO World Heritage Site. In medieval times, the town of Hvar rose to importance within the Venetian Empire as a major naval base. Prosperity brought culture and the arts, with one of the first public theatres in Europe, nobles' palaces and many fine communal buildings.


title: Hvar

text: The 16th century was an unsettled time, with the Hvar Rebellion, coastal raids by pirates and the Ottoman army from the mainland, resulting in some unusual fortified buildings on the northern shore to protect the local population. After a brief time under Napoleonic rule, the island became part of the Austrian Empire, a more peaceful and prosperous time. On the coast, harbours were expanded, quays built, fishing and boat building businesses grew. At the same time, the island's wine exports increased, along with lavender and rosemary production for the French perfume industry. However, this prosperity did not continue into the 20th century as wooden sailing boats went out of fashion, and the phylloxera blight hit wine production. Many islanders left to make a new life elsewhere.


title: Hvar

text: One industry, tourism, has however continued to grow and is now a significant contributor to the island's economy. The formation of The Hygienic Association of Hvar in 1868 for the assistance of visitors to the island has been instrumental in developing an infrastructure of hotels, apartments, restaurants, marinas, museums, galleries and cafés. Today, the island of Hvar is a tourist destination, consistently listed in the top 10 islands by Conde Nast Traveler magazine.


title: Hvar

text: The island of Hvar is located in the Adriatic Sea, off the Dalmatian coast. To the north, the island of Brač lies across the Hvar Channel ("Hvarski kanal"), to the west is Vis, separated by the Vis Channel, and to the south Korčula lies across the Korčula Channel, while the Pelješac Peninsula is across the Neretva Channel. The eastern end of Hvar is just from the mainland. Along the southern coast of the island there are several smaller islands, notably the Paklinski islands at the western end and Šćedro island, while Zečevo island lies off the north coast.


title: Hvar

text: Hvar is a high east–west ridge of Mesozoic limestone and dolomite, which was part of the mainland until approximately 11,000 years ago. Around that time, sea levels rose, filling the valleys that are now the channels between the islands. Hvar has a typical karst landscape, which means limited or no surface water, despite adequate rainfall, which disappears quickly into crevices in the ground. Farming in such areas requires careful conservation of water and protection of the soil against erosion. The water cisterns in the fields, and the dry-stone walls, especially terracing on the slopes are necessary for the continued success of agriculture on the island.


title: Hvar

text: The island has a typical Mediterranean vegetation, mostly bare with woody scrub at higher, steeper elevations, turning to pine forests on the lower slopes with Holm oak (Orno-Quercetum ilicis), Aleppo pines (Pinus halapensis Mill) and Black pines (Pinus nigra dalmatica). The islet of Šćedro is especially rich in various Mediterranean trees and plants.


title: Hvar

text: Hvar island is long, and only at its widest point. It covers an area of , the 4th largest of the Adriatic islands by area, and has a coastline length of . The highest peak is Sv. Nikola, at .


title: Hvar

text: The island is part of Split-Dalmatia County in Dalmatia, Croatia. The island has two towns and (Hvar and Stari Grad) and two municipalities (Jelsa and Sućuraj). Population figures are from 2011.


title: Hvar

text: The climate of Hvar is hot-summer Mediterranean ("Csa" in the Köppen climate classification). It has mild winters and hot summers. The yearly average air temperature is , of precipitation fall on Hvar on average every year and the town has a total of 2800 sunshine hours per year. For comparison Hvar has an average of 7.7 sunshine hours per day while Dubrovnik has 7.2. The sea temperatures average from the lowest readings in February of to their warmest during summer, when the sea temperatures usually stay between to . The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "Csa" (Mediterranean Climate).


title: Hvar

text: The first inhabitants of Hvar Island were Neolithic people who probably established trade links between Hvar and the eastern shores of the Mediterranean. The Hvar Culture lasted from 3500 to 2500 B.C. Beginning in the 4th century BC, the Greeks colonized the island. In 384 BC the Greek colonisers of Pharos defeated Iadasinoi warriors and their allies, invited by the Hvar indigenes in their resistance to the Greek colonization. Their victory over much larger forces was immortalized in one of the oldest known inscriptions of Croatia. Following Roman victory in the Second Illyrian War against Demetrius of Pharos, the island became a part of the Roman Republic in 219 BC and the Greek name Pharos was changed to Pharia. After the fall of the Roman Empire in the west, the island was under the control of the Byzantine or Eastern Roman Empire. The population increased in the Late Antiquity with an abundance of archaeological finds. A large number of new villa rustica in Stari Grad Plain and also on the previously vacant eastern shores were built.


title: Hvar

text: In the early Middle Ages, Slavic tribes occupied the island. In the first half of the 7th century the Narentines took over the island. Venetian sailors saw the island while sailing towards the south and were threatened by the Narentine pirates from the island. In the 11th century the island joined the Kingdom of Croatia. In the 12th century, the rise of the Republic of Venice brought vines and wine cultivation which blossomed into a major industry for the island in the Middle Ages. The island eventually again fell under Byzantine rule, and then under the Kingdom of Croatia and Hungary. In 1331 the Venetians put the island under protection from threats of piracy. According to the 1358 Treaty of Zadar, the island was handed over to the Kingdom of Hungary. For short time in the summer of 1390, it was held by the Bosnian king Stephen Tvrtko I. In 1409, the Republic of Venice finally again became its long-term owner. In the 16th century, an uprising occurred between the plebeians and aristocracy, the most serious uprising occurred between 1510 and 1514 with the Venetians ruthlessly crushing the locals and sending twenty of their leaders to the hangman. The island became prosperous from fishing, and the cultivation of rosemary, lavender and olives.


title: Hvar

text: Hvar is important to the history of Croatia as it was one of the centres of Croatian literature during the Renaissance, with writers such as Petar Hektorović and Hanibal Lucić. In Stari Grad, tourists can see the Petar Hektorović fortress/villa called Tvrdalj Castle, architectonically designed by the poet himself. Churches on the island contain many important paintings and artworks by famous Venetian artists, including Tintoretto, Veronese, Bellini and others. In 1797 Hvar was annexed with the fall of the Venetian Republic by the Habsburg monarchy as per the Treaty of Campo Formio. But forces of the French Empire seized it in 1806 during the Napoleonic wars before finally being taken by British marines and sailors in 1812.


