title: Polar climate

text: The climate of Antarctica is the coldest on Earth. Antarctica has the lowest naturally occurring temperature ever recorded: at Vostok Station. It is also extremely dry (technically a desert, or so called polar desert), averaging of precipitation per year, as weather fronts rarely penetrate far into the continent.


title: Polar climate

text: Summits of most mountains also have polar climates, despite being in lower latitudes, due to their high elevations. All mountains of the Rocky Mountains, Alps, and the Caucasus have tundra climate. Some mountains of the Andes, the Saint Elias Mountains, and most mountains of the Himalayas, the Karakoram, the Hindu Kush Range, Pamir Mountains, the Tian Shan Mountains, and the Alaska Range, have ice cap climate. Only the summit of Mount Rainier has an ice cap climate in the Cascade Range.


title: Polar climate

text: Climatologist Wladimir Köppen demonstrated a relationship between the Arctic and Antarctic tree lines and the summer isotherm; i.e., places where the average temperature in the warmest calendar month of the year is below the fixed threshold of cannot support forests. See Köppen climate classification for more information.


title: Polar climate

text: Otto Nordenskjöld theorized that winter conditions also play a role: His formula is , where "W" is the average temperature in the warmest month and "C" the average of the coldest month, both in degrees Celsius. For example, if a particular location had an average temperature of in its coldest month, the warmest month would need to average or higher for trees to be able to survive there as . Nordenskiöld's line tends to run to the north of Köppen's near the west coasts of the Northern Hemisphere continents, south of it in the interior sections, and at about the same latitude along the east coasts of both Asia and North America. In the Southern Hemisphere, all of Tierra del Fuego lies outside the polar region in Nordenskiöld's system, but part of the island (including Ushuaia, Argentina) is reckoned as being within the Antarctic under Köppen's.


title: Polar climate

text: In 1947, Holdridge improved on these schemes, by defining biotemperature: the mean annual temperature, where all temperatures below (and above ) are treated as 0 °C (because it makes no difference to plant life, being dormant). If the mean biotemperature is between , Holdridge quantifies the climate as subpolar (or alpine, if the low temperature is caused by elevation).


title: Marcos Senesi

text: Marcos Nicolás Senesi Barón (born 10 May 1997) is an Argentine professional footballer who plays as a defender for club AFC Bournemouth and the Argentina national team.


title: Marcos Senesi

text: Senesi made his debut for San Lorenzo on 25 September 2016 as a starter in the Argentine Primera División match against Club Atlético Patronato. On 16 September 2017, he scored his first and only goal for the club in a 1–0 win against Arsenal de Sarandí.


title: Marcos Senesi

text: On 2 September 2019, Senesi signed a four-year contract with Dutch football club Feyenoord. On 10 November 2019, he scored his first goal for the club, the winning goal in a 3–2 win against RKC Waalwijk, heading in a free kick in the 85th minute.


title: Marcos Senesi

text: On 8 August 2022, Senesi transferred to Premier League club AFC Bournemouth on a four-year contract for an undisclosed fee.


title: Marcos Senesi

text: Born in Argentina, Senesi is of Italian descent. He was called up to both the Italy and the Argentina national teams, who were both due to face each other for the 2022 Finalissima June 2022. He chose to represent the Argentina national team, and made his debut on 5 June 2022 in a friendly match against the Estonia national team.


title: Jesús Franco

text: Jesús Franco Manera (12 May 1930 – 2 April 2013) was a Spanish filmmaker, composer, and actor, known as a prolific director of low-budget exploitation and B-movies. In a career spanning from 1954 to 2013, he wrote, directed, produced, acted in, and scored approximately 173 feature films, working both in his native Spain and (during the rule of Francisco Franco) in France, West Germany, Switzerland and Portugal. Additionally, during the 1960s, he made several films in Rio de Janeiro and Istanbul.


title: Jesús Franco

text: Of Cuban and Mexican parentage, Franco was born in Madrid and studied at the city's Instituto de Investigaciones y Experiencias Cinematográficas and the Institut des hautes études cinématographiques in Paris. He began his career in 1954 (aged 24) as an assistant director in the Spanish film industry, performing many tasks including composing music for some films as well as co-writing a number of the screenplays. He assisted directors such as Joaquín Luis Romero Marchent, León Klimovsky and Juan Antonio Bardem. After working on more than 20 films for other directors, he decided to get into directing films himself in 1959, making a few musicals and a crime drama called "Red Lips".


title: Jesús Franco

text: In 1960, Franco took Marius Lesoeur and Sergio Newman, two producer friends, to a cinema to see the newly released Hammer horror film "The Brides of Dracula" and the three men decided to go into the horror film business. His career took off in 1962 with "The Awful Dr. Orloff" (a.k.a. "Gritos en la noche"), which received wide distribution in the United States and the UK. Franco wrote and directed "Orloff", and even supplied some of the music for the film. In the mid-1960s, he went on to direct two other horror films, then proceeded to turn out a number of James Bond-like spy thrillers and softcore sex films based on the works of the Marquis de Sade (which remained one of his major influences throughout his career).


title: Jesús Franco

text: Although he had some American box office success with "Necronomicon - Geträumte Sünden" (1968), "99 Women" (1969) and two 1969 Christopher Lee films – "The Bloody Judge" and "Count Dracula" – he never achieved wide commercial success. Many of his films were only distributed in Europe, and most of them were never dubbed into English.


title: Jesús Franco

text: After discovering Soledad Miranda (he first used her in his film "Count Dracula"), Franco moved from Spain to France in 1969 so that he could make more violent and erotic films free of the strict censorship in Spain at the time, and it was at this point that his career began to go downhill commercially as he turned to low-budget filmmaking with an accent on adult material. Miranda starred in a series of six erotic thrillers for Franco, all made within a one-year period (including "Vampyros Lesbos"), after which she was killed in a tragic automobile accident in Portugal in 1970, just as her career was taking off. She and Franco had started filming her next project ("Justine") which he abandoned entirely after her death. (Only about 40 minutes of the movie was shot at the time of her death). He had also planned to feature her in his next film, "X312: Flight to Hell", which he made with another actress.


title: Jesús Franco

text: A year or two after Miranda died, a grieving Franco discovered a new leading lady in actress Lina Romay. At the time, the teenage Romay was married to a young actor/photographer named Ramon Ardid (aka "Raymond Hardy"), who co-starred with Lina in 19 Franco films in the 1970s. But as Romay and Franco became more involved in their film projects together over the years, her marriage to Ardid broke up in 1975 and ended in divorce in 1978 (although Ardid continued working with Franco until 1980).


title: Jesús Franco

text: Franco was married at the time to Nicole Guettard (their marriage running approximately from 1962 to 1980), Ms. Guettard being gradually replaced in Franco's life by Romay. Guettard worked as a script consultant on some of Franco's films while they were married (sometimes credited as Nicole Franco), and even acted in a few of them. Her daughter from an earlier marriage, Caroline Riviere, also acted in a few Franco films in the early 1970s (including the risqué "Exorcisme" and "The Perverse Countess")). Guettard died in 1996.


title: Jesús Franco

text: Franco and Romay worked together for 40 years, and lived together from 1980 onward, although they were only "officially" married on 25 April 2008. Until her death in 2012 (from cancer at age 57), Romay was his most regular actress, as well as his life companion and muse. Romay starred in approximately 109 Jesus Franco films, more than any other actor or actress. Although Romay was listed in the credits of several films as a co-director, actor Antonio Mayans stated in a recent interview that Franco used to credit her in that manner for business reasons, although she never actually co-directed any of their films together.


title: Jesús Franco

text: Although he produced a number of relatively successful horror films in the early 1970s ("Dracula vs. Frankenstein", "The Bare-Breasted Countess", "A Virgin Among the Living Dead"), many people in the industry considered him a porn director due to the huge number of X-rated adult films he began turning out (even his 1970s horror films featured abundant nudity). Franco returned to low-budget horror films in a brief comeback period from 1980 to 1983 ("Mondo Cannibale", "Bloody Moon", "Oasis of the Zombies", "Mansion of the Living Dead" and "Revenge in the House of Usher"), but after 1983, his career took a second downturn as he returned to making mostly pornographic films, most of which left nothing to the imagination.


title: Jesús Franco

text: In his later years, he did, however, get the opportunity to turn out two rather big-budget horror films – "Faceless" (1988) and "Killer Barbys" (1996) – both of which showed what great work he could still do when his projects were adequately funded. The entirety of his work after 1996 (beginning with "Tender Flesh") was shot-on-video films of very low quality, none of which were distributed theatrically. Romay died of cancer in 2012 at age 57, after which Franco died on April 2, 2013 from natural causes at age 82.


title: Jesús Franco

text: Franco sometimes worked under various pseudonyms, including David Khune and Frank Hollmann. A fan of jazz music (and a musician himself), many of his pseudonyms were taken from jazz musicians such as Clifford Brown and James P. Johnson.


title: Jesús Franco

text: Franco's themes often revolved around lesbian vampires, women in prison, surgical horror, sadomasochism, zombies and sexploitation (including numerous films based on the writings of the Marquis de Sade). He worked in other exploitation film genres, such as cannibal films, spy films, giallo, crime films, science fiction, jungle adventure, Oriental menace, exorcist films, war movies, historical dramas and nunsploitation. His sex movies often contained long, uninterrupted shots of nude women writhing around on beds. Most of his hardcore films starred his lifelong companion Lina Romay (sometimes billed as "Candy Coster" or "Lulu Laverne"), who admitted in interviews to being an exhibitionist.


title: Jesús Franco

text: Franco was known for his use of a hand-held camera and zoom shots, which he felt lent realism to his films. He also was not averse to filming several movies at the same time, knocking together a second feature on the unsuspecting producer's dime. Many of his actors only found out years after the fact that Franco had actually starred them in films for which they had never even been paid.


title: Jesús Franco

text: His main claim to fame, however, is that he managed to direct approximately 173 motion pictures in his lifetime, encompassing a wide swath of different genres with practically no financial backing available to him. (Note:* Some sources which list as many as 200 titles in Franco's filmography are relisting the same films several times under their different variant titles.)


