title: Ooredoo

text: In June 2013, Ooredoo was chosen as one of the two successful applicants among 90 bidders to be awarded a license to operate in Myanmar, considered one of Asia's last remaining greenfield telecom markets.


title: Ooredoo

text: Formal licenses were granted in January 2014, and Ooredoo pledged an investment of $15 billion to develop Myanmar's telecoms sector, with plans to cover 75 per cent of the population in five years.


title: Ooredoo

text: Ooredoo will no longer operate in Myanmar due to the junta problems which is leading to financial problems as of 2022.


title: Ooredoo

text: Lionel Messi has worked with Ooredoo since 2013 as their global brand ambassador. As part of the partnership, Ooredoo and the Leo Messi Foundation have developed and sponsored projects to stimulate human growth and development across the Middle East, North Africa and Southeast Asia.


title: Ooredoo

text: Ooredoo have sponsored Paris Saint-Germain since 2013 as a premium partner, with Ooredoo's logo featuring on the back of their football kits.


title: Over-the-air programming

text: Over-the-air programming (OTA programming) refers to various methods of distributing new software, configuration settings, and even updating encryption keys to devices like mobile phones, set-top boxes, electric cars or secure voice communication equipment (encrypted two-way radios). One important feature of OTA is that one central location can send an update to all the users, who are unable to refuse, defeat, or alter that update, and that the update applies immediately to everyone on the channel. A user could 'refuse' OTA, but the 'channel manager' could also 'kick them off' the channel automatically.


title: Over-the-air programming

text: In the context of the mobile content world, these include firmware-over-the-air (FOTA), over-the-air service provisioning (OTASP), over-the-air provisioning (OTAP), or over-the-air parameter administration (OTAPA); or provisioning handsets with the necessary settings with which to access services such as wireless access point (WAP) or Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS).


title: Over-the-air programming

text: As mobile phones accumulate new applications and become more advanced, OTA configuration has become increasingly important as new updates and services come on stream. OTA via Short Message Service (SMS) optimises the configuration data updates in subscriber identity module (SIM) cards and handsets, and enables the distribution of new software updates to mobile phones or provisioning handsets with the necessary settings with which to access services such as WAP or MMS. OTA messaging provides remote control of mobile phones for service and subscription activation, personalisation, and programming of a new service for mobile operators and telco third parties.


title: Over-the-air programming

text: Various standardisation bodies were established to help develop, oversee, and manage OTA. One of them is the Open Mobile Alliance (OMA).


title: Over-the-air programming

text: More recently, with the new concepts of Wireless Sensor Networks and the Internet of Things (IoT), where the networks consist of hundreds or thousands of nodes, OTA is taken to a new direction: for the first time OTA is applied using unlicensed frequency bands (868 MHz, 900 MHz, 2400 MHz) and with low consumption and low data rate transmission using protocols such as 802.15.4 and ZigBee.


title: Over-the-air programming

text: Sensor nodes are often located in places that are either remote or difficult to access. As an example, Libelium has implemented an OTA programming system for ZigBee WSN devices. This system enables firmware upgrades without the need of physical access, saving time and money if the nodes must be re-programmed.


title: Over-the-air programming

text: On modern mobile devices such as smartphones, an over-the-air update may refer simply to a firmware or OS update that is downloaded by the operating system over the internet, with the "over-the-air" aspect referring to the updates being downloaded directly to the phone using Wi-Fi or mobile broadband, rather than requiring that the device be connected to a computer over USB to perform the update.


title: Over-the-air programming

text: The OTA mechanism requires the existing software and hardware of the target device to support the feature, namely the receipt and installation of new software received via the wireless network from the provider.


title: Over-the-air programming

text: New software is transferred to the phone, installed, and put into use. It is often necessary to turn the phone off and back on for the new programming to take effect, though many phones will automatically perform this action.


title: Over-the-air programming

text: Depending on implementation, OTA software delivery can be initiated upon action, such as a call to the provider's customer support system or other dial-able service, or can be performed automatically. Typically, it is done via the former method to avoid service disruption at an inconvenient time, but this requires subscribers to manually call the provider. Often, a carrier will send a broadcast SMS text message to all subscribers (or those using a particular model of phone) asking them to dial a service number to receive a software update.


title: Over-the-air programming

text: Verizon Wireless in the United States provides a number of OTA functions to its subscribers via the *228 USSD service code. Option 1 updates phone configuration, option 2 updates the PRL. Similarly Voitel Wireless and StraightTalk, which both use Verizon network, use 22890 service code to program Verizon based wireless phones.


title: Over-the-air programming

text: To provision parameters in a mobile device OTA, the device needs to have a provisioning client capable of receiving, processing and setting the parameters. For example, a Device Management client in a device may be capable of receiving and provisioning applications, or connectivity parameters.


title: Over-the-air programming

text: In general, the term OTA implies the use of wireless mechanisms to send provisioning data or update packages for firmware or software updates to a mobile device; this is so that the user does not have to go to a store or a service centre to have applications provisioned, parameters changed, or firmware or software updated. In this context, also two major types of OTA updates can be distinguished, namely OTA updates for product enhancement (e.g., customized product functions and services) and OTA updates for product optimization (e.g., repair or version updates).


title: Over-the-air programming

text: Non-OTA options for a user are: a) to go to a store and seek help, b) use a PC and a cable to connect to the device and change settings on a device, add software to device, etc.


title: Over-the-air programming

text: There are a number of standards that describe OTA functions. One of the first was the GSM 03.48 series. The ZigBee suite of standards includes the ZigBee Over-the-Air Upgrading Cluster which is part of the ZigBee Smart Energy Profile and provides an interoperable (vendor-independent) way of updating device firmware. The current standards do not cover harvesting of client information which is routinely done by the phone manufacturer, the service provider and the program manager (Google). No restrictions have been developed for these illegal activities.


title: Over-the-air programming

text: OTA is similar to firmware distribution methods used by other mass-produced consumer electronics, such as cable modems, which use TFTP as a way to remotely receive new programming, thus reducing the amount of time spent by both the owner and the user of the device on maintenance.


title: Over-the-air programming

text: Over-the-air provisioning (OTAP) is also available in wireless environments (though it is disabled by default for security reasons). It allows an access point (AP) to discover the IP address of its controller. When enabled, the controller tells the other APs to include additional information in the Radio Resource Management Packets (RRM) that would assist a new access point in learning of the controller. It is sent in plain text however, which would make it vulnerable to sniffing. That is why it is disabled by default.


title: Dana Stevens (screenwriter)

text: She has written films including The Woman King, starring Viola Davis and directed by Gina Prince-Bythewood; Netflix hit Fatherhood, starring Kevin Hart; the adaptation of Nicholas Sparks' novel, "Safe Haven", directed by Lasse Hallstrom; "City of Angels", starring Nicolas Cage and Meg Ryan; "For Love of the Game", directed by Sam Raimi; "Blink", directed by Michael Apted; and "Life or Something Like It", starring Angelina Jolie. She was the creator and executive producer of "What About Brian", an ABC television series produced by J. J. Abrams that aired for two seasons and "Reckless" on CBS.


title: Dana Stevens (screenwriter)

text: Stevens did an uncredited rewrite on "The World Is Not Enough", directed by her then-husband Michael Apted, primarily to strengthen the female characters' roles. She was the last female screenwriter involved with writing a "Bond" film until Phoebe Waller-Bridge provided a script polish to "No Time to Die" in 2019.


title: Dana Stevens (screenwriter)

text: She is a regular advisor at the Sundance Institute writer and filmmaker labs, and serves on the final selection committee for the Academy's Nicholl's Fellowship Screenwriting Award.


title: Dana Stevens (screenwriter)

text: Stevens and director Michael Apted were married for 10 years before divorcing, and the couple have a son.


title: The Moment of Truth (American game show)

text: The Moment of Truth is an American game show based on the Colombian "Nada más que la verdad" format ("Nothing but the Truth"). Contestants answer a series of 21 increasingly personal and embarrassing questions to receive cash prizes. The show was hosted by Mark L. Walberg and ran on the Fox network from January 23, 2008 to August 8, 2009.


text: On February 1, 2008, FOX ordered an additional 13 episodes of the show, bringing its episode order to 23. It was supposed to be on FOX's fall lineup, but was pushed back to make room for FOX's new game show "Hole in the Wall", as well as the season finale of "So You Think You Can Dance"."


text: Prior to the show, a contestant is administered a polygraph exam and asked 100 questions (50 questions in season one)—many of which are asked again in front of the studio audience during the actual taping of the program. Without knowing the results of the polygraph, they are asked 21 of those same questions again on the program, each becoming progressively more personal in nature. If the contestant answers according to the polygraph results, they move on to the next question; however, should a contestant lie in their answer (as determined by the polygraph) or simply refuse to answer a question after it has been asked, the game ends. If they give a false answer before the $25,000 level of questions, they leave with nothing; after the $25,000 level, if a false answer is given, the contestant leaves with $25,000 (during the first season, a false answer on any level caused the player to leave with nothing). For each tier of questions answered correctly, the contestant wins the corresponding amount of money. A contestant may stop at any time before any question is asked and collect their earnings, but once they hear a question, they must answer it or lose the game. Answering all 21 questions truthfully, as determined by the polygraph results, wins the jackpot of $500,000.


text: The questions vary, increasing in difficulty and degree of personal nature of the questions. Sometimes, a "surprise guest"—such as an ex-partner or a good friend—will come on the stage and ask a particularly difficult question. Friends, colleagues, and family of the contestant who are gathered near the player have access to a button which can be used to switch out a question once per game if they feel that the nature of the question is too personal, an option which is introduced to them after the third question.


text: Though no contestant on the shows aired by FOX has answered all 21 questions in concert with the polygraph results, according to Mike Darnell, president of alternative entertainment at Fox, "In the vast majority of contestants, 99%, you get, 'Hmm, I was a little worried when I answered that question.'" The series requires contestants to sign an agreement that they will accept the conclusions drawn by the polygraph examiner.


text: However, one contestant in the unaired second season (S02E09) did answer all 21 questions truthfully to win the top prize. The contestant was Melanie Williams, a member of a secretive polygamist group. Most of the questions centered around the secrets of polygamy and what took place in the group in which Williams was a member. For $500,000, Williams' final question was whether she believed her father had sexual relations as an adult with a minor. She said she felt he did, and the lie detector determined her truthful for the grand prize.