title: Hvar

text: The Austrians regained control of the island in 1815 with the Treaty of Vienna. The beginning of the 20th century brought a period of relative prosperity. The Italian army occupied the island from 1918 until 1921, when Hvar with the rest of Croatia joined the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. In 1939, an autonomous Croatian Banate was formed that included the island. During WWII, it was under the control of Independent State of Croatia, but under military occupation of Fascist Italy until 1943. After 1945, it became a part of People's Republic of Croatia, a constituent republic of Communist Yugoslavia. Ivan Vučetić, the man who perfected dactyloscopy at the turn of the 20th century, came from Hvar island. In the 21st century, Hvar's citizens include football player Igor Tudor and politician Tonči Tadić.


title: Hvar

text: Residents of Hvar mostly work in the fishing and tourism industries. Hvar has a very mild Mediterranean climate, several beaches and Mediterranean vegetation that make it one of the most attractive tourist centres in Europe. The island promotes itself as "the sunniest spot in Europe", with over 2715 hours of sunlight in an average year.


title: Hvar

text: Hvar town is the main tourist centre. It features a large public square (St Stephen's Square/"trg Sv. Stjepana") that is open to the sea. During the tourist season, the port is filled with large yachts and sailboats. All-night discos attract large crowds of young visitors.


title: Hvar

text: Another major economic activity is the cultivation of lavender, used for aromatic oils and soaps. Hvar is often called the "island of lavender".


title: Hvar

text: Hvar is also one of the two most famous winemaking zones in Croatia. Vineyards on the southern side of the island are famous for red wines produced from the Plavac Mali grape. The central plain between Stari Grad and Jelsa is famous for its white wines.


title: Hvar

text: As a Greek colony, the island initially was known as "Paros" (Πάρος) because it was colonized by Greeks from the island of Paros in Aegean, and later as "Pharos" (Φάρος) "lighthouse". However, it is not clear if the name really comes from the Greek word for lighthouse. It was more likely an Illyrian word for something since it is unlikely that the lighthouse preceded the name for the island. During the 3rd century BC, the Greek poet Apollonius of Rhodes referred to it as "Piteyeia" – a name derived from the Greek word "pitys", meaning pine tree. As part of the Roman province of Dalmatia, it was known as "Pharia" and, later, "Fara".


title: Hvar

text: From the 7th century onwards, the Byzantine Theme of Dalmatia, including "Fara", was settled by the Pannonian Avars and Croats. However, the population initially remained culturally Illyro-Roman and part of the Byzantine Roman world. Under the linguistic influence of the newcomers, the official name became "Quarra" – because the Slavic languages did not originally have the /f/-sound. Later, the name was Slavicised further as Hvar.


title: Hvar

text: Since the late 11th century, the Italian name of the island has been "Lesina" or, in Venetian, "Liesena". These names appear to have their origin in the Proto-Slavic root "les-", meaning "wood" or "forest". "Liesena" was the official name during the era of Venetian Dalmatia (16th and 17th centuries).


title: Armored Saint

text: Armored Saint is an American heavy metal band formed in Los Angeles, California in 1982. Since 1990, the band has consisted of John Bush on lead vocals, Joey Vera on bass, Jeff Duncan on rhythm guitar and the Sandoval brothers (Gonzo and Phil) on drums and lead guitar, respectively. Of the current lineup, Bush and Vera are the two constant members. To date, the band has released eight studio albums, one EP, two live albums and one compilation album.


title: Armored Saint

text: As one of the leaders of the Los Angeles heavy metal scene, Armored Saint achieved moderate success during the 1980s with their 1983 self-titled EP and first three studio albums: "March of the Saint" (1984), "Delirious Nomad" (1985) and "Raising Fear" (1987). Prior to the release of their fourth studio album "Symbol of Salvation" (1991), the band was plagued by extended inactivity, due to record company issues and the death of their original guitarist Dave Prichard, who died of leukemia in 1990. Armored Saint eventually broke up when Bush joined Anthrax in 1992 to replace Joey Belladonna, but reunited in 1999, and has continued to tour and record since then.


title: Armored Saint

text: Armored Saint was formed in 1982 by brothers Gonzalo "Gonzo" Sandoval on drums and Felipe "Phil" Sandoval on rhythm guitar, from Woodrow Wilson High School (Los Angeles), along with lead singer John Bush, bassist Joey Vera, also Woodrow Wilson High School alumni, and lead guitarist Dave Prichard from nearby South Pasadena High School. The Sandovals, Vera and Bush had originally played together during high school in a short lived rock band called "Royal Decree"). Gonzo Sandoval claims to have conceived the band name "Armored Saint," after watching the movie "Excalibur", at a local movie theater parking lot in Monterey Park, California. In 1983 John Bush was invited by drummer Lars Ulrich to audition as singer for Metallica following the release of their debut album, "Kill 'Em All", as frontman James Hetfield was not confident in his own singing abilities and wanted to focus on playing guitar. However, Bush turned down the offer as he wanted to remain in Armored Saint.


title: Armored Saint

text: Armored Saint recorded a five-song demo that landed the song "Lesson Well Learned" on the compilation album "Metal Massacre II". Three of these demo songs were then used for the band's self-titled EP on Metal Blade Records in 1983. The group then signed with Chrysalis Records in 1984.


title: Armored Saint

text: Armored Saint released their debut album "March of the Saint" in 1984. The debut album yielded a minor MTV hit with "Can U Deliver?". During the recording of their second album, "Delirious Nomad", rhythm guitarist Phil Sandoval left the group. Their third album, "Raising Fear", was recorded by the remaining four members. In 1986 during the recording sessions for the album, Metallica contacted Joey Vera to replace bassist Cliff Burton after his untimely death. Vera turned down this offer as he wanted to stay in Armored Saint, and Burton was eventually replaced by Jason Newsted of Flotsam and Jetsam.


title: Armored Saint

text: Throughout the 1980s, Armored Saint toured, or played selected shows, with many acts such as Judas Priest, Metallica, Aerosmith, Whitesnake, Ted Nugent, Alice Cooper, Saxon, Ratt, Testament, Exodus, W.A.S.P., Dio, Accept, Fates Warning, Y&T, Grim Reaper, Malice, King Diamond, Great White, Stryper, Leatherwolf, Lizzy Borden, Savatage, Helloween and Danzig. By the end of the decade, however, the band was unhappy with their lack of success on the Chrysalis label, and returned to Metal Blade. Soon after the release of their first live album "Saints Will Conquer" and a short-lived lineup that included Alan Barlam (then-guitarist for Hellion), Armored Saint added Jeff Duncan, formerly of the L.A. club band Odin, as rhythm guitarist, while Gonzo Sandoval briefly left the band and was replaced by Eddie Livingston as drummer.


