title: Planter class

text: A plantation house served to group the owner's family, guests, and house slaves within one large structure in a central location on the estate. Often starting as a modest abode, the house was enlarged or replaced with a newer, more impressive home as the planter's wealth grew. Commonly seen is the addition of massive Greek Revival columns, curved stairs, semi-detached wings, and other architectural elements popular at the time.


title: Planter class

text: The French origins of planters in Canada, Louisiana, and Saint-Domingue heavily influenced the development of French colonial architecture, characterized by its wide hipped roofs extending over wraparound porches, thin wooden columns, and living quarters raised above ground level. Learning building practices from the West Indies, colonists designed practical dwellings for a territory prone to flooding.


title: Planter class

text: A notable loss of plantation homes in Louisiana is attributed to an economic shift from agriculture to industry during the Reconstruction era.


title: Planter class

text: Georgian architecture was widely disseminated in the Thirteen Colonies during the Georgian era. American buildings of the Georgian period were very often constructed of wood with clapboards; even columns were made of timber, framed up, and turned on an oversized lathe. At the start of the period, the difficulties of obtaining and transporting brick or stone made them a common alternative only in the larger cities or where they were obtainable locally.


title: Planter class

text: A premier example of Georgian planter architecture is Westover Plantation, built in the mid-18th century as the residence of William Byrd III, the son of the founder of the Richmond, Virginia. An elaborate doorway, which is recognized as "the Westover doorway," adorns the main entrance and contrasts an otherwise simple construction. During the American Civil War, the house served as the headquarters of Union General Fitz John Porter, the protégé of George McClellan, who was stationed at nearby Berkeley Plantation, and purportedly had its east wing struck by a Confederate cannonball fired from the south side of the James River. The wing caught fire and lay in ruin until Mrs. Clarise Sears Ramsey, a Byrd descendant, purchased the property in 1899. She was instrumental in modernizing the house, rebuilding the east wing, and adding hyphens to connect the main house to the previously separate dependencies, thereby creating one long building.


title: Planter class

text: Introduced to the continent by George Berkeley in the 1720s, Palladian architecture became popular with American society in the construction of colleges and public buildings, while many houses too were built in the Jefferson Paladian style of Monticello. Andrea Palladio developed Palladianism in the 16th century, publishing in 1570 "Quattro Libri", a treatise on architecture in four volumes and illustrated with woodcuts after Palladio's own drawings.


title: Planter class

text: Covered and columned porches feature prominently in Palladian architecture, in many cases dominating the main facade. Red brick exteriors and either slanted or domed roofs are commonplace among residential buildings.


title: Planter class

text: Monticello, residence of US President Thomas Jefferson, was built in a style unique to him that has been emulated in the construction of many colleges, such as The Rotunda of the University of Virginia, as well as churches, courthouses, concert halls, and military schools.


title: Joiner

text: A joiner is an artisan and tradesperson who builds things by joining pieces of wood, particularly lighter and more ornamental work than that done by a carpenter, including furniture and the "fittings" of a house, ship, etc. Joiners may work in a workshop, because the formation of various joints is made easier by the use of non-portable, powered machinery, or on job site. A joiner usually produces items such as interior and exterior doors, windows, stairs, tables, bookshelves, cabinets, furniture, etc. In shipbuilding a "marine joiner" may work with materials other than wood such as linoleum, fibreglass, hardware, and gaskets.


title: Joiner

text: The terms "joinery" and "joiner" are in common use in the UK, Australia, and New Zealand. The term is not in common use in North America, although the main trade union for American carpenters is called the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America.


title: Joiner

text: In the UK, an apprentice of wood occupations could choose to study "bench joinery" or "site carpentry and joinery." Bench joinery is the preparation, setting out, and manufacture of joinery components while site carpentry and joinery focus on the installation of the joinery components, and on the setting out and fabrication of timber elements used in construction.


title: Joiner

text: In the history of technology in Europe, joinery was the medieval development of frame and panel construction, as a means of coping with timber's movement owing to moisture changes. Framed panel construction was utilised in furniture making. The development of joinery gave rise to "joyners", a group of woodworkers distinct from the carpenters and arkwrights (arks were an intermediate stage between a carpenter's boarded chest and a framed chest).


title: Joiner

text: The original sense of joinery is only distantly related to the modern practice of woodworking joints, which are the work of carpenters. This new technique developed over several centuries and joiners started making more complex furniture and panelled rooms. Cabinetmaking became its own distinct furniture-making trade too, so joiners (under that name) became more associated with the room panelling trade.


title: Joiner

text: By the height of craft woodworking (late 18th century), carpenters, joiners, and cabinetmakers were all distinct and would serve different apprenticeships.


title: Papermaking

text: Papermaking is the manufacture of paper and cardboard, which are used widely for printing, writing, and packaging, among many other purposes. Today almost all paper is made using industrial machinery, while handmade paper survives as a specialized craft and a medium for artistic expression.


title: Papermaking

text: In papermaking, a dilute suspension consisting mostly of separate cellulose fibres in water is drained through a sieve-like screen, so that a mat of randomly interwoven fibres is laid down. Water is further removed from this sheet by pressing, sometimes aided by suction or vacuum, or heating. Once dry, a generally flat, uniform and strong sheet of paper is achieved.


title: Papermaking

text: Before the invention and current widespread adoption of automated machinery, all paper was made by hand, formed or laid one sheet at a time by specialized laborers. Even today those who make paper by hand use tools and technologies quite similar to those existing hundreds of years ago, as originally developed in China and other regions of Asia, or those further modified in Europe. Handmade paper is still appreciated for its distinctive uniqueness and the skilled craft involved in making each sheet, in contrast with the higher degree of uniformity and perfection at lower prices achieved among industrial products.


title: Papermaking

text: Hemp paper had been used in China for wrapping and padding since the eighth century BCE. Paper with legible Chinese writings on it has been dated to 8 BCE.


title: Papermaking

text: The traditional inventor attribution is of Cai Lun, an official attached to the Imperial court during the Han Dynasty (202 BCE – 220 CE), said to have invented paper about 105 CE using mulberry and other bast fibres along with fishnets, old rags, and hemp waste. Paper used as a writing medium had become widespread by the 3rd century and, by the 6th century, toilet paper was starting to be used in China as well. During the Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE) paper was folded and sewn into square bags to preserve the flavour of tea, while the later Song Dynasty (960–1279 CE) was the first government to issue paper-printed money.


title: Papermaking

text: In the 8TH century, papermaking spread to the Islamic world, where the process was refined, and machinery was designed for bulk manufacturing. Production began in Samarkand, Baghdad, Damascus, Cairo, Morocco, and then Muslim Spain. In Baghdad, papermaking was under the supervision of the Grand Vizier Ja'far ibn Yahya. Muslims invented a method to make a thicker sheet of paper. This innovation helped transform papermaking from an art into a major industry. The earliest use of water-powered mills in paper production, specifically the use of pulp mills for preparing the pulp for papermaking, dates back to Samarkand in the 8th century. The earliest references to paper mills also come from the medieval Islamic world, where they were first noted in the 9th century by Arabic geographers in Damascus.


title: Papermaking

text: Traditional papermaking in Asia uses the inner bark fibers of plants. This fiber is soaked, cooked, rinsed and traditionally hand-beaten to form the paper pulp. The long fibers are layered to form strong, translucent sheets of paper. In Eastern Asia, three traditional fibers are abaca, kōzo and gampi. In the Himalayas, paper is made from the lokta plant. This paper is used for calligraphy, printing, book arts, and three-dimensional work, including origami.


title: Papermaking

text: In Europe, papermaking moulds using metallic wire were developed, and features like the watermark were well established by 1300 CE, while hemp and linen rags were the main source of pulp, cotton eventually taking over after Southern plantations made that product in large quantities. Papermaking was originally not popular in Europe due to not having many advantages over papyrus and parchment. It wasn't until the 15th century with the invention of the movable type of printing and its demand for paper that many paper mills entered production, and papermaking became an industry.


title: Papermaking

text: Modern papermaking began in the early 19th century in Europe with the development of the Fourdrinier machine. This machine produces a continuous roll of paper rather than individual sheets. These machines are large. Some produce paper 150 meters in length and 10 meters wide. They can produce paper at a rate of 100 km/h. In 1844, Canadian Charles Fenerty and German Friedrich Gottlob Keller had invented the machine and associated process to make use of wood pulp in papermaking. This innovation ended the nearly 2,000-year use of pulped rags and start a new era for the production of newsprint and eventually almost all paper was made out of pulped wood.


title: Papermaking

text: Papermaking, regardless of the scale on which it is done, involves making a dilute suspension of fibres in water, called "furnish", and forcing this suspension to drain through a screen, to produce a mat of interwoven fibres. Water is removed from this mat of fibres using a press.


title: Papermaking

text: The method of manual papermaking changed very little over time, despite advances in technologies. The process of manufacturing handmade paper can be generalized into five steps:


title: Papermaking

text: Screening the fibre involves using a mesh made from non-corroding and inert material, such as brass, stainless steel or a synthetic fibre, which is stretched in a paper mould, a wooden frame similar to that of a window. The size of the paper is governed by the open area of the frame. The mould is then completely submerged in the furnish, then pulled, shaken and drained, forming a uniform coating on the screen. Excess water is then removed, the wet mat of fibre laid on top of a damp cloth or felt in a process called "couching". The process is repeated for the required number of sheets. This stack of wet mats is then pressed in a hydraulic press. The fairly damp fibre is then dried using a variety of methods, such as vacuum drying or simply air drying. Sometimes, the individual sheet is rolled to flatten, harden, and refine the surface. Finally, the paper is then cut to the desired shape or the standard shape (A4, letter, legal, etc.) and packed.


title: Papermaking

text: The wooden frame is called a "deckle". The deckle leaves the edges of the paper slightly irregular and wavy, called "deckle edges", one of the indications that the paper was made by hand. Deckle-edged paper is occasionally mechanically imitated today to create the impression of old-fashioned luxury. The impressions in paper caused by the wires in the screen that run sideways are called "laid lines" and the impressions made, usually from top to bottom, by the wires holding the sideways wires together are called "chain lines". Watermarks are created by weaving a design into the wires in the mould. Handmade paper generally folds and tears more evenly along the laid lines.


