title: Kansas City Current

text: Huw Williams was relieved of duties as manager and replaced with Matt Potter for the 2022 season, but remained with the franchise as director of soccer operations until November 2022 when it was revealed he was confronted by the team's roster for disrespectful and inappropriate behavior. This came in light of the NWSL's league-wide Yates Report. In May 2022, the team hired Allison Howard as its first team president. Kansas City unveiled their new team branding as Kansas City Current for the 2022 season, and relocated their home matches to the nearby Children's Mercy Park, in Kansas City, Kansas. A team training facility opened in June 2021 and in 2022 the ownership group announced plans for their future stadium in downtown Kansas City, Missouri. The club made significant roster moves with the additions of Sam Mewis and Lynn Williams from the North Carolina Courage, and Claire Lavogez from Bordeaux. All three players would not finish the season on the roster due to season-ending injuries, the likes of which kept both Mewis and Williams from playing a single game in the regular season. The Current had a 13-match unbeaten streak in the middle of their 2022 campaign, propelling the team to their first playoff appearance in the 2022 NWSL Playoffs, and an eventual matchup against the Portland Thorns in the NWSL Championship. Portland would go on to defeat Kansas City 2–0 in the matchup.


title: Kansas City Current

text: Due to the short turnaround between the team's founding and the 2021 NWSL season, the ownership announced in January 2021 that the team would play its inaugural season under the temporary name Kansas City NWSL with temporary crest and colors; a full brand development process would take place so that a permanent team name, crest, and colors will be in place for the 2022 NWSL season.


title: Kansas City Current

text: On October 30, 2021, the team revealed its name as Kansas City Current with new crest for the 2022 season.


title: Kansas City Current

text: The club announced in September 2021 that it would host all home matches at Children's Mercy Park beginning with the 2022 season.


title: Kansas City Current

text: In October 2021, the club unveiled plans to construct the first purpose-built stadium for North American women's professional soccer. The 11,000-seat stadium is planned to be built in Kansas City, Missouri at the Richard L. Berkley Riverfront Park with a then-estimated cost of $70 million. The project would be entirely privately financed through the ownership group, with the team signing a 50-year lease for the site at which the stadium will be located. The costs increased to an estimated $117 million in May 2022, which the club's owners attributed to construction costs and a redesign increasing the stadium's capacity to 11,500. Angie and Chris Long requested $6 million in tax credits from the state of Missouri to supplement their private funding, in part because the lease agreement prohibited them from pursuing any local tax incentives. The stadium is expected to be completed by 2024.


title: Kansas City Current

text: The Blue Crew, a supporters group of the defunct FC Kansas City, has continued to support the new NWSL team in Kansas City.


title: Kansas City Current

text: On June 13, 2021, CBS affiliate KCTV agreed on a multi-year deal to become the official local television partner through the 2023 season. The station and its MyNetworkTV affiliate KSMO-TV will broadcast eight matches locally in the club's inaugural season. Brad Porter will serve as the play-by-play commentator, joined by Aly Trost as the color analyst.


title: Kansas City Current

text: The Current founded an affiliated reserves team in the amateur Women's Premier Soccer League (WPSL) in 2022.


title: Kansas City Current

text: The team finished its first regular season atop the WPSL's Heartland Division with an 8–0–0 record, +49 goal differential on 47 total goals scored (including an opponent's forfeit), second-most in the league. In postseason play, the Current II defeated FC Milwaukee Torrent 7–0 on July 7, 2022, and then defeated Indios Denver FC 6–1 on July 16, before falling to Colorado Rapids Women 3–2 in the Central Region finals on July 17.


title: Kansas City Current

text: Only competitive matches are counted. Includes NWSL regular season, playoffs, and Challenge Cup matches.


title: Next Level Games

text: Next Level Games, Inc. is a Canadian video game developer owned by Nintendo based in Vancouver, British Columbia. Founded in August 2002, Next Level Games specializes in creating console video games. Their first project was "NHL Hitz Pro", which was published by Midway Games in 2003. The company is best known for its work with Nintendo, the "Mario Strikers" games and "Punch-Out!!" for the Wii, "" and "" for the Nintendo 3DS, and "Luigi's Mansion 3" for the Nintendo Switch.


title: Next Level Games

text: Among other awards, Next Level Games has been named one of "Canada's Top 100 Employers" and one of BC's Top Employers in 2008, 2009 and 2012. The company has been featured in "Maclean's" magazine and "BC Business" magazine.


title: Next Level Games

text: On January 9, 2014, the studio announced that it would work exclusively with Nintendo from then on. On January 4, 2021, Nintendo announced that it had purchased Next Level Games after "A number of owner-directors recently determined that the time is right for them to sell their shares, and NLG therefore began exploring potential sale transactions". This acquisition took place on March 1.


title: Police in a Pod

text: As of August 2021, the manga had over 2.3 million copies in circulation. "Police in a Pod" won the 66th Shogakukan Manga Award in the general category in 2021 and the 45th Kodansha Manga Award in the same category in 2022.


title: Police in a Pod

text: Mai Kawai is a new police officer who only decided to take the job due to a desire to have a stable income. Having become dissatisfied with her career path, she decides to resign from the police force. On the day she planned to tender her resignation, she meets Seiko Fuji, who had been reassigned to serve as the director of her station. Fuji's dedication to the police force becomes an inspiration to Kawai, who decides to delay her resignation. The series follows the two and other members of the police forms solving crimes in their local area.


title: Police in a Pod

text: Written and illustrated by , "Police in a Pod" has been serialized in Kodansha's "seinen" manga magazine "Morning" since November 22, 2017. The series finished its first part on June 16, 2022, and Yasu put the manga on hiatus to work on a new manga series. Kodansha has collected its chapters into individual "tankōbon" volumes. The first volume was released on April 23, 2018. As of June 22, 2022, twenty-one volumes have been released.


title: Police in a Pod

text: The series is licensed in English digitally by Kodansha USA. The first volume was released on June 8, 2021. As of June 14, 2022, thirteen volumes have been released.


title: Police in a Pod

text: A Japanese television drama adaptation aired for nine episodes on Nippon TV from July 7 to September 15, 2021. Two special episodes aired on August 4 and August 11, 2021. RöE performed the opening "YY", and milet performed the ending theme "Ordinary Days".


title: Police in a Pod

text: An anime television series adaptation was announced on August 1, 2021. The series is animated by Madhouse and directed by Yuzo Sato, with Ryunosuke Kingetsu overseeing the scripts, Kei Tsuchiya designing the characters, and Nobuaki Nobusawa composing the music. It aired from January 5 to March 30, 2022 on AT-X and other networks. Riko Azuna performed the opening theme "Shiranakya" (I Gotta Know), while Nonoc performed the ending theme "Change". Funimation licensed the series outside of Asia. Muse Communication licensed the series in South and Southeast Asia.


title: Police in a Pod

text: As of August 2021, "Police in a Pod" had over 2.3 million copies in circulation. It was one of the Jury Recommended Works at the 22nd Japan Media Arts Festival in 2019. "Police in a Pod" won the Mandō Kobayashi Manga Grand Prix 2019, created by comedian and manga enthusiast Kendo Kobayashi. In 2021, along with "Dead Dead Demon's Dededede Destruction", the series won the 66th Shogakukan Manga Award in the general category. The manga was nominated for the 45th Kodansha Manga Award in the general category in 2021; it won the 46th edition in the same category in 2022. The series ranked #23 on the 2021 "Book of the Year" list by "Da Vinci" magazine; it ranked #13 on the 2022 list.


title: Light-dependent reactions

text: Light-dependent reactions is jargon for certain photochemical reactions that are involved in photosynthesis, the main process by which plants acquire energy. There are two light dependent reactions, the first occurs at photosystem II (PSII) and the second occurs at photosystem I (PSI),


title: Light-dependent reactions

text: PSII absorbs a photon to produce a so-called high energy electron which transfers via an electron transport chain to cytochrome "bf" and then to PSI. The then-reduced PSI, absorbs another photon producing a more highly reducing electron, which converts NADP to NADPH. In oxygenic photosynthesis, the first electron donor is water, creating oxygen (O) as a by-product. In anoxygenic photosynthesis various electron donors are used.


title: Light-dependent reactions

text: Cytochrome "bf" and ATP synthase work together to produce ATP (photophosphorylation) in two distinct ways. In non-cyclic photophosphorylation, cytochrome "bf" uses electrons from PSII and energy from PSI to pump protons from the stroma to the lumen. The resulting proton gradient across the thylakoid membrane creates a proton-motive force, used by ATP synthase to form ATP. In cyclic photophosphorylation, cytochrome "bf" uses electrons and energy from PSI to create more ATP and to stop the production of NADPH. Cyclic phosphorylation is important to create ATP and maintain NADPH in the right proportion for the light-independent reactions.


title: Light-dependent reactions

text: PSI and PSII are light-harvesting complexes. If a special pigment molecule in a photosynthetic reaction center absorbs a photon, an electron in this pigment attains the excited state and then is transferred to another molecule in the reaction center. This reaction, called photoinduced charge separation, is the start of the electron flow and transforms light energy into chemical forms.


title: Light-dependent reactions

text: In chemistry, many reactions depend on the absorption of photons to provide the energy needed to overcome the activation energy barrier and hence can be labelled light-dependent. Such reactions range from the silver halide reactions used in photographic film to the creation and destruction of ozone in the upper atmosphere. This article discusses a specific subset of these, the series of light-dependent reactions related to photosynthesis in living organisms.


title: Light-dependent reactions

text: The reaction center is in the thylakoid membrane. It transfers absorbed light energy to a dimer of chlorophyll pigment molecules near the periplasmic (or thylakoid lumen) side of the membrane. This dimer is called a special pair because of its fundamental role in photosynthesis. This special pair is slightly different in PSI and PSII reaction centers. In PSII, it absorbs photons with a wavelength of 680 nm, and is therefore called P680. In PSI, it absorbs photons at 700 nm and is called P700. In bacteria, the special pair is called P760, P840, P870, or P960. "P" here means pigment, and the number following it is the wavelength of light absorbed.