title: Armored Saint

text: In 1989, while writing and recording rough four-track demos for their next studio album, guitarist Dave Prichard was diagnosed with leukemia. Prichard succumbed to the disease on February 27, 1990, shortly before the recording sessions of "Symbol of Salvation" began. After a brief hiatus, the Sandoval brothers returned to the band and Phil switched to lead guitar duties to replace Prichard. "Symbol of Salvation" was released in 1991 to widespread critical success. It featured two hits "Reign of Fire" and "Last Train Home." The album was dedicated to the spirit and memory of Dave Prichard, whose solo on the demo recording of the song "Tainted Past" was painstakingly and carefully transferred and used on the album. The tour for "Symbol of Salvation" was successful; they opened for Suicidal Tendencies on their "Lights...Camera...Revolution!" tour and Savatage on their "" tour. They also toured with the Scorpions, Wrathchild America, Sepultura and Overkill.


title: Armored Saint

text: In 1992, the band contributed the song "Hanging Judge" to the "" soundtrack, as well as made a brief appearance in the film. Several months later, John Bush was offered the position of lead vocalist in the thrash band Anthrax. Unsure of Armored Saint's future, Bush accepted the job. The Sandoval brothers attempted to audition new members to create a new chapter, yet after many failed attempts, Armored Saint was officially disbanded.


title: Armored Saint

text: After Armored Saint disbanded, Joey Vera kept busy playing with such bands as Fates Warning, Lizzy Borden and Chroma Key. He released a solo album in 1994 and started a successful second career as a producer and engineer. The Sandoval brothers formed Life After Death. Life after Death released a self entitled record on the now defunct John Sutherland record label Indivision, and released the record on the now defunct European label Rising Sun, and Jeff Duncan formed DC4 with brothers Shawn and Matt, and former Dio guitarist Rowan Robertson.


title: Armored Saint

text: In 1999, with Anthrax on temporary hiatus, John Bush and Joey Vera decided to reform Armored Saint. The entire "Symbol of Salvation" lineup returned to the studio, and in 2000 the album "Revelation" was released. It included the band's first song with Spanish lyrics, Written by Gonzo Sandoval & John Bush "No Me Digas". A small club tour opening for Dio and Lynch Mob followed.


title: Armored Saint

text: The following year, the band released "Nod to the Old School", a collection of rarities, demos and outtakes (many from the Prichard years), plus a few new tracks. Soon after, John Bush returned to the studio with Anthrax, and Armored Saint was once again placed on indefinite hiatus.


title: Armored Saint

text: In 2004, Vera rejoined Bush in Anthrax on a temporary basis, filling in for bassist Frank Bello. Early in 2005, Anthrax's Scott Ian announced that their classic "Among the Living"-era lineup was reforming, leaving the membership of Bush and Vera in question. Bush stated his involvement with Anthrax was over.


title: Armored Saint

text: This move gave hope to many that Armored Saint would once again record. A one-off show with the "Revelation" lineup took place in 2005, and in 2006 the band embarked on a new tour.


title: Armored Saint

text: As part of their 20th anniversary, Metal Blade released a three-CD special edition of "Symbol of Salvation" in 2003. This contains the original CD, a second CD of demos of the songs plus the first part of an interview of the band members by Metal Blade founder Brian Slagel. The third CD contains the second half of that interview. Also reissued was the band's long out of print live video "A Trip Thru Red Times".


title: Armored Saint

text: On December 7, 2011, the band was invited to play one of four shows at the 30th anniversary of Metallica. The show took place in San Francisco, California.


title: Armored Saint

text: On February 11, 2013, Vera officially announced via Facebook and Twitter that the band had begun working on their seventh studio album. The album, titled "Win Hands Down", was released on June 2, 2015. "Win Hands Down" debuted at number 183 on the Billboard Top 200 chart. The album sold double what their previous effort, "La Raza", sold upon its release in 2010. The album also reached number 33 on the German Top 100 albums charts.


title: Armored Saint

text: When asked in March 2017 about the follow-up to "Win Hands Down", Bush stated, "We haven't really collectively started working on anything. Sure, all the guys are accumulating some stuff in their minds. I have a lot of lyrical ideas written down, but we haven't started writing any songs yet. Armored Saint, sometimes, we don't move at the quickest pace. I think it would be a good idea if we wanted to make a new record to move on it a little quicker. I've said numerous times I'd rather have the quality of the material than feeling pressured to put out something in a certain amount of time be the primary motivation for it. That being said, we're no spring chickens, I ain't going to lie. Trying to wait ten years, five years for a new record, it's probably a little bit too long. If we do make a new record and if we can try to make the material be as high quality as "Win Hands Down", then it would be cool to be able to get something out sooner than later. That being said, we haven't worked on anything yet."


title: Armored Saint

text: On May 23, 2019, Armored Saint announced on their Instagram page that they had begun writing and demoing songs for their eighth studio album. The band began recording the album that December and completed mixing it in April of the following year for a late 2020 release. The resulting album, titled "Punching the Sky", was released on October 23, 2020. "Metal Hammer" named it the 33rd-best metal album of 2020.


title: Armored Saint

text: In October 2020, Armored Saint released a teaser trailer to their documentary "Armored Saint: The Movie" which includes appearances from such as James Hetfield from Metallica and Scott Ian from Anthrax.


title: The City We Became

text: The City We Became is a 2020 urban fantasy novel by N. K. Jemisin. It was developed from her short story "The City Born Great," first published in her collection "How Long 'til Black Future Month?" It is her first novel since her triple Hugo Award-winning "Broken Earth" series and the first in her "Great Cities series," followed by "The World We Make," released in November 2022


title: The City We Became

text: "The City We Became" takes place in New York City, in a version of the world in which major cities become sentient through human avatars. After the avatar of New York falls into a supernatural coma and vanishes, a group of five new avatars representing the five boroughs come together to fight their common Enemy.