text: The first episode was the lead out after the highly rated "American Idol", and managed to rate very well itself with 23 million viewers, the highest rating for a premiere to that point in 2008.


text: On the fifth episode, which aired on February 25, 2008, over the course of play, a female contestant truthfully admitted that: she had been fired for stealing money from an employer; she believed that her ex-boyfriend (who was present, and asked this question) is the man she should be married to; and that, since her wedding day two years earlier, she had sexual relations with someone other than her husband. After truthfully admitting to these actions, with her mother staring furiously at her and her husband sitting with his head in his hands, she was eliminated for answering "yes" on the question of whether she believed she is a good person. The intro of this episode featured a disclaimer by host Mark L. Walberg, in which he claimed it was highly debated whether or not the episode should even be aired and he was against it being aired, calling it the most uncomfortable situation he has ever been in on television. The contestant, who could have stopped and left with $100,000 based on her already dramatic revelations, later said that she continued trying to win more money in order to achieve "fame and fortune".


title: Bronagh Waugh

text: Bronagh Waugh (born 6 October 1982) is an actress from Northern Ireland. She played Cheryl Brady in the Channel 4 soap opera "Hollyoaks" from 2009 to 2013. At the 2010 British Soap Awards, Waugh was nominated for awards for Best Newcomer, Best Actress and Best Comedy Performance for her portrayal of Cheryl. She was also nominated for two National Television Awards. Since leaving "Hollyoaks", Waugh has appeared in dramas including "The Fall", "Unforgotten" and the upcoming crime drama "Ridley".


title: Bronagh Waugh

text: Her father is Canadian and Waugh has Canadian citizenship. She has been an advocate for same-sex marriage in Northern Ireland. On 5 May 2021, Waugh gave birth to a son, her first child.


title: Octonion

text: In mathematics, the octonions are a normed division algebra over the real numbers, a kind of hypercomplex number system. The octonions are usually represented by the capital letter O, using boldface or blackboard bold formula_1. Octonions have eight dimensions; twice the number of dimensions of the quaternions, of which they are an extension. They are noncommutative and nonassociative, but satisfy a weaker form of associativity; namely, they are alternative. They are also power associative.


title: Octonion

text: Octonions are not as well known as the quaternions and complex numbers, which are much more widely studied and used. Octonions are related to exceptional structures in mathematics, among them the exceptional Lie groups. Octonions have applications in fields such as string theory, special relativity and quantum logic. Applying the Cayley–Dickson construction to the octonions produces the sedenions.


title: Octonion

text: The octonions were discovered in 1843 by John T. Graves, inspired by his friend William Rowan Hamilton's discovery of quaternions. Graves called his discovery "octaves", and mentioned them in a letter to Hamilton dated 26 December 1843. He first published his result slightly later than Arthur Cayley's article. The octonions were discovered independently by Cayley and are sometimes referred to as "Cayley numbers" or the "Cayley algebra". Hamilton described the early history of Graves' discovery.


title: Octonion

text: The octonions can be thought of as octets (or 8-tuples) of real numbers. Every octonion is a real linear combination of the unit octonions:


title: Octonion

text: where is the scalar or real element; it may be identified with the real number 1. That is, every octonion can be written in the form


title: Octonion

text: Addition and subtraction of octonions is done by adding and subtracting corresponding terms and hence their coefficients, like quaternions. Multiplication is more complex. Multiplication is distributive over addition, so the product of two octonions can be calculated by summing the products of all the terms, again like quaternions. The product of each pair of terms can be given by multiplication of the coefficients and a multiplication table of the unit octonions, like this one (due to Cayley, 1845, and Graves, 1843):


title: Octonion

text: Most off-diagonal elements of the table are antisymmetric, making it almost a skew-symmetric matrix except for the elements on the main diagonal, as well as the row and column for which is an operand.


title: Octonion

text: where is the Kronecker delta (equal to 1 if and only if ), and is a completely antisymmetric tensor with value 1 when .


title: Octonion

text: The above definition is not unique, however; it is only one of 480 possible definitions for octonion multiplication with . The others can be obtained by permuting and changing the signs of the non-scalar basis elements . The 480 different algebras are isomorphic, and there is rarely a need to consider which particular multiplication rule is used.


title: Octonion

text: Each of these 480 definitions is invariant up to signs under some 7-cycle of the points (1234567), and for each 7-cycle there are four definitions, differing by signs and reversal of order. A common choice is to use the definition invariant under the 7-cycle (1234567) with — by using the triangular multiplication diagram, or Fano plane below that also shows the sorted list of 124 based 7-cycle triads and its associated multiplication matrices in both and IJKL format.


title: Octonion

text: A variation of this sometimes used is to label the elements of the basis by the elements , 0, 1, 2, ..., 6, of the projective line over the finite field of order 7. The multiplication is then given by and , and all expressions obtained from this by adding a constant (modulo 7) to all subscripts: in other words using the seven triples (124) (235) (346) (450) (561) (602) (013). These are the nonzero codewords of the quadratic residue code of length 7 over the Galois field of two elements, . There is a symmetry of order 7 given by adding a constant mod 7 to all subscripts, and also a symmetry of order 3 given by multiplying all subscripts by one of the quadratic residues 1, 2, 4 mod 7.


title: Octonion

text: The multiplication table for a geometric algebra of signature can be given in terms of the following 7 quaternionic triples (omitting the identity element):


title: Octonion

text: in which the lowercase items are vectors and the uppercase ones are bivectors and (which is the Hodge star operator). If the is forced to be equal to the identity then the multiplication ceases to be associative, but the may be removed from the multiplication table resulting in an octonion multiplication table.


title: Octonion

text: In keeping associative and thus not reducing the 4-dimensional geometric algebra to an octonion one, the whole multiplication table can be derived from the equation for . Consider the gamma matrices. The formula defining the fifth gamma matrix shows that it is the of a four-dimensional geometric algebra of the gamma matrices.


title: Octonion

text: A more systematic way of defining the octonions is via the Cayley–Dickson construction. Just as quaternions can be defined as pairs of complex numbers, the octonions can be defined as pairs of quaternions. Addition is defined pairwise. The product of two pairs of quaternions and is defined by


title: Octonion

text: where denotes the conjugate of the quaternion . This definition is equivalent to the one given above when the eight unit octonions are identified with the pairs


title: Octonion

text: A convenient mnemonic for remembering the products of unit octonions is given by the diagram, which represents the multiplication table of Cayley and Graves. This diagram with seven points and seven lines (the circle through 1, 2, and 3 is considered a line) is called the Fano plane. The lines are directional. The seven points correspond to the seven standard basis elements of (see definition below). Each pair of distinct points lies on a unique line and each line runs through exactly three points.


title: Octonion

text: Let be an ordered triple of points lying on a given line with the order specified by the direction of the arrow. Then multiplication is given by


title: Octonion

text: completely defines the multiplicative structure of the octonions. Each of the seven lines generates a subalgebra of isomorphic to the quaternions .


title: Octonion

text: The existence of a norm on implies the existence of inverses for every nonzero element of . The inverse of , which is the unique octonion satisfying , is given by


title: Octonion

text: The octonions do satisfy a weaker form of associativity: they are alternative. This means that the subalgebra generated by any two elements is associative. Actually, one can show that the subalgebra generated by any two elements of is isomorphic to , , or , all of which are associative. Because of their non-associativity, octonions cannot be represented by a subalgebra of a matrix ring over formula_14, unlike the real numbers, complex numbers and quaternions.


title: Octonion

text: This equation means that the octonions form a composition algebra. The higher-dimensional algebras defined by the Cayley–Dickson construction (starting with the sedenions) all fail to satisfy this property. They all have zero divisors.


title: Octonion

text: Wider number systems exist which have a multiplicative modulus (for example, 16-dimensional conic sedenions). Their modulus is defined differently from their norm, and they also contain zero divisors.


title: Octonion

text: As shown by Hurwitz, , , , and are the only normed division algebras over the real numbers. These four algebras also form the only alternative, finite-dimensional division algebras over the real numbers (up to isomorphism).


title: Octonion

text: Not being associative, the nonzero elements of do not form a group. They do, however, form a loop, specifically a Moufang loop.


title: Octonion

text: This is antisymmetric and imaginary. If it is considered only as a product on the imaginary subspace it defines a product on that space, the seven-dimensional cross product, given by


title: Octonion

text: But like the octonion product it is not uniquely defined. Instead there are many different cross products, each one dependent on the choice of octonion product.


title: Octonion

text: The set of all automorphisms of forms a group called . The group is a simply connected, compact, real Lie group of dimension 14. This group is the smallest of the exceptional Lie groups and is isomorphic to the subgroup of that preserves any chosen particular vector in its 8-dimensional real spinor representation. The group is in turn a subgroup of the group of isotopies described below.


title: Octonion

text: An isotopy of an algebra is a triple of bijective linear maps , , such that if then . For this is the same as an automorphism. The isotopy group of an algebra is the group of all isotopies, which contains the group of automorphisms as a subgroup.


title: Octonion

text: The isotopy group of the octonions is the group , with , , acting as the three 8-dimensional representations. The subgroup of elements where fixes the identity is the subgroup , and the subgroup where , , all fix the identity is the automorphism group .


title: Octonion

text: The octonions play a significant role in the classification and construction of other mathematical entities. For example, the exceptional Lie group is the automorphism group of the octonions, and the other exceptional Lie groups , , and can be understood as the isometries of certain projective planes defined using the octonions. The set of self-adjoint 3 × 3 octonionic matrices, equipped with a symmetrized matrix product, defines the Albert algebra. In discrete mathematics, the octonions provide an elementary derivation of the Leech lattice, and thus they are closely related to the sporadic simple groups.


title: Octonion

text: Applications of the octonions to physics have largely been conjectural. For example, in the 1970s, attempts were made to understand quarks by way of an octonionic Hilbert space. It is known that the octonions, and the fact that only four normed division algebras can exist, relates to the spacetime dimensions in which supersymmetric quantum field theories can be constructed. Also, attempts have been made to obtain the Standard Model of elementary particle physics from octonionic constructions, for example using the "Dixon algebra" .


