title: Chuck Palumbo

text: On the February 21, 2002 edition of "SmackDown!", Billy and Chuck defeated Tazz and Spike Dudley to win the WWF Tag Team Championship. Palumbo made his WrestleMania debut at WrestleMania X8, when Billy and Chuck defend their titles in a Four corners elimination match against the APA, The Dudley Boyz, and The Hardy Boyz. They lost the tag team gold to Rikishi and their stylist Rico Constantino, who was forced to team with Rikishi on May 19, 2002, at Judgment Day. Less than a month later Rico helped Billy and Chuck recapture the title, but they later lost it to Edge and Hollywood Hulk Hogan.


title: Chuck Palumbo

text: In the second half of 2002, Billy and Chuck were the source of controversy when Chuck apparently proposed to Billy on September 5, 2002, edition of "SmackDown!" asking him to be his "partner for life". They had a marriage ceremony on the 2002 season premiere of "SmackDown!". Just before they tied the knot, however, they revealed that the entire ordeal was a publicity stunt, and both characters disavowed their on-screen homosexuality. When Billy and Chuck decided not to go through with the marriage, Rico turned on them by helping Eric Bischoff and 3-Minute Warning attack the duo. Rico subsequently jumped to "Raw" as the manager of 3-Minute Warning, who beat Billy and Chuck at Unforgiven. Billy was injured in early October 2002, and Chuck worked on "Velocity" for a few months using his original ring name Chuck Palumbo once again.


title: Chuck Palumbo

text: In February 2003, Palumbo formed The Full Blooded Italians (F.B.I.) in WWE, a faction which had previously been seen in Extreme Championship Wrestling. After a beating at the hands of Rikishi, Nunzio threatened to bring in his "family" in order to gain revenge. The next week, Chuck Palumbo and Johnny "The Bull" Stamboli joined Nunzio to form the F.B.I. and attacked Rikishi. This version initially gained little success, but would go on to have brief feuds with Los Guerreros, Chris Benoit, Rhyno, Brian Kendrick, Nathan Jones, the APA, and The Undertaker.


title: Chuck Palumbo

text: Palumbo was traded to the Raw brand on March 22, 2004, along with A-Train in exchange for Rico and Jackie Gayda. After Palumbo was traded to the Raw brand, he was kept off television until July 2004, when he debuted with a new look and entrance music. His new image resembled a cross between an auto mechanic and a greaser. He would later give himself the nickname "Custom Chucky P." It was not long before Palumbo was a regular on "Sunday Night Heat". His new gimmick started off usually losing matches but began to rise on "Heat", defeating the likes of The Hurricane, Rosey, Val Venis and Stevie Richards. On the October 31, 2004 airing of "Heat", Palumbo had his most high-profile match on the Raw brand when he faced former World Heavyweight Champion Chris Benoit, but was defeated. Palumbo was released by WWE soon after on November 4, 2004.


title: Chuck Palumbo

text: Palumbo, along with Johnny Stamboli, went on to become a member of Voodoo Murders of All Japan Pro Wrestling (AJPW) and feuded against Roughly Obsess and Destroy. Palumbo teamed with former FBI partner Stamboli to challenge for the World Tag Team Championship on March 20, 2005, but were defeated by Jamal and Taiyo Kea of RO&D.


title: Chuck Palumbo

text: Stamboli and Palumbo's next stop would be with the promotion in Italy, where the pair reformed the FBI. The duo also made appearances in a World Wrestling Council show where they challenged Último Dragón, Místico, and Negro Casas, in a tag team match which they would win by securing both the first and third falls.


title: Chuck Palumbo

text: In March 2006, Palumbo re-signed with the WWE and began working house shows and dark matches over the next year. Palumbo officially returned on the May 25, 2007 edition of "Heat" with a biker gimmick, and defeated Charlie Haas. He then continued making appearances on "Heat", where he consistently defeated jobbers. In an interview with WWE.com, Palumbo claimed that the biker character was not a gimmick and that he works on bikes two or three times a week. On July 6, 2007, Palumbo made his "SmackDown!" re-debut, defeating Kenny Dykstra in his return match.


title: Chuck Palumbo

text: Palumbo began an on-screen relationship with Michelle McCool, whom he teamed with to defeat Dykstra and Victoria in a mixed tag team match. He then feuded with Jamie Noble, after Noble made advances towards McCool. After a series of matches between the men, Noble won a date with McCool by defeating Palumbo. Palumbo accidentally elbowed McCool during a match, causing her to suffer a storyline concussion. The partnership was dissolved when McCool refused to accept his apology the following week. Palumbo vowed to get revenge on Noble, and defeated Noble the following week.


title: Chuck Palumbo

text: Palumbo participated in the Royal Rumble match, where he eliminated Jamie Noble. He next appeared at WrestleMania XXIV, taking part in a 24-man Interpromotional Battle Royal to crown a number one contender to the ECW Championship, where he also eliminated Noble. During a series of house shows in June 2008, Palumbo challenged Matt Hardy for the United States Championship, though he was unsuccessful in winning the championship. As part of the 2008 WWE Supplemental Draft, Palumbo was drafted to the Raw brand. He never made his return to the brand however, as he was released from his WWE contract on November 7, 2008.


title: Chuck Palumbo

text: Palumbo returned to Mexico to team with Damián 666 and Konnan in a losing effort against D-Generation MEX at "Wrestling in Tijuana" on December 25, 2008. He also teamed with Konnan in World Wrestling Association. Palumbo wrestled for Ultimo Dragon's Toryumon promotion and competed in the IWL World Title Tournament in Mexico as well.


title: Chuck Palumbo

text: He returned to Nu-Wrestling (now named , and located in France) in September 2009, and feuded with Mr. Anderson. Palumbo, Anderson and Tiny Iron competed in a triple threat for the vacant NWE Heavyweight Championship, which Anderson won. Palumbo challenged Anderson to a match for the championship on October 3, 2009, but was defeated.


title: Chuck Palumbo

text: On November 13, 2009, Palumbo won the Herts and Essex Wrestling (HEW) Heavyweight Championship from Brett Meadows in Braintree, England. He is the first American to hold the British promotion's championship. However, he lost the championship back to Meadows two days later in Colchester, England following interference from Sam Knee and Britani Knight.


title: Chuck Palumbo

text: In an interview with "Hit The Ropes Radio", Palumbo confirmed he was in talks with TNA to sign with the company, though he opted not to sign. Palumbo wrestled his final match at Future Stars Wrestling's New Years Resolution event in 2012, where he defeated Jayson Cash. After this, he quietly retired, and confirmed to Bill Apter in a 2014 interview that his wrestling career was over.


title: Chuck Palumbo

text: Palumbo runs a business called CP Kustoms, where he builds his own motorcycles, as well as repairing and customizing cars and motorcycles. A Palumbo-made motorcycle was featured in the April issue of "American Iron Magazine". In 2009, Palumbo built a motorcycle to raise money for veterans returning home. He rode the bike across the country to gather donations and raffles, with 100% of the proceeds going to "Fueled by the Fallen", a nonprofit that supports troops after they return home.


title: Chuck Palumbo

text: In 2006 Palumbo learned how to play guitar, and now plays in his own band, 3 Spoke Wheel. Using the same theme as CP Kustoms, he opened up Chuck Palumbo's Garage Gym, where he teaches cross-fit classes.


title: Chuck Palumbo

text: In 2014, he began co-hosting the Discovery Channel's "Lords of the Car Hoards" with custom car builder Rick Dore. The show focuses on SLAM garage, the garage Dore and Palumbo co-own, to fix and customize cars and motorcycles. For the second season the show was renamed "Rusted Development".


title: Chuck Palumbo

text: Palumbo's brother, Chris, was awarded several medals for his military service in Afghanistan including the Silver Star. Palumbo is good friends with fellow professional wrestlers Batista, Mark Jindrak, Booker T, Chavo Guerrero Jr. and Rey Mysterio. He was also close to former tag partner Sean O'Haire, who died September 8, 2014.


title: Chuck Palumbo

text: Palumbo currently resides in San Diego, California. He has a daughter named Charli, who is an aspiring DJ. In January 2016, Palumbo reportedly saved a woman from a car accident by lifting the car, then lifting the woman out of the car.


title: Hurts 2B Human

text: Hurts 2B Human is the eighth studio album by American singer-songwriter Pink. Released on April 26, 2019, by RCA Records, the album was initially planned as a standalone extended play (EP). Pursuing a sound that would be departure from her previous albums, Pink enlisted the assistance of collaborators such as Greg Kurstin, Max Martin, and Ryan Tedder. The album features guest appearances by Cash Cash, Khalid, Chris Stapleton, and Wrabel. The album was officially announced during Pink's interview on "The Ellen DeGeneres Show" broadcast in February 2019. Musically, "Hurts 2B Human" is a pop record whose lyrics delve into themes of love, family, introspection, life, and self-worth.


title: Hurts 2B Human

text: The album received generally favorable reviews from music critics, many of whom praised its production and cohesiveness; others felt it was too calculated and formulaic. Commercially, the album was successful, reaching number one in eight countries including Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and Switzerland. In the United States, "Hurts 2B Human" became Pink's third consecutive album to debut at number one on the "Billboard" 200 chart. The Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) awarded it a platinum certification. To promote the singer's album, "Walk Me Home" was released on February 20, 2019, as a lead single to commercial success, peaking within the top-ten charts of several countries, including Ireland, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom. The second single, "Can We Pretend", was released on May 17, 2019, while the title track and "Love Me Anyway" had a limited release.


title: Hurts 2B Human

text: Pink released her seventh studio album "Beautiful Trauma" in October 2017 to positive reviews. In 2017, it was the third global best-selling album, and as of 2018 it had sold over three million units worldwide. "Beautiful Trauma" earned Pink two Grammy nominations, one in 2018 and another in the 2019 ceremony. Pink embarked on the Beautiful Trauma World Tour, which began in March 2018 and ended in November 2019, to further promote the album. On January 26, 2019, Pink appeared on "The Ellen DeGeneres Show" for an interview. When asked about new music, Pink announced that a song titled "Walk Me Home" would be released in two weeks, while the album, titled "Hurts 2B Human", was expected to be released in April 2019.


title: Hurts 2B Human

text: The album's cover was unveiled on February 28, after Pink uploaded three teasers on her social media. Photographed by Andrew Macpherson and designed by Hueman, the image features an artistic and colorful representation of the left side of Pink's face. It includes an array of warm and bright colors, giving the sense of a watercolor-like painting. During an interview with "Entertainment Weekly", the singer said that she chose to name the album "Hurts 2B Human" because the title track "hit a string in [her] that just resonates" and it felt "the most true to what's going on right now".


title: Hurts 2B Human

text: Recording sessions for "Hurts 2B Human" coincided with the Beautiful Trauma World Tour, with up to twenty songs being composed and considered for inclusion. Pink explained that the creative process was different in comparison to that of her previous albums. She added, "I usually go on tour and stop writing altogether, but we just never stopped". Initially planned as a standalone extended play (EP), the recorded material turned into a full body of work as the sessions continued to progress. Pink recalled that "it came together without me knowing that I was making an album". Sessions took place at: The Village Studios, MXM Studios, Echo Studio in Los Angeles, Earthstar Creation Center in Venice, Grand Central South in Brentwood, Wolf Cousins Studios in Stockholm, and Roundhead Studios in Auckland. The development process was described by the singer as "a pebble that rolled downhill and became [a] boulder".


title: Hurts 2B Human

text: Musically, Pink claimed that "Hurts 2B Human" is a departure from the "angsty and marital" nature of her previous albums, and compared the songs to group therapy. Inspiration for the songwriting came from the melancholy and pressure of current society as well as pain, the latter being considered a motivator and "something worth talking about". The singer also revealed that motherhood had a positive impact on her music and life, helping her to become more open, confident, and thoughtful. Many prominent musicians made guest appearances on the album. Pink invited Wrabel at her home studio, and the pair wrote "90 Days" together with Steve Robson. Wrabel later said during an interview for "Get Out! Magazine" that the song talks about "having to fall out of love with someone to someone becoming sober", adding that it was incredibly special for him. Khalid was approached by Pink for the title track, "Hurts 2B Human", because she enjoyed his voice and the idea behind the song. The singer said in an interview for Zane Lowe's Beats 1 radio show that the lyrics discuss the human experience and "the circle you create around you" to overcome rough times. Another collaboration included on "Hurts 2B Human" is with the electronic group Cash Cash on "Can We Pretend", a song Pink said she had a fun experience making. Influenced by Lee Ann Womack and her 2000 single, "I Hope You Dance", Pink contacted Chris Stapleton for a collaboration. After he responded positively, Pink traveled to Nashville and wrote "Love Me Anyway" with Allen Shamblin and Tom Douglas.


title: Hurts 2B Human

text: "Hurts 2B Human" is primarily a pop album that integrates elements of dance and country music. Most critics felt that the record consists mainly of radio-friendly power ballads. The album opens with "Hustle", an upbeat pop song with country influences. Chris DeVille of "Stereogum" described it as "jazzy, bluesy retro" and "finger-snapper". Thematically, it delves into a relationship gone wrong, with the singer warning her partner that he will not be able to take advantage of her again. The second track, "(Hey Why) Miss You Sometime", is a dance-pop track. The song finds Pink missing a person who hurt her in the past. She sings a heavily auto-tuned vocal. "Walk Me Home" is a pop song with country elements and "flourishes of digitised vocal production", considered a "fresh touch" in Pink's discography by Aimee Cliff of "The Guardian". "My Attic", the fourth track, is an introspective ballad. It contains "raspy" vocals and "poetic" lyrics about storing memories and secrets. Wrabel is a featured guest the next song, "90 Days", which is a minimalist electronica ballad accompanied by a piano and "Vocoder-enhanced harmonies". It depicts a relationship turned sour in which a partner has doubts and fears that their love will end. Both Alexa Camp of "Slant Magazine" and Amy O'Connor of "The Irish Times" compared "90 Days" with Imogen Heap's song "Hide and Seek" (2005).


title: Hurts 2B Human

text: The title track features Khalid. Its composition consists of an "EDM beat, plucky electric guitar chord" and synths, while lyrically the song finds the singers acknowledging the struggles that individuals face everyday and celebrating the power of bringing people together. The seventh track, "Can We Pretend", is an EDM and dance-pop song featuring Cash Cash. Its lyrics emphasize using nostalgia as a way of escapism from the "less than ideal" present reality, with Pink singing: "Hell yeah/Can we pretend? 'Cause honestly, reality, it bores me". "Courage" is an acoustic "slow-build" power ballad with "nervy" vocals. Thom Murphy of the "Washington Blade" compared the song's hook with Katy Perry's "Chained to the Rhythm" (2017). "Happy", the ninth song, describes Pink's fear of opening up and her insecurities while growing up, as she sings: "Since I was 17, I've always hated my body, and it feels like my body hated me". Pink revealed that this line was inspired by a miscarriage she suffered at the age of seventeen, saying that "when [it] happens to a woman or a young girl, you feel like your body hates you and like your body is broken, and it's not doing what it's supposed to do".


title: Hurts 2B Human

text: "We Could Have It All" is a "groove-heavy" pop rock song. According to Mike Wass of Idolator, it "captures the feeling of defeat when you have ruined a good thing and don't know quite how". The album's eleventh track is "Love Me Anyway", a country ballad which features Chris Stapleton. It portrays the act of commitment in a relationship and the obstacles which may occur, with lyrics such as the opening lines, "Even if you see my scars, even if I break your heart/ If we're a million miles apart, do you think you'd walk away?" Maura Johnston of "Entertainment Weekly" called Pink's vocals "roughhewn", while Sean Maunier of "Metro Weekly" felt the duet worked because Stapleton's voice is "fading into the background". For the penultimate song, "Circle Game", Pink reflects upon motherhood, mortality and "growing up to become the parental figure she once looked up to". A piano-driven ballad, deemed as a "very personal offering", it also focuses on topics like her relationship with her daughter, and childhood vulnerabilities that Pink has carried into adulthood. The singer said that the track was inspired by her dad, saying: "He was my first hero. He was my God when I was a little girl. He's who taught me to fight for what I believe in. He's a big part of me." The album concludes with "The Last Song of Your Life", an acoustic folk ballad with melancholic undertones and "a devastating appeal for honesty and authenticity".


title: Hurts 2B Human

text: "Hurts 2B Human" was released eighteen months after "Beautiful Trauma" and marked the shortest period of time between studio albums in Pink's career. The album's release was preceded by several singles and promotional singles. "Walk Me Home" was released on February 20 as the lead single from "Hurts 2B Human". On the same day, Pink performed the song as part of a medley at the 2019 Brit Awards. "Walk Me Home" received positive reviews from music critics, who commended its anthemic approach and production. The song achieved commercial success and reached top-ten positions on the charts of several countries, including Finland, Ireland, Switzerland and the United Kingdom. In the United States, it peaked within the top fifty of the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart and topped the "Billboard" Dance Club Songs, Adult Contemporary and Adult Pop Songs charts, becoming her tenth number-one single on the latter and extending her record as the solo artist with the most number-ones on the chart. The song's accompanying music video was directed by Michael Gracey and released a month later; it portrays Pink dancing with multiple shadows in an empty city. "Walk Me Home" received a nomination in the category of Best Song at the 2020 Global Awards.


title: Hurts 2B Human

text: "Hustle" was released on March 28 as the first promotional single from "Hurts 2B Human", along with the album pre-order. "Can We Pretend" was first released as the second promotional single, on April 11. On the following month, it was released as the second official single in Australia, later being sent to adult contemporary radio stations in the United States on July 22, 2019. It reached number one on the "Billboard" Dance Club Songs chart, becoming Pink's seventh song to do so, as well as the first number one song for Cash Cash. On April 22, the album's title track was released as the third promotional single. On the same day, Pink appeared on "The Ellen DeGeneres Show" and performed "Walk Me Home". On May 1, the singer appeared on "Jimmy Kimmel Live!" and performed "Hustle". A music video for "90 Days" was released on June 18. Described as "emotional", the video presents the "toil of being a touring musician with a family." Ten days later, a music video for "Can We Pretend" was released, showing an animated version of Pink going on a space exploration. On August 30, "Hurts 2B Human" was released in selected territories as the album's third single. "Love Me Anyway" was first serviced to country on September 17 and later, on November 18, to adult contemporary radio in the United States as the final single from "Hurts 2B Human". A day later, the music video for the title track was released. Directed by Alissa Torvinen, the video of "Hurts 2B Human" features individuals in a New York City apartment "undergoing the daily stresses of life". On November 13, Pink performed "Love Me Anyway" with Chris Stapleton at the 53rd Annual Country Music Association Awards.


title: Hurts 2B Human

text: "Hurts 2B Human" received generally positive reviews from contemporary music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album received an average score of 71, based on nine reviews. Another music-aggregator AnyDecentMusic? gave "Hurts 2B Human" 6.3 out of 10, based on their assessment of the critical consensus.


title: Hurts 2B Human

text: In a positive review, Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic gave the album a four-out-of-five rating. He found the record "generally a light affair" from the singer, and felt that the blending of different musical styles made it cohesive sonically. Erlewine concluded by saying that "Hurts 2B Human" "feels stylish and fashionable" while staying true to the "emotional gravity" that Pink has accumulated during her career. Maura Johnston of "Entertainment Weekly", who gave the album a "B" rating, commented that the optimistic nature of the album makes it enjoyable and relatable, and found country pop influences that show "how [Pink's] true-to-life lyrics and soulful bellow can play in Nashville's finest honky-tonks."


title: Hurts 2B Human

text: Mikael Wood wrote for "Los Angeles Times" that "Hurts 2B Human" comes off as "strikingly aligned", pointing out the songs' messages about "overcoming obstacles and learning to trust in their abilities" in contrast to the music of younger artists that approach topics such as depression and drug consumption. Chris DeVille of "Stereogum" said that the album showcases an artist "who's found her comfort zone and has successfully grown her music up along with her", but disapproved the overly emotional songs that provide a feeling of "mere product". Writing for "Rolling Stone", Sarah Grant characterized the record as "passionately confessional" and cited "Courage" and "Happy" as songs that find Pink at "[the] most brazen and heartbroken she's ever sounded", comparing the latter with the "patron saint" nature of her second studio album, "Missundaztood" (2001).


title: Hurts 2B Human

text: Malvika Padin of "Clash" labelled it "a collection of anthemic pop tracks threaded through with her bold vocals". Mike Wass of "Idolator" considered "Hurts 2B Human" to be Pink's best album since "Funhouse" (2008) and simply described it as "an accessible pop album for adults." Both Aimee Cliff of "The Guardian" and Amy O'Connor of "Irish Times" awarded the album three out of five stars. Cliff called the ballads that highlight Pink's vocals stand-out moments, but opined that the album fails to give a "sense of constant evolution". O'Connor shared a similar sentiment, feeling that the formulaic songwriting was an attempt to replicate the success of "Beautiful Trauma" (2017) and called "Hurts 2B Human" "a little too safe to really pack a punch." Nevertheless, she commended songs like "Can We Pretend" and "90 Days", calling the former "an ideal showcase" of the singer's personality. In a negative review for "Slant Magazine", Alexa Camp noted that the collaborations don't manage to "add much more than mere texture to the proceedings", but praised the "otherworldly quality" of "90 Days".


title: Hurts 2B Human

text: "Hurts 2B Human" debuted at number one on the "Billboard" 200 chart of the United States, selling 115,000 album-equivalent units in the week ending May 2 according to Nielsen SoundScan. It became Pink's third album to top the chart, following "The Truth About Love" (2012) and "Beautiful Trauma" (2017). "Hurts 2B Human" was also the second best-selling album of the week, with pure album sales of 95,000 copies. The following week, "Billboard" reported that the album had dropped five places on the "Billboard" 200, with sales decreasing 68% to 36,000 units. By June 2019, the album had sold 158,000 pure album sales in the US. In Canada, the record debuted at number one on the Canadian Albums Chart, selling 13,000 units in its first week, according to the Canadian SoundScan.


title: Hurts 2B Human

text: In the United Kingdom, the album debuted at the top of the UK Albums Chart, with first week sales of 48,861 copies (including 4,359 from stream-equivalent units), outselling its closest competitor, "The Balance" by Catfish and the Bottlemen, by 22,000 units. It became her third chart-topping album there. The following week, "Hurts 2B Human" remained at the summit of the chart, selling 16,713 equivalent units. It became her first album to spend more than one week at the top in the country. The record continued to hold the number one spot for a third week in a row, with 11,582 equivalent units. "Hurts 2B Human" received a silver certification from the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) for selling over 60,000 units in the country. Across Europe, the album reached the top of the charts in Belgium (Flanders), Ireland, the Netherlands, Scotland, and Switzerland, and the top ten in other nations.


title: Hurts 2B Human

text: In Australia, "Hurts 2B Human" debuted at number one on the ARIA Albums Chart, becoming Pink's sixth chart-topping album there. The album marked her forty-first week atop the chart, breaking her tie with Adele and ranking her at number five on the list of artists with most accumulated weeks at the top. It also gave her the distinction of being the female artist with the most cumulative weeks at number one, as well as placing her second on the list of female artists with the most chart-topping albums, behind only Madonna. Subsequently, "Hurts 2B Human" spent a total of three weeks at number one on the chart, and was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) for shipments of 70,000 copies. In New Zealand, the record also debuted at the top spot on the Official New Zealand Music Chart, and became Pink's third number one album. It received a gold certification from the Recorded Music NZ for shipments of over 7,500 units.


title: John Swartzwelder

text: John Joseph Swartzwelder Jr. (born February 8, 1949) is an American comedy writer and novelist, best known for his work on the animated television series "The Simpsons". Born in Seattle, Washington, Swartzwelder began his career working in advertising. He was later hired to work on comedy series "Saturday Night Live" in the mid-1980s as a writer. He later contributed to fellow writer George Meyer's short-lived "Army Man" magazine, which led him to join the original writing team of "The Simpsons", beginning in 1989.


title: John Swartzwelder

text: He worked on "The Simpsons" as a writer and producer until 2003, and later contributed to "The Simpsons Movie". He wrote the largest number of "Simpsons" episodes (59 full episodes, with contributions to several others) by a large margin. After his retirement from the show, he began a career as a writer of self-published absurdist novels. He has written more than eleven novels, the most recent of which, "The Spy With No Pants", was published in December 2020.


title: John Swartzwelder

text: Swartzwelder is revered among comedy fans; his colleagues have called him among the best comedy writers. He is known for his reclusiveness, and gave his first media interview in 2021, 18 years after his final "Simpsons" episode.


title: John Swartzwelder

text: Swartzwelder was born in Seattle, Washington in 1949, the son of Gloria Mae (Matthews) and John Joseph Swartzwelder, Sr. He attended high school in Renton, Washington.


title: John Swartzwelder

text: In 1983, Swartzwelder sent a joke submission to the writers of "Late Night with David Letterman" in 1983, which he signed but left no address. Writer Jim Downey traced Swartzwelder based on the Chicago postmark on the card via phone books at the New York Public Library. After he contacted Swartzwelder's mother in Seattle, she redirected him to her son, who was then working at an advertising agency in Chicago. Downey described Swartzwelder's interview as "one of the most spectacularly awful in history"; it consisted of him entering David Letterman's office without permission, and discussing the state of television (that it was "all shit") while smoking and drinking. He was not hired for "Letterman", but Downey hired him for "Saturday Night Live" ("SNL") beginning in 1985.


title: John Swartzwelder

text: At "SNL", Swartzwelder shared an office with Robert Smigel, and met George Meyer, who later proved instrumental in hiring him for "The Simpsons". During his time on "SNL", he became known for writing odder material. He was fired in mid-1986, which Smigel attributed to the network's pressure on show creator Lorne Michaels to make personnel changes. Meyer quit "SNL" and created the magazine "Army Man", recruiting Swartzwelder to help write it. Meyer said of "Army Man":


title: John Swartzwelder

text: In 1988, Sam Simon, a reader of "Army Man", recruited Swartzwelder and Meyer to write for "The Simpsons". By 1994, with the show's sixth season, Swartzwelder was granted a special dispensation and allowed not to attend rewrite sessions with the rest of the staff, instead being allowed to send drafts of his scripts in from home so other writers could revise them as they saw fit. This was reportedly a result of Swartzwelder's heavy smoking coming into conflict with a newly implemented policy banning smoking in the writers' room. Swartzwelder's scripts typically needed less rewriting than those of other writers, with about 50% being used. According to "Simpsons" creator Matt Groening, Swartzwelder wrote "Simpsons" episodes sitting in a booth at a coffee shop "drinking copious amounts of coffee and smoking endless cigarettes". When California passed an anti-smoking law, Swartzwelder bought the booth and installed it in his house, allowing him to continue his process in peace. In his only interview, given to the "New Yorker" in 2021, Swartzwelder said he had negotiated his contract to allow him to work from home, but that this had nothing to do with smoking; he also said he bought a new booth, rather than one from the diner.


title: John Swartzwelder

text: In 1996, Swartzwelder created and produced his own pilot presentation for Fox, "Pistol Pete", a spoof of western films. Starring Stephen Kearney, Mark Derwin, Lisa Robin Kelly, and Brian Doyle Murray, the pilot was shot using crew from the television series "Gunsmoke" at Swartzwelder's insistence. John Rich, veteran television director known for "The Dick Van Dyke Show", "All in the Family", and "Gunsmoke", directed the pilot, which was shot at Veluzat Motion Picture Ranch. Fox passed on the pilot. It eventually surfaced online in 2014.


title: John Swartzwelder

text: With the exception of his contributions to "The Simpsons Movie", released in 2007, Swartzwelder has been absent from "The Simpsons" writing staff since the fifteenth season (2003–04), with his last airing episode ("The Regina Monologues") actually being a "holdover" written for the fourteenth (2002–03) season. At 59 episodes, Swartzwelder has written more episodes than anybody else.


title: John Swartzwelder

text: Since leaving "The Simpsons", Swartzwelder has taken up writing absurdist novels, beginning in 2004 with the publication of science fiction detective story "The Time Machine Did It" starring private investigator Frank Burly. The next year he published "Double Wonderful", a Western, before returning to the Burly character for "How I Conquered Your Planet" in 2006, "The Exploding Detective" in 2007, "Dead Men Scare Me Stupid" in 2008, "Earth vs. Everybody" in 2009, "The Last Detective Alive" in 2010, "The Fifty Foot Detective" in 2011, and "The Million Dollar Policeman" in 2012. In 2014, a children's book written in the late 1970s by Swartzwelder and illustrated by David Schutten was published by Green House Books. Swartzwelder self-publishes his books.


title: John Swartzwelder

text: Swartzwelder has been referred to as a libertarian and a "hardcore conservative". He is a gun rights advocate, and despite having written many of the environmentally themed "Simpsons" episodes, he has been described as an "anti-environmentalist". "Simpsons" writer David Cohen related a story of Swartzwelder going on an extended diatribe about how there is more rainforest on Earth now than there was 100 years ago.


title: John Swartzwelder

text: Swartzwelder is reclusive, and rarely makes media appearances. At one point, fans of "The Simpsons" debated his existence online; some theorized that "John Swartzwelder" was actually a pseudonym for when writers did not want to take credit for an episode, or for episodes that were penned by several writers in concert. Comedy writer Mike Sacks described Swartzwelder as the "Thomas Pynchon of the comedy world".


title: John Swartzwelder

text: Swartzwelder declined several requests to participate in the audio commentaries on "The Simpsons" DVD sets. Executive producer David Mirkin once invited Swartzwelder to make a brief appearance in a prerecorded bit in which he would be asked if he wanted to take part, to which he would respond with "No" as an ironic punchline, but he refused. During the recording of the 2006 commentary for the ninth-season episode "The Cartridge Family", show runner Mike Scully called Swartzwelder's home. After presumably speaking with him for a minute, the man on the other end of the phone said, "It's too bad this really isn't John Swartzwelder." Scully and the others laughed, replied "Bye, John". After he had hung up, Scully said, "I know he's gonna sue us."


title: John Swartzwelder

text: In 2016, Swartzwelder created a Twitter account. It was confirmed official by several of his former "Simpsons" colleagues. The account only tweets excerpts from Swartzwelder's books.


title: John Swartzwelder

text: In 2021, Swartzwelder gave his only media interview, with Mike Sacks of "The New Yorker". Swartzwelder said he agreed to the interview out of his fondness for "The New Yorker" and the writers whose work it has published. Swartzwelder said he was humbled by the praise he has received from colleagues and "Simpsons" fans, and that he was proud that "The Simpsons" encouraged fans to keep track of the writers of their favorite television shows.


title: John Swartzwelder

text: Swartzwelder is revered among comedy fans. Fellow "Simpsons" writers have spoken highly of his writing and impact on the show. Matt Selman wrote an article for "Time" about Swartzwelder, extolling him as "one of the greatest comedy minds of all time. He is the comedy writer whose words makes [sic] the best comedy writers in the world laugh out loud." George Meyer said: "Even among comedy weirdos, he stands out. He's irreplaceable." Fellow writer Dan Greaney described Swartzwelder as "the best writer in the world today in any medium".


title: John Swartzwelder

text: Swartzwelder has been animated in the background of several episodes of "The Simpsons". His animated likeness closely resembles musician David Crosby, which prompted Matt Groening to state that anytime that David Crosby appears in a scene for no apparent reason, it is really John Swartzwelder. Groening said that the appearance of the character Herman was based on Swartzwelder, with the exception of his one arm.


title: Community (season 5)

text: The fifth season of the television comedy series "Community" premiered on January 2, 2014, and concluded on April 17, 2014. The season consists of 13 episodes and aired on NBC on Thursdays at 8:00 pm ET as part of the network's "Comedy Night Done Right". The season features the return of series creator Dan Harmon as showrunner, as well as the exit of cast members Donald Glover and Chevy Chase from the series. John Oliver returned as Ian Duncan after a two-year hiatus. Jonathan Banks made his introduction to the series as Buzz Hickey, a criminology professor.


title: Community (season 5)

text: NBC announced the series' cancellation in May 2014, but in June 2014, Yahoo! announced it had commissioned the show's sixth and final season to be streamed online on Yahoo! Screen.


title: Community (season 5)

text: On May 10, 2013, NBC announced it had renewed the series for a fifth season, to consist of 13 episodes. The season does not feature original cast member Chevy Chase in a regular role, as he left the series near the end of the fourth season by mutual agreement between the actor and network. Chase does appear in a guest role during the first episode of the season, and the character's exit from the show is finalized in "Cooperative Polygraphy." Donald Glover, who portrays Troy Barnes, only appears in five of the thirteen episodes. Jonathan Banks appears in 11 of the season's 13 episodes as criminology professor Buzz Hickey. Rob Corddry reprises his role as lawyer Alan Connor in the season premiere. Walton Goggins guest stars in "Cooperative Polygraphy" as a mysterious man named Mr. Stone, "with a dangerous accusation, a tantalizing offer and a devious plan that will change the group forever." John Oliver, who played Professor Duncan throughout the first two seasons, reprises his role in season 5 for multiple episodes. Other guest stars in the season include Vince Gilligan, Mitchell Hurwitz, Tim Heidecker, Eric Wareheim, Brie Larson, Nathan Fillion, Robert Patrick, Paget Brewster, Kumail Nanjiani, Katie Leclerc, and Ben Folds. David Cross guest stars in an episode that serves as a sequel to season 2's "Advanced Dungeons & Dragons", playing Hank Hickey, the estranged son of Professor Hickey. B. J. Novak has a cameo in the second part of the two-part season finale.


title: Community (season 5)

text: The fifth season marked the return of series creator Dan Harmon as showrunner and executive producer after he was fired from the show after the end of the third season. Former writer-producer Chris McKenna also returned as an executive producer. Season 4 showrunners Moses Port and David Guarascio did not return for season 5, as their contracts were for one year. The only other returning writers are Andy Bobrow and Tim Saccardo. Meanwhile, Annie Mebane, Steve Basilone, Maggie Bandur, and Ben Wexler all departed to join "The Michael J. Fox Show", while Megan Ganz joined "Modern Family". Writers who joined for the fifth season include Parker Deay and Jordan Blum ("American Dad!"), Alex Rubens ("Key & Peele"), Ryan Ridley ("Rick and Morty"), Dan Guterman ("The Colbert Report"), and Matt Roller (Funny or Die). Other writers include Carol Kolb, Briggs Hatton, Clay Lapari, Erik Sommers, Monica Padrick and Donald Diego.


title: Community (season 5)

text: The fifth season received strongly positive reception from television critics and is considered an improvement over the previous season. The season received a Metacritic score of 80 out of 100 based on 15 reviews, signifying "generally favorable reviews". On Rotten Tomatoes, the season has an approval rating of 93% with an average score of 8.5 out of 10 based on 42 reviews. The website's critical consensus reads, "With Dan Harmon back as its show runner, "Community" returns with a familiar new energy and more fun, exciting adventures for the Greendale gang."


title: Community (season 5)

text: Verne Gay of "Newsday" gave the back-to-back episodes an "A" grade, remarking that the first of the two ("Repilot") was funny, while the latter ("Introduction to Teaching") was "simply hilarious." Alan Sepinwall, writing for HitFix, remarked that the show "is back, and back to being itself."


title: I-20 (form)

text: The Form I-20 (also known as the Certificate of Eligibility for Nonimmigrant (F-1) Student Status-For Academic and Language Students) is a United States Department of Homeland Security, specifically ICE and the Student and Exchange Visitor Program (SEVP), document issued by SEVP-certified schools (colleges, universities, and vocational schools) that provides supporting information on a student's F or M status. Since the introduction of the Student and Exchange Visitor Information System (SEVIS) run by SEVP, the form also includes the student tracking number (SEVIS ID number) and school code. The Form I-20 is only for F-1, F-2, M-1, and M-2 statuses. J-1 and J-2 status holders have an equivalent Form DS-2019 which is issued by a United States Department of State-designated J exchange visitor program.


title: I-20 (form)

text: The I-20 was updated starting June 2015, with all new I-20s issued using the new format starting June 26, 2015, and the new I-20 necessary for all students seeking entry or re-entry starting July 2016. The main reason for the update to the form was the standardization of names in SEVIS. The changes include:


title: I-20 (form)

text: The new Form I-20 is three pages long. Each dependent gets an additional three pages, with the same format.


title: I-20 (form)

text: The Form I-20 used until June 2015 has three pages, of which the second page was an instructions page, so that only the first and third pages contained information specific to the student's SEVIS record.


title: I-20 (form)

text: The Form I-20 is issued by a Designated School Official (DSO) at the institution (college, university, or vocational school). Only institutions that are SEVP-certified can issue Form I-20s. An institution can acquire SEVP certification by filing Form I-17 with U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (this is a one-time process). Note that an institution can be SEVP-certified despite not holding national or regional accreditation. Conversely, an institution may hold national or regional accreditation but may have chosen not to obtain SEVP certification if it does not intend to admit international students in the F, J, or M status.


title: I-20 (form)

text: A large university typically has an international office that manages its participation in the SEVP, and all the DSOs work for this office. The international office manages updates to the SEVIS record and issuing of new paper Form I-20s. Students who have any change to their plans (such as program end date, course load, leave of absence, return from leave of absence) must communicate these changes with their international office.


title: I-20 (form)

text: At the time the first Form I-20 is issued to the student (after accepting the offer of admission from the institution) a record is created for the student in the Student and Exchange Visitor Information System (SEVIS). At any given time, the responsibility for keeping the student's SEVIS record up to date falls with the SEVP-certified institution the student is currently enrolled in. If the student transfers to a different SEVP-certified institution, the responsibility of updating the SEVIS record now falls on the new institution.


title: I-20 (form)

text: The Form I-20 can be thought of as a paper representation of the most up-to-date SEVIS information on record for the student's current enrollment. Whenever there are substantive changes to the information, the SEVIS record is updated, and a new Form I-20 is issued to the student by the institution with the updated information. The student must use the most up-to-date Form I-20 when demonstrating student status.


title: I-20 (form)

text: Once the prospective student has accepted the institution's offer of admission, the institution issues a Form I-20 to the student.


title: I-20 (form)

text: Apart from biographical information about the student (including the student's name, date of birth, citizenship, etc.), there are two main pieces of information that must be entered in the student's SEVIS record and the initial Form I-20.


title: I-20 (form)

text: Each international office may follow its own rules or guidelines regarding the type of documentation it requests from the student or from other departments in order to be able to issue the I-20. The jargon used for this documentation will also vary by institution. For instance, the University of Chicago and University of Michigan uses the term "Financial Resources Statement" for the statement that students need to submit to it regarding how they will meet their expenses, while the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign uses the term "Declaration & Certification of Finances for I-20/DS-2019 Application".


title: I-20 (form)

text: After receiving information from the student and institution regarding the program length and end date, the international office creates the student's SEVIS record, gets a SEVIS number for the student, and issues a Form I-20. A physical copy of the form may be mailed to the student overseas. In the case that the student has a SEVIS record from previous student status, the existing SEVIS record should be transferred.


title: I-20 (form)

text: The international office may refuse to issue a Form I-20 if the student is unable to demonstrate how he or she plans to cover expenses for the first year.


title: I-20 (form)

text: The Form I-20 is used in the following stages of the transition to student status in the United States:


title: I-20 (form)

text: For those entering the United States in student status, the date of entry to the United States is treated as the start date for the student being in the F or M student status (even if this is before the program start date). For those transitioning to student status from another status, the date of transition indicated on the Form I-539 is treated as the start date.


title: I-20 (form)

text: The Form I-20 serves as evidence of the legality of the student's current presence in the United States. Note that a valid visa is "not" necessary for being in lawful student status; a valid visa is "only" needed when entering or re-entering the United States.


title: I-20 (form)

text: The Form I-20 may be used to demonstrate student status when applying for United States government documents and benefits such as Individual Taxpayer Identification Number (ITIN) and Social Security Number. It is also required to demonstrate authorization to work for students on Curricular Practical Training.


title: I-20 (form)

text: Whenever the student re-enters the United States after traveling, the student must have all of these at the time of arrival at the port of entry:


title: I-20 (form)

text: Since travel signatures are valid for only a year, students need to periodically get updated travel signatures on their I-20 from their international student office. The purpose of this requirement is to avoid cases where people who are no longer enrolled as students at an institution keep using an outdated Form I-20 to get in. In particular, when adding a new travel signature to the OPT, it is the responsibility of the international student office to make sure that the student is still enrolled at the institution. In case the Form I-20 runs out of space for travel signatures, the international office may print out a new Form I-20 for the student.


title: I-20 (form)

text: In the special case of automatic visa revalidation, whereby the student returns to the United States after a trip to Canada, Mexico, or a nearby island for at most 30 days, it is not necessary to have a valid visa at the time of re-entry. However, it is still necessary to have a valid Form I-20 and a travel signature.


title: I-20 (form)

text: In general, whenever there are changes to the information in Form I-20, a new Form I-20 is issued. The student is advised to keep all historical Forms I-20 for the record but only the most recent copy should be used for travel or as proof of current student status.


title: I-20 (form)

text: It may happen that the student's actual program end date falls earlier or later than what the student expected. It is necessary that a new I-20 be issued reflecting the current program end date, both prior to the program's actual end and prior to the stated program end date on the Form I-20.


title: I-20 (form)

text: If the Form I-20 is being shortened, the international office may require the student to submit evidence showing that the student has enough academic credits to graduate early. If the Form I-20 is being extended, then, in addition to any evidence from the student about changed academic plans, the international office also needs an updated statement of financial resources for the new I-20 to cover up to one year of the I-20 extension.


title: I-20 (form)

text: After the change to the program end date is made in the student's SEVIS record, the new Form I-20 is issued to the student.


title: I-20 (form)

text: It is important to note that the program end date on the Form I-20 need not coincide with the graduation date. Rather, it is the end date of the student's enrollment in courses. It is not possible to extend the program end date simply in order to be able to stay around till the graduation ceremony. If the graduation ceremony falls outside the 60-day grace period of completion of coursework, then the student must find some other way to be legally present for it (for instance, by staying around on Optional Practical Training, or getting a B visa for the graduation ceremony).


title: I-20 (form)

text: The following are some other types of major updates to the student's SEVIS record that require changes to the Form I-20. In all cases, the student must contact the international office beforehand and have a new I-20 issued in advance:


title: Ruslan Malinovskyi

text: Ruslan Volodymyrovych Malinovskyi (; born 4 May 1993) is a Ukrainian professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for club Atalanta and the Ukraine national team. He is a set piece specialist and possesses a powerful and accurate shot with either foot.


title: Ruslan Malinovskyi

text: Malinovskyi was a member of the Ukraine national under-19 team. From 1 September 2012, he played on loan for Sevastopol, signing a one-and-a-half-year contract.


title: Ruslan Malinovskyi

text: From 2011, Malinovskyi was a player of Shakhtar Donetsk, who sent him on loan to different clubs. He played for Shakhtar-3 from 2010 to 2012, playing 39 matches and scoring 10 goals. He made no appearances for Shakhtar's first team.


title: Ruslan Malinovskyi

text: Malinovskyi played for Sevastopol in the 2012–13 season making 16 appearances and scoring one goal. Also, in 2013, he played for the farm club of the team, Sevastopol-2, scoring one goal in four matches. In 2014, due to the Russian occupation of the Crimean peninsula, Sevastopol was disbanded, and a new club was created on its base.


title: Ruslan Malinovskyi

text: In 2014, Malinovskyi went on loan to Zorya Luhansk, where he became a main player in the team. He was recognised as the best young player in Ukraine. Malinovskyi scored goals not only in the Ukrainian Premier League, but also twice in the UEFA Europa League against Belgian side Charleroi.


title: Ruslan Malinovskyi

text: On 1 January 2016, it was officially announced that Malinovskyi would be loaned to Belgian side Genk until the end of the season. He debuted for the club in the Belgian Cup semi-final against Standard Liège and spent 72 minutes on the field. Altogether, during the loan at the Belgian club, Malinovskyi played 41 games in all tournaments, in which he scored 13 goals and made eight assists.


title: Ruslan Malinovskyi

text: On 29 May 2017, it was announced that Genk had redeemed Malinovskyi's contract from Shakhtar Donetsk, with the player signing a four-year deal.


title: Ruslan Malinovskyi

text: On 16 July 2019, Malinovskyi signed for Atalanta for €13.7 million. On 22 October 2019, he scored his first goal for Atalanta in the UEFA Champions League game against Manchester City. Malinovskyi was named Player of the Month by Atalanta supporters. He scored his first Serie A goal on 7 December 2019 in a match against Hellas Verona. On 24 June 2020, Malinovskyi scored the equalizing goal in a 3–2 comeback win against Lazio. On 18 April 2021, he scored the winning goal in a 1–0 win over Juventus; this was Atalanta's first win against Juventus in Serie A since February 2001. On 19 May 2021, he scored in the final of the Coppa Italia against the same opponents but Atalanta fell to a 1–2 defeat. On 24 February 2022, after having scored a goal against Olympiakos, he showed a t-shirt with the text "No War in Ukraine" after Russian invasion of Ukraine.


title: Supremacism

text: Supremacism is the belief that a certain group of people is superior to all others. The supposed superior people can be defined by age, gender, race, ethnicity, religion, sexual orientation, language, social class, ideology, nation, culture, or belong to any other part of a particular population.


title: Supremacism

text: Some feminist theorists have argued that in patriarchy, a standard of male supremacism is enforced through a variety of cultural, political, religious, sexual, and interpersonal strategies. Since the 19th century there have been a number of feminist movements opposed to male supremacism, usually aimed at achieving equal legal rights and protections for women in all cultural, political and interpersonal relations.


title: Supremacism

text: Centuries of European colonialism in the Americas, Africa, Australia, Oceania, and Asia were justified by white supremacist attitudes. White European Americans who participated in the slave industry tried to justify their economic exploitation of black people by creating a "scientific" theory of white superiority and black inferiority. Thomas Jefferson, pioneer of scientific racism and enslaver of over 600 black people (regarded as property under the Articles of Confederation), wrote that blacks were "inferior to the whites in the endowments of body and mind." A justification for the conquest and subjugation of Native Americans emanated from their dehumanized perception as "merciless Indian savages", as described in the United States Declaration of Independence.


title: Supremacism

text: During the 19th century, "The White Man's Burden", the phrase which refers to the thought that whites have the obligation to make the societies of the other peoples more 'civilized', was widely used to justify imperialist policies as a noble enterprise. Thomas Carlyle, known for his historical account of the French Revolution, "," argued that European supremacist policies were justified on the grounds that they provided the greatest benefit to "inferior" native peoples. However, even at the time of its publication in 1849, Carlyle's main work on the subject, the "Occasional Discourse on the Negro Question," was poorly received by his contemporaries.


title: Supremacism

text: Before the outbreak of the American Civil War, the Confederate States of America was founded with a constitution that contained clauses which restricted the government's ability to limit or interfere with the institution of "negro" slavery. In the Cornerstone Speech, Confederate vice president Alexander Stephens declared that one of the Confederacy's foundational tenets was white supremacy over black slaves. Following the war, a secret society, the Ku Klux Klan, was formed in the South. Its purpose was to maintain white, Protestant supremacy after the Reconstruction period, which it did so through violence and intimidation.


title: Supremacism

text: According to William Nichols, religious antisemitism can be distinguished from modern antisemitism which is based on racial or ethnic grounds. "The dividing line was the possibility of effective conversion ... a Jew ceased to be a Jew upon baptism." However, with racial antisemitism, "Now the assimilated Jew was still a Jew, even after baptism ... . From the Enlightenment onward, it is no longer possible to draw clear lines of distinction between religious and racial forms of hostility towards Jews... Once Jews have been emancipated and secular thinking makes its appearance, without leaving behind the old Christian hostility towards Jews, the new term antisemitism becomes almost unavoidable, even before explicitly racist doctrines appear."


title: Supremacism

text: One of the first typologies which was used to classify various human races was invented by Georges Vacher de Lapouge (1854–1936), a theoretician of eugenics, who published "L'Aryen et son rôle social" (1899 – "The Aryan and his social role") in 1899. In his book, he divides humanity into various, hierarchical races, starting with the highest race which is the "Aryan white race, dolichocephalic", and ending with the lowest race which is the "brachycephalic", "mediocre and inert" race, that race is best represented by Southern European, Catholic peasants". Between these, Vacher de Lapouge identified the ""Homo europaeus"" (Teutonic, Protestant, etc.), the ""Homo alpinus"" (Auvergnat, Turkish, etc.), and finally the ""Homo mediterraneus"" (Neapolitan, Andalus, etc.) Jews were brachycephalic just like the Aryans were, according to Lapouge; but he considered them dangerous for this exact reason; they were the only group, he thought, which was threatening to displace the Aryan aristocracy. Vacher de Lapouge became one of the leading inspirations of Nazi antisemitism and Nazi racist ideology.


title: Supremacism

text: The Anti-Defamation League (ADL) and Southern Poverty Law Center condemn writings about "Jewish Supremacism" by Holocaust-denier, former Grand Wizard of the KKK, and conspiracy theorist David Duke as antisemitic – in particular, his book "." Kevin B. MacDonald, known for his theory of Judaism as a "group evolutionary strategy", has also been accused of being "antisemitic" and white supremacist in his writings on the subject by the ADL and his own university psychology department.


title: Supremacism

text: Cornel West, an African-American philosopher, writes that black supremacist religious views arose in America as a part of black Muslim theology in response to white supremacism.


title: Supremacism

text: In Africa, black Southern Sudanese allege that they are being subjected to a racist form of Arab supremacy, which they equate with the historic white supremacism of South African apartheid. The alleged genocide and ethnic cleansing in the ongoing War in Darfur has been described as an example of Arab racism.


title: Supremacism

text: For example, in their analysis of the sources of the conflict, Julie Flint and Alex de Waal say that Colonel Gaddafi, the leader of Libya, sponsored "Arab supremacism" across the Sahara during the 1970s. Gaddafi supported the "Islamic Legion" and the Sudanese opposition "National Front, including the Muslim Brothers and the Ansar, the Umma Party's military wing." Gaddafi tried to use such forces to annex Chad from 1979–81. Gaddafi supported the Sudanese government's war in the South during the early 1980s, and in return, he was allowed to use the Darfur region as a "back door to Chad". As a result, the first signs of an "Arab racist political platform" appeared in Darfur in the early 1980s.