title: The City We Became

text: "The New York Times" review stated, "In the face of current events, "The City We Became" takes a broad-shouldered stand on the side of sanctuary, family and love. It’s a joyful shout, a reclamation and a call to arms." NPR wrote that the novel is "a love letter, a celebration and an expression of hope and belief that a city and its people can and will stand up to darkness, will stand up to fear, and will, when called to, stand up for each other." A review in "Slate" said, "The city she sings fizzes so joyously through the veins of this novel that anyone mourning the New York before COVID-19 will likely find "The City We Became" equally sustaining and elegiac, a tribute to a city that may never fully return to us."


title: The devil is in the details

text: "The devil is in the details" is an idiom alluding to a catch or mysterious element hidden in the details; it indicates that "something may seem simple, but in fact the details are complicated and likely to cause problems". It comes from the earlier phrase "God is in the details", expressing the idea that whatever one does should be done thoroughly; that is, details are important.


title: The devil is in the details

text: The idiom "God is in the details" has been attributed to a number of people, most notably to the German-born architect Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (1886–1969) by "The New York Times" in Mies's 1969 obituary; however, it is generally accepted not to have originated with him. A German version, "Der liebe Gott steckt im Detail", is widely attributed to the German art historian Aby Warburg (1866–1929). According to Christopher Johnson, "Der liebe Gott steckt im Detail" was the subtitle of a seminar Warburg taught at the University of Hamburg in the winter of 1925-26. A French version of the saying, ""Le bon Dieu est dans le détail"" (literally "the good God is in the detail") is generally attributed to Gustave Flaubert (1821–1880).


title: The devil is in the details

text: The expression "the devil is in the details" is found in a 1963 history of post-war European integration. It is later attested in 1965. In 1969, it is referred to as an existing proverb. "Bartlett's Familiar Quotations" lists the saying's author as anonymous.


title: The devil is in the details

text: An editorial in the 1989 New York Times reflected on the apparent interchangeability of God and the Devil in the phrase, citing various examples in print at the time; as well as the difficulty of determining which came first and how long either one has been in use.


title: The devil is in the details

text: The phrase has several variants: "(the/a) Devil (is) in the detail(s)". The original expression as, "God is in the detail" with the "detail" being singular, colloquial usage often ends the idiom as "detail"s""; where the word "detail" without an "s" can be used as both a singular and collective noun. When referring to the finer points of legislation, the US House Speaker Nancy Pelosi observed, "The devil and the angels are in the details."


title: The devil is in the details

text: More recently, the expressions "governing is in the details" and "the truth, if it exists, is in the details" have appeared.


title: Fag hag

text: A fag hag is, in gay slang, a woman who associates either mostly or exclusively with gay and bisexual men. The phrase originated in gay male culture in the United States and was historically an insult. Some women who associate with gay men object to being called fag hags while others embrace the term. The male counterpart, for heterosexual men who have similar interpersonal relationships with gay and bisexual men is "fag stag".


title: Fag hag

text: Fag hags are frequently stereotyped as outgoing women who are seeking a substitute for heterosexual relationships, or who are secretly (or openly) sexually attracted to gay men. In fact, many women who identify as fag hags are already in romantic relationships, either with straight men or with women, but seek out the alternative experience of socializing with gay men.


title: Fag hag

text: American "fag hag" synonyms include "fruit fly", "queen bee", "homo honey", "fruit loop", "Goldilocks", "flame dame", "fairy princess", "gabe" (a portmanteau of "gay" and "babe"), "Tori" (in honor of Tori Spelling and Tori Amos) and "fairy godmother". Recently, "cherry fairy" has started to catch on as well in some select social groups in San Francisco and the East Coast, and "gayboy bunny" (a play on "Playboy Bunny" which originated in a "Robot Chicken" skit about "8 Mile" and "Looney Tunes") has been coined for fag hags who are attractive or have boyfriends to counteract the stereotype that fag hags are unable to find a suitable straight partner.


title: Fag hag

text: In the case of friendships between lesbians and gay men, the term "dyke diva" describes the gay man in the relationship. A straight man of platonic affinity with gay men is a "fag stag"; again, the usage is rare in mainstream sexual culture.


title: Fag hag

text: People who associate with lesbian, gay, and bisexual people may be called "fruit flies" regardless of their sex.


title: Fag hag

text: Fag hags, fag stags etc. are regarded as belonging to the phenomenon of "hagism", the attachment of a person to a group defined by sexuality, even though they do not personally share that identity.


title: Fag hag

text: The Japanese word "okoge" has a more neutral connotation. The German word is "Schwulenmutti" (literally: Mommy for gays), or "Gabi", the ironic used nickname for Gabriele or Gabriela.


title: Fag hag

text: In the Philippines, heterosexual women who develop deep friendships or almost exclusively associate with the native "bakla" LGBT subculture are known as "babaeng bakla" (literally "a woman who is a "bakla" [gay man]"). They stereotypically acquire the mannerisms, campy sense of humor, lingo (swardspeak), and fashion sense of the "bakla". They are also usually more extroverted and socially dominant. It is commonly perceived as a positive self-identification, and various prominent local celebrities (like Maricel Soriano and Rufa Mae Quinto) openly identify as "babaeng bakla".


title: Fag hag

text: "Girlfag" is a term similar to fag hag, but designate specifically attraction, either sexually or romantically, to gay men, sometimes to the point of identifying as queer or genderqueer. Men who are attracted to lesbians/sapphics also have their slangs, such as "lesboy", "guydyke", and "boydyke".


title: Fag hag

text: The term has often been used in entertainment. Comedian Margaret Cho has written and regularly talks in her stand-up routines about being a fag hag. In an episode of the British TV sitcom "Gimme Gimme Gimme", Tom refers to Linda as a fag hag. The term was also used in one of the episodes of "Sex and the City", in which Samantha overheard two women discussing her relationship with the actor Smith Jerrod, calling her a fag hag. English singer Lily Allen released a song called "Fag Hag" in 2008 as the B-side to "The Fear".


title: Fag hag

text: The first annual Miss Fag Hag Pageant took place in New York City on May 17, 2009 at Comix with judges Caroline Rhea, Michael Musto, Hedda Lettuce and Katina Corrao. Heather Shields took the first prize.


title: The Mechanic (1972 film)

text: The Mechanic is a 1972 American action thriller film directed by Michael Winner from a screenplay by Lewis John Carlino. It stars Charles Bronson, in his first collaboration with Winner, Jan-Michael Vincent, Keenan Wynn, and Jill Ireland.