title: Octonion

text: Octonions have also arisen in the study of black hole entropy, quantum information science, and string theory.


title: Octonion

text: Deep octonion networks provide a means of efficient and compact expression in machine learning applications.


title: Octonion

text: There are several natural ways to choose an integral form of the octonions. The simplest is just to take the octonions whose coordinates are integers. This gives a nonassociative algebra over the integers called the Gravesian octonions. However it is not a maximal order (in the sense of ring theory); there are exactly seven maximal orders containing it. These seven maximal orders are all equivalent under automorphisms. The phrase "integral octonions" usually refers to a fixed choice of one of these seven orders.


title: Octonion

text: These maximal orders were constructed by , Dickson and Bruck as follows. Label the eight basis vectors by the points of the projective line over the field with seven elements. First form the "Kirmse integers" : these consist of octonions whose coordinates are integers or half integers, and that are half integers (that is, halves of odd integers) on one of the 16 sets


title: Octonion

text: of the extended quadratic residue code of length 8 over the field of two elements, given by , and its images under adding a constant modulo 7, and the complements of these eight sets. Then switch infinity and any one other coordinate; this operation creates a bijection of the Kirmse integers onto a different set, which is a maximal order. There are seven ways to do this, giving seven maximal orders, which are all equivalent under cyclic permutations of the seven coordinates 0123456. (Kirmse incorrectly claimed that the Kirmse integers also form a maximal order, so he thought there were eight maximal orders rather than seven, but as pointed out they are not closed under multiplication; this mistake occurs in several published papers.)


title: Octonion

text: The Kirmse integers and the seven maximal orders are all isometric to the lattice rescaled by a factor of . In particular there are 240 elements of minimum nonzero norm 1 in each of these orders, forming a Moufang loop of order 240.


title: Octonion

text: The integral octonions have a "division with remainder" property: given integral octonions and , we can find and with , where the remainder has norm less than that of .


title: Octonion

text: In the integral octonions, all left ideals and right ideals are 2-sided ideals, and the only 2-sided ideals are the principal ideals where is a non-negative integer.


title: Octonion

text: The integral octonions have a version of factorization into primes, though it is not straightforward to state because the octonions are not associative so the product of octonions depends on the order in which one does the products. The irreducible integral octonions are exactly those of prime norm, and every integral octonion can be written as a product of irreducible octonions. More precisely an integral octonion of norm can be written as a product of integral octonions of norms and .


title: Octonion

text: The automorphism group of the integral octonions is the group of order 12,096, which has a simple subgroup of index 2 isomorphic to the unitary group . The isotopy group of the integral octonions is the perfect double cover of the group of rotations of the lattice.


The Commanding General of the United States Army was the title given to the service chief and highest-ranking officer of the United States Army (and its predecessor the Continental Army), prior to the establishment of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army in 1903. During the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783), the title was Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army. In 1783, the title was simplified to Senior Officer of the United States Army. In 1821, the title was changed to Commanding General of the United States Army. The office was often referred to by various other titles, such as "Major General Commanding the Army" or "General-in-Chief".


title: Commanding General of the United States Army

text: From 1789 until its abolition in 1903, the position of commanding general was legally subordinate to the Secretary of War; it was replaced by the creation of the statutory Chief of Staff of the Army in 1903.


title: Vajrapani

text: Vajrapāni is also called Chana Dorji and Chador and extensively represented in Buddhist iconography as one of the earliest three protective deities or bodhisattvas surrounding the Buddha. Each of them symbolizes one of the Buddha's virtues: Manjushri manifests all the Buddhas' wisdom, Avalokiteśvara manifests all the Buddhas' immense compassion, and Vajrapāni protects Buddha and manifests all the Buddhas' power as well as the power of all five tathāgatas (Buddhahood of the rank of Buddha).


title: Vajrapani

text: Vajrapāni is one of the earliest Dharmapalas of Mahayana Buddhism and also appears as a deity in the Pali Canon of the Theravada school. He is worshiped in the Shaolin Monastery, in Tibetan Buddhism and in Pure Land Buddhism (where he is known as Mahasthamaprapta and forms a triad with Amitābha and Avalokiteśvara). Manifestations of Vajrapāni can also be found in many Buddhist temples in China, Taiwan and Japan as Dharma protectors guarding monastery and temple gates. Vajrapāni is also associated with Acala, where he is serenaded as the holder of the vajra.


title: Vajrapani

text: Vajrapāni is a compound word in Sanskrit in which 'Vajra' means "Diamond or Thunderbolt " and 'pāni' means "in hand".


title: Vajrapani

text: In human form Vajrapāni is depicted holding the vajra in his right hand. He is sometimes referred to as a Dhyani-Bodhisattva, equivalent to Akshobhya, the second Dhyani Buddha. Acharya-Vajrapani is Vajrapani's manifestation as Dharmapala, often seen sporting a third eye, ghanta (bell) and pāśa (lasso). He is sometimes represented as a yidam with one head and four hands in a form known as Nilambara-Vajrapani, carrying a vajra, and treading on personage lying on snakes. Mahacakra-Vajrapani, also a yidam, is depicted with three heads and six arms, carrying a vajra and snakes whilst treading on Brahma and Shiva. He is often in union with his consort in yab-yum. Acala-Vajrapani is depicted with four heads, four arms and four legs carrying a sword, a lasso and vajra, treading on demons. Another depiction is in the form with the head, wings, and claws of Garuda.


title: Vajrapani

text: Vajrapāni's expression is wrathful, and is often symbolized as a yaksha, to generate "fear in the individual to loosen up his dogmatism." His outstretched right hand brandishes a vajra, "symbolizing analytical knowledge ("jñanavajra") that disintegrates the grasping of consciousness Although he sometimes wears a skull crown, in most depictions he wears a five-pointed bodhisattva crown to depict the power of the five Dhyani Buddhas (the fully awakened state of the Buddha).


title: Vajrapani

text: In early Buddhist legends, Vajrapāni is a minor deity who accompanied Gautama Buddha during his career as a wandering mendicant. In some texts he is said to be a manifestation of Śakra, king of the Trāyastriṃśa heaven of Buddhist and Hindu cosmology and god of rain as depicted in the idols of the Gandharva. As Śakra, it is said that he was present during the birth of Tathagata. As Vajrapāni he was the god who helped Gautama escape from the palace at the time of his renunciation. When Sakyamuni returned from Kapilavastu he is stated to have assumed eight forms of devas who escorted him.


title: Vajrapani

text: According to Xuanzang, the Chinese monk and traveler, Vajrapāni vanquished a large serpent at Udyana. In another version it is stated that while the Nāgas came to worship the Buddha and hear his sermons, Vajrapāni assumed the form of a bird to deceive them so that they were not attacked by their deadly enemies, the Garudas.


title: Vajrapani

text: At the parinirvana of the Buddha, Vajrapāni dropped his vajra in despair and rolled himself in the dust.


title: Vajrapani

text: Vajrapāni is seen as a manifestation of Vajradhara and the "spiritual reflex", the Dhyani Bodhisattva of Akshobhya. On the popular level, Vajrapāni is the bodhisattva who represents the power of all the buddhas just as Avalokiteśvara represents their great compassion, and Mañjuśrī their wisdom. He is called the Master of Unfathomable Mysteries who upholds truth even in adversities of darkness and ignorance.


title: Vajrapani

text: According to the "Pañcaviṃsatisāhasrikā-" and "Aṣṭasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitā"s, any bodhisattva on the path to buddhahood is eligible for Vajrapāni's protection, making them invincible to any attacks "by either men or ghosts".


title: Vajrapani

text: As Buddhism expanded in Central Asia and fused with Hellenistic influences into Greco-Buddhism, the Greek hero Heracles was adopted to represent Vajrapāni. In that era, he was typically depicted as a hairy, muscular athlete, wielding a short "diamond" club. Buddhaghosa associated Vajrapāni with the "deva" king Indra. Some authors believe that the deity depicted is actually Zeus, whose Classical attribute is the thunderbolt. The image of Vajrapani as a wrestler-like figure would eventually influence the statues of guardian deities in East Asia.


title: Vajrapani

text: During the Kushan Empire, Gandhara art depicted Vajrapani's images in which he is shown primarily as a protector of Sakyamuni and not in the role of a bodhisattva. In the "Indrasalaguha" scenes, mountains form a part of his environment where his presence during the conversion of the naga Apalala is shown. In these depictions he is shown wearing exclusive Western attire and always in the presence of other deities. The reliefs in this art form depict Vajrapani always present in the scenes where Buddha is converting people; his presence is shown when the Buddha confronts the opponents of the dharma like Mara before his enlightenment. Scenes of Sakyamuni competing with the heretics are also part of this art tradition. Scenes of Buddha using the vajra of Vajrapani as the "magic weapon" to perform miracles and propagate "superiority of his doctrine" are also common.


title: Vajrapani

text: In the western group of caves of the Ajanta Caves in Aurangabad, Vajrapani is depicted as a bodhisattva with his vajra in a tableau, a votive panel of sculptural composition in which he in a standing posture (the only extant figure) over a lotus to the left of a Buddha in a "dhyanasana". In this panel he is adorned with a tall crown, two necklaces, a snake armlet and holds the vajra in his left hand, and resting on a scarf tied across his hips. This close iconographic composition is at the entrance to the porch of cave 2 and in the incomplete porch of cave 1. Such votive carved panels with Vajrapani are also seen in the interior of the "parikrama" passage of cave 2, in which he is paired with other bodhisattvas like Avalokiteśvara. In this panel he has a crown in the form of a stupa with a scarf fastened over his left thigh.


title: Vajrapani

text: In the eastern group of caves, at the entry to cave 6, Vajrapani is carved as a commanding persona in the form of a huge dvarapala, along with Avalokiteśvara. Here, he is flanked by a small attendant. He carries the *vajra*, a luminous weapon in his left hand, which rests on a scarf tied across his hip. His right arm is bent forward, and possibly once held a lotus, similar to Avalokiteśvara. Both figures at the entrance of cave 6 are depicted wearing crowns ("makuṭa").