title: Supremacism

text: In Asia, ancient Indians considered all foreigners barbarians. The Muslim scholar Al-Biruni wrote that the Indians called foreigners impure. A few centuries later, Dubois observes that "Hindus look upon Europeans as barbarians totally ignorant of all principles of honour and good breeding... In the eyes of a Hindu, a Pariah (outcaste) and a European are on the same level." The Chinese considered the Europeans repulsive, ghost-like creatures, and they even considered them devils. Chinese writers also referred to foreigners as barbarians.


title: Supremacism

text: From 1933 to 1945, Nazi Germany, under the rule of Adolf Hitler, promoted the idea of a superior, Aryan "Herrenvolk", or master race. The state's propaganda advocated the belief that Germanic peoples, whom they called "Aryans", were a master race or a "Herrenvolk" whose members were superior to the Jews, Slavs, and Romani people, so-called "gypsies". Arthur de Gobineau, a French racial theorist and aristocrat, blamed the fall of the ancien régime in France on racial intermixing, which he believed had destroyed the purity of the Nordic race. Gobineau's theories, which attracted a large and strong following in Germany, emphasized the existence of an irreconcilable polarity between Aryan and Jewish cultures.


title: Supremacism

text: Academics Carol Lansing and Edward D. English argue that Christian supremacism was a motivation for the Crusades in the Holy Land, as well as crusades against Muslims and pagans throughout Europe. The blood libel is a widespread European conspiracy theory which led to centuries of pogroms and massacres of European Jewish minorities because it alleged that Jews required the pure blood of a Christian child in order to make matzah for Passover; Thomas of Cantimpré writes of the blood curse which the Jews put upon themselves and all of their generations at the court of Pontius Pilate where Jesus was handed a death sentence: "A very learned Jew, who in our day has been converted to the (Christian) faith, informs us that one enjoying the reputation of a prophet among them, toward the close of his life, made the following prediction: 'Be assured that relief from this secret ailment, to which you are exposed, can only be obtained through Christian blood ("solo sanguine Christiano")." The Atlantic slave trade has also been partially attributed to Christian supremacism. The Ku Klux Klan has been described as a white supremacist Christian organization, as are many other white supremacist groups, such as the Posse Comitatus and the Christian Identity and Positive Christianity movements.


title: Supremacism

text: Academics Khaled Abou El Fadl, Ian Lague, and Joshua Cone note that, while the Quran and other Islamic scriptures express tolerant beliefs, there have also been numerous instances of Muslim or Islamic supremacism. Examples of how supremacists have interpreted Islam include the Muslim participation in the African slave trade, the early-20th-century pan-Islamism promoted by Abdul Hamid II, the "jizya" and rules of marriage in Muslim countries being imposed on non-Muslims, and the majority Muslim interpretations of the rules of pluralism in Malaysia. According to scholar Bernard Lewis, classical Islamic jurisprudence imposes an open-ended duty on Muslims to expand Muslim rule and Islamic law to all non-Muslims throughout the world.


title: Supremacism

text: North Africa has witnessed numerous incidents of massacres and ethnic cleansing of Jews and Christians, especially in Morocco, Libya, and Algeria, where eventually Jews were forced to live in ghettos. Decrees ordering the destruction of synagogues were enacted during the Middle Ages in Egypt, Syria, Iraq, and Yemen. At certain times in Yemen, Morocco, and Baghdad, Jews were forced to convert to Islam or face the Islamic death penalty. While there were antisemitic incidents before the 20th century, antisemitism increased dramatically as a result of the Arab–Israeli conflict. After the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, the Palestinian exodus, the creation of the State of Israel and Israeli victories during the wars of 1956 and 1967 were a severe humiliation to Israel's opponentsprimarily Egypt, Syria, and Iraq. However, by the mid-1970s the vast majority of Jews had left Muslim-majority countries, moving primarily to Israel, France, and the United States. The reasons for the Jewish exodus are varied and disputed.


title: Supremacism

text: Ilan Pappé, an expatriate Israeli historian, writes that the First Aliyah to Israel "established a society based on Jewish supremacy". Joseph Massad, a professor of Arab studies, holds that "Jewish supremacism" has always been a "dominating principle" in religious and secular Zionism. Zionism was established with the political goal of creating a sovereign Jewish state where Jews could be the majority, rather than the minority which they were in all nations of the world at that time. Theodor Herzl, the ideological father of Zionism, considered antisemitism to be an eternal feature of all societies in which Jews lived as minorities, and as a result, he believed that only a separation could allow Jews to escape eternal persecution. "Let them give us sovereignty over a piece of the Earth's surface, just sufficient for the needs of our people, then we will do the rest!"


title: Supremacism

text: Since the 1990s, Orthodox Jewish rabbis from Israel, most notably those affiliated to Chabad-Lubavitch and religious Zionist organizations, including The Temple Institute, have set up a modern Noahide movement to proselytize among non-Jews (usually referred to as "Gentiles" or "goyim"). These Noahide organizations, led by religious Zionist and Orthodox rabbis, are aimed at non-Jews in order to proselytize among them and commit them to follow the Noahide laws. However, these religious Zionist and Orthodox rabbis that guide the modern Noahide movement, who are often affiliated with the Third Temple movement, expound a racist and supremacist ideology which consists in the belief that the Jewish people are God's chosen nation and racially superior to non-Jews, and mentor Noahides because they believe that the Messianic era will begin with the rebuilding of the Third Temple on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem to re-institute the Jewish priesthood along with the practice of ritual sacrifices, and the establishment of a Jewish theocracy in Israel, supported by communities of Noahides. David Novak, professor of Jewish theology and ethics at the University of Toronto, has denounced the modern Noahide movement by stating that "If Jews are telling Gentiles what to do, it’s a form of imperialism".


title: Supremacism

text: In the aftermath of the 2022 Israeli legislative election, the winning right-wing coalition included an alliance known as Religious Zionist Party—a grouping of the Religious Zionist, Otzma Yehudit, and Noam parties. Within the context of the 2019–2022 Israeli political crisis, this was the fifth legislative election in nearly four years, as no party since 2019 had been able to form a stable coalition. Jewish-American columnist David E. Rosenberg has stated that the Religious Zionist Party's "platform includes things like annexation of West Bank settlements, expulsion of asylum-seekers, and political control of the judicial system". He further described the Religious Zionist Party as a political party "driven by Jewish supremacy and anti-Arab racism".


title: Pluricentric language

text: A pluricentric language or polycentric language is a language with several interacting codified standard forms, often corresponding to different countries. Many examples of such languages can be found worldwide among the most-spoken languages, including but not limited to Chinese in Mainland China, Taiwan and Singapore; English in the United Kingdom, the United States, India, and elsewhere; and French in France, Canada, and elsewhere. The converse case is a monocentric language, which has only one formally standardized version. Examples include Japanese and Russian.


title: Pluricentric language

text: In some cases, the different standards of a pluricentric language may be elaborated until they become autonomous languages, as happened with Malaysian and Indonesian, and with Hindi and Urdu. The same process is under way in Serbo-Croatian.


title: Pluricentric language

text: Pre-Islamic Arabic can be considered a polycentric language. In Arabic-speaking countries different levels of polycentricity can be detected. Modern Arabic is a pluricentric language with varying branches correlating with different regions where Arabic is spoken and the type of communities speaking it. The vernacular varieties of Arabic include:


title: Pluricentric language

text: In addition, many speakers use Modern Standard Arabic in education and formal settings. Therefore, in Arabic-speaking communities, diglossia is frequent.


title: Pluricentric language

text: The Armenian language is a pluricentric language with the liturgical Classical Armenian and two vernacular standards, Eastern Armenian and Western Armenian. Speakers outside of the former Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic (including all Western Armenians as well as Eastern Armenians in Iran) use the Classical Armenian orthography, while others adopt the reformed Armenian alphabet.


title: Pluricentric language

text: The term "Catalan–Valencian–Balearic" is seldom used (for example, in a dictionary by Antoni Maria Alcover i Sureda).


title: Pluricentric language

text: This language is internationally known as Catalan, as in Ethnologue. This is also the most commonly used name in Catalonia, but also in Andorra and the Balearic Islands, probably due to the prestige of the Central Catalan dialect spoken in and around Barcelona. However, in the Valencian Community, the official name of this language is Valencian. One reason for this is political (see Serbo-Croatian for a similar situation), but this variant does have its own literary tradition that dates back to the Reconquista.


title: Pluricentric language

text: Although mutually intelligible with other varieties of Catalan, Valencian has lexical peculiarities and its own spelling rules, which are set out by the Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua, created in 1998. However, this institution recognizes that Catalan and Valencian are varieties of the same language. For their part, there are specific varieties in the two major Balearic islands, Mallorcan (mallorquí) in Mallorca, Menorcan (menorquí) in Menorca, Eivissenc in Eivissa. The University of the Balearic Islands is the language regulator for these varieties.


title: Pluricentric language

text: These varieties had diverged widely from the written form used by scholars, Literary Chinese, which was modelled on the language of the Chinese classics.


title: Pluricentric language

text: As a practical measure, officials of the Ming and Qing dynasties carried out the administration of the empire using a common language based on northern varieties, known as "Guānhuà" (官話, literally "speech of officials"), known as "Mandarin" in English after the officials.


title: Pluricentric language

text: Knowledge of this language was thus essential for an official career, but it was never formally defined.


title: Pluricentric language

text: In the early years of the 20th century, Literary Chinese was replaced as the written standard by written vernacular Chinese, which was based on northern dialects.


title: Pluricentric language

text: In the 1930s, a standard national language "Guóyǔ" (國語, literally "national language") was adopted, with its pronunciation based on the Beijing dialect, but with vocabulary also drawn from other northern varieties.


title: Pluricentric language

text: After the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949, the standard was known as "Pǔtōnghuà" (普通话/普通話, literally "common speech"), but was defined in the same way as "Guóyǔ" in the Republic of China now governing Taiwan. It also became one of the official languages of Singapore, under the name "Huáyǔ" (华语/華語, literally "Chinese language").


title: Pluricentric language

text: Although the three standards remain close, they have diverged to some extent. Most Chinese in Taiwan and Singapore came from the southeast coast of China, where the local dialects lack the retroflex initials /tʂ tʂʰ ʂ/ found in northern dialects, so that many speakers in those places do not distinguish them from the apical sibilants /ts tsʰ s/. Similarly, retroflex codas ("erhua") are typically avoided in Taiwan and Singapore. There are also differences in vocabulary, with Taiwanese Mandarin absorbing loanwords from Min Chinese, Hakka Chinese, and Japanese, and Singaporean Mandarin borrowing words from English, Malay, and southern varieties of Chinese.


title: Pluricentric language

text: Some linguists and scholars, mostly from Bulgaria and Greece, but some also from other countries, consider Eastern South Slavic to be a pluricentric language with four standards: Bulgarian (based on the Rup, Balkan and Moesian ("Eastern Bulgarian") dialects), Macedonian (based on the Western and Central Macedonian dialects), Gorani (based on the Torlakian dialects), and Paulician (including Banat Bulgarian). Politicians and nationalists from Bulgaria are likely to refer to this entire grouping as 'Bulgarian', and to be particularly hostile to the notion that Macedonian is an autonomous language separate from Bulgarian, which Macedonian politicians and citizens tend to claim. As of 2021, the hypothesis that Eastern South Slavic, 'Greater Bulgarian', 'Bulgaro-Macedonian', or simply 'Bulgarian', is a pluricentric language with several mutually intelligible official standards in the same way that Serbo-Croatian is, and Czechoslovak used to be, has not yet been fully developed in linguistics; it is a popular idea in Bulgarian politics, but an unpopular one in North Macedonia.


title: Pluricentric language

text: English is a pluricentric language, with differences in pronunciation, vocabulary, spelling, etc., between each of the constituent countries of the United Kingdom, North America, the Caribbean, Ireland, English-speaking African countries, Singapore, India, and Oceania. Educated native English speakers using their version of one of the standard forms of English are almost completely mutually intelligible, but non-standard forms present significant dialectal variations, and are marked by reduced intelligibility.


title: Pluricentric language

text: British and American English are the two most commonly taught varieties in the education systems where English is taught as a second language. British English tends to predominate in Europe and the former British colonies of the West Indies, Africa, and Asia, where English is not the first language of the majority of the population. (The Falkland Islands, a British territory off the southeast coast of South America with English as its native language, have their own dialect, while British English is the standard.) In contrast, American English tends to dominate instruction in Latin America, Liberia, and East Asia (In Latin America, British English is taught in schools with British curriculum in countries with descendants of British settlers.)


title: Pluricentric language

text: Due to globalization and the resulting spread of the language in recent decades, English is becoming increasingly decentralized, with daily use and statewide study of the language in schools growing in most regions of the world. However, in the global context, the number of native speakers of English is much smaller than the number of non-native speakers of English of reasonable competence. In 2018, it was estimated that for every native speaker of English, there are six non-native speakers of reasonable competence, raising the questions of English as a lingua franca as the most widely spoken form of the language.


title: Pluricentric language

text: Philippine English (which is predominantly spoken as a second language) has been primarily influenced by American English. The rise of the call center industry in the Philippines has encouraged some Filipinos to "polish" or neutralize their accents to make them more closely resemble the accents of their client countries.


title: Pluricentric language

text: Countries such as Australia, New Zealand, and Canada have their own well-established varieties of English which are the standard within those countries but are far more rarely taught overseas to second language learners. (Standard English in Australia and New Zealand is related to British English in its common pronunciation and vocabulary; a similar relationship exists between Canadian English and American English.)


title: Pluricentric language

text: English was historically pluricentric when it was used across the independent kingdoms of England and Scotland prior to the Acts of Union in 1707. English English and Scottish English are now subsections of British English.


title: Pluricentric language

text: In the modern era, there are several major loci of the French language, including Standard French (also known as Parisian French), Canadian French (including Quebec French and Acadian French), American French (for instance, Louisiana French), Haitian French, and African French.


title: Pluricentric language

text: Until the early 20th century, the French language was highly variable in pronunciation and vocabulary within France, with varying dialects and degrees of intelligibility, the langues d'oïl. However, government policy made it so that the dialect of Paris would be the method of instruction in schools, and other dialects, like Norman, which has influence from Scandinavian languages, were neglected. Controversy still remains in France over the fact that the government recognizes them as languages of France, but provides no monetary support for them nor has the Constitutional Council of France ratified the Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.


title: Pluricentric language

text: North American French is the result of French colonization of the New World between the 17th and 18th centuries. In many cases, it contains vocabulary and dialectal quirks not found in Standard Parisian French owing to history: most of the original settlers of Quebec, Acadia, and later what would become Louisiana and northern New England came from Northern and Northwest France, and would have spoken dialects like Norman, Poitevin, and Angevin with far fewer speaking the dialect of Paris. This, plus isolation from developments in France, most notably the drive for standardization by L'Académie française, make North American dialects of the language quite distinct. Acadian French, that which is spoken in New Brunswick, Canada, contains many words that are much older than anything found in modern France, much of it having roots in the 17th century, and a distinct intonation. Québécois, the largest of the dialects, has a distinct pronunciation that is not found in Europe in any measure and a greater difference in vowel pronunciation, and syntax tends to vary greatly. Cajun French has some distinctions not found in Canada in that there is more vocabulary derived from both local Native American and African dialects and a pronunciation of the letter r that has disappeared in France entirely. It is rolled, and with heavier contact with the English language than any of the above the pronunciation has shifted to harder sounding consonants in the 20th century. Cajun French equally has been an oral language for generations and it is only recently that its syntax and features been adapted to French orthography.


title: Pluricentric language

text: Minor standards can also be found in Belgium and Switzerland, with particular influence of Germanic languages on grammar and vocabulary, sometimes through the influence of local dialects. In Belgium, for example, various Germanic influences in spoken French are evident in Wallonia (for example, to "blink" in English, and "blinken" in German and Dutch, "blinquer" in Walloon and local French, "cligner" in standard French). "Ring" ("rocade" or "périphérique" in standard French) is a common word in the three national languages for beltway or ring road. Also, in Belgium and Switzerland, there are noted differences in the number system when compared to standard Parisian or Canadian French, notably in the use of "septante", "octante/huitante" and "nonante" for the numbers 70, 80 and 90. In other standards of French, these numbers are usually denoted "soixante-dix" (sixty-ten), "quatre-vingts" (four-twenties) and "quatre-vingt-dix" (four-twenties-and-ten).


title: Pluricentric language

text: French varieties spoken in Oceania are also influenced by local languages. New Caledonian French is influenced by Kanak languages in its vocabulary and grammatical structure.


title: Pluricentric language

text: Standard German is often considered an asymmetric pluricentric language; the standard used in Germany is often considered dominant, mostly because of the sheer number of its speakers and their frequent lack of awareness of the Austrian Standard German and Swiss Standard German varieties. Although there is a uniform stage pronunciation based on a manual by Theodor Siebs that is used in theatres, and, nowadays to a lesser extent, in radio and television news all across German-speaking countries, this is not true for the standards applied at public occasions in Austria, South Tyrol and Switzerland, which differ in pronunciation, vocabulary, and sometimes even grammar. (In Switzerland, the letter ß has been removed from the alphabet, with "ss" as its replacement.) Sometimes this even applies to news broadcasts in Bavaria, a German state with a strong separate cultural identity. The varieties of Standard German used in those regions are to some degree influenced by the respective dialects (but by no means identical to them), by specific cultural traditions (e.g. in culinary vocabulary, which differs markedly across the German-speaking area of Europe), and by different terminology employed in law and administration. A list of Austrian terms for certain food items has even been incorporated into EU law, even though it is clearly incomplete.


title: Pluricentric language

text: The Hindi languages are a large dialect continuum defined as a unit culturally. Medieval Hindustani (then known as "Hindi" or "Hindavi") was based on a register of the Delhi dialect and has two modern literary forms, Standard Hindi and Standard Urdu. Additionally, there are historical literary standards, such as the closely related Braj Bhasha and the more distant Awadhi, as well as recently established standard languages based on what were once considered Hindi dialects: Maithili and Dogri. Other varieties, such as Rajasthani, are often considered distinct languages but have no standard form. Caribbean Hindi and Fijian Hindi also differ significantly from the Sanskritized standard Hindi spoken in India.


title: Pluricentric language

text: From a purely linguistic viewpoint, Malaysian and Indonesian are two normative varieties of the same language (Malay). Both lects have the same dialectal basis, and linguistic sources still tend to treat the standards as different forms of a single language. In popular parlance, however, the two idioms are often thought of as distinct tongues in their own rights due to the growing divergence between them and for politically motivated reasons. Nevertheless, they retain a high degree of mutual intelligibility despite a number of differences in vocabulary and grammar. The Malay language itself has many local dialects and creolized versions, whereas the "Indonesian language", the standardized variety in Indonesia acting as a "lingua franca" of the country, has received a great number of international and local influences.


title: Pluricentric language

text: Malayalam is a pluricentric language with historically more than one written form. Malayalam script is officially recognized, but there are other standardized varieties such as Arabi Malayalam of Mappila Muslims, Karshoni of Saint Thomas Christians and Judeo-Malayalam of Cochin Jews.


title: Pluricentric language

text: The Persian language has three standard varieties with official status in Iran (locally known as Farsi), Afghanistan (officially known as Dari), and Tajikistan (officially known as Tajik). The standard forms of the three are based on the Tehrani, Kabuli, and Dushanbe varieties, respectively.


title: Pluricentric language

text: The Persian alphabet is used for both Farsi (Iranian) and Dari (Afghan). Traditionally, Tajiki is also written with Perso-Arabic script. In order to increase literacy, a Latin alphabet (based on the Common Turkic Alphabet) was introduced in 1917. Later in the late 1930s, the Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic promoted the use of Cyrillic alphabet, which remains the most widely used system today. Attempts to reintroduce the Perso-Arabic script were made.


title: Pluricentric language

text: The language spoken by Bukharan Jews is called Bukhori (or Bukharian), and is written in Hebrew alphabet.


title: Pluricentric language

text: Apart from the Galician question, Portuguese varies mainly between Brazilian Portuguese and European Portuguese (also known as "Lusitanian Portuguese", "Standard Portuguese" or even "Portuguese Portuguese"). Both varieties have undergone significant and divergent developments in phonology and the grammar of their pronominal systems. The result is that communication between the two varieties of the language without previous exposure can be occasionally difficult, although speakers of European Portuguese tend to understand Brazilian Portuguese better than vice versa, due to the heavy exposure to music, soap operas etc. from Brazil. Word ordering can be dramatically different between European and Brazilian Portuguese.


title: Pluricentric language

text: Brazilian and European Portuguese currently have two distinct, albeit similar, spelling standards. A unified orthography for the two varieties (including a limited number of words with dual spelling) has been approved by the national legislatures of Brazil and Portugal and is now official; see Spelling reforms of Portuguese for additional details. Formal written standards remain grammatically close to each other, despite some minor syntactic differences.


title: Pluricentric language

text: African Portuguese and Asian Portuguese are based on the standard European dialect, but have undergone their own phonetic and grammatical developments, sometimes reminiscent of the spoken Brazilian variant. A number of creoles of Portuguese have developed in African countries, for example in Guinea-Bissau and on the island of São Tomé.


title: Pluricentric language

text: Serbo-Croatian is a pluricentric language with four standards (Bosnian, Croatian, Montenegrin, and Serbian) promoted in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Montenegro, and Serbia. These standards do differ slightly, but do not hinder mutual intelligibility. Rather, as all four standardised varieties are based on the prestige Shtokavian dialect, major differences in intelligibility are identified not on the basis of standardised varieties, but rather dialects, like Kajkavian and Chakavian. Lexical and grammatical differences between the ethnic variants are reportedly limited, even when compared with those between closely related Slavic languages (such as standard Czech and Slovak, Bulgarian and Macedonian). The Montenegrin standard is largely based on the Serbian, while Bosnian is a compromise between Croatian and Serbian ones; Croatian and Serbian standards show 95% mutual intelligibility. Shtokavian is largely mutually unintelligible with Kajkavian (which is closer to Slovene) and only partially intelligible with Chakavian.


title: Pluricentric language

text: Spanish has both national and regional linguistic norms, which vary in terms of vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation, but all varieties are mutually intelligible and the same orthographic rules are shared throughout.


title: Pluricentric language

text: In Spain, Standard Spanish is based upon the speech of educated speakers from Madrid. All varieties spoken in the Iberian Peninsula are grouped as Peninsular Spanish. Canarian Spanish (spoken in the Canary Islands), along with Spanish spoken in the Americas (including Spanish spoken in the United States, Central American Spanish, Mexican Spanish, Andean Spanish, and Caribbean Spanish), are particularly related to Andalusian Spanish.


title: Pluricentric language

text: The United States is now the world's second-largest Spanish-speaking country after Mexico in total number of speakers (L1 and L2 speakers). A report said there are 41 million L1 Spanish speakers and another 11.6 million L2 speakers in the U.S. This puts the US ahead of Colombia (48 million) and Spain (46 million) and second only to Mexico (121 million).


title: Pluricentric language

text: The Spanish of Latin Americans has a growing influence on the language across the globe through music, culture and television produced using the language of the largely bilingual speech community of US Latinos.


title: Pluricentric language

text: In Argentina and Uruguay the Spanish standard is based on the local dialects of Buenos Aires and Montevideo. This is known as Rioplatense Spanish, (from Rio de la Plata (River Plate)) and is distinguishable from other standard Spanish dialects by voseo. In Colombia, Rolo (a name for the dialect of Bogotá) is valued for its clear pronunciation. The Judeo-Spanish (also known as "Ladino"; not to be confused with "Latino") spoken by Sephardi Jews can be found in Israel and elsewhere; it is usually considered a separate language.


title: Pluricentric language

text: Two varieties exist, though only one written standard remains (regulated by the Swedish Academy of Sweden): "Rikssvenska" (literally "Realm Swedish"), the official language of Sweden, and "Finlandssvenska" (in Finland known as "Högsvenska", 'High Swedish'), which, alongside Finnish, is the other official language of Finland. There are differences in vocabulary and grammar, with the variety used in Finland remaining a little more conservative. The most marked differences are in pronunciation and intonation: Whereas Swedish speakers usually pronounce before front vowels as , this sound is usually pronounced by a Swedo-Finn as ; in addition, the two tones that are characteristic of Swedish (and Norwegian) are absent from most Finnish dialects of Swedish, which have an intonation reminiscent of Finnish and thus sound more monotonous when compared to "Rikssvenska".


title: Pluricentric language

text: There are dialects that could be considered different languages due to long periods of isolation and geographical separation from the central dialects of Svealand and Götaland that came to constitute the base for the standard "Rikssvenska". Dialects such as Elfdalian, Jamtlandic, and Gutnish all differ as much, or more, from standard Swedish than the standard varieties of Danish. Some of them have a standardized orthography, but the Swedish government has not granted any of them official recognition as regional languages and continues to look upon them as dialects of Swedish. Most of them are severely endangered and spoken by elderly people in the countryside.


title: Pluricentric language

text: The vast majority of Tamil speakers reside in southern India, where it is the official language of Tamil Nadu and of Puducherry, and one of 22 languages listed in the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India.


title: Pluricentric language

text: It is also one of two official languages in Sri Lanka, one of four official languages in Singapore, and is used as the medium of instruction in government-aided Tamil primary schools in Malaysia.


title: Pluricentric language

text: Tamil is diglossic, with the literary variant used in books, poetry, speeches and news broadcasts while the spoken variant is used in everyday speech, online messaging and movies.


title: Pluricentric language

text: While there are significant differences in the standard spoken forms of the different countries, the literary register is mostly uniform, with some differences in semantics that are not perceived by native speakers.


title: Pluricentric language

text: As a result of the Pure Tamil Movement, Indian Tamil tends to avoid loanwords to a greater extent than Sri Lankan Tamil.


title: Pluricentric language

text: Tamil policy in Singapore and Malaysia tends to follow that of Tamil Nadu regarding linguistic purism and technical coinages.


title: Pluricentric language

text: There are some spelling differences, particularly in the greater use of Grantha letters to write loanwords and foreign names in Sri Lanka, Singapore and Malaysia.


title: Into the Breach

text: Into the Breach is a turn-based strategy video game developed and published by indie studio Subset Games, consisting of Justin Ma and Matthew Davis. "Into the Breach" is their second game, following "". It features writing by Chris Avellone and music composed by Ben Prunty. It was released for Microsoft Windows in February 2018, for macOS and Nintendo Switch in August 2018, and for Linux in April 2020. A version for iOS and Android mobile devices was published by Netflix in July 2022.


title: Into the Breach

text: "Into the Breach" is set in the far future where humanity fights against an army of giant monsters collectively called the Vek. To combat them, the player controls soldiers that operate giant mechs that can be equipped with a variety of weapons, armor, and other equipment. The game uses a turn-based combat system, allowing the player to coordinate the actions of their team in response to enemy moves and actions that serve to telegraph their attacks.


title: Into the Breach

text: In combat, the player controls three different mechs against the Vek, and will be given an objective for that map along with a fixed number of turns to complete that objective. The principal goal for any map is to protect civilian structures which support the power grid that supports the mechs, but additional objectives may be presented. Should a civilian structure be damaged or destroyed, the power grid is weakened. On each turn, Vek forces will move across the board and attack. The player is shown the direction of the Vek unit's intended attack and information on the number of moves the Vek unit is able to take and its remaining health are available on screen. The appearance of new Vek follows each turn. This gives the player the ability to then move each mech and fire one of its weapons as to either defeat the Vek unit, push the Vek off a line of attack, avoid an attack, intercept newly spawning Vek or an attack on civilian structures. Mechs can only take a limited amount of damage during battle before becoming inoperable, though a player can have a mech idle a turn to repair some damage; battle damage is otherwise completely repaired between maps. Pilots of mechs that defeat a Vek gain experience points, which can be used to unlock new skills. The gameplay of "Into the Breach" has been compared to that of chess, as it is less about overpowering the opposing forces and instead about maintaining position control and sacrificing units to gain a larger advantage.


title: Into the Breach

text: Similar to "FTL", the game is broken into a sequence of islands each with a number of scenarios (based on island sectors) to complete; while the islands remain the same each game, the scenarios themselves are generated procedurally in a roguelike manner. After completing the first island, the player is given the choice of which islands in the sequence to protect next; islands have various conditions that can affect combat scenarios, and more hazardous conditions can gain greater rewards from completing the scenarios on each. Should the player lose any scenario, either due to their 3 mechs becoming disabled, losing their power grid, or failing to protect a specific target for that scenario, then the player has the option to send one of the pilots back in time prior to the start of the first mission – effectively starting a new game – retaining their current experience and abilities to give an edge in the next battle. Reviewers for the website "Rock Paper Shotgun" described the gameplay as a mix of "Pacific Rim" and "Edge of Tomorrow" due to the time-traveling elements. Other permanent improvements, such as new pilots or sets of mechs, become available as the player completes various milestones.


title: Into the Breach

text: "Into the Breach" came out of ideas that Ma and Davis had following the success of "FTL". They had tried various prototypes for a game, including one for a grid-based tactical system, which they recognized was seeing a resurgence in the video game industry due to the success of "" (2012). However, they still needed some type of hook to differentiate their game. This came as a response to films like "Man of Steel" and "Pacific Rim", where "the whole city gets demolished, but no one cares because the good guys won", according to Ma. They set about to make the game focus on the impact of collateral damage so that defending buildings and other structures would become a priority rather than just winning.


title: Into the Breach

text: Subset included the effects of giant mechs-vs-giant alien battles on the landscape as the game time progress, with mountains being torn down, forests destroyed by fire, and buildings razed. To emphasize this in gameplay, they include the mechanic that mechs are powered from local power nodes in the buildings, so that if these buildings are destroyed, they may not be able to power their mechs. This created tough decisions for players, such as whether to destroy a building to get a short-term edge in battle or to prevent a catastrophe to a larger number of buildings. To further help emphasize the need to care for these buildings, Avellone's story was written to remind the player that as they fight with the mechs, there will be people cowering for safety in these buildings, and to create emotional impact when these people are killed when a building is destroyed.


title: Into the Breach

text: In contrast to "XCOM", where a simple battle may take up to an hour to complete all objectives, Subset wanted each battle to be relatively short in terms of gameplay time. The limited turn counter was used to keep battles short, and Subset found that telegraphing the Vek's movements further helped to hasten the pace. They developed scenarios and situations to require the player to devise new strategies on the fly which they anticipated that players would build upon in later parts of the game.