title: The Mechanic (1972 film)

text: The story follows Arthur Bishop (Bronson), a top assassin who takes under his wing Steve McKenna (Vincent), the ruthless and ambitious son of Harry McKenna (Wynn), the former head of the secret organization for which Bishop works. It is noted for its opening, which features no dialogue for the first 16 minutes, as Bronson's character prepares to kill his current target. The title refers to a euphemism for hitmen.


title: The Mechanic (1972 film)

text: Upon its release, the film received generally mixed reviews from critics but it was praised for its action scenes, acting and writing, although Winner's direction and the storytelling was criticized. A remake of the same name was released in 2011, starring Jason Statham as Bishop and Ben Foster as McKenna. The film was a financial success, and spawned a sequel, "", which was released in 2016.


title: The Mechanic (1972 film)

text: Arthur Bishop is a top contract killer, known as a "mechanic", who works exclusively for a secretive international criminal organization that has very strict rules. His occupation affords him a lavish lifestyle - he regularly listens to classical music, has an art collection, and is a connoisseur of fine wines. However, he is forced to live alone - he cannot show emotions or trust people. Bishop is under constant emotional pressure, so much so that he is prescribed anti-depressants for depression. One day he is temporarily hospitalized after he loses consciousness due to the stress. Bishop pays a call girl to have a simulated romantic social and sexual relationship, including her writing fake love letters to him.


title: The Mechanic (1972 film)

text: When Bishop is assigned one of the organization's heads, "Big Harry" McKenna, he shoots at Big Harry while making him think that the shots are being fired by a hidden sniper. Harry, who Bishop knows has a weak heart, runs up a steep incline, which triggers a heart attack. Bishop then finishes Harry off by smothering him.


title: The Mechanic (1972 film)

text: At Big Harry's funeral, Bishop runs into Harry's narcissistic, ruthless and ambitious son Steve. Steve is intrigued by Bishop and seeks to find out more about him. Bishop is also intrigued. He realizes that Steve has a personality suited for being a hit man, and plays along. As part of his training, Bishop teaches Steve that "every person has a weakness, and that once this weakness is found, the target is easy to kill." However, Bishop failed to get his superiors' prior consent for the arrangement. Following a messy assassination conducted by Bishop and Steve, the organization warns Bishop that his irresponsible choice to involve Steve has been interpreted as selfish behavior.


title: The Mechanic (1972 film)

text: The organization then gives Bishop an urgent mission, this time in Italy. Once again, Bishop involves Steve in the new plan, but just before they leave Bishop happens to find among Steve's belongings a file containing information about Bishop. This file is very similar to the files Bishop prepared for his targets. Nevertheless, Bishop allows Steve to go with him to Italy.


title: The Mechanic (1972 film)

text: In Italy, Bishop and Steve approach a boat where their intended victim is supposed to be, but it becomes apparent that this was a trap and they are the real targets. Bishop and Steve are ambushed, but they manage to kill all their would-be assassins.


title: The Mechanic (1972 film)

text: His apprenticeship apparently complete, Steve shares a celebratory bottle of wine with Bishop, having coated the latter's glass with brucine, a colorless and deadly alkaloid. When Bishop realizes that he has been poisoned, he asks Steve if it was because Bishop had killed Steve's father. Steve responds that he had not realized his father was murdered. Steve taunts Bishop, saying "You said every man has his jelly spot. Yours was you just couldn't cut it alone." Steve goes on to reveal that he was not acting on orders to kill Bishop.


title: The Mechanic (1972 film)

text: Steve returns to Bishop's home to pick up the Ford Mustang he had left there. He finds a note affixed to the rear-view mirror, which reads: "Steve, if you read this it means I didn't make it back. It also means you've broken a filament controlling a 13-second delay trigger. End of game. Bang! You're dead." As Steve frantically reaches for the door handle, the car explodes, killing him.


title: The Mechanic (1972 film)

text: The film was based on an original story by Lewis John Carlino. He said he came up with the idea while researching his script for "The Brotherhood" (1968). Producer Ted Dubin, a New York entrepreneur, put up some development money so that Carlino could write it. Carlino called it, "a sort of existential statement on the licence to kill and what is occurring in our society, how legalized murder is occurring through our institutions."


title: The Mechanic (1972 film)

text: Carlino formed a partnership with Dubin and producer Martin Poll. In February 1969 Carlino announced he had written two films that would be made by producer Martin Poll the following year: "The Catalyst", about a wealthy man whose search for meaning leads him to start a revolution in Africa, and "The Mechanic". He said "The Mechanic" was about "professionals who dispassionately murder people by contract" and was "a look at the nature of violence and counter-violence in our society." In April 1969 it was announced Cliff Robertson would star with Ted Dubin to produce alongside Poll for Universal.


title: The Mechanic (1972 film)

text: Filming was delayed. Eventually the film was sold to Chartoff-Winkler who had a deal with United Artists. Carlino was paid $100,000 plus one-third of 50% of the profits.


title: The Mechanic (1972 film)

text: Monte Hellman was scheduled to direct "The Mechanic". He and screenwriter Lewis John Carlino worked on the script for several weeks before producers switched studios and hired Michael Winner to direct.


title: The Mechanic (1972 film)

text: In Carlino's original script, the relationship between Arthur Bishop and Steve McKenna was explicitly gay. Producers had difficulty securing financing and several actors, including George C. Scott, flatly refused to consider the script until the homosexuality was removed. Carlino described "The Mechanic" as "one of the great disappointments of my life", continuing:


title: The Mechanic (1972 film)

text: In November 1971 it was announced Charles Bronson would star under the direction of Michael Winner for producers Chartoff and Winkler. Filming was to begin December 6, 1971. Jan Michael Vincent's casting was announced early December 1971.


title: The Mechanic (1972 film)

text: The film's martial arts scenes were shot in one day at the dojo of Takayuki Kubota who also appears in the film. The shooting required 65 camera setups. The scenes were cut short in the final edit, because, according to associate producer Henry Gellis, their inclusion made the film seem like an installment in the James Bond series.


title: The Mechanic (1972 film)

text: "It's pretty violent," said Vincent. "Bronson is totally nonverbal. So I can't say that much about him."


title: The Mechanic (1972 film)

text: The score and source music, by Jerry Fielding, were recorded at CTS (Cine-Tele Sound) Studios in London, England, between August 7 and 11, 1972. The orchestrations were by Lennie Niehaus And Greg McRitchie. The Recording Engineer was Dick Lewzey.