title: Vajrapani

text: In China, Vajrapāni, known as the "vajra-holding god" (執金剛神 "Zhíjīngāng shén"), is widely venerated in his dual manifestation as the "vajra warriors" (金剛力士 "Jīngāng Lìshì") or "Benevolent Kings" (仁王 "Rénwáng"), two muscular guardian deities that usually stand at each side of the shanmen in Buddhist temples and monasteries. The statue on the right side is traditionally named "Guhyapāda" (密跡金剛 "Mìjī jīngāng"), while the one on the left is traditionally named "Nārāyaṇa" (那羅延天 Nàluóyán tiān), both of whom are dharmapalas in the Chinese Buddhist canon. In Chinese folk religion, they are also known as "Generals Heng and Ha" (哼哈二將 "Hēnghā èrjiàng"), so named because the right statue usually has its mouth open to pronounce the sound "a", while the other usually has it closed to utter the sound "heng". The two sounds are the start and end sounds in Sanskrit, symbolizing the basis of sounds and bearing the profound theory of Dharma. Guhyapāda, in particular, is also considered one of the Twenty Devas or Twenty-Four Devas in the Chinese Buddhist pantheon. In the Shaolin tradition, Vajrapāni is venerated as an avatar of Avalokiteśvara who manifested to protect the monastery during the Yuan dynasty.


title: Vajrapani

text: In Japan, Vajrapāni is called Shukongōshin (執金剛神), the "on'yomi" reading of his Chinese name. As in China, his image was the inspiration for the , the wrath-filled and muscular guardian of the Buddha, found at the entrance of many Buddhist temples.


title: Vajrapani

text: Vajrapāni is also associated with ; the mantra for Fudō-myōō references him as the powerful wielder of the vajra. Though he is not a very popular form of statue worship in Japan, he is frequently depicted in diagrams (mandala). The sixth formation of the Womb Realm mandala is called the "Vajrapani enclosure", in which he is depicted in 20 different forms, with Vajrasattva as the presiding deity. In Japanese iconography he is depicted in red colour at the death of Buddha.


title: Vajrapani

text: In Indonesia, Vajrapani is depicted as a part of triad with Vairocana and Padmapani. A famous 3 metres tall stone statues of Vairocana, Padmapani, and Vajrapāni triad can be found in central chamber of Mendut temple, located around 3 kilometres east from Borobudur, Central Java. Both seated Padmapani and Vajrapani, regarded as the guardian of Buddha Vairocana, are depicted as a handsome well-built men with serene expression adorned with exquisite crown and jewelries. The statues are the fine example of the 9th century Central Javanese Sailendran art, which influenced the Buddhist art in Southeast Asia, including Srivijayan art of Sumatra and Malay Peninsula (Southern Thailand).


title: Vajrapani

text: In Cambodia, three monasteries dated to 953 AD are dedicated to the worship of the triad of the Buddha - Prajnaparamita and Vajrapani; image of Vajrapani with four arms is venerated in one of these monasteries. Also, in niches are standing images of Vajrapani carved with four or two arms on each of the four faces of monoliths found in Western Cambodia.


title: Vajrapani

text: In Nepal, Vajrapani is depicted holding a vajra supported on a lotus with its stem held in the right hand while the left hand is shown in a posture of "charity and argument". His paintings are in white colour.


title: Vajrapani

text: In Tibet, Vajrapani is represented in many fierce forms. Some of the notable ones are: Vajrapani-Acharya (Dharamapala) in a human form with only one head with a third eye with hair raised and crowned by a skull with fiery expression. His neck is adorned with a necklace of snakes, and with waist band made of tiger skin covered with skulls. Stepping to the right, his lifted hand holds a vajra. When painted in blue colour the image is encircled by flames with images of small Garudas; Nilambara-Vajrapani with one head, with a third eye, a crown made of skull with four or six arms and in some cases with untidy hair bedecked with vajra and snake. Two hands are crossed to the breast in mystic posture (mudra), the second right hand is lifted up and carries a vajra. Stepping to the right, regally crowned and lying over a bed of snakes; in "Achala-Vajrapani" form he is shown with four heads, four arms and four legs adorned with symbols of vajra, sword, lasso and skull cup (kapala) and trampling over demons; Mahachakra-Vajrapani is a form with three heads and a third eye, and with six arms and two legs. The icon is adorned with symbols of vajra, snake with "yum" held in its main hands, and as shakti it to his left is shown holding a skull-cup (kapala) and "grigug" (chopper or hooked knife). The icon is shown stepping over Brahma on the right and on Shiva to the left; in the Thunderbolt-Wielder form known as "snake charm form" to protect from snake bites, he is depicted sitting on a lotus throne carried by peacocks. The right hand posture holds one end of rope noose to capture snake demons while the left hand held over the hips carries the other end of the noose. He is followed by two bodhisattvas - "Sarvanivarana-Vishkambhin, Effacer of Stains, and Samantabhadra, the Entirely Virtuous One". His adornments consist of a tall crown and snakes coiling his arms and ankles. In a painted form, usually in white colour "crossed-vajra" is held to the left raised above the accompanying Bodhisattvas but when painted in blue colour the left hand holds a double vajra; his Garuda form is with wings and claws or with human head with a beak or head with wings fully spread (his painted form is in blue colour). he may be trampling over a demon or dead naga (snake). In some images he is shown carrying a sword, a bottle in the shape of a gourd, a chopper or hands held in a prayer mode.


title: Vajrapani

text: In literature and art Vajrapani has a prominent place with his identification as a yaksha leading becoming a full scale bodhisattva. This, reflected through the Mahayana sutras has become an "emblem of esoteric knowledge and the revealer of Buddhist Tantra". In the role of yaksha, his special relationship with mountains and caves is established. According to E. Lamotte, author of books on Buddhism, Vajrapani was the chief of "Guhayakas" "genies des cavernes" or secret yakshas, who played a mysterious role in the Buddhist and Brahmanical literature of India. Lamotte based his assessment on many textual passages which explained Vajrapani's use of his magic vajra to rock the mountains. The story of importance in this context narrated in the "Mūlasarvāstivāda vinaya", is the encounter between the Buddha and Devadutta in which Vajrapani's vajra strength to destruct the rock is brought out. In another textual reference, in the "Sarvastivada vinaya vibhasha", Vajrapani protects the pradakshina path adopting his magic weapon. This fact is verified in the location of huge Vajrapani images in cave 6 at Aurangabad both at the entrance and exit end of the passage where circumambulation terminates.


title: Vajrapani

text: The Pāli Canon's "Ambattha Sutta", which challenges the rigid nature of caste system, tells of one instance of him appearing as a sign of the Buddha's power. At the behest of his teacher, a young Brahmin named Ambatha visited the Buddha. Knowing the Buddha's family to be the Shakya clan, who are caste, Ambatha failed to show him the respect he would a fellow Brahmin. When the Buddha questioned his lack of respect, Ambatha replied it was because the Buddha belongs to a "menial" caste. The Buddha then asked the Brahmin if his family was descended from a “Shakya slave girl”. Knowing this to be true, Ambatha refused to answer the question. Upon refusing to answer the question for a second time, the Buddha warned him that his head would be smashed to bits if he failed to do so a third time. Ambatha was frightened when he saw Vajrapāni manifest above the Buddha's head ready to strike the Brahmin down with his thunderbolt. He quickly confirmed the truth and a lesson on caste ensues.


title: Vajrapani

text: A popular story tells how Vajrapāni kills Maheśvara, a manifestation of Shiva depicted as an evil being. The story occurs in several scriptures, most notably the "Sarvatathāgatatattvasaṅgraha" and the "Vajrāpanyābhiṣeka Mahātantra". The story begins with the transformation of the bodhisattva Samantabhadra into Vajrapāni by Vairocana, the cosmic Buddha, receiving a vajra and the name "Vajrāpani". Vairocana then requests Vajrapāni to generate his adamantine family in order to establish a mandala. Vajrapāni refuses because Maheśvara "is deluding beings with his deceitful religious doctrines and engaging in all kinds of violent criminal conduct". Maheśvara and his entourage are dragged to Mount Meru, and all but Maheśvara submit. Vajrapāni and Maheśvara engage in a magical combat, which is won by Vajrapāni. Maheśvara's retinue become part of Vairocana's mandala, except for Maheśvara, who is killed, and his life transferred to another realm where he becomes a Buddha named "Bhasmeśvaranirghoṣa", the "Soundless Lord of Ashes".


title: Vajrapani

text: According to Kalupahana, the story "echoes" the story of the conversion of Ambattha. It is to be understood in the context of the historical competition between Buddhist institutions and Shaivism.in south Asia and southeast Asia.


title: Vajrapani

text: In his book "The Shaolin Monastery" (2008), Prof. Meir Shahar notes Vajrapāni is the patron saint of the Shaolin Monastery. A short story appearing in Zhang Zhuo's (660-741) Tang anthology shows how the deity had been venerated in the Monastery from at least the eighth century. It is an anecdotal story of how the Shaolin monk Sengchou (480-560) gained supernatural strength and fighting ability by praying to the Vajrapāni and being force-fed raw meat. Shaolin abbot Zuduan (1115–1167) erected a stele in his honor during the Song dynasty. It reads:


title: Vajrapani

text: Instead of being considered a stand-alone deity, Shaolin believes Vajrapāni to be an emanation of the Bodhisattva Guanyin. The Chinese scholar A'De noted this was because the "Lotus Sutra" says Guanyin takes on the visage of whatever being that would best help pervade the dharma. The exact "Lotus Sutra" passage reads: “To those who can be conveyed to deliverance by the body of the spirit who grasps the "vajra" (Vajrapāni) he preaches Dharma by displaying the body of the spirit who grasps the "vajra".”