title: Jesús Franco

text: Sometimes referred to as the "European Ed Wood", Franco similarly attracted a circle of bizarre but loyal actors and technicians who moved with him over the years from project to project (while receiving very little, if any, money for their efforts). Many of his actors were over-the-hill performers in the twilight of their careers, many of his actresses brazen exhibitionists. He frequently worked with genre actors Lina Romay (who appeared in 109 Franco films), Antonio Mayans (who appeared in 50 Franco films), Howard Vernon (who appeared in 40 Franco films), Paul Müller (who appeared in 15 Franco films), Monica Swinn (who appeared in 15 Franco films), Christopher Lee, Jack Taylor, Ewa Strömberg, Anne Libert, Soledad Miranda, Maria Rohm, William Berger, Dennis Price, Olivier Mathot, Muriel Montosse (a.k.a. Victoria Adams), Alice Arno, Montserrat Prous, Alberto Dalbés, Britt Nichols, Pamela Stanford, Kali Hansa and Klaus Kinski, all of whom are well known to Euro Horror film historians.


title: Jesús Franco

text: Franco was supposed to write and direct a film for Eurocine Productions in 1980 called "Lake of the Living Dead" (a horror film about revived Nazi zombies) but after submitting the basic plot summary, he had a falling out with the producers, Marius and Daniel Lesoeur, over the ridiculously low budget he was allotted, and the producers immediately hired French horror film director Jean Rollin to direct it (later re-titling it "Zombie Lake").


title: Jesús Franco

text: The Lesoeurs later had Rollin shoot new (zombie) footage in 1981 to be added to Franco's "A Virgin Among the Living Dead" (1973) for its 1981 theatrical rerelease. Franco's original director's cut of the film was later made available on DVD.


title: Jesús Franco

text: Franco later directed another film for the Lesouers called "Oasis of the Zombies" (a.k.a. "Bloodsucking Nazi Zombies" on VHS) in 1981, which had a plot very similar to "Zombie Lake" (also involving revived Nazi zombies). It was released in France as "The Abyss of the Living Dead". Franco simultaneously shot a variant Spanish language version of "Oasis of the Zombies" at the producers' expense, starring Lina Romay and his "regulars", which was apparently released only in Spain in 1982 as "La Tumba de los Muertos Vivientes", which now appears to be a lost film.


title: Jesús Franco

text: Franco suffered a severe stroke on 27 March 2013, and was taken to a hospital in Málaga, Spain, where he died six days later, on the morning of 2 April. He was 82.


title: Geiger–Müller tube

text: The Geiger–Müller tube or G–M tube is the sensing element of the Geiger counter instrument used for the detection of ionizing radiation. It is named after Hans Geiger, who invented the principle in 1908, and Walther Müller, who collaborated with Geiger in developing the technique further in 1928 to produce a practical tube that could detect a number of different radiation types.


title: Geiger–Müller tube

text: It is a gaseous ionization detector and uses the Townsend avalanche phenomenon to produce an easily detectable electronic pulse from as little as a single ionizing event due to a radiation particle. It is used for the detection of gamma radiation, X-rays, and alpha and beta particles. It can also be adapted to detect neutrons. The tube operates in the "Geiger" region of ion pair generation. This is shown on the accompanying plot for gaseous detectors showing ion current against applied voltage.


title: Geiger–Müller tube

text: While it is a robust and inexpensive detector, the G–M is unable to measure high radiation rates efficiently, has a finite life in high radiation areas and cannot measure incident radiation energy, so no spectral information can be generated and there is no discrimination between radiation types; such as between alpha and beta particles.


title: Geiger–Müller tube

text: A G-M tube consists of a chamber filled with a gas mixture at a low pressure of about 0.1 atmosphere. The chamber contains two electrodes, between which there is a potential difference of several hundred volts. The walls of the tube are either metal or have their inside surface coated with a conducting material or a spiral wire to form the cathode, while the anode is a wire mounted axially in the center of the chamber.


title: Geiger–Müller tube

text: When ionizing radiation strikes the tube, some molecules of the fill gas are ionized directly by the incident radiation, and if the tube cathode is an electrical conductor, such as stainless steel, indirectly by means of secondary electrons produced in the walls of the tube, which migrate into the gas. This creates positively charged ions and free electrons, known as ion pairs, in the gas. The strong electric field created by the voltage across the tube's electrodes accelerates the positive ions towards the cathode and the electrons towards the anode. Close to the anode in the "avalanche region" where the electric field strength rises inversely proportional to radial distance as the anode is approached, free electrons gain sufficient energy to ionize additional gas molecules by collision and create a large number of electron avalanches. These spread along the anode and effectively throughout the avalanche region. This is the "gas multiplication" effect which gives the tube its key characteristic of being able to produce a significant output pulse from a single original ionizing event.


title: Geiger–Müller tube

text: If there were to be only one avalanche per original ionizing event, then the number of excited molecules would be in the order of 10 to 10. However the production of "multiple avalanches" results in an increased multiplication factor which can produce 10 to 10 ion pairs. The creation of multiple avalanches is due to the production of UV photons in the original avalanche, which are not affected by the electric field and move laterally to the axis of the anode to instigate further ionizing events by collision with gas molecules. These collisions produce further avalanches, which in turn produce more photons, and thereby more avalanches in a chain reaction which spreads laterally through the fill gas, and envelops the anode wire. The accompanying diagram shows this graphically. The speed of propagation of the avalanches is typically 2–4 cm per microsecond, so that for common sizes of tubes the complete ionization of the gas around the anode takes just a few microseconds.


title: Geiger–Müller tube

text: This short, intense pulse of current can be measured as a "count event" in the form of a voltage pulse developed across an external electrical resistor. This can be in the order of volts, thus making further electronic processing simple.


title: Geiger–Müller tube

text: The discharge is terminated by the collective effect of the positive ions created by the avalanches. These ions have lower mobility than the free electrons due to their higher mass and move slowly from the vicinity of the anode wire. This creates a "space charge" which counteracts the electric field that is necessary for continued avalanche generation. For a particular tube geometry and operating voltage this termination always occurs when a certain number of avalanches has been created, therefore the pulses from the tube are always of the same magnitude regardless of the energy of the initiating particle. Consequently, there is no radiation energy information in the pulses which means the Geiger–Müller tube cannot be used to generate spectral information about the incident radiation. In practice the termination of the avalanche is improved by the use of "quenching" techniques (see later).


title: Geiger–Müller tube

text: Pressure of the fill gas is important in the generation of avalanches. Too low a pressure and the efficiency of interaction with incident radiation is reduced. Too high a pressure, and the “mean free path” for collisions between accelerated electrons and the fill gas is too small, and the electrons cannot gather enough energy between each collision to cause ionization of the gas. The energy gained by electrons is proportional to the ratio “e/p”, where “e” is the electric field strength at that point in the gas, and “p” is the gas pressure.


title: Geiger–Müller tube

text: For alpha particles, low energy beta particles, and low energy X-rays, the usual form is a cylindrical end-window tube. This type has a window at one end covered in a thin material through which low-penetrating radiation can easily pass. Mica is a commonly used material due to its low mass per unit area. The other end houses the electrical connection to the anode.


title: Geiger–Müller tube

text: The pancake tube is a variant of the end window tube, but which is designed for use for beta and gamma contamination monitoring. It has roughly the same sensitivity to particles as the end window type, but has a flat annular shape so the largest window area can be utilized with a minimum of gas space. Like the cylindrical end window tube, mica is a commonly used window material due to its low mass per unit area. The anode is normally multi-wired in concentric circles so it extends fully throughout the gas space.


title: Geiger–Müller tube

text: This general type is distinct from the dedicated end window type, but has two main sub-types, which use different radiation interaction mechanisms to obtain a count.


title: Geiger–Müller tube

text: Used for gamma radiation detection above energies of about 25 KeV, this type generally has an overall wall thickness of about 1-2mm of chrome steel. Because most high energy gamma photons will pass through the low density fill gas without interacting, the tube uses the interaction of photons on the molecules of the wall material to produce high energy secondary electrons within the wall. Some of these electrons are produced close enough to the inner wall of the tube to escape into the fill gas. As soon as this happens the electron drifts to the anode and an electron avalanche occurs as though the free electron had been created within the gas. The avalanche is a secondary effect of a process that starts within the tube wall with the production of electrons that migrate to the inner surface of the tube wall, and then enter the fill gas. This effect is considerably attentuated at low energies below about 20 KeV


title: Geiger–Müller tube

text: G–M tubes will not detect neutrons since these do not ionize the gas. However, neutron-sensitive tubes can be produced which either have the inside of the tube coated with boron, or the tube contains boron trifluoride or helium-3 as the fill gas, or the tube is wrapped in about thick cadmium foil. The neutrons interact with the boron nuclei, producing alpha particles, or directly with the helium-3 nuclei producing hydrogen and tritium ions and electrons, or with the cadmium, producing gamma rays. These energetic particles interact and produce ions that then trigger the normal avalanche process.


title: Geiger–Müller tube

text: The components of the gas mixture are vital to the operation and application of a G-M tube. The mixture is composed of an inert gas such as helium, argon or neon which is ionized by incident radiation, and a "quench" gas of 5–10% of an organic vapor or a halogen gas to prevent spurious pulsing by quenching the electron avalanches. This combination of gases is known as a Penning mixture and makes use of the Penning ionization effect.


title: Geiger–Müller tube

text: The modern halogen-filled G–M tube was invented by Sidney H. Liebson in 1947 and has several advantages over the older tubes with organic mixtures. The halogen tube discharge takes advantage of a metastable state of the inert gas atom to more-readily ionize a halogen molecule than an organic vapor, enabling the tube to operate at much lower voltages, typically 400–600 volts instead of 900–1200 volts. While halogen-quenched tubes have greater plateau voltage slopes compared to organic-quenched tubes (an undesirable quality), they have a vastly longer life than tubes quenched with organic compounds. This is because an organic vapor is gradually destroyed by the discharge process, giving organic-quenched tubes a useful life of around 10 events. However, halogen ions can recombine over time, giving halogen-quenched tubes an effectively unlimited lifetime for most uses, although they will still eventually fail at some point due to other ionization-initiated processes that limit the lifetime of all Geiger tubes. For these reasons, the halogen-quenched tube is now the most common.


title: Geiger–Müller tube

text: Neon is the most common filler gas. Chlorine is the most common quencher, though bromine is occasionally used as well. Halogens are most commonly used with neon, argon or krypton, organic quenchers with helium.


title: Geiger–Müller tube

text: An example of a gas mixture, used primarily in proportional detectors, is P10 (90% argon, 10% methane).


title: Geiger–Müller tube

text: Another is used in bromine-quenched tubes, typically 0.1% argon, 1-2% bromine, and the balance of neon.


title: Geiger–Müller tube

text: Halogen quenchers are highly chemically reactive and attack the materials of the electrodes, especially at elevated temperatures, leading to tube performance degradation over time. The cathode materials can be chosen from e.g. chromium, platinum, or nickel-copper alloy, or coated with colloidal graphite, and suitably passivated. Oxygen plasma treatment can provide a passivation layer on stainless steel. Dense non-porous coating with platinum or a tungsten layer or a tungsten foil liner can provide protection here.


title: Geiger–Müller tube

text: Pure noble gases exhibit threshold voltages increasing with increasing atomic weight. Addition of polyatomic organic quenchers increases threshold voltage, due to dissipation of large percentage of collisions energy in molecular vibrations. Argon with alcohol vapors was one of the most common fills of early tubes. As little as 1 ppm of impurities (argon, mercury, and krypton in neon) can significantly lower the threshold voltage. Admixture of chlorine or bromine provides quenching and stability to low-voltage neon-argon mixtures, with wide temperature range. Lower operating voltages lead to longer rise times of pulses, without appreciably changing the dead times.


title: Geiger–Müller tube

text: Spurious pulses are caused mostly by secondary electrons emitted by the cathode due to positive ion bombardment. The resulting spurious pulses have the nature of a relaxation oscillator and show uniform spacing, dependent on the tube fill gas and overvoltage. At high enough overvoltages, but still below the onset of continuous corona discharges, sequences of thousands of pulses can be produced. Such spurious counts can be suppressed by coating the cathode with higher work function materials, chemical passivation, lacquer coating, etc.


title: Geiger–Müller tube

text: The organic quenchers can decompose to smaller molecules (ethyl alcohol and ethyl acetate) or polymerize into solid deposits (typical for methane). Degradation products of organic molecules may or may not have quenching properties. Larger molecules degrade to more quenching products than small ones; tubes quenched with amyl acetate tend to have ten times higher lifetime than ethanol ones. Tubes quenched with hydrocarbons often fail due to coating of the electrodes with polymerization products, before the gas itself can be depleted; simple gas refill won't help, washing the electrodes to remove the deposits is necessary. Low ionization efficiency is sometimes deliberately sought; mixtures of low pressure hydrogen or helium with organic quenchers are used in some cosmic rays experiments, to detect heavily ionizing muons and electrons.


title: Geiger–Müller tube

text: Argon, krypton and xenon are used to detect soft x-rays, with increasing absorption of low energy photons with decreasing atomic mass, due to direct ionization by photoelectric effect. Above 60-70 keV the direct ionization of the filler gas becomes insignificant, and secondary photoelectrons, Compton electrons or electron-positron pair production by interaction of the gamma photons with the cathode material become the dominant ionization initiation mechanisms. Tube windows can be eliminated by putting the samples directly inside the tube, or, if gaseous, mixing them with the filler gas. Vacuum-tightness requirement can be eliminated by using continuous flow of gas at atmospheric pressure.


title: Geiger–Müller tube

text: The "Geiger plateau" is the voltage range in which the G-M tube operates in its correct mode, where ionization occurs along the length of the anode. If a G–M tube is exposed to a steady radiation source and the applied voltage is increased from zero, it follows the plot of current shown in the "Geiger region" where the gradient flattens; this is the Geiger plateau.


title: Geiger–Müller tube

text: This is shown in more detail in the accompanying Geiger Plateau Curve diagram. If the tube voltage is progressively increased from zero the efficiency of detection will rise until the most energetic radiation starts to produce pulses which can be detected by the electronics. This is the "starting voltage". Increasing the voltage still further results in rapidly rising counts until the "knee" or threshold of the plateau is reached, where the rate of increase of counts falls off. This is where the tube voltage is sufficient to allow a complete discharge along the anode for each detected radiation count, and the effect of different radiation energies are equal. However, the plateau has a slight slope mainly due to the lower electric fields at the ends of the anode because of tube geometry. As the tube voltage is increased, these fields strengthen to produce avalanches. At the end of the plateau the count rate begins to increase rapidly again, until the onset of continuous discharge where the tube cannot detect radiation, and may be damaged.


title: Geiger–Müller tube

text: Depending on the characteristics of the specific tube (manufacturer, size, gas type, etc.) the voltage range of the plateau will vary. The slope is usually expressed as percentage change of counts per 100 V. To prevent overall efficiency changes due to variation of tube voltage, a regulated voltage supply is used, and it is normal practice to operate in the middle of the plateau to reduce the effect of any voltage variations.


title: Geiger–Müller tube

text: The ideal G–M tube should produce a single pulse for every single ionizing event due to radiation. It should not give spurious pulses, and should recover quickly to the passive state, ready for the next radiation event. However, when positive argon ions reach the cathode and become neutral atoms by gaining electrons, the atoms can be elevated to enhanced energy levels. These atoms then return to their ground state by emitting photons which in turn produce further ionization and thereby spurious secondary discharges. If nothing were done to counteract this, ionization would be prolonged and could even escalate. The prolonged avalanche would increase the "dead time" when new events cannot be detected, and could become continuous and damage the tube. Some form of quenching of the ionization is therefore essential to reduce the dead time and protect the tube, and a number of quenching techniques are used.


title: Geiger–Müller tube

text: Self-quenching or internal-quenching tubes stop the discharge without external assistance, originally by means of the addition of a small amount of a polyatomic organic vapor originally such as butane or ethanol, but for modern tubes is a halogen such as bromine or chlorine.


title: Geiger–Müller tube

text: If a poor gas quencher is introduced to the tube, the positive argon ions, during their motion toward the cathode, would have multiple collisions with the quencher gas molecules and transfer their charge and some energy to them. Thus, neutral argon atoms would be produced and the quencher gas ions in their turn would reach the cathode, gain electrons therefrom, and move into excited states which would decay by photon emission, producing tube discharge. However, effective quencher molecules, when excited, lose their energy not by photon emission, but by dissociation into neutral quencher molecules. No spurious pulses are thus produced.


title: Geiger–Müller tube

text: Even with chemical quenching, for a short time after a discharge pulse there is a period during which the tube is rendered insensitive and is thus temporarily unable to detect the arrival of any new ionizing particle (the so-called "dead time"; typically 50–100 microseconds). This causes a loss of counts at sufficiently high count rates and limits the G–M tube to an effective (accurate) count rate of approximately 10 counts per second even with external quenching. While a G-M tube is technically capable of reading higher count rates before it truly saturates, the level of uncertainty involved and the risk of saturation makes it extremely dangerous to rely upon higher count rate readings when attempting to calculate an equivalent radiation dose rate from the count rate. A consequence of this is that ion chamber instruments are usually preferred for higher count rates, however a modern external quenching technique can extend this upper limit considerably.


title: Geiger–Müller tube

text: External quenching, sometimes called "active quenching" or "electronic quenching", uses simplistic high speed control electronics to rapidly remove and re-apply the high voltage between the electrodes for a fixed time after each discharge peak in order to increase the maximum count rate and lifetime of the tube. Although this can be used instead of a quench gas, it is much more commonly used in conjunction with a quench gas.


title: Geiger–Müller tube

text: The "time-to-first-count method" is a sophisticated modern implementation of external quenching that allows for dramatically increased maximum count rates via the use of statistical signal processing techniques and much more complex control electronics. Due to uncertainty in the count rate introduced by the simplistic implementation of external quenching, the count rate of a Geiger tube becomes extremely unreliable above approximately 10 counts per second. With the time-to-first-count method, effective count rates of 10 counts per second are achievable, two orders of magnitude larger than the normal effective limit. The time-to-first-count method is significantly more complicated to implement than traditional external quenching methods, and as a result of this it has not seen widespread use.


title: Geiger–Müller tube

text: One consequence of the dead time effect is the possibility of a high count rate continually triggering the tube before the recovery time has elapsed. This may produce pulses too small for the counting electronics to detect and lead to the very undesirable situation whereby a G–M counter in a very high radiation field is falsely indicating a low level. This phenomenon is known as "fold-back". An industry rule of thumb is that the discriminator circuit receiving the output from the tube should detect down to 1/10 of the magnitude of a normal pulse to guard against this. Additionally the circuit should detect when "pulse pile-up " has occurred, where the apparent anode voltage has moved to a new DC level through the combination of high pulse count and noise. The electronic design of Geiger–Müller counters must be able to detect this situation and give an alarm; it is normally done by setting a threshold for excessive tube current.


title: Geiger–Müller tube

text: The efficiency of detection of a G–M tube varies with the type of incident radiation. Tubes with thin end windows have very high efficiencies (can be nearly 100%) for high energy beta, though this drops off as the beta energy decreases due to attenuation by the window material. Alpha particles are also attenuated by the window. As alpha particles have a maximum range of less than 50 mm in air, the detection window should be as close as possible to the source of radiation. The attenuation of the window adds to the attenuation of air, so the window should have a density as low as 1.5 to 2.0 mg/cm to give an acceptable level of detection efficiency. The article on stopping power explains in more detail the ranges for particles types of various energies.


title: Geiger–Müller tube

text: The counting efficiency of photon radiation (gamma and X-rays above 25 keV) depends on the efficiency of radiation interaction in the tube wall, which increases with the atomic number of the wall material. Chromium iron is a commonly used material, which gives an efficiency of about 1% over a wide range of energies.


title: Geiger–Müller tube

text: If a G–M tube is to be used for gamma or X-ray dosimetry measurements, the energy of incident radiation, which affects the ionizing effect, must be taken into account. However pulses from a G–M tube do not carry any energy information, and attribute equal dose to each count event. Consequently, the count rate response of a "bare" G–M tube to photons at different energy levels is non-linear with the effect of over-reading at low energies. The variation in dose response can be a factor between 5 and 15, according to individual tube construction; the very small tubes having the highest values.


title: Geiger–Müller tube

text: To correct this a technique known as "energy compensation" is applied, which consists of adding a shield of absorbing material around the tube. This filter preferentially absorbs the low energy photons and the dose response is "flattened". The aim is that sensitivity/energy characteristic of the tube should be matched by the absorption/energy characteristic of the filter. This cannot be exactly achieved, but the result is a more uniform response over the stated range of detection energies for the tube.


title: Geiger–Müller tube

text: Lead and tin are commonly used materials, and a simple filter effective above can be made using a continuous collar along the length of the tube. However, at lower energy levels this attenuation can become too great, so air gaps are left in the collar to allow low energy radiation to have a greater effect. In practice, compensation filter design is an empirical compromise to produce an acceptably uniform response, and a number of different materials and geometries are used to obtain the required correction.


title: Lord of Light

text: Lord of Light (1967) is a science fantasy novel by American author Roger Zelazny. It was awarded the 1968 Hugo Award for Best Novel, and nominated for a Nebula Award in the same category. Two chapters from the novel were published as novelettes in the "Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction" – "Dawn" in April 1967, and "Death and the Executioner" in June 1967.


title: Lord of Light

text: Zelazny noted that "Lord of Light" was written so that it could be taken as a science fiction or a fantasy novel. The context of the novel is modern western characters in a Hindu-Buddhist-influenced world.


title: Lord of Light

text: "Lord of Light" is set on a planet colonized by some of the remnants of "vanished Urath", or Earth. The crew and colonists from the spaceship "Star of India" found themselves on a strange planet surrounded by hostile indigenous races and had to carve a place for themselves or perish. To increase their chances of survival, the crew has used chemical treatments, biofeedback and electronics to mutate their minds and create enhanced self-images, or "Aspects", that "strengthened their bodies and intensified their wills and extended the power of their desires into Attributes, which fell with a force like magic upon those against whom they were turned." The crew has also developed a technology to transfer a person's "atman", or soul, electronically to a new body. This reincarnation by mind transfer has created a race of potential immortals and allowed the former crew members to institute the Hindu caste system, with themselves at the top.


title: Lord of Light

text: The novel covers great spans of time. Eventually, the crew used their now-great powers to subjugate or destroy the native non-human races (whom they characterize as demons) while setting themselves up as gods in the eyes of the many generations of colonist progeny. Taking on the powers and names of Hindu deities, these "gods" maintain respect and control of the masses by maintaining a stranglehold on the access to reincarnation and by suppressing any technological advancements beyond a medieval level. The gods fear that any enlightenment or advancement might lead to a technological renaissance that would eventually weaken their power.


title: Lord of Light

text: The protagonist, Sam, who has developed the ability to manipulate electromagnetic forces, is a renegade crewman who has rejected godhood, taking for himself the role of Siddhartha Gautama/Buddha. Sam is the last "Accelerationist": He believes that technology should be available to the masses, and that reincarnation should not be controlled by the elite. Sam introduces Buddhism as a culture jamming tool and strives to cripple the power of the gods with this "new" religion. His carefully planned revolt against the gods takes place in stages: "An army, great in space, may offer opposition in a brief span of time. One man, brief in space, must spread his opposition across a period of many years if he is to have a chance of succeeding."


title: Lord of Light

text: The novel has a range of major and minor characters. The gods live in Heaven, an artificial plateau in the polar regions "where only the mighty might make their home." It is covered by a giant dome for defense and weather control. Heaven is divided into the Celestial City and the Forest of Kaniburrha.


title: Lord of Light

text: In 1979 it was announced that "Lord of Light" would be made into a 50 million dollar film. It was planned that the sets for the movie would be made permanent and become the core of a science fiction theme park to be built in Aurora, Colorado. Comic book artist Jack Kirby was contracted to produce artwork for set design. However, due to legal problems the project was never completed.


title: Lord of Light

text: Parts of the unmade film project—the script and Kirby's set designs—were subsequently acquired by the CIA as cover for the "Canadian Caper": the exfiltration of six US diplomatic staff trapped by the Iranian hostage crisis (in Tehran but outside the embassy compound). The rescue team pretended to be scouting a location in Iran for shooting a Hollywood film from the script, which they had renamed "Argo". The story of the rescue effort was later adapted into the 2012 film "Argo".


title: Lord of Light

text: In 2017, it was announced by Universal Cable Productions that "Lord of Light" would be made into a television series.


title: County Monaghan

text: County Monaghan ( ; ) is a county in Ireland. It is in the province of Ulster and is part of Border strategic planning area of the Northern and Western Region. It is named after the town of Monaghan. Monaghan County Council is the local authority for the county. The population of the county was 61,386 according to the 2016 census.


title: County Monaghan

text: The county has existed since 1585 when the Mac Mathghamhna rulers of Airgíalla agreed to join the Kingdom of Ireland. Following the 20th-century Irish War of Independence and the signing of the Anglo-Irish Treaty, Monaghan was one of three Ulster counties to join the Irish Free State rather than Northern Ireland.


title: County Monaghan

text: County Monaghan is the fifth smallest of the Republic's 26 counties by area, and the fourth smallest by population. It is the smallest of Ulster's nine counties in terms of population.


title: County Monaghan

text: Notable mountains include Slieve Beagh (on the Tyrone and Fermanagh borders), Mullyash Mountain and Coolberrin Hill (214 m, 702 ft). Lakes include Lough Avaghon, Dromore Lough, Drumlona Lough, Lough Egish, Emy Lough, Lough Fea, Inner Lough (in Dartrey Forest), Muckno Lough and White Lough. Notable rivers include the River Fane (along the Louth border), the River Glyde (along the Louth and Meath borders), the Ulster Blackwater (along the Tyrone border) and the Dromore River (along the Cavan border, linking Cootehill to Ballybay).


title: County Monaghan

text: Monaghan has a number of forests, including Rossmore Forest and Dartrey Forest. Managed by Coillte since 1988, the majority of trees are conifers. Due to a long history of intensive farming and recent intensive forestry practices, only small pockets of native woodland remain.


title: County Monaghan

text: The Finn Bridge is a border crossing point over the River Finn to County Fermanagh. It is close to Scotshouse.


title: County Monaghan

text: Lead used to be mined in County Monaghan. Mines included Annaglogh Lead Mines and Lisdrumgormley Lead Mines.


title: County Monaghan

text: In 1585, the English Lord Deputy of Ireland, Sir John Perrot, visited the area and met the Irish chieftains. They requested that Ulster be divided into counties and land in the kingdom of Airgíalla be apportioned to the local chiefs. A commission was established to accomplish this and County Monaghan came into being. The county was subdivided into five baronies: Farney, Cremorne, Dartrey, and Monaghan controlled by MacMahon and Truagh by McKenna.


title: County Monaghan

text: After the defeat of the rebellion of The Earl of Tyrone and the Ulster chieftains in 1603, the county was not planted like the other counties of Ulster. The lands were instead left in the hands of the native chieftains. In the Irish Rebellion of 1641, the McMahons and their allies joined the general rebellion of Irish Catholics. Following their defeat, some colonisation of the county took place by Scottish and English families.


title: County Monaghan

text: County Monaghan is traversed by the derelict Ulster Canal. However, Waterways Ireland are embarking on a scheme to reopen the canal from Lough Erne into Clones.


title: County Monaghan

text: The Ulster Railway linked with and Belfast in 1858 and with the Dundalk and Enniskillen Railway at in 1863. It became part of the Great Northern Railway (GNR) in 1876. The partition of Ireland in 1922 turned the boundary with County Armagh into an international frontier, after which trains were routinely delayed by customs inspections. In 1957, the Government of Northern Ireland made the GNR Board close the line between and Armagh, and all lines between Armagh and County Monaghan. This left the GNR Board with no option but to withdraw passenger services between Armagh and Clones as well. CIÉ took over the remaining section of line between Clones, Monaghan and Glaslough in 1958, but withdrew goods services between Monaghan and Glaslough in 1959 and between Clones and Monaghan in 1960, leaving Monaghan with no railway service.


title: County Monaghan

text: At the 2019 local election, County Monaghan was divided into three local electoral areas, each of formed a municipal district: Ballybay–Clones, Carrickmacross–Castleblayney, and Monaghan.


title: County Monaghan

text: The towns of Ballybay, Carrickmacross, Castleblayney, Clones and Monaghan were formerly represented by nine-member town councils which dealt with local matters such as the provision of utilities and housing. These were abolished in 2014 under the Local Government Reform Act 2014.


title: County Monaghan

text: For elections to Dáil Éireann, the county is part of the constituency of Cavan–Monaghan which elects five TDs. In the 2011 general election, there was a voter turnout of 72.7%.


title: County Monaghan

text: For elections to the European Parliament, the county is part of the Midlands–North-West constituency.


title: County Monaghan

text: County Monaghan is the birthplace of the poet and writer Patrick Kavanagh, who based much of his work in the county. Kavanagh is one of the most significant figures in 20th-century Irish poetry. The poems "Stony Grey Soil" and "Shancoduff" refer to the county.


title: County Monaghan

text: County Monaghan has produced several successful artists. Chief among these is George Collie (1904–75), who was born in Carrickmacross and trained at the Dublin Metropolitan School of Art. He was a prolific exhibitor at the Royal Hibernian Academy throughout his lifetime and is represented by works in the collection of the National Gallery of Ireland and the Ulster Museum.


title: County Monaghan

text: County Monaghan was also the home county of the Irish writer Sir Shane Leslie (1885–1971), 3rd Baronet of Glaslough, who lived at Castle Leslie in the north-east corner of the county. A Catholic convert, Irish nationalist and first cousin of Sir Winston Churchill, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, Leslie became an important literary figure in the early 1900s. He was a close friend of many politicians and writers of the day including the American novelist F. Scott Fitzgerald (1896–1940), who dedicated his second novel, "The Beautiful and Damned", to Leslie.


title: County Monaghan

text: Monaghan County Museum is recognised as one of the leading provincial museums in Ireland, with a Council of Europe Award (1980), among others, to its credit. Located in Hill Street, Monaghan Town, the museum aims to reflect the history of County Monaghan and its people in all its richness and diversity.


title: County Monaghan

text: The best of the county's architecture developed in the Georgian and Victorian periods and ranges from the dignified public spaces of Church Square and The Diamond in Monaghan Town to the great country houses of Lough Fea, Carrickmacross; Hilton Park, Clones and Castle Leslie, Glaslough.


title: County Monaghan

text: Significant ecclesiastical buildings include St Joseph's Catholic Church in Carrickmacross; the Gothic-Revival St Patrick's Church of Ireland Church, Monaghan Town, and St Macartan's Catholic Cathedral, Monaghan Town, by J. J. McCarthy (1817–1882).


title: County Monaghan

text: Agriculture is a significant part of the County Monaghan economy, employing about 12% of the population in 2011 (compared with 5% nationally). The county is the main source of egg supplies in the Republic of Ireland.


title: Jeff Franklin

text: Jeffrey Steven Franklin (born January 21, 1955) is an American screenwriter, director and producer. He is best known for being the creator of the ABC sitcom "Full House" and its Netflix sequel "Fuller House".


title: Jeff Franklin

text: Franklin was born in Inglewood, California, and raised in a Jewish family.. In 1976 Franklin graduated from the University of the Pacific. He studied media production at UCLA while working as a substitute teacher in his hometown, before becoming a writer.


title: Jeff Franklin

text: Franklin began his television career as a writer and producer for "Laverne & Shirley" and "Bosom Buddies". Franklin pitched his own show to ABC called "House of Comics" which featured three comics living together. ABC was looking for a family sitcom, so Franklin added children and the idea evolved into the show "Full House", which ran on the ABC network from 1987 to 1995.


title: Jeff Franklin

text: During "Full House", Franklin created "Hangin' with Mr. Cooper", starring comedian Mark Curry. Franklin departed for "Hanging with Mr. Cooper" in September 1992. His other TV credits include both writing and production on shows such as, "It's Garry Shandling's Show", and "Malcolm & Eddie". He also wrote, produced and directed the first Olsen twins movie, "To Grandmother's House We Go". By 1991, Jeff Franklin had received a deal with Lorimar, but the pact was terminated in 1993 so that he could become an independent producer. In 1997, he had signed a deal with Columbia TriStar Television.


title: Jeff Franklin

text: Franklin's most notable film writing credits include the teen comedies "Just One of the Guys" (1985) and "Summer School" (1987), starring Mark Harmon.


title: Jeff Franklin

text: On April 20, 2015, Netflix announced the streaming service would pick up thirteen episodes of "Fuller House", a sequel to "Full House". Netflix also announced Franklin would oversee the production along with Robert L. Boyett and Thomas L. Miller. All 13 episodes of the first season premiered on February 26, 2016. The series ended in its fifth season on June 2, 2020, due to competition and inability to grow significantly its audience.


title: Jeff Franklin

text: In June 2019, "The Hollywood Reporter" revealed details of a probe made by Warner Brothers that included interviews with eight "Fuller House" staffers who commented of Franklin's alleged conduct.


title: Jeff Franklin

text: Jeff Franklin sued the showrunner, blaming the co-executive producer Bryan Behar for orchestrating a conspiracy aiming to get him kicked out of the show, to discredit Franklin and replace him. Franklin denied all the allegations of misconduct.


title: Jeff Franklin

text: In 1994, Franklin bought 10050 Cielo Drive, the site of the Tate murders in 1969. The French country-style home was eventually demolished and replaced by a mansion designed by architect Richard Landry. In 2014, he listed for sale another house designed by Landry in the Hollywood Hills for US$30 million.


title: TWA Hotel

text: TWA Hotel is a hotel at John F. Kennedy International Airport in Queens, New York City, that opened on May 15, 2019. It utilizes the head house of the TWA Flight Center, designed in 1962 by the architect Eero Saarinen. The TWA Hotel project added two buildings on either side of the existing head house. It contains a total of 512 rooms, as well as conference space, several restaurants, and an aviation history museum.


title: TWA Hotel

text: TWA Hotel was developed as part of a project to reuse the head house, which had stopped functioning as an air terminal in 2001. Morse Development developed the site along with MCR, which operates middle-to-budget hotels in the United States. It is the only hotel operating within the boundaries of JFK Airport.


title: TWA Hotel

text: After the TWA Flight Center closed in 2001, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey sought to redevelop or reuse the terminal. The main building, or head house, was protected from demolition; it had been made a New York City designated landmark in 1994, and subsequently was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2005. The head house went largely unused until it was ultimately incorporated into an expansion of Terminal 5, which was completed in 2008 and is occupied by JetBlue Airways.


title: TWA Hotel

text: In April 2015, "The Wall Street Journal" reported that JetBlue and its partner, a hotel developer, were negotiating for the rights to turn the head house into a hotel. In July 2015, New York Governor Andrew Cuomo confirmed that the Saarinen building would be converted into a new on-site hotel for the airport's passengers.


title: TWA Hotel

text: Groundbreaking took place on December 15, 2016, in a ceremony attended by Governor Cuomo, Queens Borough President Melinda Katz, and former employees of Trans World Airlines. A topping out ceremony for the hotel's first tower was held in December 2017, followed by the topping out of the second tower in March 2018. The next month, a model hotel room built inside a JFK Airport hangar was shown to the press.


title: TWA Hotel

text: That October, a Lockheed Constellation L-1649 Starliner was shipped to the hotel site for conversion into a cocktail bar. The Starliner arrived at the hotel site at the end of November 2018. In March it was displayed in Times Square.


title: TWA Hotel

text: The hotel started taking reservations in February 2019 in advance of a May opening. The hotel opened on May 15, 2019.


title: TWA Hotel

text: Morse Development developed the site along with MCR, which operates middle-to-budget hotels in the United States. It is the only hotel operating within the boundaries of JFK Airport. Beyer Blinder Belle is the architectural firm responsible for renovating the terminal, while Lubrano Ciavarra Architects is the firm designing the two new buildings. Stonehill Taylor designed the hotel rooms, and INC Architecture and Design designed the underground event space with 45 meeting rooms and a meeting hall.


title: TWA Hotel

text: Two buildings named Saarinen Wing and Hughes Wing, north and south of the T5 terminal structure, encircle the original headhouse to the east. The two buildings contain a total of 512 rooms between them, as well as conference space, six to eight restaurants, and an aviation history museum. There is a rooftop infinity swimming pool and an observation deck with of floor space. The developers have a 75-year lease with the state.


title: TWA Hotel

text: Many of the TWA Flight Center's original details, such as the custom ceramic floor tiles and the 486 variously-shaped window panels, were replaced with replicas of the originals. These details were intended to give the hotel a 1960s-era vibe, and include brass lighting, walnut-accented furnishings, and rotary phones. The hallways contain red carpeting, evocative of the color of the furniture in the original TWA lounge. However, the rooms also contain modern amenities such as blackout curtains and multiple-pane soundproof windows. The large departure board, a split-flap display made in Italy by Solari di Udine and which has been a feature of the building since the Flight Center's opening in 1962, was fully restored as part of the hotel project. The TWA Hotel also includes a cocktail lounge installed inside a preserved Lockheed L-1649 Starliner, the last model of the Lockheed Constellation line of airliners; the lounge is nicknamed "Connie". The hotel includes the Paris Café, a Jean-Georges Vongerichten restaurant, as well.


title: TWA Hotel

text: During construction, a sales office and exhibition center, located on the 86th floor of One World Trade Center, was occasionally opened to the public.


title: TWA Hotel

text: In the September 2–9, 2019, issue of "Time", the hotel was placed on the magazine's list of "The World's Greatest Places of 2019". The hotel was featured as the cover story in "Interior Design" magazine's September 2019 issue.


title: Yorick

text: Yorick is a character in William Shakespeare's play "Hamlet". He is the dead court jester whose skull is exhumed by the First Gravedigger in Act 5, Scene 1, of the play. The sight of Yorick's skull evokes a reminiscence by Prince Hamlet of the man, who apparently played a role during Hamlet's upbringing:


title: Yorick

text: Alas, poor Yorick! I knew him, Horatio; a fellow of infinite jest, of most excellent fancy; he hath borne me on his back a thousand times; and now, how abhorred in my imagination it is! My gorge rises at it. Here hung those lips that I have kissed I know not how oft. Where be your gibes now? Your gambols? Your songs? Your flashes of merriment, that were wont to set the table on a roar? ("Hamlet", V.i)


title: Yorick

text: It is suggested that Shakespeare may have intended his audience to connect Yorick with the Elizabethan comedian Richard Tarlton, a celebrated performer of the pre-Shakespearean stage, who had died a decade or so before "Hamlet" was first performed.


title: Yorick

text: The contrast between Yorick as "a fellow of infinite jest, of most excellent fancy" and his grim remains reflects on the theme of earthly vanity: death being unavoidable, the things of this life are inconsequential.


title: Yorick

text: This theme of "Memento mori" ('Remember you shall die') is common in 16th- and 17th-century painting, appearing in art throughout Europe. Images of Mary Magdalene regularly showed her contemplating a skull. It is also a very common motif in 15th- and 16th-century British portraiture.


title: Yorick

text: "Memento mori" are also expressed in images of playful children or young men, depicted looking at a skull as a sign of the transience of life. It was also a familiar motif in emblem books and tombs.


title: Yorick

text: Hamlet meditating upon the skull of Yorick has become a lasting embodiment of this idea, and has been depicted by later artists as part of the vanitas tradition.


title: Yorick

text: The name Yorick has been interpreted as an attempt to render a Scandinavian forename: usually either "Eric" or "Jørg", a form of the name George. The name "Rorik" has also been suggested, since it appears in Saxo Grammaticus, one of Shakespeare's source texts, as the name of the queen's father. There has been no agreement about which name is most likely.


title: Yorick

text: Alternative suggestions include the ideas that it may be derived from the Viking name of the city of York (Jórvík), or that it is a near-anagram of the Greek word 'Kyrios' and thus a reference to the Catholic martyr Edmund Campion.


title: Yorick

text: The name was used by Laurence Sterne in his comic novels "Tristram Shandy" and "A Sentimental Journey" as the surname of one of the characters, a parson who is a humorous portrait of the author. Parson Yorick is supposed to be descended from Shakespeare's Yorick.


title: Yorick

text: The earliest known printed image of Hamlet holding Yorick's skull is a 1773 engraving by John Hall after a design by Edward Edwards in Bell's edition of Shakespeare's plays. It has since become a common subject. While Yorick normally only appears as the skull, there have been scattered portrayals of him as a living man, such as Philip Hermogenes Calderon's painting "The Young Lord Hamlet" (1868), which depicts him carrying the child Hamlet on his back, as if being ridden like a horse by the prince. He was portrayed by comedian Ken Dodd in a flashback during the gravedigging scene in Kenneth Branagh's 1996 film "Hamlet".


title: Yorick

text: Pianist André Tchaikowsky donated his skull to the Royal Shakespeare Company for use in theatrical productions, hoping that it would be used as the skull of Yorick. Tchaikowsky died in 1982. His skull was used during rehearsals for a 1989 RSC production of "Hamlet" starring Mark Rylance, but the company eventually decided to use a replica skull in the performance. Musical director Claire van Kampen, who later married Rylance, recalled:


title: Yorick

text: Although Tchaikowsky's skull was not used in the performances of this production, its use during rehearsals affected some interpretations and line readings: for example, Rylance delivered the line "That skull had a tongue in it, and could sing once" with especial reproach. In this production, Hamlet retained Yorick's skull throughout subsequent scenes, and it was eventually placed on a mantelpiece as a "talisman" during his final duel with Laertes. In 2008, Tchaikowsky's skull was used by David Tennant in an RSC production of "Hamlet" at the Courtyard Theatre, Stratford-upon-Avon. It was later announced that the skull had been replaced after it became apparent that news of the skull distracted the audience too much from the play. This was untrue however, and the skull was used as a prop throughout the run of the production after its move to London's West End.


title: I Don't Want to Talk About It

text: "I Don't Want to Talk About It" is a song written by Danny Whitten. It was first recorded by American rock band Crazy Horse and issued as the final track on side one of their 1971 eponymous album. It was Whitten's signature tune, but gained more fame via its numerous cover versions, especially that by Rod Stewart.


title: I Don't Want to Talk About It

text: British singer Rod Stewart recorded the song at Muscle Shoals Sound Studio in Sheffield, Alabama, for his album "Atlantic Crossing". This became successful when it was released as a single in 1977. In the United States, it became a top fifty hit on the "Billboard" Hot 100 in early 1980, peaking at number 46 on the Hot 100, and number 44 Adult Contemporary. In New Zealand, it peaked at number 2. In the United Kingdom, it topped the UK Singles Chart as a double A-side with "The First Cut Is the Deepest" in 1977. The song is widely believed to have benefitted from being deliberately released as a budget single in order to keep the Sex Pistols' "God Save the Queen" off the top of the UK Singles Chart. In February 2021, the song received a silver certification from the British Phonographic Industry for sales and streams of over 200,000.


title: I Don't Want to Talk About It

text: In 1989, Stewart recorded a new version of "I Don't Want to Talk About It" for "". It was later included on "Downtown Train – Selections from the Storyteller Anthology" and released as a single in 1990. It received extensive airplay on adult contemporary radio stations in the United States as an album cut, reaching number two on the "Billboard" Adult Contemporary chart. Stewart also sang this song as a duet with Amy Belle during his 2004 tour and it is included in his concert DVD. The official Rod Stewart video of the performance has received over 545 million Youtube views (as of December 16, 2021).


title: I Don't Want to Talk About It

text: In 1988, English musical duo Everything but the Girl released their version of the song as a stand-alone single; it was later included on the reissue of their fourth studio album, "Idlewild" (1988). Tracey Thorn has said that Stewart had been regarded as "a heroic figure" in her home when she was growing up, and that her brother Keith owned the "albums with grimy-sounding titles like "An Old Raincoat Won't Ever Let You Down", and "Gasoline Alley"". She herself had "always liked "Atlantic Crossing"."


title: I Don't Want to Talk About It

text: This version was also met with success in the UK, peaking at number three on the UK Singles Chart. It was the duo's first British top-10 hit and would remain their only one until 1995, when the Todd Terry remix of "Missing" also peaked at number three. Outside the UK, the song reached number three in Ireland and number 19 in New Zealand.


title: Dodge Intrepid

text: The Dodge Intrepid is a full sized front-wheel drive four-door sedan that was produced by Dodge for model years 1993 to 2004. It is related to the Chrysler 300M, Chrysler Concorde, Chrysler LHS, Chrysler New Yorker, and Eagle Vision which were all built on Chrysler's new "cab forward" LH platform.


title: Dodge Intrepid

text: The Intrepid was sold in Canada as the Chrysler Intrepid. In the United States, it replaced the Dodge Monaco as Dodge's largest passenger car. With Dodge's introduction to Mexico during that time, it was badged as a Dodge, replacing the Dynasty which had been sold there under the Chrysler brand.


title: Dodge Intrepid

text: The Intrepid's design goes back to 1986, when designer Kevin Verduyn completed the initial exterior design of a new aerodynamic concept sedan called Navajo. The design never passed the clay model stage. It was also at this time that the Chrysler Corporation purchased bankrupt Italian sports car manufacturer Lamborghini. The Navajo's exterior design was reworked and became the Lamborghini Portofino, released as a concept at the 1987 Frankfurt Auto Show. The Portofino was heralded as a design triumph, setting in motion Chrysler's decision to produce a production sedan with the Portofino's revolutionary exterior design, called "cab forward". The cab forward design was characterized by the long, low slung windshield, and relatively short overhangs. The wheels were effectively pushed to the corners of the car, creating a much larger passenger cabin than the contemporaries of the time.


title: Dodge Intrepid

text: Design of the chassis began in the late 1980s, after Chrysler had bought American Motors Corporation (AMC) in 1987. During this time, Chrysler began designing the replacement for the then-new Dodge Dynasty, which was a mid-size car. Initial proposals bore resemblance to the Dynasty, but this design approach was scrapped entirely in 1988 by François Castaing, the former AMC Vice President of product engineering and development. As AMC was purchased by Chrysler, Castaing became new Vice President for Vehicle Engineering for the new company. The acquiring automaker was in desperate need of replicating the AMC and Renault corporate culture where work was conducted in an atmosphere "of constant change". Castaing organized Chrysler's departments into AMC-style cross-function teams, as well as incorporated the use of simultaneous engineering. Moreover, the new vehicle's design, under Castaing's leadership, began with the Eagle Premier platform.


title: Dodge Intrepid

text: The Premier's longitudinal engine mounting layout was inherited, as was the front suspension geometry, and parts of the braking system. The chassis itself became a flexible architecture capable of supporting front or rear-wheel drive (designated "LH" and "LX" respectively). The chassis design was continually refined throughout the following years, as it underpinned more Chrysler prototypes: the 1989 Chrysler Millennium and 1990 Eagle Optima.The transmission was inspired by the Premier's Audi and ZF automatics. Borrowing heavily from Chrysler's A604 (41TE) "Ultradrive" transversely mounted automatic, it became the A606 (also known as 42LE).The initial standard 3.3 L pushrod V6 engine was joined in 1990 with a 3.5 L SOHC engine with four valves per cylinder. For the second generation Intrepid R/T the block was recast in aluminum as part of a comprehensive upgrade.


title: Dodge Intrepid

text: The first generation of LH cars debuted at the 1992 North American International Auto Show in Detroit as three 1993 models: the Chrysler Concorde, Dodge Intrepid (badged as a Chrysler in Canada), and the Eagle Vision (also badged as a Chrysler in Europe).


title: Dodge Intrepid

text: The Intrepid was available in two trim levels: base and the sportier, better-equipped ES, which added four-wheel disc brakes, 16" wheels with better tires, and stiffer "touring" suspension damping. All Intrepids received driver and front passenger airbags, a rarity at the time, as well as air conditioning and the four-speed automatic transmission. Anti-lock brakes were optional, as was traction control and the more powerful 3.5 L SOHC engine rated at (214 hp).


title: Dodge Intrepid

text: The Intrepid's launch marked a new image for the Dodge brand, which began to market itself as "The New Dodge" with a marketing campaign featuring actor Edward Herrmann, who would go on to serve as the brand's spokesperson for the rest of the decade.


title: Dodge Intrepid

text: Changes were few over the Intrepid's initial five-year production. A new variable-assist power steering rack replaced the original for 1994, allowing for easier parking while maintaining a firmer feel at speed. The touring suspension tuning was also made standard equipment in the base model this year. Anti-lock brakes were made standard in the ES in 1995, and in 1996 a new manual shift function for the automatic transmission, called Autostick, was inherited from the Eagle Vision TSi: the first transmission of its kind available in a mainstream car. In addition, Chrysler updated the Dodge Intrepid for the 1995 model year, adding the previous Dodge Ram logo, which was used from 1994-2009. Each exterior treatment uses a hoodline and chrome accented daytime running lights with body colored accents. The Intrepid was often compared with the Chevrolet Lumina and Ford Taurus, and to a lesser extent, the Toyota Camry, Nissan Maxima, and Honda Accord.


title: Dodge Intrepid

text: Intrepids were built at American Motors' Brampton Assembly facility, originally established to manufacture the Eagle Premier, in Brampton, Ontario, Canada; and at the Chrysler plant at Newark, Delaware.


title: Dodge Intrepid

text: The LH cars were redesigned for the 1998 model year, with the 1998 Intrepid being designed by Robert Boniface and taking 31 months from design freeze to commencement. The engines were replaced by two new all-aluminum units: a DOHC 2.7 L ( 2736 cc), V6 for base models, and a SOHC 3.2 L (3231 cc), V6 for the ES. A new, top-of-the-line R/T model was added in 1999, the centerpiece of which was a redesigned version of the 3.5 L (3518 cc) V6, now producing and for the ES. At the same time the 3.2 L was reduced to an option in the ES. The Intrepid was completely redesigned for the 1998 model year, arriving in showrooms during late 1997. Body shells were designed to be stronger and stiffer, as well as incorporating double-shear suspension mounts and integrated side impact protection.


title: Dodge Intrepid

text: The second generation was marketed to the commercial and government markets, particularly the base (1998-2000) and SE (2001-2004) trim levels. An Intrepid Police Package was sold from 2003-2004, similar to the earlier rear-wheel drive Chevrolet Caprice or Ford Crown Victoria. These packages had distinctive styling differences (such as small hub caps) and additional wiring to support strobes and flashers in the trunk compartment and in the front by the grill. The 3.5 V6 found in the R/T & SXT was standard in the police package. These packages and some non-police (non-commercial) packages featured plastic front-end intake vents that routed air onto the rotors for additional cooling and stopping power.


title: Dodge Intrepid

text: In 2001, the Intrepid made its debut on the NASCAR circuit, signifying the return of Dodge to NASCAR competition after an 18-year hiatus. Drivers in the initial Dodge campaign included Bill Elliott, Kasey Kahne, Jason Leffler, Ward Burton, Sterling Marlin, John Andretti, Casey Mears, Jamie McMurray, Buckshot Jones, Kyle Petty, Stacy Compton, Dave Blaney, Jeremy Mayfield, and Casey Atwood. Marlin was the first to win in a Dodge, giving the marque its first victory since Neil Bonnett's 1977 win at Ontario. The Intrepid continued in NASCAR until 2005 when Dodge switched to the Charger.


title: Dodge Intrepid

text: In the late 1990s, Chrysler used the Intrepid as a research platform for a hybrid electric vehicle in a diesel-electric configuration. Three variations were built, the Intrepid ESX, ESX II, and ESX III. The first vehicle was built in a series hybrid configuration, while the next two were considered mild hybrids. These were attempted in the time frame of 1997 to 1998.


title: Dodge Intrepid

text: The ESX design team set a high goal of making the vehicle capable of sipping gasoline at the rate of , but the eventual vehicle only achieved an estimated . The figure was impressive for such a vehicle. However, the car used a number of exotic materials, which made the cost excessive if it were ever to go into full-scale production. It was estimated that the car would cost $80,000, or roughly $60,000 more than a regular Intrepid. Part of this price increase was caused by the use of lead-acid batteries.


title: Dodge Intrepid

text: The ESX II team set a somewhat more modest goal of . The vehicle was made much lighter than normal by using an aluminum frame and carbon fiber composite material. This version only cost around $37,000, or about $15,000 more than a standard Intrepid. This version used nickel metal hydride batteries.


title: Dodge Intrepid

text: The third vehicle, the ESX III, had a target mileage of . It used less expensive materials, such as injection-molded thermoplastic instead of carbon fiber. The estimated cost was only about $7,500 more than a standard vehicle, which would give a total somewhere around $30,000. The ESX III used lithium ion batteries.


title: Dodge Intrepid

text: The Intrepid and Concorde were on "Car and Driver" magazine's Ten Best list for 1993 and 1994. The second-generation Intrepid again made the list for 1998 and 1999. Both generations won Consumer Guide's "Best Buy" award.


title: Dodge Intrepid

text: Some second-generation 2.7 L V6 engines have suffered from failures due to oil sludge contamination. In February 2009, five separate class action lawsuits related to the alleged oil sludge defect were consolidated to the District of New Jersey. These problems happen when fine engine oil passages become clogged with sludge, and often result in catastrophic failure of the engine. An unknown number of Intrepid owners have been affected. Fixes include changing to synthetic oil, inspection, and even engine replacement. During the Chrysler bankruptcy proceedings, there was concern among consumer advocate groups that Chrysler's proposed "free and clear" sale of assets to "New Chrysler" would allow the automaker to avoid liability for the oil sludge defect.


title: Sex and the City (season 4)

text: The fourth season of the American television romantic comedy-drama "Sex and the City" aired in the United States on HBO. The show was created by Darren Star while Star, Michael Patrick King, John P. Melfi, series lead actress Sarah Jessica Parker, Cindy Chupack, and Jenny Bicks served as executive producers. The series was produced by Darren Star Productions, HBO Original Programming, and Warner Bros. Television. Sarah Jessica Parker portrays the lead character Carrie Bradshaw, while Kim Cattrall, Kristin Davis and Cynthia Nixon played her best friends Samantha Jones, Charlotte York, and Miranda Hobbes.


title: Sex and the City (season 4)

text: Season four marks dramatic changes in the ladies' lives. Carrie gets back together with Aidan (John Corbett), eventually gets engaged and has him move in with her. Miranda, while maintaining her single life, supports Steve (David Eigenberg) through cancer and, after a one-night stand with him, becomes pregnant. Samantha dates a Brazilian lesbian artist Maria (Sônia Braga) and starts a serious relationship with her client and hotelier Richard (James Remar). Charlotte gets back together with Trey (Kyle MacLachlan) after their separation and after deciding to have a baby, struggle to get pregnant and ultimately separate for good.


title: Sex and the City (season 4)

text: The 4th season, comprising 18 episodes, continued airing on Sunday nights at 9:00 PM during the summer months, but unlike the previous seasons, the first twelve episodes aired during the summer, starting from June 3, 2001 and the remaining six aired during January and February 2002, ending on February 10, 2002. In the United Kingdom, the season was broadcast on Wednesday nights at 10:00 PM, two episodes a night, between January 9 and March 6, 2002. The season continued the series' critical and award success, with the series winning 3 Emmy awards, 2 Golden Globe awards, and a SAG award. Season four also achieved high ratings in the United States and United Kingdom.


title: Sex and the City (season 4)

text: The fourth season was released on DVD as a three-disc boxed set titled "Sex and the City: The Complete Season 4" on May 20, 2003 by HBO Home Video.


title: Sex and the City (season 4)

text: The fourth season of "Sex and the City" was produced by Darren Star Productions and Warner Bros. Television, in association with HBO Original Programming. The series is based on the book of the same name, written by Candice Bushnell, which contains stories from her column with the "New York Observer". The show featured production from Antonia Ellis, Jane Raab and series star Sarah Jessica Parker, also an executive producer alongside Michael Patrick King, John Melfi, Cindy Chupack, and Jenny Bicks. Episodic writers return for the fourth season included Bicks, Chupack, Allan Heinberg, King, Julie Rottenberg, and Elisa Zuritsky. New writers enlisted for the season included Nicole Avril, Jessica Bendinger, and Amy B. Harris. The season was directed by returning directors Allen Coulter, King, Charles McDougall, Michael Spiller, and Alan Taylor. Directors new to the series included Martha Coolidge, Michael Engler, and David Frankel.


title: Sex and the City (season 4)

text: Like the previous seasons, season four features the same principal cast and characters. Sarah Jessica Parker portrays Carrie Bradshaw, a fashionable thirty-something woman who writes about sex and life in New York City in her column, "Sex and the City", with the fictional "New York Star". Kim Cattrall played the promiscuous public relations agent Samantha Jones. Kristin Davis portrayed Charlotte York MacDougal, an optimistic, strait-laced former art curator who remains the most traditional amongst her friends in terms of relationships and public decorum. Cynthia Nixon acted as the acerbic and sarcastic lawyer Miranda Hobbes, who holds a pessimistic view on relationships and men.


title: Sex and the City (season 4)

text: The fourth season featured a number of recurring and guest actors whose characters contributed significantly to the series plotlines. Chris Noth reprised his role as Mr. Big, a sly businessman who at this point remains friends with Carrie despite their previous romantic relationships. David Eigenberg portrayed Miranda's on-off boyfriend, bar owner and father of her child Steve Brady. Willie Garson played entertainment manager and Carrie's gay friend Stanford Blatch. Kyle MacLachlan appeared as Trey MacDougal, a doctor with Scottish ancestry and Charlotte's nearly impotent husband. John Corbett reprised his role as Aidan Shaw, a carpenter, bar owner and Carrie's boyfriend-turned-fiancé. Mario Cantone returns to the series as a recurring guest actor, portraying Charlotte's gay friend and former wedding planner Anthony Marantino. Sônia Braga joined the series as Maria Diega Reyes, an artist and Samantha's girlfriend. Frances Sternhagen reprised her role as Trey's overbearing and intrusive mother Bunny MacDougal; she received an Emmy nomination for her performance in the series. James Remar appeared in the fourth season as hotelier and Samantha's boyfriend Richard Wright. Lynn Cohen reprises her role as Magda, Miranda's foreign housekeeper.


title: Sex and the City (season 4)

text: "The Real Me" features cameo appearances from comedienne Margaret Cho, Alan Cumming, supermodel Heidi Klum, Ed Koch, Tony Hale, Kevyn Aucoin, Domenico Dolce, and Stefano Gabbana. Lucy Liu appeared as herself in the episode "Coulda, Woulda, Shoulda". In the episode "A 'Vogue' Idea", Candice Bergen portrayed Enid Mead, Carrie's publisher at "Vogue" magazine. Ron Rifkin played Carrie's boss Julian in the episode.


title: Sex and the City (season 4)

text: Season four of "Sex and the City" debuted on June 3, 2001 with the episodes "The Agony and the 'Ex'-tacy" and "The Real Me". The episodes were seen by 6.49 million people and 5.93 million people respectively. Viewership for the first twelve episodes of the season held above five million viewers, with a majority of them crossing 5.5 million viewers. Unlike the second and third seasons, season four aired twelve episodes in the summer and the remaining six in the winter to make room for the new miniseries "Band of Brothers". The remaining six episodes that aired in the winter set highs for the series, with the premiere episode "The Good Fight" attracting 7.30 million viewers and a 4.7 household rating, translating to 4.97 million households. Another reason for the split in season broadcast was the September 11, 2001 attacks on the World Trade Center in New York. It was deemed inappropriate to continue the Series' broadcast after the devastation in the same city the show was set, and would have seemed insensitive to the victims and families.


title: Sex and the City (season 4)

text: Terry Kelleher of "People Weekly" commended the series, noting that "hasn't yet passed its freshness date." Ken Tucker of "Entertainment Weekly" was less enthusiastic about the season, praising the second episode for its theme but deemed the series tame, adding that "once you’ve programmed raunch like ”G-String Divas,” randy sitcoms just seem…randy."


title: Sex and the City (season 4)

text: At the 59th Golden Globe Awards, the series won the award for Best Television Series – Musical or Comedy for the third consecutive year. Sarah Jessica Parker also won the award for Best Actress – Television Series Musical or Comedy for the third consecutive year. John Corbett was nominated for the award for Best Supporting Actor – Series, Miniseries or Television Film, but lost to Stanley Tucci. At the 8th Screen Actors Guild Awards, the award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series was awarded to the main cast for "Sex and the City". Parker and Kim Cattrall both received nominations for the award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Comedy Series.


title: Sex and the City (season 4)

text: At the 54th Primetime Emmy Awards, "Sex and the City" received ten nominations and won awards for Outstanding Casting for a Comedy Series, Outstanding Costumes for a Series for the episode "Defining Moments", and Outstanding Directing for a Comedy Series for the episode "The Real Me", which directed by Michael Patrick King. The series was also nominated for the award for Outstanding Comedy Series for the fourth time, but lost to "Friends". Parker was nominated for the award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series for the fourth time. Kim Cattrall and Cynthia Nixon were both nominated for an Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series Emmy for their respective portrays of Samantha Jones and Miranda Hobbes, being Cattrall's third nomination and Nixon's first.


title: Sex and the City (season 4)

text: Season four episodes "My Motherboard, My Self" and "Just Say Yes", written by Cindy Chupack and Julie Rottenberg & Elisa Zuritsky, were nominated for Best Writing - Episodic Comedy at the 2002 WGA Awards. Costume designer Patricia Field was nominated for the Costume Designers Guild Award for Best Costume Design – Contemporary TV Series. The Directors Guild of America nominated three episodes from season four - "Defining Moments" (directed by Allen Coulter), "My Motherboard, My Self" (directed by Michael Engler), and "The Real Me" (directed by Michael Patrick King) - for the award for Outstanding Directing – Comedy Series. At the 13th PGA Golden Laurel Awards, Cindy Chupack, Michael Patrick King, John P. Melfi and Sarah Jessica Parker were nominated for the award for Television Producer of the Year Award in Episodic - Comedy for their production work on the series.


title: Betsy Beers

text: Betsy Beers (born 1957) is an American television and film producer whose credits include ShondaLand's "Grey's Anatomy," "Scandal," "Private Practice", "How to Get Away with Murder", "The Catch", "Station 19", "For the People", and "Bridgerton".


title: Betsy Beers

text: Beers is a 1975 graduate of the Milton Academy. She went on to graduate from Williams College where she studied theater and English literature. Beers acted and performed comedy for several years in New York City before moving to Los Angeles to make the transition to producing.


title: Betsy Beers

text: While living in New York City, Beers was producer to the 1999 cult film 200 Cigarettes. The cult favorite had an all star cast that included Courtney Love, Guillermo Diaz, Martha Plimpton, Christina Ricci and Ben Affleck. 200 Cigarettes is also the first film to star Goldie Hawn's daughter, Kate Hudson (who played a very similar role to her real life mother).


title: Betsy Beers

text: Beers served as President of director Mike Newell’s Dogstar Films, where she produced the films "200 Cigarettes", starring Ben Affleck, Dave Chappelle, and Kate Hudson, and "Best Laid Plans", starring Reese Witherspoon. She also developed such films as "High Fidelity", directed by Stephen Frears and starring John Cusack, as well as "Pushing Tin", starring Billy Bob Thornton, Cate Blanchett, and Angelina Jolie. She also served as Executive Producer on the films "Safe Passage", starring Susan Sarandon, and "Witch Hunt", starring Dennis Hopper, with producer Gale Ann Hurd.


title: Betsy Beers

text: She then served as President of the Mark Gordon Company. While there, she oversaw the development and production of its feature film and television projects, including the development of "Grey's Anatomy". Additionally, Ms. Beers produced the feature films "The Hoax", starring Richard Gere, and "Casanova", starring Heath Ledger; both films were directed by Lasse Hallström.


title: Betsy Beers

text: In 2009, Beers partnered with Shonda Rhimes' production company ShondaLand to develop and produce additional feature film and television projects.


title: Betsy Beers

text: For her work on "Grey's Anatomy", Beers and her fellow producers were awarded the 2007 Producer of the Year Award from the Producers Guild of America, the 2007 Golden Globe Award for Best Television Series Drama, and received the 2006 and 2007 Emmy nominations for Outstanding Drama Series. Beers has been nominated three times by the Producers Guild of America for their Television Producer of the Year Award.


title: Betsy Beers

text: In 2014, "Scandal" was awarded the American Film Institute's Television Program of the Year Award. as well as a Peabody Award.


title: Kateřina Siniaková

text: Kateřina Siniaková (; ; born 10 May 1996) is a Czech professional tennis player who is the current world No. 1 in doubles.


title: Kateřina Siniaková

text: She is a six-time Grand Slam champion in doubles, having won the 2018 and 2021 French Opens, 2018 and 2022 Wimbledon Championships, 2022 Australian Open, and 2022 US Open, thus completing the career doubles Golden Slam, all partnering compatriot Barbora Krejčíková. The pair also finished runners-up at the 2018 WTA Finals, 2021 Australian Open, and 2022 WTA Finals, and Siniaková reached the final at the 2017 US Open with Lucie Hradecká. She became world No. 1 for the first time in October 2018, holding the top ranking for a total of 70 weeks, and has won 20 doubles titles on the WTA Tour, including the 2021 WTA Finals and two at WTA 1000 level.


title: Kateřina Siniaková

text: In singles, Siniaková reached her career-high ranking of world No. 31 in October 2018, and has won three WTA titles, at the Shenzhen Open and Swedish Open in 2017, and at the Slovenia Open in 2022. Her best major result was at the 2019 French Open, upsetting world No. 1 and reigning US and Australian Open champion Naomi Osaka en route to the fourth round; she has also reached the third round at seven other Grand Slam tournaments.


title: Kateřina Siniaková

text: Siniaková was part of the Czech team which won the 2018 Fed Cup, and also won doubles gold at the 2020 Tokyo Olympics alongside Krejčíková.


title: Kateřina Siniaková

text: Siniaková was born to a Czech mother Hana, an accountant, and Russian father Dmitry, a former boxer and her coach. Her younger brother Daniel (born 2003) is also a professional tennis player. Since the COVID-19 quarantine at the 2021 Australian Open, Siniaková has been dating fellow Czech tennis player Tomáš Macháč.


title: Kateřina Siniaková

text: She was ranked the world No. 2 junior tennis player in December 2012. With fellow Czech Barbora Krejčíková, she won the girls' doubles titles at the French Open, at Wimbledon and the US Open in 2013.


title: Kateřina Siniaková

text: She began playing on the ITF Women's Circuit in the Czech Republic in June 2012. There in a doubles competition, she won her first ITF title. She then made big progress in 2013. She started outside top 1000 in both singles and doubles, but finished year inside top 200 in singles and top 300 in doubles. In March 2013, she won her first ITF singles title at the $10k Frauenfeld, defeating Kathinka von Deichmann in the three sets. Two weeks later, Siniaková made her debut on the WTA Tour in the qualifying draw of Miami Open. She passed qualifying defeating Mandy Minella and Alexa Glatch, but then lost a three-set encounter with Garbiñe Muguruza in the first round of the main draw. In November 2013, she reached her first major ITF final at the $75k Sharm El Sheikh event in doubles, but lost alongside Anna Morgina.


title: Kateřina Siniaková

text: At the 2014 Australian Open, she made her Grand Slam debut after passing qualifications, but then lost to Zarina Diyas in the first round of the main draw. In July 2014, she won her first match on WTA Tour at the İstanbul Cup defeating Julia Glushko in the first round. Nearly after that, she reached her first WTA doubles final at the Silicon Valley Classic alongside Paula Kania, but they lost to Garbiñe Muguruza and Carla Suárez Navarro. She then went one step further, winning her first WTA doubles title at the Tashkent Open, partnering Aleksandra Krunić. Right after that she made her top 100 debut in doubles. In October 2014, she reached singles semifinals of the Premier-level Kremlin Cup. She lost her semifinal match against Anastasia Pavlyuchenkova. This brought her into the top 100 in singles, and a week later she won the titke at the $50k Open Nantes, defeating Ons Jabeur. She finished year with another title at the Open de Limoges, alongside Renata Voráčová.


title: Kateřina Siniaková

text: At the Australian Open, Siniaková had her first singles Grand Slam win, defeating Elena Vesnina in the first round. In the following round, she lost to Irina-Camelia Begu. In March 2015, she won her first WTA 1000 match at the Premier Mandatory-level Indian Wells Open, after defeating another Russian player, Evgeniya Rodina. In May 2015, she had good performances, reaching the singles semifinal and taking the doubles title with Belinda Bencic at the Prague Open. However, after a run to the third-round at the French Open alongside Belinda Bencic, she reached top 50. In June 2015, she reached the quarterfinal of the Premier-level Birmingham Classic. By the end of the year, she was standing out more in doubles, reaching final of the Tashkent Open and semifinal of the Premier-level Kremlin Cup.


title: Kateřina Siniaková

text: Siniaková started slowly into the 2016 season, but then shone at the French Open, where she reached semifinals in doubles alongside Barbora Krejčíková. Then, at 2016 Wimbledon, she reached her first singles Grand Slam third round, after defeating Pauline Parmentier and 30th seed Caroline Garcia before being defeated by former world No. 2, Agnieszka Radwańska. Things even got better in July 2016, when she reached her first singles WTA final in Båstad, at the Swedish Open. She lost the final to Laura Siegemund. But then she advanced to the doubles quarterfinals of the US Open, alongside Krejčíková. She followed this up with another singles WTA final at the Japan Open in Tokyo, but lost to Christina McHale. In late October, after a first-round loss at the Kremlin Cup, she made her top-50 debut in singles.


title: Kateřina Siniaková

text: Siniaková had a strong start to the 2017 season, winning her first WTA singles title at the Shenzhen Open. Siniaková began the tournament by defeating Peng Shuai in the first round in two sets, followed by a victory over world No. 4, Simona Halep in three sets, claiming her first win over a top-10 player. Her run continued by beating qualifier Nina Stojanović and world No. 9, Johanna Konta, in three sets. In the final, she defeated Alison Riske to take the title. She then struggled with results, not even reaching a quarterfinal until May 2017. However, during that period, she had success in doubles where she reached the final of the Premier-Mandatory Indian Wells Open and Premier-level Charleston Open alongside Lucie Hradecka. Then in May 2017, she reached the quarterfinal of the Prague Open in singles, as well as the final in doubles. She continued this form, with good results in doubles, reaching the quarterfinals of the Premier Mandatory Madrid Open and Premier 5 Italian Open with Hradecka. She then reached the doubles semifinal of the French Open for the second year in a row, alongside Lucie Hradecká.


title: Kateřina Siniaková

text: However, in singles, things still were not good until Swedish Open, where she reached her second final. A losing finalist in 2016, this time she succeeded in winning the title, after she defeated world No. 6 Caroline Wozniacki in the final. On her way to the title, she also defeated two top-20 players, Anastasija Sevastova and Caroline Garcia. She then continued struggling with results in singles, but made did make progress in doubles. At the US Open, she reached her first Grand Slam doubles final. Alongside Lucie Hradecká, they did not drop a singles set on their way to the final, but then lost to Latisha Chan and Martina Hingis. Later in the year, she reached the quarterfinal of the Premier-Mandatory China Open and semifinal of the Premier-level Kremlin Cup in doubles. As a result of that, she achieved No. 11 ranking in doubles and finished year as world No. 13 , while in singles she ended as world No. 49.


title: Kateřina Siniaková

text: Siniaková started year well, playing at the Shenzhen Open, where she reached the finals in both singles and doubles, but lost to Simona Halep in both. Her run to the singles final included a win over Maria Sharapova in the semifinals. She played in the doubles final alongside Barbora Krejčíková, but they lost to Halep and Irina-Camelia Begu. She then lost to Elina Svitolina in the first round match at the Australian Open, and in doubles reached the third round with Krejcikova. Siniaková then reached the quarterfinals in singles at the Premier-level St. Petersburg Trophy right after the Australian Open, and then in May, she reached the quarterfinal of the Prague Open and the semifinal of the Nuremberg Cup. During that period, things got better in doubles where she first reached the semifinals of the Premier 5 Qatar Open and then the final of the Premier Mandatory Miami Open.


title: Kateřina Siniaková

text: In the summer, she had her biggest success in doubles. Alongside Barbora Krejčíková, she won two Grand Slam titles at the French Open and Wimbledon, while in singles at both tournaments, she reached third rounds. Winning two slams back to back and winning the junior and senior grand slam titles at these two events was a great achievement for Siniaková and Krejcikova.