title: The Mechanic (1972 film)

text: The source music consists of pieces composed by Ludwig van Beethoven — "String Quartet", Opus 18, No 6 and "Grosse Fuge": Opus 133 — as well as Eduardo di Capua's famous Neapolitan song "’O sole mio".


title: The Mechanic (1972 film)

text: Screen Archives Entertainment has released "The Mechanic" for the first time on Blu-ray on June 10, 2014.


title: The Mechanic (1972 film)

text: Vincent Canby of "The New York Times" described "The Mechanic" as a "solemn, rather spurious action melodrama". Noting the "father son rivalry" between Arthur and Steve and picking up on the "latent homosexual bond" between the two, Canby concluded that the film was "non-stop, mostly irrelevant physical spectacle" and pondered what a different director might have done with the same material. A review in "Variety" called it an "action-drenched gangster yarn which has all the makings of a heavy b.o. grosser, but simultaneously is burdened with an overly-contrived plot development." Roger Ebert gave the film 2.5 stars out of 4 and praised Bronson's performance, noting that he appears to be truly listening to Vincent rather than simply waiting for him to stop for Bronson's next line. While finding the plot twists "neat", Ebert found that director Winner failed to squarely address the relationship between the leads in favor of too many boring action sequences. Gene Siskel of the "Chicago Tribune" gave the film only 1 star out of 4 and wrote, "The entirely unoriginal production moves at a numbing pace with Bronson mirroring the directorial lethargy with his silent, 'don't I have strong cheekbones' demeanor." Kevin Thomas of the "Los Angeles Times" praised the film as "A hard-edged, brutal yet absorbing contemporary gangster movie" with "top-notch" performances. Judith Crist dismissed the film as "a banal expedition into slaughter and sadism and stupid dialogue". Any hint of authenticity, she wrote, was obliterated by Winner's "bang-bang-bang approach". Gary Arnold of "The Washington Post" wrote, "It's a predictable, expendable piece of formula moviemaking, and the men responsible for it seem considerably more proficient at manufacturing thrills than generating and sustaining dramatic interest."


title: The Mechanic (1972 film)

text: A novelization credited to screenwriter Lewis John Carlino was published by Signet Books to accompany the film's release.


title: The Mechanic (1972 film)

text: On May 7, 2009, it was announced that director Simon West would be helming a remake with Jason Statham taking the lead role. The remake opened in the United States on January 28, 2011, making $11,500,000 on its opening weekend. A was released in August 2016.


title: Jackie Walorski

text: Jacqueline Renae Walorski (, August 17, 1963 – August 3, 2022) was an American politician who served as the U.S. representative for Indiana's 2nd congressional district from 2013 until her death in 2022. She was a member of the Republican Party. Walorski served in the Indiana House of Representatives, representing Indiana's 21st district, from 2005 to 2010. In 2010, she won the Republican nomination for Indiana's 2nd congressional district, but narrowly lost the general election to Democratic incumbent Joe Donnelly. Walorski won the seat in 2012 after Donnelly vacated it to run for the U.S. Senate, and was reelected four times.


title: Jackie Walorski

text: Born in South Bend, Indiana, on August 17, 1963, Walorski grew up with her two older brothers in the city's Gilmer Park neighborhood. Her mother, Martha C. (née Martin), worked as a meat cutter at a local grocery store, and her father, Raymond B. Walorski, worked as a firefighter and owned an appliance store. She had Polish and German ancestry. As a child, she attended Hay Elementary School and graduated from Riley High School in 1981. She then attended Liberty Baptist College from 1981 to 1983, and graduated from Taylor University, receiving her Bachelor of Arts degree in communications and public administration in 1985.


title: Jackie Walorski

text: Walorski began her career as a television reporter for WSBT-TV, a CBS affiliate in South Bend, from 1985 to 1989, and was the executive director of the St. Joseph County Humane Society from 1989 to 1991. In 1991, she was appointed the director of institutional advancement at Ancilla College, a position she held until she was appointed the director of membership at the St. Joseph County Chamber of Commerce in 1996. She later worked as the director of annual giving at Indiana University South Bend from 1997 to 1999.


title: Jackie Walorski

text: Walorski moved to Romania in 2000 and founded Impact International, a foundation to provide medical supplies and attention to impoverished children. She did Christian missionary work in Romania before returning to the U.S. in 2004.


title: Jackie Walorski

text: In 2004, Walorski ran for a seat in the Indiana House of Representatives after incumbent Republican State Representative Richard W. Mangus decided to retire. She ran in Indiana's 2nd District, which included the suburban area between South Bend and Elkhart. Walorski defeated Democrat Carl H. Kaser, 64%–36%. In 2006, she won a second term with 53% of the vote. In 2008, she won a third term unopposed.


title: Jackie Walorski

text: During her tenure in the Indiana House, Walorski sponsored Indiana's Voter ID law, requiring voters to present government-issued identification during in-person voting. The voter ID law led to many lawsuits and was brought before the Supreme Court, where it was upheld in "Crawford v. Marion County Election Board", and has been cited as helping the expansion of voter ID laws in other states.


title: Jackie Walorski

text: Walorski was criticized for missing a committee vote and the opportunity for stopping the daylight saving time (DST) bill from passing out of committee, even though that bill died on the House floor. After a different bill passed introducing DST, she authored and introduced a bill to rescind DST, a measure that ended up dying.


title: Jackie Walorski

text: Walorski authored legislation combating identity theft, including in 2006 when she sponsored a bill requiring companies to notify customers who are Indiana residents of any security breaches that could cause identity theft, identity deception, or fraud, making it a Class C felony and imposing a $50,000 fine on anyone who has the identities of over 100 persons. "Identity theft is the most rapidly growing crime in the United States. We need to find a solution to this problem before it gets any bigger in Indiana", she said.


title: Jackie Walorski

text: Walorski became active in the caucus and was appointed Assistant Floor Leader. She served on the Family, Children, & Human Affairs and the Public Policy committees.


title: Jackie Walorski

text: In 2009, Walorski announced her candidacy to challenge incumbent Democratic U.S. Representative Joe Donnelly in , and she won the 2010 Republican primary, with 61% of the votes, defeating Martin Dolan, Jack Jordan, and Tony Zirkle. She lost 48%–47% in the general election.