title: Vajrapani

text: He was historically worshiped as the progenitor of their famous staff method by the monks themselves. A stele erected by Shaolin abbot Wenzai in 1517 shows the deity's vajra-club had by then been changed to a "gun" staff, which originally "served as the emblem of the monk". Vajrapāni's yaksha-like Narayana form was eventually equated with one of the four staff-wielding "Kinnara Kings" from the "Lotus Sutra" in 1575. His name was thus changed from Narayana to "Kinnara King". One of the many versions of a certain tale regarding his creation of the staff method takes place during the Yuan-era Red Turban Rebellion. Bandits lay siege to the monastery, but it is saved by a lowly kitchen worker wielding a long fire poker as a makeshift staff. He leaps into the oven and emerges as a monstrous giant big enough to stand astride both Mount Song and the imperial fort atop Mount Shaoshi (which are five miles apart). The bandits flee when they behold this staff-wielding titan. The Shaolin monks later realize that the kitchen worker was none other than the Kinnara King in disguise. Shahar notes the part of the kitchen worker might have been based on the actual life of the monk Huineng (638-713). In addition, he suggests the mythical elements of the tale were based on the fictional adventures of Sun Wukong from the Chinese epic "Journey to the West". He compares the worker's transformation in the stove with Sun's time in Laozi's crucible, their use of the staff, and the fact that Sun and his weapon can both grow to gigantic proportions.


title: Vajrapani

text: Statues and paintings of kinnaras were commissioned in various halls throughout Shaolin in honor of his defeat of the Red Turban army. A wicker statue woven by the monks and featured in the center of the "Kinnara Hall" was mentioned in Cheng Zongyou's seventeenth century training manual "Shaolin Staff Method". However, a century later, it was claimed that the Kinnara King had himself woven the statue. It was destroyed when the monastery was set aflame by the KMT General Shi Yousan in 1928. A "rejuvenated religious cult" arose around kinnaras in the late twentieth century. Shaolin re-erected the shrine to him in 1984 and improved it in 2004.


title: Bachata (dance)

text: Bachata is a style of social dance from the Dominican Republic which is now danced all over the world. It is connected with bachata music.


title: Bachata (dance)

text: In partnering, the lead can decide whether to perform in open, semi-closed or closed position. Dance moves or step variety strongly depend on the music (such as the rhythms played by the different instruments), setting, mood, and interpretation. Unlike salsa, bachata dance does not usually include many turn patterns.


title: Bachata (dance)

text: The basic dance sequence is performed in a full 8-count moving within a square, consisting of three steps and then a tap or various forms of step syncopations (such as the "double step"). The tap is done on the opposite foot of the last step, while the next step is taken on the same foot as the tap. The dance direction may change after the tap or fourth step. Bachata can be danced on any beat of the musical phrase as long as the basic dance sequence (three steps and then a tap \ syncopation) is maintained (for example, one may start on the 1st beat of the musical phrase, with the tap landing on the 4th beat).


title: Bachata (dance)

text: From the late 1990s, dancers in the Western world started creating novel dance forms inspired by bachata music. The most well-known example of this is the made-up basic step commonly referred to as the "side-to-side step", which is sometimes accompanied by an exaggerated "pop” of the hips during the tap. These novel western dance forms were mostly created copying dance moves from other partner dances of various origins, Latin and non-Latin alike. Many such dances exist today, with the first of these often referred to as “Western side basic step”.


title: Bachata (dance)

text: Often referred to in the West as "authentic / Dominican" bachata, the original social dance was created in the Dominican Republic during the 1960s and was danced only in closed position, like the bolero, often in close embrace. Bachata basic steps are performed by moving within a small square (side, side, forward and then tap with your toes, then side, side, back and tap). This step was inspired by the bolero basic step, but evolved over time to include a tap and syncopations (steps in between the beats), helping dancers express the more dynamic music being commonly played. The hand placement can vary according to the position of the dances, which can range from very close to open to completely open.


title: Bachata (dance)

text: Bachata is still danced today in the Caribbean and all over the world, and has been evolving for several decades. It is increasingly danced to faster music, adding more footwork, simple turns and rhythmic free-styling with alternation between close (romantic) and open position. Bachata is danced with soft hip movements and a tap or syncopation (1, 2, 3, tap/syncopation). It can also be danced with or without bouncing (moving the body up on the beats and down again in between the beats by adding slight spring to ones legs).


title: Bachata (dance)

text: At some point in the late 1990s, dancers and dance-schools in the Western world began using a side to side pattern instead of the box-steps. The basic steps of this pattern move side to side, changing direction after every tap. Characteristics of this "early" dance school dance is the close connection between partners, soft hip movements, tap with a small "pop" of the hip on the 4th step (1, 2, 3, tap/hip) and does not include many turns/figures. Most of the styling in this dance is from ballroom dance and show moves like dips are commonly used. This was the first novel dance to bachata music that was popularized by dance schools outside the Dominican Republic.


title: Bachata (dance)

text: Another dance was developed shortly after the western "traditional" and was called "Bachatango". This is a fusion dance from the West, consisting of short sequences taken from western "traditional" steps combined with different Tango steps and danced like tango. The "pop" count is used to add elaborated sensuality and varied Latin ballroom dance styles and also includes the characteristic kicks from tango. The turns are like in the "western traditional" dance. Although in the past this dance was danced exclusively to bachata music, it has recently been danced to tango music as well. Even though bachatango is unheard of in the Dominican Republic, bachata's country of origin, the dance enjoyed a period of popularity among foreign dance instructors outside the Caribbean. Still, nowadays the dance is not often seen on the social dance floors.


title: Bachata (dance)

text: A dance called "modern" or "moderna" was developed probably from around 2005 on the "western traditional" basic elements. The basics are the same as the "western traditional" dance, but with added dance elements and styling from Salsa, tango and Ballroom. In this dance, couples typically move their torsos more and greatly exaggerate the hip pop (especially the ladies). The most direct influence on the modern/moderna dance comes from the adoption of salsa turn patterns; these, together with dips became the core of the dance.


title: Bachata (dance)

text: The Sensual dance style was created in Cádiz, Andalusia, Spain, by Korke Escalona and Judith Cordero.


title: Bachata (dance)

text: Korke learned the basics of western "traditional" in 1998, but with no more information than the basic step (four steps to the side) and inspired by bachata music, he started developing his own dance style inspired by soft bachata songs of Juan Luis Guerra and natural "waving" movements in close position with a partner and by understanding how the leader (traditionally a man) could lead the body of the follower (traditionally a lady) to interpret the music. The result is a novel, independent dance form with strict principles of leading and following, with mostly circular movements and body waves similar to Brazilian Zouk, and with isolations and dips when the dancers feel the music calls for it.


title: Bachata (dance)

text: Korke is the creator of the BachataStars competition, in which participants get a random song and show ability to improvise, while showing their dance skills and musicality.


title: Bachata (dance)

text: Ballroom style is yet another dance developed in the West, primarily for dance competitions rather than social dancing, with very extreme hip movements and much ballroom dance styling. The basic step is based on western "traditional" dance.


title: Bachata (dance)

text: There are other Western dances, pioneered and promoted by different teachers around the world, each with its own distinct flair. Whether these are considered completely different styles or simply variations of the main styles above is often argued by teachers and students alike.


title: Tia Maria

text: Tia Maria is a dark coffee liqueur made originally in Jamaica using Jamaican coffee beans, but now made in Italy. The main ingredients are coffee beans, Jamaican rum, vanilla, and sugar, blended to an alcoholic content of 20%.


title: Tia Maria

text: The historical fable of its origins dates it to the 17th century. A young Spanish girl was forced to flee Jamaica, and the family plantation during a conflict. She was accompanied by a sole female servant who carried a bit of jewelry and the recipe for the family liqueur. In honor of the woman's help, the girl named the liqueur "Tia Maria" ("tía" is Spanish for "aunt"), her name for the woman who had helped save her life. This fable may have been part of a marketing campaign, however. In his book "Jamaica Farewell," Morris Cargill recounts having had the idea for developing a coffee liqueur similar to one his aunt used to make. In 1946, he had, to no avail, tried to get the original recipe from his aunt and subsequently connected with Dr Ken Evans, who then developed the recipe. They partnered with others in Jamaica (Herbert Hart, Eustace Myers of Myers Rum, and Paul Geddes of Desnoes & Geddes) to produce the first five thousand cases, with Blue Mountain coffee supplied by Keble Munn. Cargill contracted the London ad agency J.P. MacNulty to brand the product and design the labels. They spent days trying to come up with a name, until Cargill recounted the story of trying to get his aunt's original recipe and Joseph MacNulty said, "I know exactly what we'll call that damn liqueur. Aunt Mary -- Tia Maria."


title: Tia Maria

text: Another account of its history says that a man named Dr. Evans discovered the drink after World War II, and he began reproducing it. This story of Dr. Evans' devotion to the drink is part of the official website's history, however. The Jamaican company Lascelles deMercado producer of Appleton Rum supposedly manufactured the concentrate from which the liqueur was made, at least, up until the time it was sold by Pernod. As recently as the 1980s, Tia Maria was made with an alcohol concentration of 31.5% and positioned as a premium liqueur compared to the substantially different product now produced at 20% ABV. In 1985, brand owners Hiram Walker sued the Kirk Line over the loss of five thousand gallons of Tia Maria it had acquired from Estate Industries in Jamaica but was spilt in an accident.


title: Tia Maria

text: Control of the "Tia Maria" brand moved to Europe in 1987 when Allied-Lyons of the UK acquired Canadian spirits company Hiram Walker. The brand then became part of the Pernod Ricard portfolio in 2005 through its acquisition of rival firm Allied-Domecq.As part of a debt reduction programme, Pernod Ricard sold it to Illva Saronno in July 2009. Following the sale, Chivas Brothers produced it for Saronno before production was transferred to Illva Saronno's distillery in Saronno, Italy. Bacardi U.S.A., Inc. distributed it in the U.S. for Saronno. As of August 1, 2012, Kobrand became the distributor.


title: Tia Maria

text: It can be consumed straight with ice but is also frequently used as an ingredient for cocktails or with coffee. It may also be mixed with milk and ice.


title: Tia Maria

text: Some cocktails include the Tia Espresso Martini, the Dark Tia made with dark rum, the Tia Maria and cola, or the Skinny Tia White Russian made with Tia Maria, vodka, and skimmed milk. Another cocktail known as an 'Orgasm' is Tia Maria mixed in equal parts with Baileys or another Irish cream.


title: Maithuna

text: Maithuna (Devanagari: मैथुन) is a Sanskrit term for sexual intercourse within Tantric sex, or alternatively to the specific lack of sexual fluids generated, while mithuna is a couple participating in such a ritual. It is the most important of the five makara and constitutes the main part of the grand ritual of Tantra variously known as Panchamakara, Panchatattva, and Tattva Chakra. Maithuna means the union of opposing forces, underlining the nonduality between human and divine, as well as worldly enjoyment ("kama") and spiritual liberation ("moksha").


title: Maithuna

text: Maithuna intercourse has been traditionally interpreted to be performed with semen retention by the male practitioner, although other authors consider it optional, possibly relegated only to late Tantra. Early maithuna might have consisted on generating sexual fluids ("maithunam dravyam", or solely "maithuna" by metonymy) in order to be ritually ingested, in a similar way to the edible three first Panchamakara. The shedding of semen is also compared to water-offering ("tarpana"). This is related to similar practices like "rajapana", the drinking of female discharge found in Kaula Tantra, and the mixing of all five ingredients into nectar ("amrita") in the Jagannatha temple of Puri, as described by Frédérique Apffel-Marglin.


title: Maithuna

text: Late sources like Abhinavagupta in the 10th century warn that results of maithuna are not meant to be consumed like the rest of Panchamakara, calling those who do so "brutes" ("pasus").


title: Maithuna

text: The 11th century "Toḍala tantra" places maithuna as the last of its "pañcamakāra" or "set of 5 M-words", namely "madya" (wine), "māṃsa" (meat), "matsya" (fish), "mudrā" (grain), and "maithuna".


title: Maithuna

text: Around the 12th century, practices seemed to turn towards the absorption of sexual fluids into the body of the practitioner, like that of "vajroli mudra".


title: Maithuna

text: Maithuna entails male-female couples and their union in the physical, sexual sense as synonymous with kriya nishpatti (mature cleansing). Just as neither spirit nor matter by itself is effective but both working together bring harmony so is maithuna effective only then when the union is consecrated. The couple become for the time being divine: she is Shakti and he is Shiva, and they confront ultimate reality and experiences bliss through union. The scriptures warn that unless this spiritual transformation occurs, the union is incomplete. However, some writers, sects and schools like Yogananda consider this to be a purely mental and symbolic act, without actual intercourse.


title: Maithuna

text: Yet it is possible to experience a form of maithuna not solely just through the physical union. The act can exist on a metaphysical plane with sexual energy penetration, in which the shakti and shakta transfer energy through their subtle bodies as well. It is when this transfer of energy occurs that the couple, incarnated as goddess and god via diminished egos, confronts ultimate reality and experiences bliss through sexual union of the subtle bodies.


title: Xu Xiaodong

text: Xu Xiaodong ( (Pinyin: "Xú Xiǎodōng"); born 15 November 1979), nicknamed "Mad Dog", is a Chinese mixed martial artist (MMA) who is known for challenging and fighting fraudulent and traditional martial artists. He gained prominence online after he was filmed defeating self-proclaimed Tai chi master Wei Lei in 2017.


title: Xu Xiaodong

text: Xu was born on 15 November 1979 in Beijing. In 1996, he entered , where he was trained in sanshou and boxing under Mei Huizhi (梅惠志) and Zhang Xingzheng (张兴正). He competed at least twice at the Beijing Sanshou Invitational Tournament, finishing as the champion and the first runner-up, respectively. He became a sanshou coach at Shenshahai School after graduation.


title: Xu Xiaodong

text: In 2001, Xu began training for mixed martial arts (MMA) and Muay Thai. He was drawn to the fighting style because of how free it was. A year later, he, Anpei (安培) and Wang Yu (王宇) founded the first MMA team in Beijing, Bad Boys (恶童军团). In 2003, Xu fought against Brazilian jiu-jitsu practitioner, Andrew Pi (毕思安) in a televised bout. During the fight, Xu broke Pi's forearm with a kick however Pi managed to eventually get Xu to the ground where he won via Armbar submission. Pi would later go on to found the first professional MMA promotion in China, Art of War Fighting Championship.


title: Xu Xiaodong

text: In 2004, Xu tore his Cruciate ligament in a football match and had to get it reconstructed at Peking University Third Hospital. It was considered a partial disability which as a result led him to transition to full time coaching in 2005.


title: Xu Xiaodong

text: Xu was frustrated by what he saw as fraud and hypocrisy amongst martial arts practitioners, and wanted to demonstrate the superiority of modern fighting styles. Some in China believe that kung fu masters have supernatural powers, and self-described masters, including Wei Lei, were known to make such claims online. Xu started a dispute with Wei on social media, beginning with a demand that Wei provide evidence of his abilities, and culminating in a bare-knuckle fight in a basement in Chengdu in 2017; Xu won convincingly in less than 20 seconds.


title: Xu Xiaodong

text: After the fight went viral, there was significant blowback on social media where he was accused of disparaging Chinese culture and his family received death threats. Beverage tycoon Chen Sheng offered over a million US dollars to any traditional tai chi fighter who could beat him. Following this, police stopped a fight against another self-proclaimed tai chi master, Ma Baoguo who allegedly called them in, and Xu was banned for organizing tournaments at his gym. Xu continued to fight self-proclaimed tai chi masters.


title: Xu Xiaodong

text: In 2018 Xu was injured fighting in a series of sparring matches with kickboxers at a Chinese MMA gym. He was left with a fractured skull and needing 26 stitches around his eyebrow following his fourth sparring partner. During this year Xu would also receive vocal support from Shaolin abbot Shi Yongxin, who claimed that Xu's actions against fake kung fu artists was good for the traditional art form.


title: Xu Xiaodong

text: Xu was sued in 2019 for calling tai chi Grandmaster Chen Xiaowang a fraud, and the Chinese court ordered him to pay Chen approximately US$60,000 in damages and to apologize for seven consecutive days on social media. Additionally, his social credit rating was lowered to the point where he could not rent, own property, stay in certain hotels, travel on high speed rail or buy plane tickets. The restrictions were lifted after he paid US$40,000 in both legal fees and the cost of placing the apology.


title: Xu Xiaodong

text: In May 2019, Xu defeated another martial artist; but was only able to do so wearing clown makeup to hide his face and by fighting under a pseudonym. It took him 36 hours to reach the fight location due to his low social credit score, and Chinese search engines reportedly had stopped listing him. Later that year, Xu had to wear Peking Opera face paint and cover his back tattoo during his match with Japanese kickboxer Yuichiro Nagashima so that the fight which took place in Thailand could stream in China. The fight was hosted under kickboxing rules in the first round and mixed martial arts in the second; and saw Xiaodong eventually winning by TKO by ground and pound in the second round.


title: Xu Xiaodong

text: By defeating Nagashima, Xu believed that he could pressure Yi Long, whom Xu has claimed has rigged competitions, to face him in a match. Yi Long has previously criticized Xu for his attitude and claimed that Xu himself is in fact a fraud.


title: Xu Xiaodong

text: In November 2019 an Iron Palm master threatened to break his arm in a fight, but apologized and backed down after Xu accepted and suggested putting 200,000 yuan on the outcome.


title: Xu Xiaodong

text: In July 2020 the Chinese Wushu Association urged practitioners to refrain from calling themselves "master". This was interpreted by Bloody Elbow (MMA news site) and Radii China as being in response to Xu's complaints about "kung fu fakery". In December, Xiaodong defeated Chen Yong, a tai chi master who had challenged him in 2018, in only 10 seconds.


title: Xu Xiaodong

text: In June 2019, Xu made a video on YouTube claiming that he wished to become an Australian citizen while commenting on Chinese actors who live abroad or have foreign passports, claiming that "all patriots are going abroad … long live China".


title: Xu Xiaodong

text: In August 2019, Xu spoke out on Twitter, Sina Weibo, and YouTube questioning the government's reporting of the Hong Kong protests, stating that the Chinese government was running a "smear campaign", and met with human rights lawyer Chen Qiushi who had shared similar views. Xu has also clarified on his YouTube account that his statements were about how the mainland government should adhere to the One China, Two Systems policy as promised, rather than a call for Hong Kong independence. He was subsequently visited by Chinese authorities and had his Sina Weibo account wiped for the eighth time.


title: Xu Xiaodong

text: After Chen Qiushi disappeared while reporting on the COVID-19 outbreak in Wuhan, Xu, a friend of Chen, gave updates on both his and Chen's YouTube channels reporting Chen was uncontactable by family and friends while police claimed Chen had merely been placed in isolation. Xu would later claim that Chen was in a "safe place" but under government supervision.


title: Xu Xiaodong

text: Xu has also come to the defense of Fang Fang, a Chinese author living in Wuhan who published the "Wuhan Diary" which related the experiences of people living under lock down in the city by the Chinese government. Fang Fang received widespread criticism from Chinese nationalists, including Tai Chi practitioner Wei Lei, who was defeated by Xu in 2017. Wei called for martial artists in Wuhan to assault Fang for her work while Xu defended the author who he claims was mild in criticism and was being truthful in her accounts.


title: Xu Xiaodong

text: Xu has run a YouTube channel called "" since 2015, consisting of 45 minutes long sports show style monologues, largely about MMA and his own experiences. He records the show in Beijing, and sends it to a friend in America to upload it. Most of his audience are from Hong Kong, Taiwan, or are Chinese firewall jumpers.


title: The Fox and the Cat

text: The Fox and the Cat (; "the cat and the fox") are a pair of fictional characters and the main antagonists, along with the Terrible Dogfish, in Italian writer Carlo Collodi's 1883 book "Le avventure di Pinocchio" ("The Adventures of Pinocchio"). They are depicted as poor con-men, who hoodwink Pinocchio and attempt to murder him. They pretend to be disabled: the Fox lame and the Cat blind. The Fox appears to be more intelligent than the Cat, who usually limits himself to repeating the Fox's words.


title: The Fox and the Cat

text: Pinocchio encounters the two after leaving Mangiafuoco's theatre with five gold sequins, whereupon the Fox claims to know Pinocchio's father Mister Geppetto and proposes to Pinocchio to visit the Land of Barn Owls ("Paese dei Barbagianni") and thence to a 'Field of Miracles' ("Il campo dei Miracoli"), where coins can be grown into a money-producing tree. A white blackbird warns Pinocchio against these lies, but is eaten by the Cat. The Fox covers up this action by claiming that the blackbird talks too much. The pair lead Pinocchio to the Red Crayfish Inn ("Osteria del Gambero Rosso"), where they eat a large meal and ask to be awoken at midnight.