title: Papermaking

text: The International Association of Hand Papermakers and Paper Artists (IAPMA) is the world-leading association for handmade paper artists.


title: Papermaking

text: Handmade paper is also prepared in laboratories to study papermaking and in paper mills to check the quality of the production process. The "handsheets" made according to TAPPI Standard T 205


title: Papermaking

text: Paper made from other fibers, cotton being the most common, tends to be valued higher than wood-based paper.


title: Papermaking

text: A modern paper mill is divided into several sections, roughly corresponding to the processes involved in making handmade paper. Pulp is refined and mixed in water with other additives to make a pulp slurry. The head-box of the paper machine called Fourdrinier machine distributes the slurry onto a moving continuous screen, water drains from the slurry by gravity or under vacuum, the wet paper sheet goes through presses and dries, and finally rolls into large rolls. The outcome often weighs several tons.


title: Papermaking

text: Another type of paper machine, invented by John Dickinson in 1809, makes use of a cylinder mould that rotates while partially immersed in a vat of dilute pulp. The pulp is picked up by the wire mesh and covers the mould as it rises out of the vat. A couch roller is pressed against the mould to smooth out the pulp, and picks the wet sheet off the mould.


title: Papermaking

text: Papermaking continues to be of concern from an environmental perspective, due to its use of harsh chemicals, its need for large amounts of water, and the resulting contamination risks, as well as the carbon sequestration lost by deforestation caused by clearcutting the trees used as the primary source of wood pulp.


title: Papermaking

text: While papermaking was considered a lifework, exclusive profession for most of its history, the term "notable papermakers" is often not strictly limited to those who actually make paper. Especially in the hand papermaking field there is currently an overlap of certain celebrated paper art practitioners with their other artistic pursuits, while in academia the term may be applied to those conducting research, education, or conservation of books and paper artifacts. In the industrial field it tends to overlap with science, technology and engineering, and often with management of the pulp and paper business itself.


title: Papermaking

text: Some well-known and recognized papermakers have found fame in other fields, to the point that their papermaking background is almost forgotten. One of the most notable examples might be that of the first humans that achieved flight, the Montgolfier brothers, where many accounts barely mention the paper mill their family owned, although paper used in their balloons did play a relevant role in their success, as probably did their familiarity with this light and strong material.


title: Papermaking

text: Key inventors include James Whatman, Henry Fourdrinier, Heinrich Voelter and Carl Daniel Ekman, among others.


title: Papermaking

text: By the mid-19th century, making paper by hand was extinct in the United States. By 1912, fine book printer and publisher, Dard Hunter had reestablished the craft of fine hand paper making but by the 1930s the craft had lapsed in interest again. When artist Douglass Howell returned to New York City after serving in World War II, he established himself as a fine art printmaker and discovered that art paper was in short supply. During the 1940s and 1950s, Howell started reading Hunter's books on paper making, as well as he learned about hand paper making history, conducted paper making research, and learned about printed books.


title: Papermaking

text: 25. Westerlund L.C. “Fibre options for the sustainable development of the Australian Paper and Pulp Industry”: (2004)


title: David Copperfield (1999 film)

text: David Copperfield is a two-part BBC television drama adaptation of Charles Dickens's 1850 novel of the same name, adapted by Adrian Hodges. The first part was shown on Christmas Day 1999 and the second part the following day.


title: David Copperfield (1999 film)

text: The production is the acting debut of Daniel Radcliffe, who would later rise to stardom as the title character of the "Harry Potter" film series, where he would collaborate with his "David Copperfield" co-stars Maggie Smith, Zoë Wanamaker, Imelda Staunton, Dawn French and Paul Whitehouse.


title: David Copperfield (1999 film)

text: The series was co-produced by BBC America and Boston television station WGBH, and first aired on American television in April 2000, as a feature in the PBS series "Masterpiece". It won a Peabody Award in 2000.


title: David Copperfield (1999 film)

text: The original adaptation was written by John Sullivan, the writer of BBC sitcom "Only Fools and Horses", and would have emphasised the comic aspects of Dickens' novel. The plan was to reunite former stars David Jason and Nicholas Lyndhurst on-screen, with Jason playing Wilkins Micawber and Lyndhurst in the role of Uriah Heep.


title: David Copperfield (1999 film)

text: When Sullivan disagreed with the new direction and re-allocation of the adaptation to the BBC's drama department, he left the project, and Adrian Hodges' work was used instead. Lyndhurst remained with this production to play Uriah Heep, and the role of Micawber was taken by Bob Hoskins. Sullivan eventually moved to ITV, where in 2001 he produced a four-part series called "Micawber", with Jason in the title role.


title: David Copperfield (1999 film)

text: Ian McKellen, who plays Mr. Creakle in this adaptation, previously starred as the adult David Copperfield in the BBC's 1966 adaptation of the novel.


title: David Copperfield (1999 film)

text: David Copperfield is a posthumous child. He was born in Blunderstone, Suffolk, three months after the death of his father, who was also called David Copperfield. On the night of David's birth, his great-aunt, Betsey Trotwood, arrives at the the Copperfield family and eagerly anticipates the birth of a baby girl. She insists that Clara Copperfield's baby must be called Betsey Trotwood Copperfield, and that she will be her godmother. However, when the delivered child turns out to be a boy, Betsey is horrified (as her previous experiences with men have all ended tragically) and storms out.


title: David Copperfield (1999 film)

text: David grows up loved and cared for by Clara and their maid, Peggotty. When David turns eight, Clara meets Edward Murdstone, a stern man who takes an immediate dislike to David. Peggotty offers to take David with her to Yarmouth to visit her brother, Dan, and his family, and he accepts, forming a special bond with Dan's niece, Emily (or Little Em'ly). When they return, David sees, to his horror, that his mother has married Murdstone. Murdstone invites his equally stern, sexist sister, Jane, to live with them, and the two Murdstones quickly dominate the household with their callous personalities. Clara briefly objects to having no say in the affairs of her own house, and Murdstone responds by asserting his authority and disciplining David, while imposing a strict regime upon Clara, David and Peggotty. When Murdstone unfairly canes David for falling behind in his studies, David bites him and, as punishment, is sent to Salem House, a boarding school owned by Murdstone's unpleasant friend, Mr Creakle, who is particularly harsh towards David at Murdstone's request. David's only comfort at the school is his friendship with James Steerforth, an older student from a wealthy family, who first defends him from a gang of bullies and then helps him win the respect of other pupils.


title: David Copperfield (1999 film)

text: David returns home for the holidays and finds that Murdstone has fathered a baby boy with Clara. After the holidays David returns to Salem House, where he is soon informed by Creakle that his mother and half-brother have died, and he returns home for the funeral. Peggotty is dismissed, but becomes engaged to a family friend, Mr. Barkis.


title: David Copperfield (1999 film)

text: With the Murdstones now in full control of the Rookery and David's future, Murdstone takes David out of school and sends him to work in his factory in London, arranging for David to live with Wilkins Micawber, who treats David like his own son; Micawber is sent to a debtors' prison shortly afterwards. When he is released, he and his family are forced to move to Plymouth, leaving David homeless. David runs away from London to Dover, to find Betsey Trotwood in the hope that she will take him in. Eventually he finds her, and despite her reluctance to have a boy in her house, she takes him in, and writes to inform the Murdstones of his arrival. Over time, David bonds with Betsey's lodger, Mr. Dick, and Betsey herself begins to feel attachment to her great-nephew. When Edward and Jane Murdstone arrive to take David back, Betsey appoints herself David's legal guardian, giving Murdstone a verbal thrashing for their cruelty and angrily ordering him out of her house. They are not seen or heard from again.


title: David Copperfield (1999 film)

text: David, now going by the first name "Trotwood" as required by Betsey, soon resumes his education at a school in Canterbury. During his time there he lodges with Betsey's friend, Mr. Wickfield, whose daughter Agnes is of a similar age to David. They grow up together as very close friends. On leaving school, David is apprenticed as a clerk to a lawyer called Mr. Spenlow. David meets Mr. Spenlow's daughter Dora and falls in love with her at first sight.


title: David Copperfield (1999 film)

text: David sees Agnes at a party in London, where he also sees Uriah Heep, Mr Wickfield's clerk. David tells Agnes of his love for Dora before running into his old friend, Steerforth. Uriah tells David of his determination to marry Agnes and warns David not to tell Agnes or her father of his intentions. Soon after, David enjoys an unplanned visit with the Micawbers before visiting Steerforth at his mother's home.


title: David Copperfield (1999 film)

text: David and Steerforth travel to Yarmouth, where they visit Peggotty and the ailing Mr. Barkis, going on to visit the Peggotty family. Dan, Ham, Emily and Mrs. Gummidge are still living in the boat house, and Ham is to marry Emily. Emily confides in David that she does not believe herself to be good enough for Ham, and ignores David's reassurances. David makes one final stop to visit Peggotty and informs her that he plans to marry Dora.


title: David Copperfield (1999 film)

text: At David's lodgings in London, the Micawbers come for dinner and Micawber reveals that he is now working for Uriah Heep. On returning home that evening, he finds Aunt Trotwood on his doorstep, declaring that she is ruined. David and Dora agree to a secret engagement since he is now without his great aunt's financial support. David returns to Canterbury to see the Wickfields and reveals to Mr. Micawber that he suspects Heep of trying to take control of Wickfield's business. Heep declares his intention to marry Agnes, and Wickfield responds angrily. The next day, Agnes tells David that her father has apologized to Heep, on whom he is now dependent. She reluctantly accepts her potential marriage. Upon David's next visit to Mr. Spenlow, he finds that his engagement to Dora has been discovered and is not welcomed by her family. David refuses to give up Dora and tries once again to convince Mr. Spenlow of his worthiness, but discovers him dead from a heart attack.


title: David Copperfield (1999 film)

text: David visits Yarmouth again after he receives a letter from Peggotty, informing that Barkis's health is deteriorating and that it is inevitable that he will die soon. Barkis eventually dies and leaves an astronomical £3,000 in his will - the interest on £1,000 to Dan Peggotty and £2,000 to Peggotty, his wife.


title: David Copperfield (1999 film)

text: Ham then tells David that Emily has run off with Steerforth, who has been lodging somewhere in the area and visiting her in secret. Dan begins a search for them, which stretches to other parts of Europe. They inform Steerforth's mother and her companion, Rosa Dartle, of his disappearance; the women reply that they will not allow Steerforth to marry Emily. David learns that the late Mr Spenlow is bankrupt and comforts Dora.


title: David Copperfield (1999 film)

text: David then begins to write and starts to sell his stories. He introduces Dora to Agnes, and Dora and David get married. They struggle as a young couple with getting the house in order. David becomes frustrated by Dora's inability to run a household, but decides to adapt himself to her and their marriage is finally as happy as it should have been. Dora becomes pregnant, only to suffer a miscarriage which leaves her badly weakened and bedridden.


title: David Copperfield (1999 film)

text: David eventually finds Emily in a London slum where she is being confronted by Rosa Dartle. Dan Peggotty also appears on the scene and promises Emily that they can start a new life in Australia. Emily begs David to take a letter of apology to Ham, but on his arrival at Yarmouth the town is deserted, because a fierce storm is raging and a ship is in peril. Ham attempts to rescue a passenger, who turns out to be Steerforth, but both are drowned.


title: David Copperfield (1999 film)

text: Back in Canterbury, Micawber reveals that he has uncovered Heep's villainous scheme which has ruined both Mr Wickfield and Betsey Trotwood. Wickfield summons the police and Heep is arrested. In thanks, Betsey Trotwood offers to pay for a fresh start for the Micawbers in Australia, but at the harbour they are faced with a policeman who has a warrant for Mr Micawber's arrest - again for unpaid debts. Betsey Trotwood pays off Micawber's debts, leaving him free to board the boat to Australia. Dan and Emily join the Micawbers on the voyage. Peggotty insists that the news of Ham's death be kept from Emily until she is strong enough to cope. Dan invites his sister to join him in Australia, but she chooses to stay in England with David and Dora. Another passenger on the ship is Heep, one of a group of convicts in chains being loaded for penal transportation.


title: David Copperfield (1999 film)

text: Dora’s health is declining and then she dies with Agnes at her bedside. In his grief David disappears for three years, during which time he continues to write and has his first two books published.


title: David Copperfield (1999 film)

text: On David's return to Canterbury, he realizes that he loves Agnes Wickfield. After much prodding, Agnes reveals that she has always been in love with David, and even had Dora's dying approval. They are married and within a few years have two sons. David receives a visit from Mr. Peggotty, back from Australia. He brings news that Emily has made a full recovery and that Micawber has established himself as a successful magistrate and bank manager. The story closes with the birth of David and Agnes's third child - a girl. Betsey Trotwood's wish finally comes true after some 30 years, as David decides that the baby will be christened Betsey Trotwood Copperfield, in honour of her godmother.


title: Korean DMZ Conflict

text: The Korean DMZ Conflict, also referred to as the Second Korean War by some, was a series of low-level armed clashes between North Korean forces and the forces of South Korea and the United States, largely occurring between 1966 and 1969 at the Korean DMZ.


title: Korean DMZ Conflict

text: The Korean War had devastated both North and South Korea, and while neither side renounced its claims to reunify Korea under its control, neither side was in a position to force reunification.


title: Korean DMZ Conflict

text: In September 1956, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Admiral Radford indicated within the U.S. government that the military's intention was to introduce atomic weapons into Korea, which was agreed to by the United States National Security Council and President Eisenhower. However paragraph 13(d) of the Korean Armistice Agreement mandated that both sides could not introduce new types of weapons into Korea, so preventing the introduction of nuclear weapons and missiles. The U.S. decided to unilaterally abrogate paragraph 13(d), breaking the Armistice Agreement, despite concerns by United Nations allies. At a 21 June 1957 meeting of the Military Armistice Commission, the U.S. informed the North Korean representatives that the U.N. Command no longer considered itself bound by paragraph 13(d) of the armistice. In January 1958, nuclear-armed Honest John missiles and 280mm atomic cannons were deployed to South Korea, followed within a year by atomic demolition munitions and nuclear-armed Matador cruise missiles capable of reaching China and the Soviet Union.


title: Korean DMZ Conflict

text: North Korea denounced the abrogation of paragraph 13(d) as an attempt to wreck the armistice agreement and turn Korea into a U.S. atomic warfare zone. It responded by digging massive underground fortifications resistant to nuclear attack, and forward deployment of its conventional forces so that the use of nuclear weapons against it would endanger South Korean and U.S. forces as well. In 1963, North Korea asked the Soviet Union for help in developing nuclear weapons, but was refused. China later, after its nuclear tests, similarly rejected North Korean requests for help with developing nuclear weapons.


title: Korean DMZ Conflict

text: In North Korea, the departure of the People's Liberation Army in October 1958 allowed Kim Il-sung to consolidate his power base and embark on the Chollima Movement of collectivised agriculture and industrialization to build a base for reunifying Korea by force. North Korea remained dependent on the Soviet Union for technology and on China for agricultural assistance.


title: Korean DMZ Conflict

text: Following the war, South Korea remained one of the poorest countries in the world for over a decade. In 1960, its gross domestic product per capita was $79, lower than most Latin American and some sub-Saharan African countries. The April Revolution that forced President Syngman Rhee from office in April 1960 was followed by a brief period of democracy before a coup d'état led to General Park Chung-hee seizing power in May 1961. Despite the political turmoil, the South Korean economy continued to grow, led by the industrial sector. Rapid industrial growth started in the late 1960s, with gross domestic product per capita rising from $100 in 1964 to $1000 in 1977.


title: Korean DMZ Conflict

text: On 10 December 1962, Kim proposed a new military strategy to the Central Committee of the Workers' Party of Korea, with increased emphasis placed on irregular warfare, agitation and propaganda, to be achieved by the end of the current Seven-Year Plan in 1967.


title: Korean DMZ Conflict

text: In June 1965, President Park signed a treaty normalizing relations with Japan, which included payment of reparations and the making of soft loans from Japan and led to increased trade and investment between the two countries. In July 1966, South Korea and the United States signed a Status of Forces Agreement, establishing a more equal relationship between the two nations. With its growing economic strength and the security guarantee of the United States, the threat of a conventional invasion from the north seemed increasingly remote. Following the escalation of the Vietnam War with the deployment of ground combat troops in March 1965, South Korea sent the Capital Division and the 2nd Marine Brigade to South Vietnam in September 1965, followed by the White Horse Division in September 1966.


title: Korean DMZ Conflict

text: The start of the hostilities can be traced to a speech given by North Korean leader Kim Il-sung on 5 October 1966, at the Workers' Party of Korea Conference, where the status quo of the 1953 Armistice Agreement was challenged. He apparently perceived that the division of effort by the South Korean military and the ever-growing escalation of the US commitment in Vietnam had created an environment where irregular warfare could succeed in a way conventional warfare could not. Kim believed that he could force a split between the U.S. and South Korea through armed provocations targeting U.S. forces that, together with other worldwide commitments and small wars, would force the U.S. to reassess or relinquish its commitment to South Korea, allowing North Korea to incite an insurgency in the South that would topple the Park administration.


title: Korean DMZ Conflict

text: There were ongoing propaganda campaigns between the north and south, such as loudspeaker broadcasts across the DMZ at each other. Leafleting of North Korea had been resumed, such as "Operation Jilli" from 1964 to 1968 which delivered a few hundred million leaflets to the north.


title: Korean DMZ Conflict

text: In 1966, the Korean People's Army (KPA) deployed eight infantry divisions along the DMZ, backed by eight more infantry divisions, three motorized infantry divisions, a tank division and a collection of separate infantry and tank brigades and regiments. Its total armed forced personnel numbered 386,000. While strong, this conventional force was smaller than the South's ground forces of about 585,000, and it was unlikely that the North could deliver a knockout blow before the U.S. could deploy additional forces.


title: Korean DMZ Conflict

text: The main unconventional warfare arm was the Reconnaissance Bureau of the Ministry of Defense under the operational control of the Liaison Department of the Workers' Party of Korea which included the 17th Foot Reconnaissance Brigade and the all-officer Unit 124 and 283rd Army Units. These units were all highly trained and indoctrinated, skilled in demolitions and small-unit tactics, they would usually operate in small teams of 2–12 men, lightly armed with either PPS submachine guns or AK-47s. The Reconnaissance Bureau also controlled the 23d Amphibious Brigade, which used specially made infiltration boats to operate along the South Korean coastline. The Reconnaissance Bureau could also use conventional KPA and Korean People's Navy forces to support the infiltration and exfiltration of its teams.


title: Korean DMZ Conflict

text: In addition to the offensive irregular forces, North Korea also deployed several thousand operator-agitators to select, train, and supervise informants and guerrilla recruits, while others attempted to cause individual defections and unit dissatisfaction in the ROK military and generally undermine the morale of both the ROKs and the Americans.


title: Korean DMZ Conflict

text: The major U.S. ground combat units in Korea were the 2nd Infantry Division (2ID) and 7th Infantry Division (7ID), I Corps and 8th Army. 2ID stood with the 3rd Brigade manning 29.8 km of the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) essentially due north of Seoul on either side of Panmunjom, with another nine Republic of Korea Army (ROK) Divisions manning the remaining 212.8 km of the DMZ. All U.S. and ROKA forces were under the unified operational control of United Nations Command (Korea) (who was also the commander United States Forces Korea), General Charles H. Bonesteel III. Both U.S. Army Divisions were seriously under strength as Vietnam had priority for manpower and equipment. Troops were equipped with M14 rifles rather than M16s, the only available tanks were older gasoline powered M48A2Cs, and there were a total of only 12 UH-1 Huey helicopters in South Korea seriously restricting the ability to hunt and engage infiltrators. Troops were generally draftees serving a 13-month tour, while experienced officers and NCOs preferred service in Vietnam to Korea. The ROK Divisions were well trained and highly motivated with many of the officers and NCOs veterans of the Korean War, but all their equipment dated back to that war; their standard rifle was still the M1 Garand.


title: Korean DMZ Conflict

text: The main operational objective of the US and ROK Divisions was to defend against a conventional invasion from North Korea in a repeat of the attack of June 1950. While there were regular infiltrations into the South for intelligence-gathering, unconventional warfare was not seen as a particular threat and the troops were not generally trained or equipped for this role. No counter-guerilla units or village militias existed in South Korea in 1966 and infiltrators were variously hunted by the ROK Army, Police and the Korean Central Intelligence Agency with no unified control.


title: Korean DMZ Conflict

text: In 1976, in now-declassified meeting minutes, U.S. Deputy Secretary of Defense William Clements told Henry Kissinger that there had been 200 raids or incursions into North Korea from the south, though not by the U.S. military. Details of only a few of these incursions have become public, including raids by South Korean forces in 1967 that had sabotaged about 50 North Korean facilities. Up to 7,700 South Korean soldiers and agents infiltrated North Korea from the end of the Korean war until 1972, an estimated 5,300 of whom never made it back.


title: Korean DMZ Conflict

text: The ground forces were supported by fighter-bombers of the USAF 314th Air Division and by the Republic of Korea Air Force. The seas around Korea were under the control of the United States Seventh Fleet and the Republic of Korea Navy. As with the Army, the war in Vietnam was the main focus of the USAF and the USN in the Pacific.


title: Korean DMZ Conflict

text: From October 1964 the North Koreans increased the infiltration of intelligence-gatherers and propagandists into the South. By October 1966, more than 30 South Korean soldiers and at least 10 civilians had been killed in clashes with North Korean infiltrators; however, no similar clashes had taken place along the U.S.-controlled section of the DMZ. In October 1966, South Korea staged a retaliatory attack without seeking the approval of General Bonesteel, causing tension between the U.S. command, which wished to avoid violations of the armistice, and the South Koreans, who were suffering ongoing losses.


title: Korean DMZ Conflict

text: Following the first KPA attack on US forces in November 1966, General Bonesteel formed a working group to analyse the North Korean strategy and develop a counter-strategy to defeat it. Finding the existing U.S. Army tactical doctrines to be inapplicable to the situation they were facing, the working group developed its own doctrine to meet its operational needs. Three types of operations were identified: first to guard against infiltration across the DMZ; second was a similar naval effort along the coasts; and third was counterguerrilla operations in the interior. All three types of operations had to be accomplished without jeopardizing the conventional defense of South Korea or escalating the conflict from low-intensity to a full war.


title: Korean DMZ Conflict

text: Starting in 1967 the UN Command developed a layered defense of the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ). The Armistice restricted fortification within the DMZ, where defences were limited to patrols and observation posts without heavy weapons. More aggressive patrolling of the DMZ was ordered with patrols going out for twenty-four hours, reconnoitering by day and establishing ambushes at night; most U.S. casualties occurred during these patrols. The observation posts were fortified with sandbags and machine-guns and recoilless rifles were frequently kept hidden there in breach of the Armistice. General Bonesteel obtained $30m in funding from the U.S. Army Combat Developments Command to create a DMZ test barrier along the portion of the DMZ occupied by the 2ID and the ROKA 21st Infantry Division. Beyond the southern boundary or "south tape" of the DMZ, no defensive restrictions applied and a combined U.S.–Korean engineer force constructed an in-depth Barrier comprising a 3m tall chain-link fence, topped by triple strands of concertina wire and reinforced by interwoven saplings and steel engineer pickets, behind it a narrow, raked-sand path paralleled the fence to highlight footprints.


title: Korean DMZ Conflict

text: Behind the sand strip was a 120m wide cleared kill zone in which mines and tanglefoot wire fronted a line of conventional defensive positions of interlocking machine guns and pre-registered mortar and artillery fire which dominated the kill zone. Observation towers stood at intervals along the trace to permit clear view of the open areas. Various electronics and sensors were tested on the Barrier similar to the McNamara Line in Vietnam, but with the exception of Starlight scopes they were largely ineffective. The Barrier could not prevent infiltration (it was estimated that the North Koreans could cut through the fence in 30–40 seconds), rather it was intended to slow movement and provide easy observation.


title: Korean DMZ Conflict

text: Behind the Barrier were the quick-reaction forces of mechanized infantry, tanks and armored cavalry that would hunt down infiltrators. The rules of engagement were also loosened to allow the frontline troops to use artillery and mortar fire against known KPA elements in or south of the DMZ and against KPA firing from north of the Military Demarcation Line, although in practice this was only used sparingly. A new four monthly rotation scheme was introduced in October 1967 to ensure that each Battalion received only its fair share of time manning and patrolling the Barrier. 7ID sent one infantry battalion at a time to augment the 3rd Brigade, 2ID, this increased the defense to four Battalions on the line plus the quick-reaction forces.


title: Korean DMZ Conflict

text: South Korea launched at least three retaliatory cross-border raids in late 1967 using small teams of North Korean defectors. The raids killed 33 KPA soldiers.


title: Korean DMZ Conflict

text: Preventing infiltration at sea created an impossible challenge for the UN Command, which lacked suitable aircraft, ships, radar and communications. The ROK Navy possessed only 72 vessels to patrol over 7,000 kilometers of rugged coastline. Along the coasts, some 20,000 unarmed coastwatchers, sometimes supplemented by ROKA reservists, patrolled the beaches and when signs of landings were discovered these would be reported to the National Police and quick reaction forces would be deployed. Poor communications and a lack of helicopters meant that the quick reaction forces seldom arrived in time before the infiltrators dispersed in the Korean hinterland.


title: Korean DMZ Conflict

text: During 1966 and into 1967, there was no coordinated counterinsurgency plan in South Korea. Infiltrations were dealt with on an ad hoc basis by the ROKA, National Police, Army counter-intelligence units and the KCIA usually depending on the estimate of the threat and whichever units happened to be nearby. President Park was reluctant to raise and arm a civilian militia as he did not fully trust the loyalty of the populace to his government.


title: Korean DMZ Conflict

text: General Bonesteel regarded counterinsurgency as entirely an internal responsibility for the South Korean Government. While he provided some material support including his helicopters and several Special Forces A-Teams from the 1st Special Forces Group on Okinawa to train the ROKA and the newly formed Combat Police in counterinsurgency tactics, he declined to take responsibility for counterinsurgency operations.


title: Korean DMZ Conflict

text: By late 1967 it was clear that the North Koreans were attempting to develop a full-scale insurgency in the South with strongholds in the Taebaek Mountains and around Jirisan mountain. President Park, in consultation with General Bonesteel, developed a counterinsurgency strategy in the form of Presidential Instruction #18. The instruction established a national coordinating council with clear chains of command for all classes of incidents ranging from individual agent sightings to province-level unrest. Eight (later ten) new ROKA counter-infiltration battalions were to be formed, together with further expansion of the Combat Police.


title: Korean DMZ Conflict

text: On the night of 17 January 1968, 31 men of Unit 124 penetrated the 2ID sector of the DMZ by cutting through the chain-link fence and passing undetected within 30m of a manned 2ID position. The mission of Unit 124, as explained to them by KPA Reconnaissance Bureau chief, Lieutenant General Kim Chung-tae, was "to go to Seoul and cut off the head of Park Chung Hee". It was believed that by assassinating Park, the South would be thrown into turmoil, causing the South Korean populace to rise up and fight against the South Korean government and American soldiers, leading to reunification.


title: Korean DMZ Conflict

text: On the afternoon of 19 January Unit 124 encountered four woodcutters, but rather than killing them the Unit 124 commander proceeded to try to indoctrinate them with details of the coming insurrection and the glories of North Korean communism. The North Koreans released the woodcutters with warnings not to notify the authorities. The woodcutters notified the police as soon as possible, and an alert went up the chain of command in accordance with Presidential Instruction #18. By the morning of 20 January the police and military were on full alert, but not knowing the mission of Unit 124 they were attempting to guard important sites as well as the approaches to Seoul.


title: Korean DMZ Conflict

text: Unit 124 entered Seoul in 2–3-man cells on 20 January, and noting the heightened security and by eavesdropping of ROKA radio frequencies they devised a new assault plan. Changing into uniforms of the 26th Infantry Division they proceeded to march the last 2 km to the Blue House, posing as a unit returning from a counter-guerilla patrol. After passing several ROKA and police units, Unit 124 was stopped by a police unit only 100m from the Blue House. The police began questioning the Unit 124 members and when a police officer grew suspicious and drew his pistol he was shot by a Unit 124 member.


title: Korean DMZ Conflict

text: A running gun battle then developed in which two members of Unit 124 were killed. The ROKA, police and U.S. Army began a massive manhunt as the remaining members of Unit 124 attempted to escape north and cross the DMZ. A further 26 members of Unit 124 were killed, one captured (Kim Shin-Jo) and two missing presumed killed (though at least one member of the Unit apparently survived and returned to North Korea) while 26 South Koreans and 4 U.S. Army servicemen were killed.


title: Korean DMZ Conflict

text: On 23 January 1968 North Korean patrol boats operating under cover of MiG-21 fighters captured the in international waters northeast of Wonsan, killing one crewman. Bonesteel was unaware of the mission of the "Pueblo" and the 314th Air Division had no suitable aircraft available to give assistance to the "Pueblo". By the time that attack aircraft could be sent to the area, the "Pueblo" and her remaining 82 crewmen were in captivity in Wonsan harbour.


title: Korean DMZ Conflict

text: The seizure of the "Pueblo" was one of a number of crises facing the Johnson Administration in January 1968: in Vietnam, the Battle of Khe Sanh had commenced on 21 January. President Johnson ordered a show of force with a massive deployment of U.S. air and navy assets to Korea under the code-names Operation Combat Fox (200+ combat aircraft) and Operation Formation Star (six aircraft carriers plus support vessels) as well as the partial mobilization of reservists for the first time since the Cuban Missile Crisis.


title: Korean DMZ Conflict

text: Despite this military buildup, President Johnson wished to avoid escalating the existing conflict in Korea and instructed Bonesteel to begin negotiations for the return of the "Pueblo" crew with the North Koreans through the Military Armistice Commission at Panmunjom. Even as the extra forces were deploying to South Korea, the Tet Offensive in South Vietnam began on 30 January 1968. Johnson regarded the seizure of the "Pueblo" and the timing of the Tet Offensive to have been coordinated to divert U.S. resources away from Vietnam and to force the South Koreans to withdraw their two Divisions and Marine Brigade from South Vietnam.


title: Korean DMZ Conflict

text: Unlike Johnson, Bonesteel saw no such connection. He regarded the Blue House Raid as having been planned at the highest levels in North Korea, while the seizure of the "Pueblo" seemed merely opportunistic and the timing of the Tet Offensive as helpful but coincidental. He saw no change to his mission of defending South Korea and preventing an escalation of the existing low-intensity conflict.


title: Korean DMZ Conflict

text: The South Koreans saw things differently. They regarded the Blue House Raid and the seizure of the "Pueblo" as signs of a North Korean threat that had to be dealt with strongly by both the ROK and the U.S.. When news of negotiations between the U.S. and North Koreans at Panmunjom became public on 6 February, the Park Administration accused the U.S. of a policy of appeasement. Newspaper editorials and Government officials suggested that the Korean units in South Vietnam should be recalled to deal with the North Korean threat, while various advisers coaxed Park to "go North" with or without the Americans. Park refused to negotiate seriously with either Bonesteel or Ambassador William J. Porter. It appeared that the split that Kim Il-sung hoped to create between the ROK and the U.S. was becoming a reality.


title: Korean DMZ Conflict

text: On 10 February Cyrus Vance arrived in Seoul to negotiate with Park on behalf of Johnson. Vance met with Park on 11 February and set out the Johnson Administration's position: there would be no wider war in Korea, any ROK cross-border action was subject to approval by Bonesteel who would himself need approval from President Johnson and the U.S. would negotiate as necessary to secure the release of the "Pueblo" crew. Vance offered Park $100M in immediate military aid (including F-4D Phantom II fighter jets) with more to follow, provided Park agreed not to "go North." Four days later Park agreed to Vance's terms.


title: Korean DMZ Conflict

text: The Blue House Raid and the Pueblo Incident both served to raise the profile of the low-intensity conflict being fought in South Korea and finally brought in the resources needed to fully implement the joint U.S./ROK counterinsurgency strategy.


title: Korean DMZ Conflict

text: The massive surge deployment of U.S. warships and combat aircraft in operations Formation Star and Combat Fox served to deter further large-scale incursions. Once the immediate threat subsided, the U.S. Seventh Fleet withdrew its ships by mid-1968, while the U.S. Air Force gradually reduced its Combat Fox deployment over a period of 16 months.


title: Korean DMZ Conflict

text: On 1 April 1968, the Department of Defense on the recommendation of General Bonesteel declared the DMZ-Imjin River area as a hostile fire zone, entitling service members stationed in the area to hostile-fire pay and later for the award of the Combat Infantryman Badge and Combat Medical Badge to all qualified men serving north of the Imjin River. This change in designation also meant that Korea would now receive priority second only to South Vietnam. In addition to the $100M promised to the ROK by envoy Vance, Congress also allocated $230M to improve U.S. and ROK facilities and combat readiness across the DMZ. $32M worth of material for the construction of the DMZ barrier and communications equipment was airlifted to South Korea, allowing the completion of the improved anti-infiltration barrier along the entire DMZ by 30 July 1968. The 6th Aviation Platoon which was en route to South Vietnam was instead deployed to South Korea, with its 12 UH-1D Hueys more than doubled the number of UH-1s available, allowing some to remain on alert with quick reaction forces while others conducted counter-infiltration operations. Several thousand additional enlisted men were allocated to Eighth Army alleviating manpower shortages while the Imjin Scout programme improved training in counterinfiltration tactics. Dog-tracker teams were deployed allowing improved detection of infiltrators, while several hundred M16 rifles were procured allowing patrols to match the firepower of KPA infiltrators. These improvements taken together resulted in a dramatic increase in the detection and elimination of KPA infiltrators in 1968.


title: Korean DMZ Conflict

text: The Blue House Raid convinced President Park to make one crucial change to Presidential Directive #18, in February 1968 he ordered the creation of the Homeland Defense Reserve Force (HDRF), publicly announced in April, within 6 months more than 2 million South Korean citizens had volunteered forming more than 60,000 local defense platoons and companies. Park also ordered the establishment of 20 Reconstruction Villages just south of the DMZ, populated by armed ex-soldiers and their families and the dispatch of ROKA civic action Medical/Enlightenment Teams into remote areas, particularly in the Taebaek and Jiri Mountain areas.


title: Korean DMZ Conflict

text: While the DMZ became increasingly difficult to penetrate during 1968, South Korea's coastline, despite some improvements in ROK Navy capabilities, remained vulnerable to infiltration.


title: Korean DMZ Conflict

text: On the night of 30 October 1968, 120 men of Unit 124 landed at 8 separate locations between Ulchin and Samcheok in Gangwon province and moved inland on a 30-day mission to create guerilla bases in the Taebaek Mountains. On the morning of 31 October they entered several villages and began indoctrinating the villagers, several of whom slipped away to alert the authorities. ROKA forces soon arrived in the area aboard the UH-1 Hueys of the 6th Aviation Platoon and some of the new UH-1s provided to the ROKA under the Military Assistance Program. The 36th Homeland Defense Infantry Division, parts of two other Divisions, an ROK Marine Corps battalion, Combat Police companies, an ROK Special Forces Group and thousands of Home Defense Reserves took part in the manhunt that followed. Within two weeks most of the infiltrators had been killed. On 9 December several commandos murdered 10-year-old Lee Seung-bok and 3 other members of his family at their home on the remote northern slope of Gyebang mountain. By the time President Park suspended the operation on 26 December 110 North Koreans had been killed and 7 captured, for the loss of 40 regular army, police and militia and 23 civilians.


title: Korean DMZ Conflict

text: By the end of 1968 it was apparent that despite two years of unconventional operations, North Korea had failed to ignite an insurgency in the South, the U.S.–ROK relationship was stronger than ever and President Park had cemented his legitimacy with the population. In late December Kim Il-sung purged the senior military officers responsible for the unconventional warfare campaign accusing them of failing to correctly implement the Party line, there could be no suggestion that the KWP line simply did not appeal to South Koreans. Defense Minister, General Kim Chongbong and KPA Political Bureau chairman, General Ho Pong-haek were both executed, while the chief of the General Staff, the Reconnaissance Bureau chief, the KPN commander and the commanders of three frontline KPA Corps were all imprisoned. Units 124 and 283 were disbanded and special warfare capabilities were made explicitly subordinate to conventional military operations. The KPA was transformed by the institution of a Commissar system in all units down to Company level to ensure KWP control over all military activity. Despite the change in strategy North Korea continued to conduct infiltrations, apparently as cover while the purge and restructuring was carried out.


title: Korean DMZ Conflict

text: The UN Command did not initially appreciate the changes in Pyongyang, regarding the reduction in infiltrations as being caused by effective UN action rather than the abandonment by Pyongyang of its failed strategy; limited intelligence sources and few published speeches by Kim Il-Sung gave few clues as to the KWP's policy change. In mid-March the combined forces Exercise Focus Retina began in South Korea, this exercise was condemned by the North as a dress rehearsal for an invasion and KPA regulars began a series of attacks and infiltrations against 2ID position on the DMZ that lasted until mid-May.


title: Korean DMZ Conflict

text: On 15 April 1969 (the birthday of Kim Il-sung), two KPAF MiGs shot down a USAF EC-121M Warning Star on an electronic intelligence mission 167 km off the east coast of North Korea, killing all 31 crewmen. President Richard Nixon and National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger considered a reprisal air strike or an aerial escort linked to a diplomatic complaint at the truce table, both initially favored an air strike on the basis that force should be met with force. Nixon's advisers opposed an airstrike, fearing that this could provoke a full-scale war when the U.S. was already committed in Vietnam and they were supported in this by General Bonesteel and Ambassador Porter. On 18 April Nixon announced that future intelligence flights would have fighter escorts (which had been the case until the end of 1968 when the tensions on the Korean peninsula were believed to have subsided) and a protest was lodged with the North Koreans at Panmunjom which was accepted without comment. From 19 to 26 April the Seventh Fleet's Task Force 71 (including 4 carriers and their escorts) conducted operations off the east coast of North Korea as a show of force.


title: Korean DMZ Conflict

text: By May 1969, the level of intensity of the conflict had reduced substantially. Isolated incidents continued to occur particularly along the ROKA-controlled sectors of the DMZ, but it had become clear that the North had abandoned its hopes of starting an insurgency in the South. Qualitative improvements in the ROK Army meant that the U.S. could start to contemplate reducing its military presence in South Korea. On 25 July 1969, President Nixon announced his Nixon Doctrine that, henceforth, the U.S. expected its allies to defend themselves with U.S. air and seapower support (and the nuclear umbrella), but not U.S. ground troops.


title: Korean DMZ Conflict

text: While aimed primarily at South Vietnam, this policy would also apply to South Korea (however, Nixon assured President Park that his commitment to South Korea was unchanged). On 1 October 1969 General Bonesteel handed over command of USFK to General John H. Michaelis. One of General Michaelis' early tasks was negotiating the release of three U.S. soldiers captured when their OH-23 helicopter was shot down after straying across the DMZ; their release on 3 December 1969 is regarded as the official end of the conflict.


title: Geta (emperor)

text: Publius Septimius Geta ( ; 7 March 189 – 19/26 December 211) was Roman emperor with his father Septimius Severus and older brother Caracalla from 209, when he was named "Augustus" like his brother, who had held the title from 198. Severus died in 211, and although he intended for his sons to rule together, they proved incapable of sharing power, culminating with the murder of Geta in December of that year.


title: Geta (emperor)

text: Geta was the younger son of Septimius Severus by his second wife Julia Domna. He was born on 7 March in either Rome or Mediolanum, at a time when his father was only a provincial governor at the service of Emperor Commodus. In 198, Geta was raised to "Caesar". Septimius Severus gave him the title of "augustus" in late 209.


title: Geta (emperor)

text: During the campaign against the Britons in the early 3rd century AD, imperial propaganda promoted the image of a happy family that shared the responsibilities of rule. Geta's brother Caracalla acted as Severus' second-in-command, and administrative and bureaucratic duties were Geta's responsibility. In reality, however, the rivalry and antipathy between the brothers did not abate. With the death of Severus in 211, control of the empire passed to Geta and Caracalla jointly.


title: Geta (emperor)

text: When Septimius Severus died in Eboracum on 4 February 211, Caracalla and Geta were proclaimed joint emperors and returned to Rome. Their mother, Julia Domna, who had served as a crucial advisor and confidante to her husband, was able to maintain her political influence over two co-emperors. It is said that on the journey from Britain to Rome the two brothers kept well away from each other, not once lodging in the same house or sharing a common meal.


title: Geta (emperor)

text: Their joint rule was a failure. The Imperial Palace was divided into two separate sections, and neither allowed the servants of the other into his own. They only met in the presence of their mother, and with a strong military guard, being in constant fear of assassination. The current stability of their joint government was only through the mediation and leadership of their mother, Julia Domna, accompanied by other senior courtiers and generals in the military. The historian Herodian asserted that the brothers decided to split the empire in two halves, but with the strong opposition of their mother, the idea was rejected, when, by the end of 211, the situation had become unbearable. Caracalla tried unsuccessfully to murder Geta during the festival of Saturnalia (17 December). Finally, the next week, Caracalla had his mother arrange a peace meeting with his brother in his mother's apartments, thus depriving Geta of his bodyguards, and then had him murdered in her arms by centurions.


title: Geta (emperor)

text: Caracalla ordered the "damnatio memoriae", which was thoroughly carried out, as is clear from the archaeological record. Reportedly, Caracalla was thereafter tormented by guilt over his deed, but sought to expiate it by adding to this crime the proscription of all his brother's former followers. Cassius Dio stated that around 20,000 men and women were killed or proscribed on this charge during this time.


title: Geta (emperor)

text: Very few marble portraits attributable to Geta survive to date, presumably due to the very thorough "damnatio memoriae" which resulted in the erasing of his images. However Roman coins with his image are plentiful, and can reflect how his father Septimius Severus and mother Julia Domna and later Geta himself wanted him to be seen by the Roman people (and especially the Roman military).


title: Geta (emperor)

text: Images of Geta and his older brother Caracalla cannot be well distinguished until the death of the father. Both sons were supposed to be presented as equally suitable heirs to the throne, showing thus more "depth" to the dynasty.


title: Geta (emperor)

text: On his coins, Caracalla, who became "Augustus" in 198, was shown with a wreath of laurels, while Geta remained bareheaded until he himself became "Augustus" in 209. Between 209 and their father's death in February 211, both brothers were shown as equally mature young men with a short full beard, ready to take over the empire. Between the death of Septimus Severus and the assassination of Geta, Caracalla's portraits did not change, while Geta was depicted with a long beard with hanging hairs, much like his father, a strong indication of Geta's efforts to be seen as the "true" successor of his father.


title: Geta (emperor)

text: The "Severan Tondo" panel painting depicts Septimius Severus and his family with an obliterated face assumed to be Geta.


title: Nico Hischier

text: Nico Hischier (; born 4 January 1999) is a Swiss professional ice hockey centre and captain of the New Jersey Devils of the National Hockey League (NHL). Hischier made his professional debut in his native Switzerland in 2015, spending time both in the top-tier National League A (NLA) and the second-tier National League B. He moved to North America for the 2016–17 season to play major junior hockey for the Halifax Mooseheads of the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League (QMJHL) in hopes of furthering his hockey career; in his first season in the QMJHL, he was named rookie of the year, along with the award for best rookie in the Canadian Hockey League (CHL), the governing body for major junior hockey in Canada. Internationally Hischier has represented Switzerland at several junior tournaments, including two World Junior Championships. Regarded as a strong two-way forward and a top prospect for the 2017 NHL Entry Draft, Hischier was selected first overall by the Devils, the first time a Swiss player was selected first overall, and made his NHL debut in 2017. He was named captain of the Devils in 2021.


title: Nico Hischier

text: Hischier participated in the 2011 and 2012 Quebec International Pee-Wee Hockey Tournaments with a youth team from Zürich. He grew up playing in the EHC Visp program. At the age of 15, he moved from his native canton of Valais, in the south of Switzerland, to Bern and joined SC Bern, following his brother Luca, who had done the same at that age; this allowed Hischier to play at the top levels of the Swiss under-17 and under-20 leagues. He began the 2015–16 season with EHC Visp, an affiliate of SC Bern, in the National League B, the second-highest Swiss league. However, due to several players being out with injuries in Bern, Hischier was brought to the top team on 13 November that year, playing with his brother. Hischier would play 15 games with Bern, spending most of the season with Visp.


title: Nico Hischier

text: The Halifax Mooseheads, a major junior team in the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League (QMJHL), selected Hischier sixth overall in the 2016 Canadian Hockey League (CHL) Import Draft, conducted between the three Canadian major junior leagues (the QMJHL, the Ontario Hockey League, and the Western Hockey League). After discussions with both Halifax's general manager and Swiss former Mooseheads player Timo Meier, Hischier committed to joining Halifax. Hischier's first season with the Mooseheads saw him finish second to Maxime Fortier for the team scoring lead, and tenth overall in the QMJHL, with 38 goals and 86 points. He also led all QMJHL rookies in both goals and points. For this Hischier was awarded the RDS Cup for being the QMJHL Rookie of the Year and the Michael Bossy Trophy as the best professional prospect in the league. He was additionally named to the QMJHL Rookie All-Star Team. He would also be named the rookie of the year for the CHL, which oversees the three major junior leagues. In the playoffs he led Halifax in scoring with seven points in six games.


title: Nico Hischier

text: Regarded as a top prospect going into the 2017 NHL Entry Draft, by the conclusion of the season Hischier was regarded as a candidate to be selected first overall. Ranked the second-best North American skater in the NHL Central Scouting Bureau final list prior to the draft, Hischier was highly regarded as a tremendous offensive talent with exceptional hockey sense. Hischier was also regarded as a strong two-way player, and well-regarded for his strong skating abilities. In the lead-up to the draft Hischier was regarded as a consensus top-two pick along with Nolan Patrick.


title: Nico Hischier

text: Hischier was selected with the first overall pick in the 2017 NHL Entry Draft by the New Jersey Devils, becoming the first Swiss player to be drafted first overall. He signed a three-year, entry-level contract with the Devils on 15 July 2017. After a strong training camp and preseason, where he led the Devils in scoring with seven points in four games, Hischier made the opening-day roster. His NHL debut came on 7 October against the Colorado Avalanche. He recorded his first point, an assist, on 9 October in his second game, against the Buffalo Sabres, while his first two goals came ten days later against Craig Anderson of the Ottawa Senators. Hischier finished the regular season as the Devils' second best scorer (behind Hart Trophy-winning linemate Taylor Hall) with 52 points, including 20 goals and 32 assists. His performance helped the team secure their first playoff berth since 2012. After the Devils were eliminated from the 2018 Stanley Cup playoffs in five games by the top-seeded Tampa Bay Lightning, Hischier revealed he had been playing with a hand injury that kept him out of the 2018 IIHF World Championship.


title: Nico Hischier

text: In his sophomore season with the Devils, Hischier completed the 2018–19 season with 47 points in 69 games. With an injured Hall out of the lineup for a large portion of the season, he recorded a team leading Corsi-For percentage, scoring chances for percentage, and high-danger chances for percentage. Despite this, the Devils performed poorly as a team and missed the 2019 Stanley Cup playoffs.


title: Nico Hischier

text: Prior to the 2019–20 season, Hischier played with the Swiss Ice Hockey Federation national team prospects camp. On 16 October 2019, the Devils announced Hischier suffered an upper-body injury during a game against the Florida Panthers. Two days later, the Devils signed Hischier to a seven-year, $50.75 million contract extension, despite the ability to become a restricted free agent. The Devils' performance woes continued through 2019–20, and saw Hischier's linemate Hall traded from the team. The season was shortened by the COVID-19 pandemic; having finished in the bottom seven teams at the time of the regular season's pause and eventual cancellation, the Devils were eliminated from playoff contention by default. Hischier played a total of 58 of the team's 69 games, scoring a total of 14 goals and 36 points in the abbreviated season.


title: Nico Hischier

text: Due to a leg injury suffered prior to training camp, Hischier missed the start of the 2020–21 season. Hischier made his season debut on 20 February 2021, against the Buffalo Sabres, where he was announced as the 12th captain in the Devils' history before the game. As such, he became the youngest captain in the league. Hischier would play only five games before suffering another injury against the Washington Capitals when a shot from Devils defenceman P. K. Subban hit Hischier in the face. Although the injury initially only projected him to miss three weeks of NHL action, the surgery for Hischier's broken nose ended up sidelining him a total of 24 games. Despite playing only 21 games that season, he would finish with six goals and five assists as the Devils once again missed the playoffs.


title: Nico Hischier

text: Hischier's international tournament was the 2015 IIHF World U18 Championships, hosted in his native Switzerland. Hischier scored one goal as the Swiss team finished fourth overall. He next played in the 2015 Ivan Hlinka Memorial Tournament, a tournament not regulated by the International Ice Hockey Federation but still considered a major event for under-18 players; Hischier recorded six points over four games. At the 2016 IIHF World U18 Championships he had four points as Switzerland placed eighth.


title: Nico Hischier

text: At the 2016 World Junior Championships Hischier was the youngest player for Switzerland, and the second-youngest player overall. He also participated in the 2017 World Juniors, scoring four goals and had seven total points in five games, the most by any player eligible for the 2017 NHL Entry Draft. Hischier also partook at the 2017 IIHF World U18 Championships, and finished with six points in five games as Switzerland lost in the quarter-finals.


title: Nico Hischier

text: Hischier was selected to represent Switzerland at the 2019 IIHF World Championship. In Switzerlands 9–0 win over Italy, he recorded one goal and two assists. Hischier would end the tournament with nine points in eight games.


title: Nico Hischier

text: Described as a well-rounded player, capable of offence and strong defence, Hischier has been compared to former NHL player Pavel Datsyuk, who was renowned as a skilled two-way forward. Hischier himself has made the comparison, and has stated that he models his own style after Datsyuk, even wearing the same number, 13. After being selected by the Devils, general manager Ray Shero cited both Hischier's speed and commitment to defence as reasons for picking him first overall, seeing it as ideal for the team. Head coach John Hynes, speaking after the draft, commended Hischier on "how he competes on the puck and his speed, skill set and hockey sense," saying they were already "at an NHL level."


title: Nico Hischier

text: Hischier comes from a family of athletes; his father Rino played football for FC Naters and his mother Katja worked as a sports teacher. He is the youngest of three siblings, with an older brother, Luca, and sister, Nina. Luca plays for EHC Biel in the NL, while Nina played volleyball at a high level in Switzerland. There were no rinks in Naters, so Katja took both her sons to nearby Visp to learn to skate and they discovered hockey there. Hischier also played football until he was 12, but followed Luca and focused exclusively on hockey. Hischier is an avid supporter of Premier League club Manchester City F.C.


title: Nico Hischier

text: After the 2018–19 season ended, Hischier began his civic military service process in his home country of Switzerland.


title: Foursome (group sex)

text: The level of sexual activity among the four members may vary greatly. Other foursomes may involve some same sex contact, and some foursomes actively involve all four members.


title: Foursome (group sex)

text: Wife swapping involves two couples, usually both married heterosexual pairs, where each man "swaps" his wife for the other, and has sexual intercourse with her. There is usually no sexual contact between the two wives or the two husbands.


title: Foursome (group sex)

text: Soft swinging involves two couples, where either one couple has a voyeuristic role watching the other have sex, or the couples each have sex but with no sexual contact between the two pairs.


title: Foursome (group sex)

text: A gang bang involves three (or more) people having sex with a fourth successively. This usually occurs with men penetrating women, but can equally apply to homosexual acts, or women penetrating men using strap-on dildos.


title: Foursome (group sex)

text: The "airtight seal" involves vaginal sex and anal sex performed on a woman by two men in a double penetration, while the woman performs fellatio on a third man.


title: Foursome (group sex)

text: A quad is a romantic relationship involving four people. It is most commonly used to describe a love relationship between two couples where it takes the form of a square, in which all four people have a love relationship with each other.


title: Foursome (group sex)

text: While it can refer to two people independently romantically linked with two others, it usually implies that each of the four people has some kind of sexual relationship to the other three. The relationships are normally friendships, though romantic. Addition of bisexual or homosexual characters adds many possible combinations of sexes, and of romantic and sexual interactions.


title: Two Generals' Problem

text: In computing, the Two Generals' Problem is a thought experiment meant to illustrate the pitfalls and design challenges of attempting to coordinate an action by communicating over an unreliable link. In the experiment, two generals are only able to communicate with one another by sending a messenger through enemy territory. The experiment asks how they might reach an agreement on the time to launch an attack, while knowing that any messenger they send could be captured.


title: Two Generals' Problem

text: The Two Generals' Problem appears often as an introduction to the more general Byzantine Generals problem in introductory classes about computer networking (particularly with regard to the Transmission Control Protocol, where it shows that TCP can't guarantee state consistency between endpoints and why this is the case), though it applies to any type of two-party communication where failures of communication are possible. A key concept in epistemic logic, this problem highlights the importance of common knowledge. Some authors also refer to this as the Two Generals' Paradox, the Two Armies Problem, or the Coordinated Attack Problem. The Two Generals' Problem was the first computer communication problem to be proved to be unsolvable. An important consequence of this proof is that generalizations like the Byzantine Generals problem are also unsolvable in the face of arbitrary communication failures, thus providing a base of realistic expectations for any distributed consistency protocols.


title: Two Generals' Problem

text: Two armies, each led by a different general, are preparing to attack a fortified city. The armies are encamped near the city, each in its own valley. A third valley separates the two hills, and the only way for the two generals to communicate is by sending messengers through the valley. Unfortunately, the valley is occupied by the city's defenders and there's a chance that any given messenger sent through the valley will be captured.


title: Two Generals' Problem

text: While the two generals have agreed that they will attack, they haven't agreed upon a time for an attack. It is required that the two generals have their armies attack the city simultaneously to succeed, lest the lone attacker army die trying. They must thus communicate with each other to decide on a time to attack and to agree to attack at that time, and each general must know that the other general knows that they have agreed to the attack plan. Because acknowledgement of message receipt can be lost as easily as the original message, a potentially infinite series of messages is required to come to consensus.


title: Two Generals' Problem

text: The thought experiment involves considering how they might go about coming to a consensus. In its simplest form, one general is known to be the leader, decides on the time of the attack, and must communicate this time to the other general. The problem is to come up with algorithms that the generals can use, including sending messages and processing received messages, that can allow them to correctly conclude:


title: Two Generals' Problem

text: Allowing that it is quite simple for the generals to come to an agreement on the time to attack (i.e. one successful message with a successful acknowledgement), the subtlety of the Two Generals' Problem is in the impossibility of designing algorithms for the generals to use to safely agree to the above statement.


title: Two Generals' Problem

text: The first general may start by sending a message "Attack at 0900 on August 4." However, once dispatched, the first general has no idea whether or not the messenger got through. This uncertainty may lead the first general to hesitate to attack due to the risk of being the sole attacker.


title: Two Generals' Problem

text: To be sure, the second general may send a confirmation back to the first: "I received your message and will attack at 0900 on August 4." However, the messenger carrying the confirmation could face capture and the second general may hesitate, knowing that the first might hold back without the confirmation.


title: Two Generals' Problem

text: Further confirmations may seem like a solution—let the first general send a second confirmation: "I received your confirmation of the planned attack at 0900 on August 4." However, this new messenger from the first general is liable to be captured, too. Thus it quickly becomes evident that no matter how many rounds of confirmation are made, there is no way to guarantee the second requirement that each general is sure the other has agreed to the attack plan. Both generals will always be left wondering whether their last messenger got through.


title: Two Generals' Problem

text: Because this protocol is deterministic, suppose there is a sequence of a fixed number of messages, one or more successfully delivered and one or more not. The assumption is that there should be a "shared certainty for both generals to attack".


title: Two Generals' Problem

text: Consider the last such message that was successfully delivered. If that last message had not been successfully delivered, then one general at least (presumably the receiver) would decide not to attack. From the viewpoint of the sender of that last message, however, the sequence of messages sent and delivered is exactly the same as it would have been, had that message been delivered.


title: Two Generals' Problem

text: Since the protocol is deterministic, the general sending that last message will still decide to attack.


title: Two Generals' Problem

text: We've now created a situation where the suggested protocol leads one general to attack and the other not to attack—contradicting the assumption that the protocol was a solution to the problem.


title: Two Generals' Problem

text: A non-deterministic protocol with a potentially variable message count can be compared to an edge-labeled finite tree, where each node in the tree represents an explored example up to a specified point. A protocol that terminates before sending any messages is represented by a tree containing only a root node. The edges from a node to each child are labeled with the messages sent in order to reach the child state. Leaf nodes represent points at which the protocol terminates.


title: Two Generals' Problem

text: Suppose there exists a non-deterministic protocol "P" which solves the Two Generals' Problem. Then, by a similar argument to the one used for fixed-length deterministic protocols above, "P' " must also solve the Two Generals' Problem, where the tree representing "P' " is obtained from that for "P" by removing all leaf nodes and the edges leading to them.


title: Two Generals' Problem

text: Since "P" is finite, it then follows that the protocol that terminates before sending any messages would solve the problem. But clearly, it does not. Therefore, a nondeterministic protocol that solves the problem cannot exist.


title: Two Generals' Problem

text: A pragmatic approach to dealing with the Two Generals' Problem is to use schemes that accept the uncertainty of the communications channel and not attempt to eliminate it, but rather mitigate it to an acceptable degree. For example, the first general could send 100 messengers, anticipating that the probability of all being captured is low. With this approach, the first general will attack no matter what, and the second general will attack if any message is received. Alternatively, the first general could send a stream of messages and the second general could send acknowledgments to each, with each general feeling more comfortable with every message received. As seen in the proof, however, neither can be certain that the attack will be coordinated. There is no algorithm that they can use (e.g. attack if more than four messages are received) that will be certain to prevent one from attacking without the other. Also, the first general can send a marking on each message saying it is message 1, 2, 3 ... of n. This method will allow the second general to know how reliable the channel is and send an appropriate number of messages back to ensure a high probability of at least one message being received. If the channel can be made to be reliable, then one message will suffice and additional messages do not help. The last is as likely to get lost as the first.


title: Two Generals' Problem

text: Assuming that the generals must sacrifice lives every time a messenger is sent and intercepted, an algorithm can be designed to minimize the number of messengers required to achieve the maximum amount of confidence the attack is coordinated. To save them from sacrificing hundreds of lives to achieve very high confidence in coordination, the generals could agree to use the absence of messengers as an indication that the general who began the transaction has received at least one confirmation and has promised to attack. Suppose it takes a messenger 1 minute to cross the danger zone, allowing 200 minutes of silence to occur after confirmations have been received will allow us to achieve extremely high confidence while not sacrificing messenger lives. In this case messengers are used only in the case where a party has not received the attack time. At the end of 200 minutes, each general can reason: "I have not received an additional message for 200 minutes; either 200 messengers failed to cross the danger zone, or it means the other general has confirmed and committed to the attack and has confidence I will too".


title: Two Generals' Problem

text: The Two Generals' Problem and its impossibility proof was first published by E. A. Akkoyunlu, K. Ekanadham, and R. V. Huber in 1975 in "Some Constraints and Trade-offs in the Design of Network Communications", where it is described starting on page 73 in the context of communication between two groups of gangsters.


title: Two Generals' Problem

text: This problem was given the name the "Two Generals Paradox" by Jim Gray in 1978 in "Notes on Data Base Operating Systems" starting on page 465. This reference is widely given as a source for the definition of the problem and the impossibility proof, though both were published previously as mentioned above.


title: Monmouth Rebellion

text: The Monmouth Rebellion, also known as the Pitchfork Rebellion, the Revolt of the West or the West Country rebellion, was an attempt to depose James II, who in February 1685 succeeded his brother Charles II as king of England, Scotland and Ireland. A group of dissident Protestants led by James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth, eldest illegitimate son of Charles II, opposed James largely due to his Catholicism.


title: Monmouth Rebellion

text: The failure of Parliamentary efforts to exclude James from the succession in 1681 resulted in the 1683 Rye House Plot to assassinate Charles II and James; although Monmouth was then in exile in the Dutch Republic, he was identified as a co-conspirator. His rebellion was coordinated with a simultaneous rising in Scotland, led by Archibald Campbell, 9th Earl of Argyll.


title: Monmouth Rebellion

text: On 11 June 1685, Monmouth landed at Lyme Regis in South West England where he had widespread popular support, planning to take control of the area and march on London. In the next few weeks, his growing army of nonconformists, artisans and farm workers fought a series of skirmishes with local militias and regular soldiers commanded by Louis de Duras, 2nd Earl of Feversham, and John Churchill. However, his recruits were unable to compete with the regular army and failed to capture the city of Bristol. The rebellion ended with his defeat at the Battle of Sedgemoor on 6 July 1685 by a government army commanded by Feversham and Churchill.


title: Monmouth Rebellion

text: Monmouth was beheaded for treason on 15 July 1685. Many of his supporters were tried during the Bloody Assizes, led by Judge Jeffreys, and were condemned to death or transportation. James II consolidated his power and reigned until 1688, when he was deposed by another nephew, William III of Orange, in the Glorious Revolution.


title: Monmouth Rebellion

text: Monmouth was an illegitimate son of Charles II. There had been rumours that Charles had married Monmouth's mother, Lucy Walter, but no evidence was forthcoming, and Charles always said that he only had one wife, Catherine of Braganza.


title: Monmouth Rebellion

text: Monmouth had been appointed Commander-in-Chief of the English Army by his father in 1672 and Captain general in 1678, enjoying some successes in the Netherlands in the Third Anglo-Dutch War, as commander of a British brigade in the French army.


title: Monmouth Rebellion

text: The English Civil War had left resentment among some of the population about the monarchy and the penalties which had been imposed on the supporters of the Commonwealth. The South West of England contained several towns where opposition remained strong. Fears of a potential Catholic monarch persisted, intensified by the failure of Charles II and his wife to produce any children. A defrocked Anglican clergyman, Titus Oates, spoke of a "Popish Plot" to kill Charles and to put the Duke of York on the throne. The Earl of Shaftesbury, a former government minister and a leading opponent of Catholicism, attempted to have James excluded from the line of succession. Some members of Parliament even proposed that the crown go to Charles's illegitimate son, James Scott, who became the Duke of Monmouth. In 1679, with the Exclusion Bill - which would exclude the King's brother and heir presumptive, James, Duke of York, from the line of succession - in danger of passing, Charles II dissolved Parliament. Two further Parliaments were elected in 1680 and 1681, but were dissolved for the same reason.


title: Monmouth Rebellion

text: After the Rye House Plot of 1683, an attempt to assassinate both Charles and James, Monmouth went into self-imposed exile in the Netherlands, and gathered supporters in The Hague. Monmouth was a Protestant and had toured the South West of England in 1680, where he had been greeted amicably by crowds in towns such as Chard and Taunton. So long as Charles II remained on the throne, Monmouth was content to live a life of pleasure in Holland, while still hoping to accede peaceably to the throne. The accession of James II and coronation at Westminster Abbey on 23 April 1685 put an end to these hopes.


title: Monmouth Rebellion

text: The Monmouth rebellion was planned in Holland and coordinated with another rebellion in Scotland led by Archibald Campbell, the Earl of Argyll. Several areas of England were considered as potential locations for rebellion, including Cheshire and Lancashire along with the South West, as these were seen as having the highest number of opponents of the monarchy. Argyll and Monmouth both began their expeditions from Holland, where James's nephew and son-in-law, stadtholder William III of Orange, had not detained them or put a stop to their recruitment efforts. Argyll sailed to Scotland and, on arriving there, raised recruits mainly from his own clan, the Campbells, as part of the Scottish revolt. He had previously been involved in the Rye House Plot of 1683.


title: Monmouth Rebellion

text: Another important member of the rebellion was Robert Ferguson, a radical Scottish Presbyterian minister. He was also known as "the plotter". It was Ferguson who drew up Monmouth's proclamation, and he who was most in favour of Monmouth being crowned King. Thomas Hayward Dare was a goldsmith from Taunton and a Whig politician, a man of considerable wealth and influence who had been jailed during a political campaign calling for a new parliament. He was also fined the huge sum of £5,000 for uttering "seditious" words. After his release from jail, he fled to Holland and became the paymaster general to the Rebellion.


title: Monmouth Rebellion

text: To raise the funds for ships and weaponry, Monmouth pawned many of his belongings. His wife Anne Scott, 1st Duchess of Buccleuch, and her mother also pawned their jewellery to hire the Dutch warship "Helderenberg". Ann Smith, wealthy widow of a London sugar-baker, gave him £1,000.


title: Monmouth Rebellion

text: On 30 May 1685 Monmouth set sail for South West England, a strongly Protestant region, with three small ships, four light field guns, and 1500 muskets. He landed on 11 June with 82 supporters, including Lord Grey of Warke, Nathaniel Wade, and Andrew Fletcher of Saltoun. They gathered about 300 men on the first day at Lyme Regis in Dorset, where a long statement prepared by Ferguson denounced the king.


title: Monmouth Rebellion

text: King James had previously received intelligence about the impending plot, and the ships leaving Holland, ten days before. He was warned of Monmouth's arrival soon after the first landing. The mayor of the town, Gregory Alford, informed the local militias while Samuel Damsell and another customs officer rode from Lyme to London, arriving on 13 June, having ridden . To face Monmouth's rebels, John Churchill was given command of the regular foot in the King's army, and the honour of leading the campaign passed to the Huguenot Earl of Feversham. It would take a few days to assemble the army and travel from London to the west country, therefore initial defence was left to local militias.


title: Monmouth Rebellion

text: Over the next couple of days volunteers arrived in Lyme offering to serve under Monmouth. By 15 June he had a force in excess of 1,000 men. On 13 June he lost two of his leading supporters when Dare and Fletcher disputed who should ride one of the best horses provided by local supporters. Fletcher shot and killed Dare and was then put under arrest and sent back to the frigate "Helderenberg". The next day, 40 cavalry and 400 foot soldiers, under the command of Lord Grey and Wade, moved on to the nearby town of Bridport, where they encountered 1,200 men from the local royalist Dorset militia. The skirmish ended with the retreat of Grey and the cavalry followed by Wade with the foot soldiers. Many of the militiamen deserted and joined Monmouth's army. Following this confrontation, Lord Albemarle led a royalist force from Exeter towards the forces of the Duke of Somerset, who were approaching Lyme Regis from the opposite direction.


title: Monmouth Rebellion

text: Monmouth learned of the approach of royalist reinforcements and departed, but instead of marching to London, he headed north with his force towards the county of Somerset. On 15 June he fought with the militia at Axminster, taking the town before the militias could join up. More recruits joined his disorganised force, which was now around 6,000, consisting mostly of nonconformists, artisans, and farm workers armed with farm tools (such as pitchforks). One famous supporter was the young Daniel Defoe.


title: Monmouth Rebellion

text: Monmouth again denounced the king in Chard and was the subject of a coronation in Taunton on 20 June 1685, against the wishes of some of his republican supporters such as Wade. The Taunton Corporation was forced to witness the event at sword point outside the White Hart Inn, to encourage the support of the country gentry. In Taunton, Monmouth was joined by many new supporters and formed a new regiment of 800 men. The king's force of Dragoons under Churchill continued to close on Monmouth, arriving in Chard on 19 June. With the assistance of the local militias they attempted to stop new recruits arriving in Taunton to join Monmouth. Feversham meanwhile moved with his forces into Bristol, on the assumption that this would be Monmouth's next target, and took overall charge of the campaign.


title: Monmouth Rebellion

text: Monmouth and his growing force then continued north to Bridgwater, where he took up residence at Bridgwater Castle on 21 June, Glastonbury (22 June) and on to Shepton Mallet, arriving on 23 June in worsening weather. Meanwhile, the Royal Navy captured Monmouth's ships, cutting off any hope of an escape back to the continent. The Royalist forces of Churchill, who was now in Chard, and of Feversham, in Bristol, also received reinforcements who had marched from London.


title: Monmouth Rebellion

text: On 24 June, Monmouth's army encamped at Pensford, and a small force skirmished with the Gloucester Militia to take control of Keynsham, a vital crossing point over the River Avon. He made Keynsham Abbey his headquarters there. Monmouth intended to attack the city of Bristol, after London the largest and most important city in England at that time, However, he heard the city had been occupied by Henry Somerset, 1st Duke of Beaufort. There were inconclusive skirmishes with a force of Life Guards commanded by Feversham. These attacks gave the impression that there was a much larger royalist force in the vicinity than there actually was. Several historians have speculated that if Monmouth had marched as quickly as possible for Bristol at this point, when it was only protected by the Gloucestershire militia, he would probably have been able to take the city and the outcome of the rebellion might have been very different. Once Bristol had been taken, more recruits would have been attracted to the Rebellion and a later march on London would have been possible.


title: Monmouth Rebellion

text: On 26 June, Monmouth moved towards Bath, and arriving on the south side of it found it had also been occupied by royalist troops. He camped for the night in Philips Norton (now Norton St Philip), where his forces were attacked on the morning of 27 June by the leading elements of Feversham's forces, which had now combined into a larger force, but were still awaiting their artillery. Monmouth's half-brother Henry FitzRoy, 1st Duke of Grafton, led some cavalry, dragoons, and 500 musketeers into the village, where they were surrounded by the rebels and had to hack through hedges to escape. They were rescued by Churchill and withdrew with approximately twenty casualties on each side; however, each side believed that the other had taken greater losses.


title: Monmouth Rebellion

text: Monmouth then marched overnight to Frome, arriving on 28 June. The morale of Monmouth's forces started to collapse as news of the failure of the rebellion in Scotland arrived that day, while the makeshift army was camped in Frome. Argyll's small force had been involved in minor skirmishes at Greenock and Ellangreig. He took Ardkinglass castle, but after disagreements with key supporters about when and where to fight the royalists commanded by Rosse and William Cleland, his supporters dwindled away and the Scottish rebellion failed.