title: Jackie Walorski

text: Within months of the general election, Walorski announced her plan to contest the seat again in 2012. During the Indiana legislature's 2011–2013 legislative session, the predominantly Republican Indiana House and Senate redrew Indiana's congressional districts. After redistricting, the newly drawn 2nd district included all of Elkhart County, Walorski's home county, and the demographics of the new district included more registered Republican voters. Had the district existed with these lines in 2008, Barack Obama would have won it by just 0.3 percentage points, 49.6% to John McCain's 49.3%. In contrast, he won the old 2nd with 54% of the vote.


title: Jackie Walorski

text: Donnelly decided not to seek reelection, opting instead to run for the U.S. Senate. Walorski won the 2012 primary election with 73% of the vote, winning all ten counties in the 2nd District. In the general election, she faced Libertarian nominee Joe Ruiz of Mishawaka and Democratic nominee Brendan Mullen of Granger, an Iraq War veteran. Walorski defeated Mullen 49%–48%, likely helped by Republican presidential nominee Mitt Romney carrying her district with 56% of the vote. At the same time, Donnelly was elected to the Senate.


title: Jackie Walorski

text: In 2014, while serving on the House Veterans Affairs Committee, Walorski was a leading voice pushing for the resignation of Eric Shinseki as Secretary of Veterans Affairs due to the Veterans Health Administration scandal of 2014.


title: Jackie Walorski

text: Walorski voted against the second impeachment of Donald Trump and voted to object to the certification of the 2020 United States presidential election.


title: Jackie Walorski

text: In 2019, Walorski was named the ranking member on the House Ways and Means Subcommittee on Worker and Family Support. In 2020, she was appointed to serve on the Select Subcommittee on the Coronavirus Crisis. In 2021, she became the ranking member on the House Ethics Committee.


title: Jackie Walorski

text: On May 25, 2018, Walorski introduced legislation to double the death gratuity the federal government pays to the families of service members killed on active duty. The legislation would have increased the death gratuity from $100,000 to $200,000. Under the bill, the government would have paid at least 60% of the benefit to the surviving spouse, and service members could have chosen how to disburse the remaining 40%. The bill also would have capped Congress members' death benefits at $74,000. The cap would have resulted in a payment of about $100,000 less than would be paid under the current system.


title: Jackie Walorski

text: Walorski advocated privatizing Social Security. In March 2010, she said, "I think the one thing we have to do is the thing that Bush actually tried to do a couple years ago, which is privatize Social Security and allow people to invest in their own retirement."


title: Jackie Walorski

text: In 2018, Walorski said she opposed the Trump tariffs on goods imported from U.S. allies. She said that such duties threaten U.S. businesses and workers. These include a 25% tariff on steel and a 10% tariff on aluminum. Walorski also asked that the system for granting exclusions for certain products be accelerated.


title: Jackie Walorski

text: In 2015, Walorski raised objections to the Pain-Capable Unborn Child Protection Act, a bill banning late termination of pregnancy, an abortion procedure given beyond 20 weeks into a pregnancy. She had supported the 2013 version, but removed her name from the 2015 House bill in mid-January. The 2015 bill had an exemption for those seeking an abortion due to rape, but required that the person seeking the exemption report the rape to the police past 20 weeks. House Republicans canceled a planned vote shortly afterward due to opposition from Walorski and Representative Renee Ellmers, and other Republicans expressing concerns about the bill. A modified version of the bill was proposed in 2015, with modifications to remove the requirement to report a rape to the police. This version instead allowed abortions past 20 weeks in cases of rape, with the requirement that those pregnant due to rape would need to seek medical care or counseling before getting an abortion. Walorski voted for this version of the House bill in May. Walorski would also go on to vote for the 2017 version of the bill.


title: Jackie Walorski

text: In October 2017, Walorski asked the Indiana State Department of Health to deny an application to open an abortion clinic in South Bend, saying the clinic would undermine efforts to reduce the number of abortions in the area.


title: Jackie Walorski

text: Walorski was given a "D" rating in 2016 from marijuana legalization advocacy group NORML for her voting history regarding cannabis-related causes.


title: Jackie Walorski

text: Walorski supported Trump's 2017 executive order to impose a temporary ban on entry to the U.S. for citizens of seven Muslim-majority countries, saying she believed it would "allow our national security officials to examine the vetting process and strengthen safeguards to prevent terrorists from entering our homeland."


title: Jackie Walorski

text: In December 2020, Walorski was one of 126 Republican members of the House of Representatives to sign an amicus brief in support of "Texas v. Pennsylvania", a lawsuit filed at the United States Supreme Court contesting the results of the 2020 presidential election, in which Joe Biden defeated Donald Trump. The Supreme Court declined to hear the case on the basis that Texas lacked standing under Article III of the Constitution to challenge the results of an election held by another state.


title: Jackie Walorski

text: In 1995, Walorski married Dean Swihart, a schoolteacher in Mishawaka. She resided in Jamestown, an unincorporated suburban community west of Elkhart, and was a member of South Gate Church, an Assemblies of God megachurch in South Bend.


title: Jackie Walorski

text: On August 3, 2022, four people, including Walorski, were killed in a head-on collision between two cars near Nappanee, Indiana. Walorski was returning from a ribbon-cutting ceremony in Claypool, Indiana. The collision occurred on State Road 19 near the intersection with State Road 119 between Nappanee and Wakarusa. The driver of the other vehicle, a Ford Contour, and the two other people in Walorski's vehicle, a Toyota RAV4, also died.


title: Jackie Walorski

text: It was initially reported that a northbound vehicle on State Road 19 veered left and collided head-on with Walorski's vehicle, which was southbound, but the police later retracted that statement, and said that Walorski's northbound car, driven by Zachery Potts, had crossed the center line for unknown reasons. The investigation concluded the following month, with the Elkhart County Sheriff's Office finding that Potts was at fault for the crash, with evidence showing he was likely attempting to overtake a flatbed truck.


title: Jackie Walorski

text: House Speaker Nancy Pelosi ordered the flags around the U.S. Capitol Building to be flown at half-staff on the day of death and the day after in her honor. Transportation Secretary Pete Buttigieg, whose hometown of South Bend is in Walorski's district, posted condolences on Twitter, saying that "she was always prepared to work together where there was common ground". Former President Donald Trump eulogized her on his Truth Social platform, and President Joe Biden issued a statement saying that she was "respected by members of both parties" and offering condolences to the victims' families. On August 10, 2022, the Indiana congressional delegation introduced a resolution to name the Department of Veteran Affairs Clinic in Mishawaka the Jackie Walorski VA Clinic. The resolution, H.R. 8656, was signed into law September 30.