title: The Fox and the Cat

text: Two hours before the set time, the pair abandon Pinocchio to pay for the meal with one of his sequins, and have the innkeeper leave a message for Pinocchio that the Cat's eldest kitten had fallen ill, and that they would meet Pinocchio at the Field of Miracles later. When Pinocchio leaves the inn, the two attack him in the guise of murderers and in the ensuing struggle, Pinocchio bites off the Cat's paw. The murderers then hang Pinocchio from a tree, which he escapes with the assistance of The Fairy with Turquoise Hair, who enlisted a falcon to cut him down.


title: The Fox and the Cat

text: The next day, Pinocchio encounters the pair again, unaware that they are the murderers who tried to hang him. When Pinocchio notices the Cat's paw in a sling, the Fox claims that the Cat cut it off to feed a starving wolf. They lead Pinocchio to the town of Catchfools ("Acchiappacitrulli"), where the coins are soon buried. In Pinocchio's absence, the pair dig up the sequins and escape. Pinocchio learns of this from a parrot, who mocks him for falling for their tricks.


title: The Fox and the Cat

text: Near the end of the book, Pinocchio encounters the Fox and the Cat again when looking for a place for Geppetto to recover. But this time, the pair have become impoverished, whereas the Fox is now truly lame, nearly hairless, and tailless (the Fox had to chop off his own tail because he sold it to buy food), and the Cat became truly blind. They plead for food or money, but they are rebuffed by Pinocchio while stating that their misfortunes have served them right for their wickedness. He then leaves, all the while saying goodbye to his 'false friends'.


title: The Fox and the Cat

text: In the 1940 Disney film "Pinocchio", the Fox and the Cat are given the names J. Worthington Foulfellow (or "Honest John"; voiced by Walter Catlett) and Gideon (whose hiccups were provided by Mel Blanc and whose mute comic hijinks were modeled on Harpo Marx, the silent member of The Marx Brothers). The pair differ from the original characters in a number of ways; they are still poor, but they do not feign disability and they persuade Pinocchio to join the Stromboli's (or Mangiafuoco's) puppet show (instead of Pinocchio discovering it himself) as well as go to Pleasure Island, upon being hired to do so by the Coachman. They also do not attempt to murder Pinocchio, although Honest John suggests to the Coachman in one scene that they would be willing to murder if required as part of a job with much more money than usual involved in it. The Field of Miracles subplot is also absent from the film. Honest John is portrayed as an eccentric ham actor who appears to be illiterate (as evidenced by one scene where he "reads" Pinocchio's schoolbook upside down), whereas Gideon is portrayed as a foolish mute who frequently gets Honest John into trouble by accident. Apart from three hiccups, Gideon is mute throughout the film. A draft script of the film had Honest John and Gideon being arrested onscreen by the police after encountering Pinocchio a third time, but this scene was written out of the film's final draft for unknown reasons, presumably for time constraints and/or costs. The characters were considered to be used again in the Disney film "Fun and Fancy Free" (1947) as the owners of the Magic Beans that Mickey Mouse acquires in exchange for his cow, but the idea was dropped.


title: The Fox and the Cat

text: In the video game based on "Pinocchio", Honest John and Gideon appear as enemies during the first stage. The duo were also planned to make an appearance in the RPG video game "Kingdom Hearts 358/2 Days" (2009), but were cut for space restrictions.


title: The Fox and the Cat

text: In the Disney book "Pinocchio's Promise", Honest John and Gideon see Pinocchio walking into town to give a cuckoo clock to Geppetto's friend Mrs. Romano, whereupon he is diverted to a circus. Honest John attempts to sell the clock elsewhere, while Gideon takes Pinocchio to the circus with two expired tickets, but abandons the boy when the latter is scolded by the admission attendant. After Pinocchio leaves the circus and reports Honest John's trickery to the local police, Honest John runs away chased by the policeman and Pinocchio gives the clock to Mrs. Romano.


title: The Fox and the Cat

text: In a Disney book adaption of the tale "The Emperor's New Clothes", Honest John and Gideon - posing as tailors - trick the emperor (portrayed in the same book by Prince John).


title: The Fox and the Cat

text: Honest John and Gideon also appear in the fifth installment of the book series "The Kingdom Keepers". They are featured as members of the Disney Villains legion known as the Overtakers, and battle Finn in chapter six of "Shell Game".


title: The Fox and the Cat

text: The characters of Martin and Myrna from the ABC series "Once Upon a Time" are the parents of Jiminy Cricket and work as con artists, in allusion to the Fox and the Cat. Characters Emma and Graham also stroll past a store called Worthington's Haberdashery, a probable reference to Honest John's full name, John Worthington Foulfellow.


title: The Fox and the Cat

text: Honest John and Gideon appear in Disney's 2022 live-action/CGI remake of "Pinocchio", in which the former is voiced by Keegan-Michael Key.


title: The Fox and the Cat

text: The 'Field of the Miracles' is often mistaken for the poetic phrase "Square of the Miracles", used since the second half of the 20th century to describe the Piazza del Duomo of Pisa. The monuments of the famous square were called "miracles" by Gabriele D'Annunzio in his book "Forse che sì forse che no" (1910). Due to several famous squares in Italy being called "campo", and the story of Pinocchio being widespread in the world, many people—in and outside Italy—tend to confuse the two.


title: Grand strategy

text: Grand strategy or high strategy is a state's strategy of how means can be used to advance and achieve national interests. Issues of grand strategy typically include the choice of primary versus secondary theaters in war, distribution of resources among the various services, the general types of armaments manufacturing to favor, and which international alliances best suit national goals. With considerable overlap with foreign policy, grand strategy focuses primarily on the military implications of policy. A country's political leadership typically directs grand strategy with input from the most senior military officials. Development of a nation's grand strategy may extend across many years or even multiple generations. While the grand strategy scholarship is dominated by the conception that only great powers can have grand strategies, some scholars argue that middle powers and even small states can have grand strategies.


title: Grand strategy

text: The concept of grand strategy has been extended to describe multi-tiered strategies in general, including strategic thinking at the level of corporations and political parties. In business, a grand strategy is a general term for a broad statement of strategic action. A grand strategy states the means that will be used to achieve long-term objectives. Examples of business grand strategies that can be customized for a specific firm include: market concentration, market development, product development, innovation, horizontal integration, divestiture, and liquidation.


title: Grand strategy

text: [T]he role of grand strategy – higher strategy – is to co-ordinate and direct all the resources of a nation, or band of nations, towards the attainment of the political object of the war – the goal defined by fundamental policy.


title: Grand strategy

text: Grand strategy should both calculate and develop the economic resources and man-power of nations in order to sustain the fighting services. Also the moral resources – for to foster the people's willing spirit is often as important as to possess the more concrete forms of power. Grand strategy, too, should regulate the distribution of power between the several services, and between the services and industry. Moreover, fighting power is but one of the instruments of grand strategy – which should take account of and apply the power of financial pressure, and, not least of ethical pressure, to weaken the opponent's will. ...


title: Grand strategy

text: Furthermore, while the horizons of strategy is bounded by the war, grand strategy looks beyond the war to the subsequent peace. It should not only combine the various instruments, but so regulate their use as to avoid damage to the future state of peace – for its security and prosperity.


title: Grand strategy

text: One of the earlier writings on grand strategy comes from Thucydides's "History of the Peloponnesian War", an account of the war between the Peloponnesian League (led by Sparta) and the Delian League (led by Athens).


title: Grand strategy

text: From the era of Hadrian, Roman emperors employed a military strategy of "preclusive security—the establishment of a linear barrier of perimeter defence around the Empire. The Legions were stationed in great fortresses"


title: Grand strategy

text: These "fortresses" existed along the perimeter of the Empire, often accompanied by actual walls (for example, Hadrian's Wall). Due to the perceived impenetrability of these perimeter defenses, the Emperors kept no central reserve army. The Roman system of roads allowed for soldiers to move from one frontier to another (for the purpose of reinforcements during a siege) with relative ease. These roads also allowed for a logistical advantage for Rome over her enemies, as supplies could be moved just as easily across the Roman road system as soldiers. This way, if the legions could not win a battle through military combat skill or superior numbers, they could simply outlast the invaders, who, as historian E.A. Thompson wrote, "Did not think in terms of millions of bushels of wheat."


title: Grand strategy

text: The emperor Constantine moved the legions from the frontiers to one consolidated roving army as a way to save money and to protect wealthier citizens within the cities. However, this grand strategy, according to some ancient sources, had costly effects on the Roman empire by weakening its frontier defenses and allowing it to be susceptible to outside armies coming in. Also, people who lived near the Roman frontiers would begin to look to the barbarians for protection after the Roman armies departed. This argument is considered to have originated in the writings of Eunapius As stated by the 5th century AD historian Zosimus: "Constantine abolished this frontier security by removing the greater part of the soldiery from the frontiers to cities that needed no auxiliary forces. He thus deprived of help the people who were harassed by the barbarians and burdened tranquil cities with the pest of the military, so that several straightway were deserted. Moreover, he softened the soldiers who treated themselves to shows and luxuries. Indeed, to speak plainly, he personally planted the first seeds of our present devastated state of affairs – Zosimus


title: Grand strategy

text: This charge by Zosimus is considered to be a gross exaggeration and inaccurate assessment of the situations in the fourth century under Constantine by many modern historians. B.H. Warmington, for instance, argues that the statement by Zosimus is "[an] oversimplification," reminding us that "the charge of exposure of the frontier regions is at best anachronistic and probably reflects Zosimus' prejudices against Constantine; the corruption of the soldiers who lived in the cities was a literary commonplace."


title: Grand strategy

text: An example of modern grand strategy is the decision of the Allies in World War II to concentrate on the defeat of Germany first. The decision, a joint agreement made after the attack on Pearl Harbor (1941) had drawn the US into the war, was a sensible one in that Germany was the most powerful member of the Axis, and directly threatened the existence of the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union. Conversely, while Japan's conquests garnered considerable public attention, they were mostly in colonial areas deemed less essential by planners and policy-makers. The specifics of Allied military strategy in the Pacific War were therefore shaped by the lesser resources made available to the theatre commanders.


title: Grand strategy

text: The conversation around grand strategy in the United States has evolved significantly since the country's founding, with the nation shifting from a strategy of continental expansion, isolation from European conflicts, and opposition to European empires in the Western hemisphere in its first century, to a major debate about the acquisition of an empire in the 1890s (culminating in the conquest of the Philippines and Cuba during the Spanish–American War), followed by rapid shifts between offshore balancing, liberal internationalism, and isolationism around the world wars. The Cold War saw increasing use of deep, onshore engagement strategies (including the creation of a number of permanent alliances, significant involvement in other states' internal politics, and a major counterinsurgency war in Vietnam.) With the end of the Cold War, an early strategic debate eventually coalesced into a strategy of primacy, culminating in the invasion of Iraq in 2003. The aftershocks of this war, along with an economic downturn, rising national debt, and deepening political gridlock, have led to a renewed strategic debate, centered on two major schools of thought: primacy and restraint. A return to offshore balancing has also been proposed by prominent political scientists Stephen Walt and John Mearsheimer.


title: Grand strategy

text: The end of the Cold War and the collapse of the Soviet Union removed the focal point of U.S. strategy: containing the Soviet Union. A major debate emerged about the future direction of U.S. foreign policy. In a 1997 piece for "International Security" entitled "Competing Visions for U.S. Grand Strategy," Barry R. Posen and Andrew L. Ross identified four major grand strategic alternatives in the debate:


title: Grand strategy

text: Stemming from a defensive realist understanding of international politics, what the authors call "neo-isolationism" advocates the United States remove itself from active participation in international politics in order to maintain its national security. It holds that because there are no threats to the American homeland, the United States does not need to intervene abroad. Stressing a particular understanding of nuclear weapons, the authors describe how proponents believe the destructive power of nuclear weapons and retaliatory potential of the United States assure the political sovereignty and territorial integrity of the United States, while the proliferation of such weapons to countries like Britain, France, China and Russia prevents the emergence of any competing hegemon on the Eurasian landmass. The United States' security and the absence of threats means that "national defense will seldom justify intervention abroad." Even further, its proponents argue that "the United States is not responsible for, and cannot afford the costs of, maintaining world order." They also believe that "the pursuit of economic well-being is best left to the private sector," and that the United States should not attempt to spread its values because doing so increases resentment towards the U.S. and in turn, decreases its security. In short, neo-isolationism advises the United States to preserve its freedom of action and strategic independence.


title: Grand strategy

text: In more practical terms, the authors discuss how the implementation of a so-called "neo-isolationist" grand strategy would involve less focus on the issue of nuclear proliferation, withdrawal from NATO, and major cuts to the United States military presence abroad. The authors see a military force structure that prioritizes a secure nuclear second-strike capability, intelligence, naval and special operations forces while limiting the forward-deployment of forces to Europe and Asia.


title: Grand strategy

text: Posen and Ross identify such prominent scholars and political figures as Earl Ravenal, Patrick Buchanan and Doug Bandow.


title: Grand strategy

text: With similar roots in the realist tradition of international relations, selective engagement advocates that the United States should intervene in regions of the world only if they directly affect its security and prosperity. The focus, therefore, lies on those powers with significant industrial and military potential and the prevention of war amongst those states. Most proponents of this strategy believe Europe, Asia and the Middle East matter most to the United States. Europe and Asia contain the great powers, which have the greatest military and economic impact on international politics, and the Middle East is a primary source of oil for much of the developed world. In addition to these more particular concerns, selective engagement also focuses on preventing nuclear proliferation and any conflict that could lead to a great power war, but provides no clear guidelines for humanitarian interventions.


title: Grand strategy

text: The authors envision that a strategy of selective engagement would involve a strong nuclear deterrent with a force structure capable of fighting two regional wars, each through some combination of ground, air and sea forces complemented with forces from a regional ally. They question, however, whether such a policy could garner sustained support from a liberal democracy experienced with a moralistic approach to international relations, whether the United States could successfully differentiate necessary versus unnecessary engagement and whether a strategy that focuses on Europe, Asia and the Middle East actually represents a shift from current engagement.


title: Grand strategy

text: In the piece, Barry Posen classified himself as a "selective engagement" advocate, with the caveat that the United States should not only act to reduce the likelihood of great power war, but also oppose the rise of a Eurasian hegemon capable of threatening the United States.


title: Grand strategy

text: Robert J. Art argues that selective engagement is the best strategy for the twenty-first century because it is, by definition, selective. "It steers the middle course between an isolationist, unilateralist course, on the one hand, and world policeman, highly interventionist role, on the other." Therefore, Art, concludes, it avoids both overly restrictive and overly expansive definitions of U.S. interests, finding instead a compromise between doing too much and too little militarily. Additionally, selective engagement is the best strategy for achieving both realist goals—preventing WMD terrorism, maintaining great power peace, and securing the supply of oil; and liberal goals—preserving free trade, spreading democracy, observing human rights, and minimizing the impact of climate change. The realist goals represent vital interests and the liberal goals represent desirable interests. Desirable interests are not unimportant, Art maintains, but they are of lesser importance when a trade-off between them and vital interests must be made. Selective engagement, however, mitigates the effect of the trade-off precisely because it is a moderate, strategic policy.


title: Grand strategy

text: The authors write "the most important distinguishing feature of cooperative security is the proposition that peace is effectively indivisible." Unlike the other three alternatives, cooperative security draws upon liberalism as well as realism in its approach to international relations. Stressing the importance of world peace and international cooperation, the view supposes the growth in democratic governance and the use of international institutions will hopefully overcome the security dilemma and deter interstate conflict. Posen and Ross propose that collective action is the most effective means of preventing potential state and non-state aggressors from threatening other states. Cooperative security considers nuclear proliferation, regional conflicts and humanitarian crises to be major interests of the United States.


title: Grand strategy

text: The authors imagine that such a grand strategy would involve stronger support for international institutions, agreements, and the frequent use of force for humanitarian purposes. Were international institutions to ultimately entail the deployment of a multinational force, the authors suppose the United States' contribution would emphasize command, control, communications and intelligence, defense suppression, and precision-guided munitions-what they considered at the time to be the United States' comparative advantage in aerospace power. Collective action problems, the problems of the effective formation of international institutions, the vacillating feelings of democratic populations, and the limitations of arms control are all offered by the authors as noted criticisms of collective security.


title: Grand strategy

text: Primacy holds that only a preponderance of U.S. power ensures peace. As a result, it advocates that the United States pursue ultimate hegemony and dominate the international system economically, politically and militarily, rejecting any return to bipolarity or multipolarity and preventing the emergence of any peer competitor. Therefore, its proponents argue that U.S. foreign policy should focus on maintaining U.S. power and preventing any other power from becoming a serious challenger to the United States. With this in mind, some supporters of this strategy argue that the U.S. should work to contain China and other competitors rather than engage them. In regards to humanitarian crises and regional conflicts, primacy holds that the U.S. should only intervene when they directly impact national security, more along the lines of selective engagement than collective security. It does, however, advocate for the active prevention of nuclear proliferation at a level similar to collective security.


title: Grand strategy

text: Implementation of such a strategy would entail military forces at similar levels to those during the Cold War, with emphasis on military modernization and research and development. They note, however, that "the quest for primacy is likely to prove futile for five reasons": the diffusion of economic and technological capabilities, interstate balancing against the United States, the danger that hegemonic leadership will fatally undermine valuable multilateral institutions, the feasibility of preventive war and the dangers of imperial overstretch.


title: Grand strategy

text: Daniel Drezner, professor of international politics at Tufts University, outlines three arguments offered by primacy enthusiasts contending that military preeminence generates positive economic externalities. "One argument, which I label 'geoeconomic favoritism,' hypothesizes that the military hegemon will attract private capital because it provides the greatest security and safety to investors. A second argument posits that the benefits from military primacy flow from geopolitical favoritism: that sovereign states, in return for living under the security umbrella of the military superpower, voluntarily transfer resources to help subsidize the cost of the economy. The third argument postulates that states are most likely to enjoy global public goods under a unipolar distribution of military power, accelerating global economic growth and reducing security tensions. These public goods benefit the hegemon as much, if not more, than they do other actors." Drezner maintains the empirical evidence supporting the third argument is the strongest, though with some qualifiers. "Although the precise causal mechanism remain disputed, hegemonic eras are nevertheless strongly correlated with lower trade barriers and greater levels of globalization." However, Drezner highlights a caveat: The cost of maintaining global public goods catches up to the superpower providing them. "Other countries free-ride off of the hegemon, allowing them to grow faster. Technologies diffuse from the hegemonic power to the rest of the world, facilitating catch-up. Chinese analysts have posited that these phenomena, occurring right now, are allowing China to outgrow the United States."


title: Grand strategy

text: Barry Posen, director of the Security Studies Program at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, believes the activist U.S. foreign policy that continues to define U.S. strategy in the twenty-first century is an "undisciplined, expensive, and bloody strategy" that has done more harm than good to U.S. national security. "It makes enemies almost as fast as it slays them, discourages allies from paying for their own defense, and convinces powerful states to band together and oppose Washington's plans, further raising the costs of carrying out its foreign policy." The United States was able to afford such adventurism during the 1990s, Posen argues, because American power projection was completely unchallenged. Over the last decade, however, American power has been relatively declining while the Pentagon continues to "depend on continuous infusions of cash simply to retain its current force structure—levels of spending that the Great Recession and the United States' ballooning debt have rendered unsustainable."


title: Grand strategy

text: Posen proposes the United States abandon its hegemonic strategy and replace it with one of restraint. This translates into jettisoning the quest of shaping a world that is satisfactory to U.S. values and instead advances vital national security interests: The U.S. military would go to war only when it must. Large troop contingents in unprecedentedly peaceful regions such as Europe would be significantly downsized, incentivizing NATO members to provide more for their own security. Under such a scenario, the United States would have more leeway in using resources to combat the most pressing threats to its security. A strategy of restraint, therefore, would help preserve the country's prosperity and security more so than a hegemonic strategy. To be sure, Posen makes clear that he is not advocating isolationism. Rather, the United States should focus on three pressing security challenges: preventing a powerful rival from upending the global balance of power, fighting terrorists, and limiting nuclear proliferation.