title: Light-dependent reactions

text: Electrons in pigment molecules can exist at specific energy levels. Under normal circumstances, they are at the lowest possible energy level, the ground state. However, absorption of light of the right photon energy can lift them to a higher energy level. Any light that has too little or too much energy cannot be absorbed and is reflected. The electron in the higher energy level is unstable and will quickly return to its normal lower energy level. To do this, it must release the absorbed energy. This can happen in various ways. The extra energy can be converted into molecular motion and lost as heat, or re-emitted by the electron as light (fluorescence). The energy, but not the electron itself, may be passed onto another molecule; this is called resonance energy transfer. If an electron of the special pair in the reaction center becomes excited, it cannot transfer this energy to another pigment using resonance energy transfer. Under normal circumstances, the electron would return to the ground state, but because the reaction center is arranged so that a suitable electron acceptor is nearby, the excited electron is taken up by the acceptor. The loss of the electron gives the special pair a positive charge and, as an ionization process, further boosts its energy. The formation of a positive charge on the special pair and a negative charge on the acceptor is referred to as photoinduced charge separation. The electron can be transferred to another molecule. As the ionized pigment returns to the ground state, it takes up an electron and gives off energy to the oxygen evolving complex so it can split water into electrons, protons, and molecular oxygen (after receiving energy from the pigment four times). Plant pigments usually utilize the last two of these reactions to convert the sun's energy into their own.


title: Light-dependent reactions

text: This initial charge separation occurs in less than 10 picoseconds (10 seconds). In their high-energy states, the special pigment and the acceptor could undergo charge recombination; that is, the electron on the acceptor could move back to neutralize the positive charge on the special pair. Its return to the special pair would waste a valuable high-energy electron and simply convert the absorbed light energy into heat. In the case of PSII, this backflow of electrons can produce reactive oxygen species leading to photoinhibition. Three factors in the structure of the reaction center work together to suppress charge recombination nearly completely:


title: Light-dependent reactions

text: Thus, electron transfer proceeds efficiently from the first electron acceptor to the next, creating an electron transport chain that ends when it has reached NADPH.


title: Light-dependent reactions

text: The photosynthesis process in chloroplasts begins when an electron of P680 of PSII attains a higher-energy level. This energy is used to reduce a chain of electron acceptors that have subsequently higher redox potentials. This chain of electron acceptors is known as an electron transport chain. When this chain reaches PSI, an electron is again excited, creating a high redox-potential. The electron transport chain of photosynthesis is often put in a diagram called the Z-scheme, because the redox diagram from P680 to P700 resembles the letter Z.


title: Light-dependent reactions

text: The final product of PSII is plastoquinol, a mobile electron carrier in the membrane. Plastoquinol transfers the electron from PSII to the proton pump, cytochrome b6f. The ultimate electron donor of PSII is water. Cytochrome bf transfers the electron chain to PSI through plastocyanin molecules. PSI can continue the electron transfer in two different ways. It can transfer the electrons either to plastoquinol again, creating a cyclic electron flow, or to an enzyme called FNR (Ferredoxin—NADP(+) reductase), creating a non-cyclic electron flow. PSI releases FNR into the stroma, where it reduces to NADPH.


title: Light-dependent reactions

text: Activities of the electron transport chain, especially from cytochrome "bf", lead to pumping of protons from the stroma to the lumen. The resulting transmembrane proton gradient is used to make ATP via ATP synthase.


title: Light-dependent reactions

text: PSII is extremely complex, a highly organized transmembrane structure that contains a "water splitting complex", chlorophylls and carotenoid pigments, a "reaction center" (P680), pheophytin (a pigment similar to chlorophyll), and two quinones. It uses the energy of sunlight to transfer electrons from water to a mobile electron carrier in the membrane called "plastoquinone":


title: Light-dependent reactions

text: The step → P680 is performed by an imperfectly understood structure embedded within PSII called the "water-splitting complex" or "oxygen-evolving complex" "(OEC)". It catalyzes a reaction that splits water into electrons, protons and oxygen,


title: Light-dependent reactions

text: using energy from P680. The actual steps of the above reaction possibly occur in the following way (Kok's diagram of S-states):


title: Light-dependent reactions

text: The electrons are transferred to special chlorophyll molecules (embedded in PSII) that are promoted to a higher-energy state by the energy of photons.


title: Light-dependent reactions

text: The excitation P680 → P680 of the reaction center pigment P680 occurs here. These special chlorophyll molecules embedded in PSII absorb the energy of photons, with maximal absorption at 680 nm. Electrons within these molecules are promoted to a higher-energy state. This is one of two core processes in photosynthesis, and it occurs with astonishing efficiency (greater than 90%) because, in addition to direct excitation by light at 680 nm, the energy of light first harvested by "antenna proteins" at other wavelengths in the light-harvesting system is also transferred to these special chlorophyll molecules.


title: Light-dependent reactions

text: This is followed by the electron transfer P680→ pheophytin, and then on to plastoquinol, which occurs within the reaction center of PSII. The electrons are transferred to plastoquinone and two protons, generating plastoquinol, which released into the membrane as a mobile electron carrier. This is the second core process in photosynthesis. The initial stages occur within "picoseconds", with an efficiency of 100%. The seemingly impossible efficiency is due to the precise positioning of molecules within the reaction center. This is a solid-state process, not a typical chemical reaction. It occurs within an essentially crystalline environment created by the macromolecular structure of PSII. The usual rules of chemistry (which involve random collisions and random energy distributions) do not apply in solid-state environments.


title: Light-dependent reactions

text: When the excited chlorophyll P passes the electron to pheophytin, it converts to high-energy P, which can oxidize the tyrosine (or Y) molecule by ripping off one of its hydrogen atoms. The high-energy oxidized tyrosine gives off its energy and returns to the ground state by taking up a proton and removing an electron from the oxygen-evolving complex and ultimately from water. Kok's S-state diagram shows the reactions of water splitting in the oxygen-evolving complex.


title: Light-dependent reactions

text: PSII is a transmembrane structure found in all chloroplasts. It splits water into electrons, protons and molecular oxygen. The electrons are transferred to plastoquinol, which carries them to a proton pump. The oxygen is released into the atmosphere.


title: Light-dependent reactions

text: The emergence of such an incredibly complex structure, a macromolecule that converts the energy of sunlight into chemical energy and thus potentially useful work with efficiencies that are impossible in ordinary experience, seems almost magical at first glance. Thus, it is of considerable interest that, in essence, the same structure is found in purple bacteria.


title: Light-dependent reactions

text: PSII and PSI are connected by a transmembrane proton pump, cytochrome "bf" complex (plastoquinol—plastocyanin reductase; ). Electrons from PSII are carried by plastoquinol to cyt "bf", where they are removed in a stepwise fashion (re-forming plastoquinone) and transferred to a water-soluble electron carrier called "plastocyanin". This redox process is coupled to the pumping of four protons across the membrane. The resulting proton gradient (together with the proton gradient produced by the water-splitting complex in PSI) is used to make ATP via ATP synthase.


title: Light-dependent reactions

text: The structure and function of cytochrome "bf" (in chloroplasts) is very similar to cytochrome "bc" ("Complex III" in mitochondria). Both are transmembrane structures that remove electrons from a mobile, lipid-soluble electron carrier (plastoquinone in chloroplasts; ubiquinone in mitochondria) and transfer them to a mobile, water-soluble electron carrier (plastocyanin in chloroplasts; cytochrome "c" in mitochondria). Both are proton pumps that produce a transmembrane proton gradient. In fact, cytochrome b and subunit IV are homologous to mitochondrial cytochrome b and the Rieske iron-sulfur proteins of the two complexes are homologous. However, cytochrome f and cytochrome c are not homologous.


title: Light-dependent reactions

text: PSI accepts electrons from plastocyanin and transfers them either to NADPH ("noncyclic electron transport") or back to cytochrome "bf" ("cyclic electron transport"):


title: Light-dependent reactions

text: PSI, like PSII, is a complex, highly organized transmembrane structure that contains antenna chlorophylls, a reaction center (P700), phylloquinone, and a number of iron-sulfur proteins that serve as intermediate redox carriers.


title: Light-dependent reactions

text: The light-harvesting system of PSI uses multiple copies of the same transmembrane proteins used by PSII. The energy of absorbed light (in the form of delocalized, high-energy electrons) is funneled into the reaction center, where it excites special chlorophyll molecules (P700, with maximum light absorption at 700 nm) to a higher energy level. The process occurs with astonishingly high efficiency.


title: Light-dependent reactions

text: Electrons are removed from excited chlorophyll molecules and transferred through a series of intermediate carriers to "ferredoxin", a water-soluble electron carrier. As in PSII, this is a solid-state process that operates with 100% efficiency.


title: Light-dependent reactions

text: There are two different pathways of electron transport in PSI. In "noncyclic electron transport", ferredoxin carries the electron to the enzyme ferredoxin reductase (FNR) that reduces to NADPH. In "cyclic electron transport", electrons from ferredoxin are transferred (via plastoquinol) to a proton pump, cytochrome "bf". They are then returned (via plastocyanin) to P700. NADPH and ATP are used to synthesize organic molecules from . The ratio of NADPH to ATP production can be adjusted by adjusting the balance between cyclic and noncyclic electron transport.


title: Light-dependent reactions

text: It is noteworthy that PSI closely resembles photosynthetic structures found in green sulfur bacteria, just as PSII resembles structures found in purple bacteria.


title: Light-dependent reactions

text: PSII, PSI, and cytochrome "bf" are found in chloroplasts. All plants and all photosynthetic algae contain chloroplasts, which produce NADPH and ATP by the mechanisms described above. In essence, the same transmembrane structures are also found in "cyanobacteria".


title: Light-dependent reactions

text: Unlike plants and algae, cyanobacteria are prokaryotes. They do not contain chloroplasts; rather, they bear a striking resemblance to chloroplasts themselves. This suggests that organisms resembling cyanobacteria were the evolutionary precursors of chloroplasts. One imagines primitive eukaryotic cells taking up cyanobacteria as intracellular symbionts in a process known as endosymbiosis.


title: Light-dependent reactions

text: Cyanobacteria contain both PSI and PSII. Their light-harvesting system is different from that found in plants (they use "phycobilins", rather than chlorophylls, as antenna pigments), but their electron transport chain


title: Light-dependent reactions

text: is, in essence, the same as the electron transport chain in chloroplasts. The mobile water-soluble electron carrier is cytochrome "c" in cyanobacteria, having been replaced by plastocyanin in plants.


title: Light-dependent reactions

text: Cyanobacteria can also synthesize ATP by oxidative phosphorylation, in the manner of other bacteria. The electron transport chain is


title: Light-dependent reactions

text: where the mobile electron carriers are plastoquinol and cytochrome "c", while the proton pumps are NADH dehydrogenase, cyt "bf" and cytochrome "aa" (member of the COX3 family).


title: Light-dependent reactions

text: Cyanobacteria are the only bacteria that produce oxygen during photosynthesis. Earth's primordial atmosphere was anoxic. Organisms like cyanobacteria produced our present-day oxygen-containing atmosphere.


title: Light-dependent reactions

text: The other two major groups of photosynthetic bacteria, purple bacteria and green sulfur bacteria, contain only a single photosystem and do not produce oxygen.


title: Light-dependent reactions

text: Purple bacteria contain a single photosystem that is structurally related to PSII in cyanobacteria and chloroplasts:


title: Light-dependent reactions

text: This is a "cyclic" process in which electrons are removed from an excited chlorophyll molecule ("bacteriochlorophyll"; P870), passed through an electron transport chain to a proton pump (cytochrome "bc" complex; similar to the chloroplastic one), and then returned to the chlorophyll molecule. The result is a proton gradient that is used to make ATP via ATP synthase. As in cyanobacteria and chloroplasts, this is a solid-state process that depends on the precise orientation of various functional groups within a complex transmembrane macromolecular structure.


title: Light-dependent reactions

text: To make NADPH, purple bacteria use an external electron donor (hydrogen, hydrogen sulfide, sulfur, sulfite, or organic molecules such as succinate and lactate) to feed electrons into a reverse electron transport chain.


title: Light-dependent reactions

text: There are two pathways of electron transfer. In "cyclic electron transfer", electrons are removed from an excited chlorophyll molecule, passed through an electron transport chain to a proton pump, and then returned to the chlorophyll. The mobile electron carriers are, as usual, a lipid-soluble quinone and a water-soluble cytochrome. The resulting proton gradient is used to make ATP.


title: Light-dependent reactions

text: In "noncyclic electron transfer", electrons are removed from an excited chlorophyll molecule and used to reduce NAD to NADH. The electrons removed from P840 must be replaced. This is accomplished by removing electrons from , which is oxidized to sulfur (hence the name "green "sulfur" bacteria").


title: Light-dependent reactions

text: Purple bacteria and green sulfur bacteria occupy relatively minor ecological niches in the present day biosphere. They are of interest because of their importance in precambrian ecologies, and because their methods of photosynthesis were the likely evolutionary precursors of those in modern plants.


title: Light-dependent reactions

text: The first ideas about light being used in photosynthesis were proposed by Colin Flannery in 1779 who recognized it was sunlight falling on plants that was required, although Joseph Priestley had noted the production of oxygen without the association with light in 1772. Cornelis Van Niel proposed in 1931 that photosynthesis is a case of general mechanism where a photon of light is used to photo decompose a hydrogen donor and the hydrogen being used to reduce .


title: Light-dependent reactions

text: Then in 1939, Robin Hill demonstrated that isolated chloroplasts would make oxygen, but not fix , showing the light and dark reactions occurred in different places. Although they are referred to as light and dark reactions, both of them take place only in the presence of light. This led later to the discovery of photosystems I and II.


title: Magnetic dipole

text: In electromagnetism, a magnetic dipole is the limit of either a closed loop of electric current or a pair of poles as the size of the source is reduced to zero while keeping the magnetic moment constant. It is a magnetic analogue of the electric dipole, but the analogy is not perfect. In particular, a true magnetic monopole, the magnetic analogue of an electric charge, has never been observed in nature. However, magnetic monopole quasiparticles have been observed as emergent properties of certain condensed matter systems. Moreover, one form of magnetic dipole moment is associated with a fundamental quantum property—the spin of elementary particles.


title: Magnetic dipole

text: Because magnetic monopoles do not exist, the magnetic field at a large distance from any static magnetic source looks like the field of a dipole with the same dipole moment. For higher-order sources (e.g. quadrupoles) with no dipole moment, their field decays towards zero with distance faster than a dipole field does.


title: Magnetic dipole

text: In classical physics, the magnetic field of a dipole is calculated as the limit of either a current loop or a pair of charges as the source shrinks to a point while keeping the magnetic moment constant. For the current loop, this limit is most easily derived from the vector potential:


title: Magnetic dipole

text: In spherical coordinates, with formula_5, and with the magnetic moment aligned with the z-axis, then the field strength can more simply be expressed as


title: Magnetic dipole

text: The two models for a dipole (current loop and magnetic poles), give the same predictions for the magnetic field far from the source. However, inside the source region they give different predictions. The magnetic field between poles is in the opposite direction to the magnetic moment (which points from the negative charge to the positive charge), while inside a current loop it is in the same direction (see the figure to the right). Clearly, the limits of these fields must also be different as the sources shrink to zero size. This distinction only matters if the dipole limit is used to calculate fields inside a magnetic material.


title: Magnetic dipole

text: If a magnetic dipole is formed by making a current loop smaller and smaller, but keeping the product of current and area constant, the limiting field is


title: Magnetic dipole

text: where is the Dirac delta function in three dimensions. Unlike the expressions in the previous section, this limit is correct for the internal field of the dipole.


title: Magnetic dipole

text: If a magnetic dipole is formed by taking a "north pole" and a "south pole", bringing them closer and closer together but keeping the product of magnetic pole-charge and distance constant, the limiting field is


title: Magnetic dipole

text: The force exerted by one dipole moment on another separated in space by a vector can be calculated using:


title: Magnetic dipole

text: The magnetic scalar potential produced by a finite source, but external to it, can be represented by a multipole expansion. Each term in the expansion is associated with a characteristic moment and a potential having a characteristic rate of decrease with distance from the source. Monopole moments have a rate of decrease, dipole moments have a rate, quadrupole moments have a rate, and so on. The higher the order, the faster the potential drops off. Since the lowest-order term observed in magnetic sources is the dipolar term, it dominates at large distances. Therefore, at large distances any magnetic source looks like a dipole of the same magnetic moment.


title: Emperor Xian of Han

text: Emperor Xian of Han (2 April 181 – 21 April 234), personal name Liu Xie (劉協), courtesy name Bohe, was the 14th and last emperor of the Eastern Han dynasty in China. He reigned from 28 September 189 until 11 December 220.


title: Emperor Xian of Han

text: Liu Xie was a son of Liu Hong (Emperor Ling) and was a younger half-brother of his predecessor, Liu Bian (Emperor Shao). In 189, at the age of eight, he became emperor after the warlord Dong Zhuo, who had seized control of the Han central government, deposed Emperor Shao and replaced him with Liu Xie. The newly enthroned Liu Xie, historically known as Emperor Xian, was in fact a puppet ruler under Dong Zhuo's control. In 190, when a coalition of regional warlords launched a punitive campaign against Dong Zhuo in the name of freeing Emperor Xian, Dong Zhuo ordered the destruction of the imperial capital, Luoyang, and forcefully relocated the imperial capital along with its residents to Chang'an. After Dong Zhuo's assassination in 192, Emperor Xian fell under the control of Li Jue and Guo Si, two former subordinates of Dong Zhuo. The various regional warlords formally acknowledged Emperor Xian's legitimacy but never took action to save him from being held hostage.


title: Emperor Xian of Han

text: In 195, Emperor Xian managed to escape from Chang'an and return to the ruins of Luoyang during a feud between Li Jue and Guo Si, where he soon became stranded. A year later, the warlord Cao Cao led his forces into Luoyang, received Emperor Xian, took him under his protection, and escorted him to Xu, where the new imperial capital was established. Although Cao Cao paid nominal allegiance to Emperor Xian, he was actually the "de facto" head of the central government. He skillfully used Emperor Xian as a "trump card" to bolster his legitimacy when he attacked and eliminated rival warlords in his quest to reunify the Han Empire under the central government's rule. Cao Cao's success seemed inevitable until the winter of 208–209, when he lost the decisive Battle of Red Cliffs against the southern warlords Sun Quan and Liu Bei. The battle paved the way for the subsequent emergence of the Three Kingdoms of Wei, Shu, and Wu.


title: Emperor Xian of Han

text: In late 220, some months after Cao Cao's death, Cao Cao's successor, Cao Pi, forced Emperor Xian to abdicate the throne to him. He then established the state of Cao Wei with himself as the new emperor – an event marking the formal end of the Han dynasty and the beginning of the Three Kingdoms period in China. The dethroned Emperor Xian received the noble title Duke of Shanyang () from Cao Pi and spent the rest of his life in comfort and enjoyed preferential treatment. He died on 21 April 234, about 14 years after the fall of the Han dynasty.


title: Emperor Xian of Han

text: Liu Xie was born in 181 to Emperor Ling and his Consort Wang. During her pregnancy, Consort Wang, fearful of Emperor Ling's Empress He, had taken drugs that were intended to induce an abortion, but was not successful in her attempt. Soon after she gave birth to Liu Xie, the jealous Empress He poisoned her by putting poison in her food. Emperor Ling was enraged and wanted to depose her, but the eunuchs pleaded on her behalf, and she was not deposed. Liu Xie was raised personally by Emperor Ling's mother Empress Dowager Dong and known by the circumspect title "Marquis Dong". (This is due to superstition; Emperor Ling had lost a number of sons previously, and therefore both Liu Xie and his elder brother Liu Bian were known by such titles; Liu Bian, having been raised by Shi Zimiao (), was known as "Marquis Shi"). Liu Bian was born of the empress and was older, but Emperor Ling viewed his behaviour as being insufficiently solemn and therefore considered appointing Liu Xie as his crown prince, but hesitated and could not decide.


title: Emperor Xian of Han

text: When Emperor Ling died in 189, an influential eunuch official whom he trusted, Jian Shuo, wanted to first kill Empress He's brother, General-in-Chief He Jin, and then install Liu Xie on the throne, and therefore set up a trap at a meeting he was to have with He Jin. He Jin found out, and preemptively declared Liu Bian the new emperor. Later that year, Emperor Shao granted Liu Xie the title "Prince of Bohai" () and later changed his title to "Prince of Chenliu" ().


title: Emperor Xian of Han

text: After Liu Bian became emperor, He Jin became the most powerful official in the imperial court, and he and his advisor Yuan Shao quickly entered into a conspiracy to exterminate the eunuchs. They were, however, rebuffed by Empress Dowager He, and they hatched the plan to secretly order a number of warlords to advance on the capital Luoyang to force Empress Dowager He to agree to their demands. One of these warlords was Dong Zhuo, who saw this as an opportunity to control the central government.


title: Emperor Xian of Han

text: He Jin's plan was discovered by the eunuchs, who laid a trap for him and killed him. Yuan Shao then led his forces into the palace and killed the majority of the eunuchs. The remaining eunuchs initially took the young emperor and Liu Xie hostage, but were eventually forced to commit suicide when the battle turned against them. When Dong Zhuo then arrived on scene, he, impressed with his own power and unimpressed with the nervous Emperor Shao, forced the young emperor to yield the throne to Liu Xie (partly because he was raised by Empress Dowager Dong who, while not related to Dong Zhuo, was therefore respected by Dong Zhuo), who then ascended the throne as Emperor Xian. Dong Zhuo then murdered Empress Dowager He and the former Emperor Shao, and became firmly in control of the political scene.


title: Emperor Xian of Han

text: In the spring of 190, a number of local officials, loosely forming a coalition led by Yuan Shao, quickly rose up against Dong Zhuo. Even though they still feared Dong Zhuo's military power and did not directly advance on Luoyang, Dong Zhuo was also fearful of their collective strength, and therefore determined to move the capital west to the old Han capital Chang'an, closer to his power base in Liang Province (涼州; covering present-day Gansu). On 9 April 190, he forced Emperor Xian to relocate to Chang'an and set fire to Luoyang, leaving it largely in ruins.


title: Emperor Xian of Han

text: After the revolting coalition collapsed, a number of officials, led by Wang Yun and Lü Bu, assassinated Dong on 22 May 192. For a while, it appeared that the Han regime might return to normal, as Wang Yun quickly established relatively friendly relations with the local officials resisting Dong but by this time acting more as local warlords. However, due to Wang Yun's failure to pacify Dong Zhuo's former subordinates, they rose in revolt and killed Wang.


title: Emperor Xian of Han

text: Dong Zhuo's former subordinates, led by Li Jue and Guo Si, took Emperor Xian and the imperial court under their control. However, Li Jue and Guo Si did not have serious ambitions, and their incompetence in governance furthered the breakdown of the Han Empire into warlord regimes. In 195, Li Jue and Guo Si had a major fallout, and Li took Emperor Xian hostage while Guo took the officials hostage as they battled. Later in the year, after peace talks between Li Jue and Guo Si, they agreed to allow Emperor Xian to return to Luoyang, but as soon as Emperor Xian departed Chang'an, they regretted their decision and chased him with their troops. While they were never able to capture him, Emperor Xian's court was rendered poor and unable to fend for itself, and once it returned to Luoyang, it lacked even the basic essentials of life. Many officials starved to death. At this time, Yuan Shao's strategist Ju Shou suggested that he welcome Emperor Xian to his base in Ji Province so that he could effectively be in control of the central government, but the other strategists Guo Tu and Chunyu Qiong opposed – under the faulty logic that if he did, he would have to yield to Emperor Xian on key decisions. Yuan Shao listened to Guo Tu and Chunyu Qiong and never again considered welcoming Emperor Xian.


title: Emperor Xian of Han

text: What Yuan Shao would not do, Cao Cao did. Cao Cao was at this time a relatively minor warlord, as the governor of Yan Province (covering present-day western Shandong and eastern Henan), with his headquarters at Xu (present-day Xuchang, Henan). He saw the strategic advantage in having the emperor under his control and protection, and in 196 he marched west to Luoyang and, after securing an agreement with Emperor Xian's generals Dong Cheng and Yang Feng, convincing them of his loyalty, he entered Luoyang and technically shared power with Dong and Yang, but was in fact in command.


title: Emperor Xian of Han

text: Unlike the situation with Dong Zhuo, though, Cao Cao knew how to assuage the other generals and nobles, and while he gave them little power, he made sure that they remained honoured, so minimal opposition against him developed at the imperial court. He then moved the capital to Xu to affirm his control over the central government, and when Yang Feng opposed him, he defeated Yang and was able to move the capital.


title: Emperor Xian of Han

text: Cao Cao then began to issue imperial edicts in Emperor Xian's name – including a harshly-worded edict condemning Yuan Shao for taking over nearby provinces – even though it still bestowed Yuan with the highly honorific post of Grand Commandant. Cao Cao and Emperor Xian maintained a superficially cordial relationship, but this did not prevent two major confrontations involving Cao and other court officials.


title: Emperor Xian of Han

text: In early 199, as Cao Cao was facing a major military confrontation against Yuan Shao, Dong Cheng claimed to have received a secret edict issued by Emperor Xian (hidden in a belt), and he entered into a conspiracy with Liu Bei, Zhong Ji () and Wang Fu () to assassinate Cao Cao. Late in 199, Liu Bei started a rebellion and waited for Dong Cheng to act in the capital, but in 200, Dong's conspiracy was discovered, and he, along with Zhong Ji and Wang Fu, were killed. Liu Bei was later defeated by Cao Cao and forced to flee to Yuan Shao's territory. Dong Cheng's daughter, an imperial consort, was pregnant, and Emperor Xian personally tried to intercede for her, but Cao Cao had her executed anyway.


title: Emperor Xian of Han

text: Emperor Xian's empress, Fu Shou, angry and fearful about how Consort Dong died, wrote her father, Fu Wan (), a letter accusing Cao Cao of cruelty, and implicitly asking her father to start a new conspiracy against Cao. Fu Wan was fearful of Cao Cao and never acted on the letter, in 214, her letter was discovered. Cao Cao was extremely angry and forced Emperor Xian to have Empress Fu deposed. Emperor Xian was hesitant, and Cao Cao sent his soldiers into the palace to put pressure on the emperor. Empress Fu hid inside the walls, but was finally discovered and dragged out. As she was led away, she cried out to Emperor Xian for him to save her life, but his only response was that he could not even know what would happen to him. She was killed, along with her three sons and family. Cao Cao soon forced Emperor Xian to instate his daughter Cao Jie, then an imperial consort, as the new empress.


title: Emperor Xian of Han

text: Cao Cao died on 15 March 220. His son and successor, Cao Pi, soon forced Emperor Xian to abdicate the throne in favour of himself, ending the Han dynasty. Cao Pi established a new state known as Cao Wei (sometimes known inaccurately as the Kingdom of Wei), and he granted Emperor Xian a noble title – Duke of Shanyang (). The former Emperor Xian died in 234 and was buried with honours befitting an emperor, using Han ceremonies, and the then emperor of Wei, Cao Rui, was one of the mourners. As Emperor Xian's crown prince was already dead, his grandson Liu Kang () inherited his dukedom, which lasted for 75 more years and two more dukes, Liu Jin () and Liu Qiu (), until the line was exterminated by invading Xiongnu tribes in about 309, during the Jin dynasty. This practice of an emperor conferring hereditary nobility on his predecessor, from whom he usurped the throne, was known as ().


title: Tony Allen (musician)

text: Tony Oladipo Allen (20 July 1940 – 30 April 2020) was a Nigerian drummer, composer, and songwriter who lived and worked in Paris, France. Allen was the drummer and musical director of Fela Kuti's band Africa '70 from 1968 to 1979, and was one of the founders of the Afrobeat genre. Fela once stated that "without Tony Allen, there would be no Afrobeat". He was described by Brian Eno as "perhaps the greatest drummer who has ever lived".


title: Tony Allen (musician)

text: Later in life, Allen collaborated with Damon Albarn on several projects, including Gorillaz, the Good, the Bad & the Queen and Rocket Juice & the Moon. Allen's career and life were documented in his 2013 autobiography "Tony Allen: Master Drummer of Afrobeat", co-written with Michael E. Veal, who previously wrote a comprehensive biography of Fela Kuti.


title: Tony Allen (musician)

text: Allen was born in Lagos, Nigeria to James Alabi Allen, a motor mechanic from British Nigeria (now present day Nigeria) and Prudentia Mettle, from the Gold Coast (now present day Ghana), He began playing drums at the age of 18, while working as an engineer for a radio station. Allen was influenced by music his father listened to: Jùjú, a popular Yoruba music from the 1940s, but also American jazz, and the growing highlife scene in Nigeria and Ghana. Allen worked hard to develop a unique voice on the drums, feverishly studying LPs and magazine articles by Max Roach and Art Blakey, but also revolutionary Ghanaian drummer Guy Warren (later known as Kofi Ghanaba – who developed a highly sought-after sound that mixed tribal Ghanaian drumming with bop – working with Dizzy Gillespie, Charlie Parker, Thelonious Monk, and Max Roach).


title: Tony Allen (musician)

text: Allen was hired by "Sir" Victor Olaiya to play claves with his highlife band, the Cool Cats. Allen was able to fill the drum set chair when the former Cool Cats drummer left the band. Allen later played with Agu Norris and the Heatwaves, the Nigerian Messengers, and the Melody Makers.


title: Tony Allen (musician)

text: In 1964, Fela Kuti invited Allen to audition for a jazz-highlife band he was forming. Kuti and Allen had played together as sidemen in the Lagos circuit. Fela complimented Allen's unique sound: "How come you are the only guy in Nigeria who plays like this – jazz and highlife?" Thus Allen became an original member of Kuti's "Koola Lobitos" highlife-jazz band.


title: Tony Allen (musician)

text: In 1969, following a turbulent and educational trip to the United States, Allen served as the musical director of Fela's band, Africa '70, which developed a new militant African sound, mixing the heavy groove and universal appeal of soul with jazz, highlife, and the polyrhythmic template of Yoruba conventions. Allen developed a novel style to complement Fela's new African groove that blended these disparate genres.


title: Tony Allen (musician)

text: Allen recounted how he and Fela wrote in 1970: "Fela used to write out the parts for all the musicians in the band (Africa '70). I was the only one who originated the music I played. Fela would ask what type of rhythm I wanted to play.… You can tell a good drummer because we… have four limbs… and they are… playing different things… the patterns don't just come from Yoruba… [but] other parts of Nigeria and Africa."


title: Tony Allen (musician)

text: Allen recorded more than 30 albums with Fela and Africa '70. But by the late 1970s, dissension was growing in the ranks of Africa '70. Arguments over royalties/pay and recognition grew in intensity. As inventor of the rhythms that underpinned Afrobeat and musical director, Allen felt especially slighted. Fela stood his ground, stating that he would get the royalties for his songs. Fela did support Allen's three solo recordings: "Jealousy" ('75), "Progress" ('77), "No Accommodation For Lagos" ('79), but by 1979, Allen chose to leave Africa '70, taking many members with him. "'What makes me decide it's time to go? It's … everything...and (his) carelessness...like he doesn't care, like he doesn't know ...he doesn't feel he's done anything (wrong). And with all the parasites around too... there were 71 people on tour by now and only 30 working in the band...you got to ask why. Those guys were sapping Fela of his Force, of his Music.' So Tony moved on, once again in search of his own sound."


title: Tony Allen (musician)

text: Allen formed his own group, recording "No Discrimination" in 1980, and performing in Lagos until emigrating to London in 1984. Later moving to Paris, Allen recorded with King Sunny Adé, Ray Lema and Manu Dibango. Allen recorded "N.E.P.A." in 1985.


title: Tony Allen (musician)

text: Post-Fela, Allen developed a hybrid sound, deconstructing and fusing Afrobeat with electronica, dub, R&B, and rap. Allen refers to this synthesis as "afrofunk".


title: Tony Allen (musician)

text: Allen returned with a much anticipated new project for his 13th release. Recorded live in Lagos, with a full-sized Afrobeat band, "Lagos No Shaking" (Lagos is OK) signified Allen's return to roots Afrobeat after forays into avant-garde electronica hybrids. "Lagos No Shaking" was released on 13 June 2006.


title: Tony Allen (musician)

text: In the single "Music Is My Radar" (2000) Blur pay homage to him, and the song ends with Damon Albarn repeating the phrase "Tony Allen got me dancing."


title: Tony Allen (musician)

text: Allen appeared on the Red Hot Organization's compilation album "Red Hot and Riot" (2002) in tribute to Fela Kuti. Allen appeared alongside Res, Ray Lema, Baaba Maal, Positive Black Soul and Archie Shepp on a track entitled "No Agreement."


title: Tony Allen (musician)

text: Allen played drums throughout the 2003 album "Love Trap" by Susheela Raman and also performed with her live. Allen recorded album "Live/Tony Allen"(2004) also.


title: Tony Allen (musician)

text: In 2006, Allen joined Damon Albarn, Paul Simonon, and Simon Tong as drummer for the Good, the Bad & the Queen. Allen contacted Albarn after hearing the 2000 single "Music Is My Radar" by Albarn's band Blur, which references him. They released their self-titled debut album in 2007, followed by "Merrie Land" in 2018. Allen and Albarn also collaborated on the 2012 album "Rocket Juice & the Moon".


title: Tony Allen (musician)

text: Allen played drums on two tracks on the 2007 album "5:55" by Charlotte Gainsbourg: "5:55" and "Night-Time Intermission", backed by French duo Air and Jarvis Cocker of Pulp. He also made an appearance playing the drums in the video for "Once Upon a Time" by French duo Air in late 2007.


title: Tony Allen (musician)

text: He was a featured artist on Zap Mama's albums "Supermoon" (2007) and "ReCreation" (2009), adding his voice to the tracks "1000 Ways" and "African Diamond."


title: Tony Allen (musician)

text: Allen also contributed drums on "People Dansa", an afrobeat rhythm-fuelled track on the second album of the Brazilian singer Flavia Coelho, released in 2014.


title: Tony Allen (musician)

text: He released "A Tribute to Art Blakey & the Jazz Messengers"(2017), a four-song EP on Blue Note Records featuring a reworked Afrobeat version of Art Blakey's "Moanin'". In 2017, Allen collaborated with Malian singer Oumou Sangaré for the track "Yere faga" from her album "Mogoya".


title: Tony Allen (musician)

text: Filmmaker Opiyo Okeyo released the documentary film "Birth of Afrobeat"(2019) about Allen's life in music. The film screened at American Black Film Festival and won the 21st Century Fox Global Inclusion Award for Emerging Voices at the BlackStar Film Festival. Damon Albarn and Tony Allen and band performanced on concert in the Netherlands, among then the Lowlands Festival(2019). "Birth of Afrobeat" was acquired by American Public Television and had its television premiere January 20, 2020 on PBS.


title: Tony Allen (musician)

text: Allen was featured on the Gorillaz track "How Far?"(2020) alongside Skepta, as part of the band's "Song Machine" project.


title: Tony Allen (musician)

text: Allen contributed to seven tracks on the album "Keleketla!,"(2020) a collaborative project co-ordinated by Johannesburg's Keleketla Library and English electronic musicians Coldcut, recorded in both Soweto and London.


title: Tony Allen (musician)

text: Two posthumous Allen albums were released. "There Is No End"(2021) featured Allen on production, alongside rappers and singers from around the world. They included Danny Brown, Nah Eeto and Sampa the Great. The second release after Allen's death was "The Solution Is Restless", a collaborative album featuring Joan As Police Woman and Dave Okumu.


title: Tony Allen (musician)

text: 2021 also saw the release of April March's album "In Cinerama", which features Allen as a drummer; he is also credited for co-writing several tracks.


title: Tony Allen (musician)

text: On 30 April 2020, Allen died of abdominal aortic aneurysm at Georges Pompidou European Hospital in Paris. Tributes came from musicians and producers including Flea, Peter Gabriel, Jeff Mills, Nigel Godrich and Sean Lennon. Damon Albarn noted that "I will never, ever play with anyone like him again. He is my number one musical teacher".


title: William IV, Prince of Orange

text: William IV (Willem Karel Hendrik Friso; 1 September 1711 – 22 October 1751) was Prince of Orange from birth and the first hereditary stadtholder of all the United Provinces of the Netherlands from 1747 until his death in 1751. During his whole life he was furthermore ruler of the Principality of Orange-Nassau within the Holy Roman Empire.


title: William IV, Prince of Orange

text: William was born in Leeuwarden, Netherlands, the son of John William Friso, Prince of Orange, head of the Frisian branch of the House of Orange-Nassau, and of his wife Landgravine Marie Louise of Hesse-Kassel (or Hesse-Cassel). He was born six weeks after the death of his father.


title: William IV, Prince of Orange

text: William succeeded his father as Stadtholder of Friesland and also, under the regency of his mother until 1731, as Stadtholder of Groningen. In 1722 he was elected Stadtholder of Guelders. The four other provinces of the Dutch Republic:, Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht and Overijssel had in 1702 decided not to appoint a stadtholder after the death of stadtholder William III, issuing the history of the Republic into a period that is known as the Second Stadtholderless Period. In 1747 those four provinces also accepted William as their stadtholder.


title: William IV, Prince of Orange

text: In 1720 William was named the 549th Knight of the Order of the Garter. On 25 March 1734 he married at St James's Palace Anne, Princess Royal, eldest daughter of King George II of Great Britain and Caroline of Ansbach. William and Anne had five children:


title: William IV, Prince of Orange

text: In 1739 William inherited the estates formerly owned by the Nassau-Dillenburg branch of his family, and in 1743 he inherited those formerly owned by the Nassau-Siegen branch of his family.


title: William IV, Prince of Orange

text: In 1740, the War of the Austrian Succession broke out. The conflict pitted Austria against France over the issue of whether Maria Theresa had the right to inherit her father Emperor Charles VI's crown. The Dutch Republic sided with Austria in 1747 in order to maintain a buffer zone between itself and France, whereupon French troops invaded the Austrian Netherlands. In a few weeks, Louis XV's troops conquered most of the towns in the Austrian Netherlands where the Dutch had stationed troops under the Barrier Treaty, as well as the most important towns in Zeelandic Flanders. The Dutch Republic was at the time weakened by internal division. The Dutch decided that their country needed a single strong executive, and turned to the House of Orange. William and his family moved from Leeuwarden to The Hague. On 4 May 1747, the States General of the Netherlands named William General Stadtholder of all seven of the United Provinces of the Netherlands, and made the position hereditary for the first time. William first met Duke Louis Ernest of Brunswick-Lüneburg in 1747, and two years later appointed him field marshal of the Dutch States Army, which later led to Louis Ernest serving as one of the regents for William's heir.


title: William IV, Prince of Orange

text: William IV was considered an attractive, educated, and accomplished prince in his prime. Although he had little experience in state affairs, William was at first popular with the people. He stopped the practice of indirect taxation by which independent contractors managed to make large sums for themselves. Nevertheless, he was also a Director-General of the Dutch East India Company, and his alliance with the business class deepened while the disparity between rich and poor grew.


title: William IV, Prince of Orange

text: William served as General Stadtholder of all the Netherlands until he died of a stroke in 1751 at The Hague.


title: Yogesh Kumar Joshi

text: Lieutenant General Yogesh Kumar Joshi, PVSM, UYSM, AVSM, VrC, SM, ADC (born 5 January 1962) is a retired General Officer of the Indian Army. He was the General Officer Commanding-in-Chief Northern Command, assuming office from Lt Gen Ranbir Singh on 1 February 2020.


title: Yogesh Kumar Joshi

text: He last served as the Chief of staff of the Northern Command, assuming the office from Lt Gen SK Sharma. Previously, he was the commander of Leh based Fire & Fury Corps. As Army Commander he is credited with spearheading the Indian response to PLA's attempt to alter the status quo on Line of Actual Control (LAC) by use of force. He is the only war decorated Army Commander who has to his credit successes against both Indian adversaries China and Pakistan.


title: Yogesh Kumar Joshi

text: Gen Joshi hails from Faridabad, Haryana but has done his schooling from Jhansi and Faridabad, thus giving him a pan India exposure as a child and teenager and is the son of R P Joshi. He is a graduate of the 60th course and was allotted Kilo "K" squadron at the National Defence Academy, Khadakwasla, Pune, Maharashtra. Then he attended Indian Military Academy, Dehradun.


title: Yogesh Kumar Joshi

text: He was commissioned into 13 Jammu and Kashmir Rifles. His instructional tenure was at Infantry School Mhow where he was responsible to impart training on Anti Tank Weapon Systems. Being an epitome of a 'scholar warrior' he attended Defense Services Staff College, Wellington and was posted to Military Operations Directorate for the first time, since then he has served in Military Operations directorate thrice in various capacities which have enriched his professional competencies in the operational paradigm to include both putative adversaries of India, namely China and Pakistan. He had the distinction to command his Brigade in Eastern Ladakh and also the Division in the same area, thus giving him first hand ground knowledge which held him in good stead during Operation SNOW LEOPARD. He has also served as the ADG of Military Operations Branch in the Army HQ during the critical period of Surgical Strikes against Pakistan in 2016 and was responsible for the planning of the operations at the Military Operations Branch. Prior to his appointment as GOC of XIV Corp he was DG Infantry and spearheaded the modernization drive of the infantry with missionary zeal and a large number of weapon systems and equipment like the Sig Saur Rifle were procured under his tutelage. He is the colonel of the regiment of Jammu and Kashmir Rifles & the Ladakh Scouts and has been deeply involved with welfare and development of people of the remote region of Ladakh. He was the 17th Commander, XIV Corps of the Indian Army and assumed the post on 31 August 2018, This was General Joshi's fourth tenure dealing with Chinese troops. He assumed the post from Lt General Santosh Kumar Upadhya.


title: Yogesh Kumar Joshi

text: He was a Lt colonel during Kargil War. He led 13th Battalion of the JAK Rif in Dras. His battalion launched four attacks, most successful of which was on Pt 4875 which is now called Batra Top after Capt. Vikram Batra who was martyred in action and was awarded the Param Vir Chakra. The Battalion was also conferred with the title of the 'Bravest Of the Brave' His battalion was awarded a total more than twenty five Gallantry medals during Kargil War including two Param Vir Chakras, eight Vir Chakras (including him) and fourteen Sena Medals. He was the commanding officer of Param Vir Chakra awardees Captain Vikram Batra and Rifleman Sanjay Kumar. His role during the Kargil War was essayed by Sanjay Datt in the movie LOC Kargil directed by JP Datta. As an officer and a gentleman his gesture of giving an honourable burial to troops of Pakistan Army who had perished on the icy heights of Kargil fetched him praise and also a sobriquet of a 'humane warrior'. His professional acumen and personal bravery was a beacon of inspiration for the soldiers of his unit who displayed bravery and courage beyond the call of duty to achieve victory under most trying circumstances. His CODE WORD during the battle was 'CHANAKYA' and instilled fear amongst the Pakistani soldiers who were fighting in Kargil.


title: Yogesh Kumar Joshi

text: The uniqueness that Gen Joshi brings to his office is not only his knowledge of the Chinese language but also the fact that he has served thrice before in the eastern Ladakh sector and has commanded a Brigade and a Division before taking over as commander of Fire & Fury Corps. He also served as a Defence Attache to China (2005-2008) and negotiated the technicalities of the first India-China joint exercise “Hand-in-Hand” in Kunming in 2007 and led Army talks with China. The PLA holds him in great esteem and are in awe of his capacities as a soldier and diplomat. During the various meetings held after the Galwan incident the Chinese generals had displayed great reverence and were always cognizant of his presence as the Theatre Commander. His valuable insights on China, PLA and their capacities were banked upon by the highest decision-making body in military matters in India.


title: Yogesh Kumar Joshi

text: During his career, he has been awarded with Param Vishisht Seva Medal in January 2022, Uttam Yudh Seva Medal for commanding the Fire & Fury Corps (Republic Day 2020), Ati Vishisht Seva Medal (Republic Day 2016), the Vir Chakra (Independence Day 1999) for his part in the Operation Vijay and the Sena Medal.


title: Yogesh Kumar Joshi

text: Gen Joshi has been portrayed twice in films, first by actor Sanjay Dutt in "" (2003) and second by actor Shataf Figar in "Shershaah" (2021).


title: Citigroup Center

text: The Citigroup Center (formerly Citicorp Center and also known by its address, 601 Lexington Avenue) is an office skyscraper in the Midtown Manhattan neighborhood of New York City. Built in 1977 to house the headquarters of Citibank, it is tall and has 59 floors with of office space. The building was designed by architect Hugh Stubbins, associate architect Emery Roth & Sons, and structural engineer William LeMessurier.


title: Citigroup Center

text: 601 Lexington Avenue takes up much of a city block bounded clockwise from west by Lexington Avenue, 54th Street, Third Avenue, and 53rd Street. The building has a 45° angled top with a base on four stilts, as well as a six-story office annex to the east. The tower overhangs St. Peter's Evangelical Lutheran Church at Lexington Avenue and 54th Street, a standalone granite structure designed simultaneously by Stubbins. Also at the base is a sunken plaza, a shopping concourse, and entrances to the church and the New York City Subway's Lexington Avenue/51st Street station. The tower stories are supported by stacked load-bearing braces in the form of inverted chevrons. Upon Citicorp Center's completion, it received mixed reviews from architectural critics, but also several architectural accolades.


title: Citigroup Center

text: Land acquisition for what became Citicorp Center commenced in 1968 and took five years. St. Peter's Church sold its plot on the condition that a new church building be constructed at the base of the tower. The design was announced in July 1973 and the structure was completed in October 1977. During the Citicorp Center engineering crisis less than a year after the building's completion, emergency repairs were made after the tower was discovered to be vulnerable to collapse due to wind. The building was acquired by Boston Properties and Citicorp Center was renamed 601 Lexington Avenue in the 2000s. The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission designated 601 Lexington Avenue as a city landmark in 2016. Over the years, the atrium, plaza, and other public spaces have been renovated.


title: Citigroup Center

text: The building is in the Midtown Manhattan neighborhood of New York City. It takes up the majority of a city block bounded by Lexington Avenue to the west, 54th Street to the north, Third Avenue to the east, and 53rd Street to the south. The land lot covers with a frontage of on Lexington Avenue and a depth of . The only other building on the block is 880 Third Avenue, an 18-story structure at 53rd Street and Third Avenue. Other nearby buildings include 599 Lexington Avenue to the south, 100 East 53rd Street and the Seagram Building to the southwest, 399 Park Avenue to the west, the Central Synagogue to the northwest, and the Lipstick Building to the east. The New York City Subway's Lexington Avenue/51st Street station (served by the ) is directly underneath 601 Lexington Avenue.


title: Citigroup Center

text: Custom street furniture including newsstands, flagpoles, and streetlight pylons was designed for the sidewalks around 601 Lexington Avenue and installed in 1978. New Jersey-based company Designetics designed pylons with a cruciform cross-section and street lamps at the top. Seven pylons are placed in the middle of the block. Three custom pylons, at the northwest, northeast, and southwest corners of the block, include pedestrian and vehicular traffic lights. The pylons were initially designed with a "glossy black finish" that contrasted with the tower's aluminum facade; by 2016, they had been painted gray. "The New Yorker" described the pylons in 2017 as "sculptural towers worthy of Brancusi".


title: Citigroup Center

text: Thirty-one structures were acquired and demolished to make way for the development. Most of these were brownstone houses; some contained commercial spaces, ranging from small shops to the upscale Cafe Chauveron. The site also included the Medical Chambers on 54th Street, which was owned by forty doctors. The only remaining previous occupant of the site is St. Peter's Evangelical Lutheran Church, whose sanctuary at Lexington Avenue and 54th Street, on the northwest corner of the block, was rebuilt when the Citigroup Center was developed.


title: Citigroup Center

text: 601 Lexington Avenue, also known as the Citigroup Center and Citicorp Center, was designed by architect Hugh Stubbins as the headquarters for First National City Bank (later Citibank), along with associate architect Emery Roth & Sons. Of the principals at Hugh A. Stubbins & Associates, architect Peter Woytuk was most involved in design, while project manager W. Easley Hammer oversaw construction. In addition, Edward Larrabee Barnes was the consulting architect, and LeMessurier Associates and James Ruderman were the structural engineers. The general contractor was HRH Construction Corporation and the steel contractor was Bethlehem Steel. Various other contractors were hired to supply material for the building.


title: Citigroup Center

text: The Citigroup Center is 59 stories high, with its roof about above ground level. Excluding unused floor numbers at the base, it contains 46 office stories. At the time of completion, Citicorp Center was the seventh-tallest building in the world. In addition to the primary 59-story tower, there is an annex at 159 East 53rd Street with six or seven stories. It extends east to Third Avenue and includes part of the building's shopping concourse. The facades of the tower and its annex are designed similarly.


title: Citigroup Center

text: The facade is made of anodized aluminum and reflective glass panels. Each facade segment measures and consists of both glass panes and aluminum plates. As an energy-saving measure, the glass windows were manufactured as two panes, the inner pane of which was coated with chrome plating. The windows on each floor are separated by flush aluminum spandrels. The spandrels were manufactured by Flour City Architectural Metals, a firm based in Glen Cove, New York. The aluminum is silver-colored, like that on the Pepsi-Cola Building and One Chase Manhattan Plaza, because Stubbins thought a dark color would not allow observers to "see the shade and shadow". The metal panels were fitted with double the amount of insulation considered normal at the time of construction. The aluminum was polished to reflect heat from sunlight.


title: Citigroup Center

text: The triangular roof of 601 Lexington Avenue rises above the top story and faces south, sloping at a 45-degree angle. Before the official plans were announced in 1973, the architects had intended the roof to be terraces for apartments, which would have faced westward. There would have been about 100 apartments, but the New York City Department of City Planning would not approve a zoning change to permit that use. The architects then rotated the roof southward to accommodate flat-plate solar collectors that could produce hot water, which would be used to dehumidify air and reduce cooling energy. Starting in February 1975, engineers from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology conducted a twelve-month feasibility study for the installation of such a system. Afterward, the system was scrapped, either because of the low savings, refinement of mechanical systems, or disputes with the supplier.


title: Citigroup Center

text: Even after the solar-collector plans were scrapped, the design was kept; Stubbins wrote that the roof "relieves the uniformity of flat-topped towers proliferating in the center of the city". This made Citicorp Center the first postmodern skyscraper whose roof was designed solely for decorative purposes. The roof was also fitted with solar panels in 1983, when Consolidated Edison and Citibank sponsored a four-year solar panel test.


title: Citigroup Center

text: A large plaza beneath street level was built along with Citicorp Center and designed by landscape architect Hideo Sasaki. The plaza was included under the 1961 Zoning Resolution, which allowed New York City developers a zoning "bonus" for including open space in front of their buildings. While many developers took advantage of the "bonus", the New York City Planning Commission found in 1975 that many of these plazas ranged from "bleak, forlorn places" to "forbidding and downright hostile". In response, the City Planning Commission's Urban Design Group had been formed in 1967 to determine how to improve plaza designs, influencing the commission's decision to modify the zoning laws in 1975. The design of 601 Lexington Avenue's plaza was finalized in 1973 before these rule changes were enacted. However, the plaza included many of the same features that were proposed in the rule change, such as an outdoor plaza, a covered pedestrian area, and an arcade running through the city block.


title: Citigroup Center

text: The plaza has an area of . Its presence allowed the tower to be designed with a maximum floor area ratio of 18:1, higher than the 15:1 ratio specified for the area. The plaza is accessed by a set of stairs extending northeast from the corner of Lexington Avenue and 53rd Street. On the south side of the plaza is an entrance to the Lexington Avenue/51st Street subway station. This subway entrance replaces two staircases from the street, which were demolished to make way for Citicorp Center. The north side of the plaza contains the entrance to St. Peter's Church and the east side contains an entrance to the lower lobby. During the plaza's construction, the developers collaborated with the numerous public agencies with a stake in the project, including the Metropolitan Transportation Authority, which operated the subway station.


title: Citigroup Center

text: The plaza, interior shopping concourse, and sidewalks all initially contained brown brick floor pavers. There was also originally a fountain at the center of the plaza, which was designed to conceal noise from the environs, similar to the fountain at nearby Paley Park. 601 Lexington Avenue's fountain was demolished in 2017.


title: Citigroup Center

text: St. Peter's Lutheran Church is on the northwest corner of the Citigroup Center site, at 619 Lexington Avenue and 54th Street. The exterior was designed by Stubbins and Hammer, while the interior was furnished by Vignelli Associates. The church occupies the same site as its old building. The congregation permitted Citicorp to erect the skyscraper only if a new church was built at the same location, structurally unconnected to the tower. Andrew Alpern and Seymour Durst characterized the agreement as "ecumenically joining God and mammon to the benefit of both". Additionally, at least 63 percent of the church had to contain "nothing built above it". According to Stubbins, the lack of structural connections would give the church a "breathing space" of its own.


title: Citigroup Center

text: The structure is within 601 Lexington Avenue's sunken plaza, rising about above ground or in total. It contains a facade of brown Caledonia granite with ashlar. The roof is clad in copper coated with lead. The materials were meant to establish a distinct identity for the church while also associating it with 601 Lexington Avenue's tower. At the top of the church, a skylight bisects the church building diagonally from southwest to northeast, allowing passersby to look into the church building. A window facing the corner of Lexington Avenue and 54th Street overlooks the pipe organ inside. Stubbins had intended the structure's shape to resemble a pair of hands "held up in prayer with light coming between them". Arnaldo Pomodoro designed a bronze cross for the exterior, which was installed in 1982 and measures tall by wide.


title: Citigroup Center

text: The main sanctuary is adjacent to the lower plaza, about beneath the plaza. It has a capacity of 850 seats; the center set of pews is designed to be movable so the space could host events when needed. There was also a black-box theater, a library, kitchen, daycare center, clergy offices, dressing rooms, choir rooms, and lecture and community rooms. Upon the church's completion, there was a two-manual, two-pedal organ with 2,175 pipes. Inside the church is the Nevelson Chapel (also known as the Chapel of the Good Shepherd), which was donated by parishioner Erol Beker and designed by sculptor Louise Nevelson. The 24-seat chapel measures and contains sculptural elements on the wall including reliefs, altarpieces, and columns. It was renovated in the 1980s, and it was restored from 2018 to 2019 by Kostow Greenwood Architects as part of a $5.75 million renovation partly funded by Nevelson's Pace Gallery. The space was described by David W. Dunlap in 2004 as the city's "most architecturally successful postwar sanctuary".


title: Citigroup Center

text: The church's basement theater is used by the York Theatre. St. Peter's Church also hosts a jazz ministry created by the Rev. John Garcia Gensel, who in 1965 became the Minister to the Jazz Community. The jazz ministry has sponsored several programs over the years, such as free jazz performances at the base of Citicorp Center. The church has hosted memorials or funerals for jazz musicians such as Miles Davis, Dizzy Gillespie, and Thelonious Monk. In 2021, the church was seriously damaged after a broken water main flooded its space.


title: Citigroup Center

text: The tower stories are of "trussed tube" construction. Each of the tower stories measures , or total. Within the tower stories, the elevators and emergency stairs are embedded in a service core at the center of each story. The core is about , while the floor space around the core is just less than wide. Overall, 601 Lexington Avenue contains of steel, forty percent the amount used in the Empire State Building.


title: Citigroup Center

text: The tower is supported by four stilts measuring approximately high with a cross section of . The stilts are underneath the centers of the tower's outer edges, cantilevering outward from the core. According to Stanley Goldstein of LeMessurier's New York City office, stilts at the center of each edge were able to withstand forces from "quartering winds" from the corners, compared to stilts that were placed at the corner. Additionally, the placement of the stilts allowed a smaller foundation than in a conventional building of similar size.


title: Citigroup Center

text: Each of the individual stilts is composed of four vertical beams, of which the outer pairs are much heavier than the inner pairs. This design makes each stilt similar to a vertical K-truss, which prevents the stilt from buckling. Although the stilts could have theoretically been thinner, they were enlarged to give the tower a more stable appearance. Inside the stilts are emergency stairs and mechanical ducts. In 2002, following the September 11 attacks the previous year, one of the stilts was reinforced with blast-resistant shields of steel and copper as well as steel bracing. There is also an octagonal elevator core in the middle of the building, which measures and carries the structural loads from gravity. Unlike on the upper stories, the elevator core contains only elevators, as the emergency staircases are within the stilts.


title: Citigroup Center

text: Above the stilts are stacked load-bearing braces in the form of inverted chevrons, which are designed to distribute tension loads from the upper stories that are created by wind. On each side, there are six chevrons, each of which absorb wind loads at intervals of eight stories. The wind loads from each eight-story tier are transferred into the center of the frame, where "mast column transports" extend the full height of the tower. The mast columns are deep at the base, tapering to at the 40th floor. The diagonal beams that form each chevron are deep and connect to structural spandrels at the top of each eight-story tier, which are deep. The tops of each eight-story tier (where the diagonal beams meet the corner) do not contain vertical columns, thus preventing wind loads from accumulating at the tower's corners.


title: Citigroup Center

text: The ninth story, the lowest level above the stilts, contains a trussed frame similar in design to a cantilever bridge, where the wind loads are transferred downward into the stilts. This story is used as a mechanical room.


title: Citigroup Center

text: The chevrons are not visible from the exterior but can be seen from the offices inside, in contrast to structures such as Chicago's John Hancock Center. After Citicorp Center's completion, W. Easley Hammer reflected that he thought it was a mistake to conceal the chevrons, while LeMessurier said that Stubbins had rejected his idea for exposed chevrons. The chevrons were bolted to each other with over two hundred joints; as built, these posed a serious structural danger, leading to the Citicorp Center engineering crisis. As a result, welded steel plates were installed over each joint in 1978.


title: Citigroup Center

text: The tower contains approximately of rentable space. The office annex to the east contains about of space. According to the Department of City Planning, the building has a gross floor area of , while according to The Skyscraper Center, the building has .


title: Citigroup Center

text: 601 Lexington Avenue's main entrance lobby is at the middle of the Lexington Avenue frontage, across a footbridge that provides entrance to St. Peter's Church. The main entrance consists of a double-height glass box with steel ribs, which is long. The lobby was constructed as part of a 2010 renovation.


title: Citigroup Center

text: There is a three-story shopping concourse at the base of the stilts, originally called the Market. The lowest level, corresponding to the lower lobby, includes a planted atrium measuring high, with a skylight measuring . The corner of Third Avenue and 54th Street contained an entrance to the lowest level of the shopping concourse, while on 54th Street was an entrance to the second level. The storefronts were designed to blend in with the plaza and street, with similar floor surfaces and transparent exterior walls. Overall, the stores were intended as a commitment to the city, a corporate symbol, and a tourist attraction, according to one of Citicorp's vice presidents, Arthur E. Driscoll. The bank presented a model train exhibition in the space each December from 1987 to 2009. The shopping concourse was renamed The Shops at Citicorp Center in 1995, and it is known as The Atrium .


title: Citigroup Center

text: In the office stories, the elevators and stairs are clustered in a central core. The building contains 20 double-deck elevators, which Otis Worldwide constructed for $7 million. Although each of the upper or lower decks serves only odd or even floors, visitors can travel between odd and even floors using escalators. Each of the double-deck elevators consists of two standard elevator cabs that operate simultaneously in one shaft. The double-deck elevators cost 25 percent more than standard elevators but allowed a 24 percent reduction in the floor area taken up by elevators; namely, twenty-six single-deck elevator shafts would have been required otherwise. 601 Lexington Avenue's double-deck elevators were likely the first to be installed in New York City since 1932, when the Cities Service Building was completed. In total, 601 Lexington Avenue has 38 elevators.


title: Citigroup Center

text: Citicorp Center was also designed with other mechanical systems. At its completion, each tenant received mail from a "supermail" system. Incoming mail was sorted in the basement and transferred via lifts to each floor, where the mail was transported manually to fixed bins. The building also contained 2,500 sensors to monitor the mechanical systems, such as HVAC, lighting, electrical, sprinkler, life-safety, security, and elevator systems. The sloped roof includes mechanical equipment.


title: Citigroup Center

text: At the building's completion, it was intended to be energy-efficient. The building's water supply consisted of only cold water. Heat from the building's mechanical systems was recirculated to warm the water supply and heat the office spaces. The office spaces were cooled with outside air wherever it was practical. The fluorescent light bars in the ceiling, manufactured by Joseph Loring & Associates, were fitted with glass shields to spread the artificial light more efficiently, thereby requiring fewer lighting fixtures. Even though the rooftop solar collectors were not installed, the other features allowed the building to use 42 percent less energy compared to a regular office building of the same size. However, during the summer, the building used a conventional air-conditioning system, which offset the savings from the heat-deflecting facade.


title: Citigroup Center

text: Citicorp Center was the city's first skyscraper to feature a tuned mass damper (TMD). Located within the rooftop mechanical space, the TMD is designed to counteract swaying motions due to wind and reduces wind-related movement by up to fifty percent. The equipment weighs and includes a concrete block measuring . The concrete block sits on a pool of oil within a steel plate and has two spring mechanisms, one each to counteract north-south and east-west movement. The equipment cost $1 million to install. By comparison, it would have cost $5 million to add mass to reduce the tower's movement, namely of additional steel.


title: Citigroup Center

text: National City Bank was founded in 1812 and, for over a century, had its headquarters in the Financial District of Lower Manhattan. The company was headquartered at 52 Wall Street until 1908, when it moved to 55 Wall Street. After National City Bank and the Farmers' Loan and Trust Company merged in 1929, these companies expanded into a new structure at 20 Exchange Place, completed in 1931. City Bank Farmers Trust moved to 399 Park Avenue, one block west of the present Citigroup Center, in 1961.


title: Citigroup Center

text: On the northwestern corner of the Citigroup site was St. Peter's Lutheran Church, which had been founded in 1862 as a German-speaking congregation. The church's previous structure, a Gothic building designed by John G. Michel and P. Brandner, was completed in 1905. The congregation's previous sanctuary at Lexington Avenue and 46th Street, which it had occupied since 1871, had been demolished in 1902 for the construction of Grand Central Terminal. The congregation, which at its peak had membership of over one thousand, had decreased to below 300 by the 1960s, prompting the congregation to consider relocating to near the United Nations headquarters.


title: Citigroup Center

text: The lots on the St. Peter's block were acquired secretively in five and a half years starting around 1968. The acquisition was headed by brokers Donald Schnabel and Charles McArthur of Julien J. Studley Inc. The brokers believed that a large, continuous land lot would be worth more than the sum of each lot's individual worth, though the firm had not yet secured a client for which it was purchasing the lots. Furthermore, St. Peter's Church's membership was once again increasing and they were loath to part with their property. Subsequently, a Studley broker formed a company called Lexman, which then approached First National City Bank to determine their interest in the St. Peter's block, one block east of their headquarters at the time. Lexman gradually acquired the other lots on the block. Former Citicorp Chairman Walter B. Wriston reportedly decided to acquire several other low- and mid-rise buildings in the area, supposedly to buy out massage parlors and mom-and-pop stores in Midtown.


title: Citigroup Center

text: The firm again negotiated with St. Peter's congregation in late 1969 after some lots had been acquired. John White, president of James D. Landauer Associates consultants, proposed that the new structure on the site be a condominium development; i.e. the church would have a partial ownership stake in the new development. In February 1970, the congregation signed a "letter of intent" to sell its building, as well as the air rights above the church, to First National City Bank. In exchange, the congregation received $9 million and was named as a condominium partner in the tower's development. Subtracting the $5 million cost of the new church building, the congregation netted a $4 million profit.


title: Citigroup Center

text: By January 1971, Hugh Stubbins & Associates were hired to develop plans for a large building on the city block, and St. Peter's Church had hired Edward Larrabee Barnes to represent its design interests. The Stubbins firm was then relatively inexperienced in designing high-rise buildings. "The New York Times" characterized the site as an "annex" to First National City Bank's main building at 399 Park Avenue. The congregation of St. Peter's Church voted in May 1971 to approve the sale and construct a new structure on the same site, and they relocated in early 1973 to a temporary location at the Central Presbyterian Church. By July 1973, land acquisition was virtually complete, although the last parcel was not acquired until November 1975, when the lot at 884 Third Avenue was purchased. The acquisition cost was $40 million, making the site the most expensive city block on earth. The only lot not acquired was 880 Third Avenue, which had been completed in 1965, and which the brokers considered too new to be demolished.


title: Citigroup Center

text: In addition to what became the final design, Stubbins and his associates studied at least six alternate proposals for the tower, with varying rooftop designs. Early plans also called for installing stilts underneath each corner. This plan was scrapped because the northwestern stilt would extend into St. Peter's Lutheran Church, and the church wanted its sanctuary to be structurally separate. Plans for the tower were publicly disclosed on July 24, 1973. The plans called for a -tall tower called Citicorp Center, raised above the street level on stilts. The project would also include an eight-story office annex, three stories of retail, a landscaped public plaza, and a new church building. At the time, St. Peter's old church building had been demolished, and First National City Bank had become known as Citibank, a subsidiary of Citicorp. St. Peter's pastor Ralph E. Peterson described the project as "a very bold venture in an urban environment". Under Peterson's insistence, the plans included a publicly accessible plaza with shopping. Early plans for the church also called for it to contain a cube design, though the church's final design was announced in April 1974.


title: Citigroup Center

text: Groundbreaking ceremonies for the tower occurred during April 1974, though actual work did not commence for twelve months. The tower's construction manager was supervised by Vivian Longo, who at the building's completion in 1977 was twenty-five years old. Citicorp Center was one of the few large structures in Manhattan under construction during the mid-1970s. At the peak of construction, three thousand people were employed on the project, and 565 workers were on site simultaneously. The steelwork had been completed to the eighteenth floor by the end of 1975. The steel frame was topped out on October 7, 1976. At the time, officials predicted Citicorp Center would be the only major structure in New York City to be completed in 1977.


title: Citigroup Center

text: The cornerstone for the new St. Peter's Church was laid on November 1, 1976, less than a month after the building had topped out. Citibank acquired two buildings at 148 and 152 East 53rd Street, immediately south of the new tower, the next month. The company did not intend to develop the sites of these buildings, but they contained topless bars, which Citibank officials perceived would decrease the value of the tower. The bank's vice president for real estate management, Arthur E. Driscoll, had studied vacancy rates at fourteen nearby "prime office buildings" while Citicorp Center was being developed. The first tenants moved to the building in April 1977. By that August, the building was 96 percent rented. This high occupancy rate was in spite of the fact that space in the building was rented at a higher average rate than in other buildings in the neighborhood.


title: Citigroup Center

text: The building was dedicated on October 12, 1977. Stubbins gave an opening speech in which he described the building as a "skyscraper for the people". The project was the first to be completed under the purview of the Mayor's Office of Midtown Planning since its establishment a decade prior. At the time of the building's opening, the Market retail complex at the base was almost totally rented. Over three hundred retailers had submitted applications to operate within the space. The majority of the space was rented by household furnishings retailer Conran's, which occupied , but some of the other retailers included restaurants serving cuisine of various countries. Citibank planned to occupy , or 26 stories, moving its offices to the building from five other addresses in Midtown. The remaining stories were occupied by a variety of firms, including those in law and accounting, as well as the Consulate-General of Japan and IBM.


title: Citigroup Center

text: At the time of Citicorp Center's dedication, the final design features of St. Peter's Church were being installed. St. Peter's Church was dedicated on December 3, 1977, and the Nevelson Chapel was separately dedicated the same month. Initially, the tower's slanted roof created an ice problem during winter, as snow and ice would slide down the roof onto the sidewalk. Furthermore, the shopping concourse was initially only lightly used and largely unknown to the public. The plaza on Lexington Avenue opened by July 1978. In the complex's early years, St. Peter's Church encountered fiscal deficits because of high utility costs, as well as inflation and lack of investment experience, even though the church earned money from renting out some of the other space it owned at Citicorp Center. By 1980, Citicorp counted 25,000 daily visitors to the shopping concourse, but some of the stores had already closed down because of a lack of patronage.


title: Citigroup Center

text: Due to material changes during construction, the building as initially completed was structurally unsound. LeMessurier's original design for the chevron load braces used welded joints. To save money, Bethlehem Steel changed the plans in 1974 to use bolted joints, which was accepted by LeMessurier's office but not known to the engineer himself. Furthermore, LeMessurier originally only needed to calculate wind loads from perpendicular winds under the building code; in typical buildings, loads from quartering winds at the corners would be less. In June 1978, after an inquiry from Princeton University engineering student Diane Hartley, LeMessurier recalculated the wind loads on the building with quartering winds. He found that quartering winds would significantly increase the load at the bolted joints. After conducting tests on the building's structural safety, LeMessurier found that a wind capable of toppling Citicorp Center would occur every 55 years on average, or every 16 years with the tuned mass damper powered off.


title: Citigroup Center

text: LeMessurier proposed welding steel plates over the bolted joints, and Karl Koch Erecting was hired for the welding process. Starting in August 1978, construction crews installed the welded panels at night. Repairs were completed that October, after which LeMessurier claimed that a wind strong enough to topple the building would occur less often than every 700 years. The work was not publicized at the time, as it took place during the 1978 New York City newspaper strike and very few people were notified of the issue at the time. Since no structural failure occurred, the extent of the engineering crisis was only publicly revealed in a lengthy article in "The New Yorker" in 1995.


title: Citigroup Center

text: As completed, Citicorp Center consisted of three separate ownership stakes in a condominium arrangement. One condominium was for the church while the other two were 61.55 and 32.85 percent ownership stakes in the office stories. In October 1987, Citicorp sold the 61.55 percent ownership stake (consisting of the 23rd through 59th floors), along with a one-third interest in its former 399 Park Avenue headquarters, to Dai-Ichi Mutual Life Insurance Company for $670 million. Citicorp used the profits from the sale to reduce its losses, which in the first half of 1987 totaled $2.32 billion and continued to own the remaining stories. At the time, Citicorp was also developing One Court Square across the East River in the Long Island City neighborhood of Queens. The new building in Queens was right above the Court Square–23rd Street subway station, one stop away from the Lexington Avenue–53rd Street station beneath Citicorp Center and 399 Park Avenue. The arrangement allowed Citicorp to split its offices between the buildings.


title: Citigroup Center

text: The Market shopping atrium fell into disrepair following Citicorp Center's completion. In May 1995, Citicorp commenced a $15 million, eighteen-month renovation of the shopping concourse, designed by Gwathmey Siegel & Associates Architects. The brick pavers were replaced with terrazzo, new signs were installed outside each storefront, and circulation features such as the placement of escalators were rearranged. The shopping concourse was renamed the Shops at Citicorp Center and bookstore Barnes & Noble was named as the anchor tenant, taking .


title: Citigroup Center

text: By late 2000, Dai-Ichi's broker Jones Lang LaSalle had placed the entire Citigroup Center for sale. Dai-Ichi arranged with Citigroup, its condominium partner, to jointly sell both condominium units. Richard and Eric D. Hadar, a father-and-son venture, bid $725 million for Dai-Ichi's ownership stake in January 2001. For the purchase, Eric Hadar had arranged a $525 million first mortgage from Deutsche Bank and a $150 million mezzanine loan from the government of Singapore. The sale was delayed after Boston Properties offered to buy Dai-Ichi's stake. Eric Hadar's company, Allied Partners, along with Boston Properties, ultimately finalized their purchase of both condominium units that April. The building cost $755 million, including closing costs and taxes, and Citigroup relocated to 399 Park Avenue. One of the stilts was structurally reinforced following the September 11 attacks, and protective bollards were installed on the sidewalk.


title: Citigroup Center

text: Boston Properties bought Allied Partners' stake in the Citigroup Center in 2006 for $100 million. The same year, Boston Properties began rebranding the building as "601 Lexington Avenue". A new Lexington Avenue lobby was constructed and the tower stories' entrance was relocated from 53rd Street to Lexington Avenue. In addition, a ramp was installed on 53rd Street and a reception area was added to the northern entrance of St. Peter's Church. The name change became effective in 2010. Boston Properties was also considering selling naming rights to the building. By 2013, Citigroup only occupied three stories at 601 Lexington Avenue. The next year, Boston Properties sold a 45 percent ownership stake in 601 Lexington Avenue, along with a proportional stake at the Atlantic Wharf Office Building and 100 Federal Street in Boston, to Norges Bank Investment Management for a combined $1.5 billion.