title: Jackie Walorski

text: Walorski's funeral was held on August 11 at Granger Community Church in Granger, Indiana, and she was buried at Southlawn Cemetery in South Bend.


title: Oliver Marmol

text: Oliver J. Marmol (born July 2, 1986) is an American professional baseball manager and former coach who is the manager of the St. Louis Cardinals of Major League Baseball (MLB). As of the 2022 season, he is the youngest manager of an MLB team.


title: Oliver Marmol

text: Marmol attended Dr. Phillips High School in Orlando, Florida, and was drafted by the Pittsburgh Pirates in the 31st round of the 2004 MLB draft. He did not sign with the Pirates and attended the College of Charleston, where he played college baseball for the College of Charleston Cougars. He batted .327 in three seasons with the Cougars, and was drafted by the St. Louis Cardinals in the sixth round of the 2007 MLB draft. He played in the Cardinals organization for four seasons, batting .203 as a utility player for the Batavia Muckdogs of the Class A-Short Season New York-Penn League, the Quad Cities River Bandits of the Class A Midwest League, and the Palm Beach Cardinals of the Class A-Advanced Florida State League.


title: Oliver Marmol

text: In 2011, Marmol became the hitting coach of the Gulf Coast Cardinals of the Rookie-level Gulf Coast League. The next season, he became manager of the Johnson City Cardinals of the Rookie-level Appalachian League, and led the team to the postseason. In 2013, he managed the State College Spikes of the New York-Penn League. He returned to State College in 2014, and won the league's championship. In 2015, he was promoted to manage Palm Beach, and he managed Palm Beach for the 2016 season as well.


title: Oliver Marmol

text: The Cardinals named Marmol their first base coach before the 2017 season. Before the 2019 season, the Cardinals shifted Marmol to bench coach. On October 25, 2021, he was promoted to manager of the Cardinals.


title: Oliver Marmol

text: In 2022, at 35 years of age he was the youngest manager in major league baseball, five years younger than the next-youngest manager.


title: Oliver Marmol

text: Marmol is a Christian. Marmol is married to Amber Marmol and they have one daughter together. Marmol has two brothers who are both pastors. He and his wife have taken short-term missions to orphanages in Guatemala and Nicaragua.


title: Radiation pressure

text: Radiation pressure is the mechanical pressure exerted upon any surface due to the exchange of momentum between the object and the electromagnetic field. This includes the momentum of light or electromagnetic radiation of any wavelength that is absorbed, reflected, or otherwise emitted (e.g. black-body radiation) by matter on any scale (from macroscopic objects to dust particles to gas molecules). The associated force is called the radiation pressure force, or sometimes just the force of light.


title: Radiation pressure

text: The forces generated by radiation pressure are generally too small to be noticed under everyday circumstances; however, they are important in some physical processes and technologies. This particularly includes objects in outer space, where it is usually the main force acting on objects besides gravity, and where the net effect of a tiny force may have a large cumulative effect over long periods of time. For example, had the effects of the Sun's radiation pressure on the spacecraft of the Viking program been ignored, the spacecraft would have missed Mars' orbit by about . Radiation pressure from starlight is crucial in a number of astrophysical processes as well. The significance of radiation pressure increases rapidly at extremely high temperatures and can sometimes dwarf the usual gas pressure, for instance, in stellar interiors and thermonuclear weapons. Furthermore, large lasers operating in space have been suggested as a means of propelling sail craft in beam-powered propulsion.


title: Radiation pressure

text: Radiation pressure forces are the bedrock of laser technology and the branches of science that rely heavily on lasers and other optical technologies. That includes, but is not limited to, biomicroscopy (where light is used to irradiate and observe microbes, cells, and molecules), quantum optics, and optomechanics (where light is used to probe and control objects like atoms, qubits and macroscopic quantum objects). Direct applications of the radiation pressure force in these fields are, for example, laser cooling (the subject of the 1997 Nobel Prize in Physics), quantum control of macroscopic objects and atoms (2012 Nobel Prize in Physics), interferometry (2017 Nobel Prize in Physics) and optical tweezers (2018 Nobel Prize in Physics).


title: Radiation pressure

text: Radiation pressure can equally well be accounted for by considering the momentum of a classical electromagnetic field or in terms of the momenta of photons, particles of light. The interaction of electromagnetic waves or photons with matter may involve an exchange of momentum. Due to the law of conservation of momentum, any change in the total momentum of the waves or photons must involve an equal and opposite change in the momentum of the matter it interacted with (Newton's third law of motion), as is illustrated in the accompanying figure for the case of light being perfectly reflected by a surface. This transfer of momentum is the general explanation for what we term radiation pressure.


title: Radiation pressure

text: Johannes Kepler put forward the concept of radiation pressure in 1619 to explain the observation that a tail of a comet always points away from the Sun.


title: Radiation pressure

text: The assertion that light, as electromagnetic radiation, has the property of momentum and thus exerts a pressure upon any surface that is exposed to it was published by James Clerk Maxwell in 1862, and proven experimentally by Russian physicist Pyotr Lebedev in 1900 and by Ernest Fox Nichols and Gordon Ferrie Hull in 1901. The pressure is very small, but can be detected by allowing the radiation to fall upon a delicately poised vane of reflective metal in a Nichols radiometer (this should not be confused with the Crookes radiometer, whose characteristic motion is "not" caused by radiation pressure but by impacting gas molecules).


title: Radiation pressure

text: Radiation pressure can be viewed as a consequence of the conservation of momentum given the momentum attributed to electromagnetic radiation. That momentum can be equally well calculated on the basis of electromagnetic theory or from the combined momenta of a stream of photons, giving identical results as is shown below.


title: Radiation pressure

text: According to Maxwell's theory of electromagnetism, an electromagnetic wave carries momentum, which will be transferred to an opaque surface it strikes.


title: Radiation pressure

text: The energy flux (irradiance) of a plane wave is calculated using the Poynting vector formula_1, whose magnitude we denote by "S". "S" divided by the speed of light is the density of the linear momentum per unit area (pressure) of the electromagnetic field. So, dimensionally, the Poynting vector is "S"===, which is the speed of light, "c"=Δ"x"/Δ"t", times pressure, Δ"F"/area. That pressure is experienced as radiation pressure on the surface: