title: Hadrosauridae

text: In contrast with eggshell fossils, the remains of very young hadrosaurs are somewhat common. Tanke has observed that an experienced collector could discover multiple juvenile hadrosaur specimens in a single day. The most common remains of young hadrosaurs in the Dinosaur Park Formation are dentaries, bones from limbs and feet, as well as vertebral centra. The material showed little or none of the abrasion that would have resulted from transport, meaning the fossils were buried near their point of origin. Bonebeds 23, 28, 47, and 50 are productive sources of young hadrosaur remains in the formation, especially bonebed 50. The bones of juvenile hadrosaurs and fossil eggshell fragments are not known to have been preserved in association with each other, despite both being present in the formation.


title: Hadrosauridae

text: The limbs of the juvenile hadrosaurs are anatomically and proportionally similar to those of adult animals. However, the joints often show "predepositional erosion or concave articular surfaces", which was probably due to the cartilaginous cap covering the ends of the bones. The pelvis of a young hadrosaur was similar to that of an older individual.


title: Hadrosauridae

text: Evidence suggests that young hadrosaurs would have walked on only their two hind legs, while adults would have walked on all four. As the animal aged, the front limbs became more robust in order to take on weight, while the back legs became less robust as they transitioned to walking on all four legs. Furthermore, the animals’ front limbs were shorter than their back limbs.


title: Hadrosauridae

text: Comparisons between the scleral rings of several hadrosaur genera ("Corythosaurus", "Prosaurolophus", and "Saurolophus") and modern birds and reptiles suggest that they may have been cathemeral, active throughout the day at short intervals.


title: Hadrosauridae

text: Spondyloarthropathy has been documented in the spine of a 78-million year old hadrosaurid. Other examples of pathologies in hadrosaurs include healed wounds from predators, such as those found in "Edmontosaurus annectens", and tumors such as hemangiomas, desmoplastic fibroma, metastatic cancer, and osteoblastomas, found in genera such as "Brachylophosaurus" and "Edmontosaurus". Osteochondrosis is also commonly found in hadrosaurs.


title: Anton Cermak

text: Anton Joseph Cermak (, ; May 9, 1873 – March 6, 1933) was an American politician who served as the 44th mayor of Chicago, Illinois from April 7, 1931 until his death on March 6, 1933. He was killed by an assassin, whose likely target was President Franklin D. Roosevelt, but the assassin shot Cermak instead after a bystander hit the assassin with a purse.


title: Anton Cermak

text: Cermak was born to a mining family in Kladno, Austria-Hungary (now in the Czech Republic), the son of Antonín Čermák and Kateřina née Frank(ová).


title: Anton Cermak

text: He emigrated with his parents to the United States in 1874, and grew up in the town of Braidwood, Illinois, where he was educated before beginning to work full time while still a teenager. He followed his father into coal mining, and labored at mines in Will and Grundy counties. After moving to Chicago at age 16, Cermak worked as a tow boy for the horse-drawn streetcar line, and then tended horses in the stables of Chicago's Pilsen neighborhood. During the early years of his working life, Cermak supplemented his education with evening high school and business college classes.


title: Anton Cermak

text: After saving enough money to buy his own horse and cart, he went into business selling firewood, and he subsequently expanded his venture into a haulage business. As he became more politically active, Cermak served in municipal government jobs, including as a clerk in the city police court, and as a bailiff for the Municipal Court of Chicago. As his political fortunes began to rise, Cermak was able to avail himself of other business opportunities, including interests in real estate, insurance, and banking.


title: Anton Cermak

text: He began his political career as a Democratic Party precinct captain, and in 1902, he was elected to the Illinois House of Representatives. Seven years later, he became alderman of the 12th Ward (serving two terms: one from 1909 through 1912, and another from 1919 through 1922). Cermak was elected President of the Cook County Board of Commissioners in 1922, chairman of the Cook County Democratic Party in 1928, and mayor of Chicago in 1931.


title: Anton Cermak

text: In 1928, he ran for the United States Senate, but was defeated by Republican Otis F. Glenn, after Cermak received only 46% of the vote.


title: Anton Cermak

text: Cermak's mayoral victory came in the wake of the Great Depression, the deep resentment many Chicagoans had of Prohibition, and the increasing violence resulting from organized crime's control of Chicago—typified by the St. Valentine's Day Massacre.


title: Anton Cermak

text: The many ethnic groups, such as Czechs, Poles, Ukrainians, Jews, Italians, and African Americans, that began to settle in Chicago in the early 1900s were mostly detached from the political system, due in part to a lack of organization, which led to underrepresentation in the City Council. As an immigrant himself, Cermak recognized Chicago’s relatively new immigrants as a significant population of disenfranchised voters, which had the potential to be a large power base for Cermak and his local Democratic organization.


title: Anton Cermak

text: Before Cermak, the Democratic party in Cook County was run by Irish Americans. The Irish first became successful in politics since they spoke English, and because, coming from an island on the edge of Europe, they had few ancestral enemies. As the old saying went: “A Lithuanian won’t vote for a Pole, and a Pole won’t vote for a Lithuanian. A German won’t vote for either of them. But all three will vote for a turkey—an Irishman.” As Cermak climbed the local political ladder, the resentment of the party leadership grew. When the bosses rejected his bid to become the mayoral candidate, Cermak swore revenge. He formed his political army from the non-Irish elements, and even persuaded the black politician, William L. Dawson, to switch from the Republican to the Democratic Party.


title: Anton Cermak

text: Dawson later became a U.S. Representative (from the 1st District), and soon the most powerful black politician in Illinois. Cermak’s political and organizational skills helped create one of the most influential political organizations of his day. With support from Franklin D. Roosevelt on the national level, Cermak gradually wooed members of Chicago’s growing black community into the Democratic fold. Walter Wright, the superintendent of parks and aviation for the city of Chicago, aided Cermak in stepping into office.


title: Anton Cermak

text: When Cermak challenged the incumbent, William “Big Bill” Hale Thompson, in the 1931 mayor's race, Thompson, who represented Chicago's existing Irish-dominated power structure, responded with an ethnic slur filled ditty that ridiculed his teamster past (pushing a pushcart):


title: Anton Cermak

text: Cermak replied, “He doesn’t like my name… it’s true I didn’t come over on the "Mayflower", but I came over as soon as I could.” It was a sentiment to which ethnic Chicagoans could relate, and Thompson’s prejudicial insults largely backfired.


title: Anton Cermak

text: Thompson’s reputation as a buffoon, many voters’ disgust with the corruption of his political machine, and his inability or unwillingness to clean up organized crime in Chicago were cited as major factors in Cermak capturing 58% of the vote in the mayoral election on April 6, 1931. Cermak’s victory finished Thompson as a political power, and largely ended the Republican Party's influence in Chicago; indeed, all the mayors of Chicago since 1931 have been members of the Democratic Party. For nearly his entire administration, Cermak had to deal with a major tax revolt. From 1931 to 1933, the Association of Real Estate Taxpayers mounted a “tax strike.”


title: Anton Cermak

text: At its height, the association, which was headed by John M. Pratt and James E. Bistor, had over 30,000 members. Much to Cermak’s dismay, it successfully slowed down the collection of real estate taxes through litigation and the promotion of the refusal to pay. In the meantime, the city found it difficult to pay teachers and maintain services. Cermak had to meet President-elect Roosevelt to “mend fences,” and to request money to fund essential city services.


title: Anton Cermak

text: On February 15, 1933, while shaking hands with President-elect Franklin D. Roosevelt at Bayfront Park in Miami, Florida, Cermak was shot in the lung and mortally wounded by Giuseppe Zangara, who was attempting to assassinate Roosevelt. At the critical moment, Lillian Cross, a woman standing near Zangara, hit Zangara's arm with her purse, and spoiled his aim. In addition to Cermak, Zangara hit four other people: Margaret Kruis, 21, of Newark, NJ, shot through the hand; Russell Caldwell, 22, of Miami, hit squarely in the forehead by a spent bullet, which embedded itself under the skin; Mabel Gill of Miami, shot in the abdomen; and William Sinnott, a New York police detective, who received a glancing blow to the forehead and scalp. All four of those injuries were minor.


title: Anton Cermak

text: Once at the hospital, Cermak reportedly uttered the line that was engraved on his tomb, saying to Roosevelt, “I’m glad it was me, not you.” The "Chicago Tribune" reported the quote without attributing it to a witness, and most scholars doubt that it was ever said.


title: Anton Cermak

text: Zangara told the police that he hated rich and powerful people, but not Roosevelt personally. Later, rumors circulated that Cermak, not Roosevelt, had been the intended target, as his promise to clean up Chicago’s rampant lawlessness posed a threat to Al Capone and the Chicago organized crime syndicate. One of the first people to suggest the organized crime theory was reporter Walter Winchell, who happened to be in Miami the evening of the shooting. According to Roosevelt biographer Jean Edward Smith, there is no proof for this theory.


title: Anton Cermak

text: Long-time Chicago newsman Len O’Connor offers a different view of the events surrounding the mayor’s assassination. He has written that aldermen Paddy Bauler and Charlie Weber informed him that relations between Cermak and Roosevelt were strained, because Cermak fought Roosevelt’s nomination at the Democratic convention in Chicago.


title: Anton Cermak

text: Author Ronald Humble provides yet another perspective as to why Cermak was killed. In his book "Frank Nitti: The True Story of Chicago’s Notorious Enforcer", Humble contends that Cermak was as corrupt as Thompson, and that the Chicago Outfit hired Zangara to kill Cermak in retaliation for Cermak’s attempt to murder Frank Nitti.


title: Anton Cermak

text: Cermak died at Jackson Memorial Hospital in Miami on March 6, partly due to his wounds. On March 30, however, his personal physician, Dr. Karl A. Meyer, revealed that the primary cause of Cermak’s death was ulcerative colitis, commenting, “The mayor would have recovered from the bullet wound had it not been for the complication of colitis. The autopsy disclosed the wound had healed ... the other complications were not directly due to the bullet wound.” Doubts were raised at the time and later concerning whether the bullet wound directly contributed to his death. A theory raised decades later contended that the bullet had actually caused damage to his colon which led to perforation which was undiagnosed by his doctors. It alleged that "but for [the] physicians' blunders" Cermak might have survived. This theory was refuted by a later medical analysis of the event.


title: Anton Cermak

text: Zangara was convicted of murder after Cermak’s death, and was executed in Florida's electric chair on March 20, 1933.


title: Anton Cermak

text: Cermak was interred in a mausoleum at the Bohemian National Cemetery in Chicago. The mayor’s death was followed by a struggle for succession both to his party chairmanship, and for the mayor's office.


title: Anton Cermak

text: A plaque honoring Cermak still lies at the site of the assassination in Miami’s Bayfront Park. It is inscribed with Cermak’s alleged words to Roosevelt after he was shot, “I’m glad it was me instead of you.” Following Cermak’s death, 22nd Street—a major east–west artery that traversed Chicago’s West Side, and the close-in suburbs of Cicero and Berwyn, areas with significant Czech populations—was renamed Cermak Road. In 1943, a Liberty ship, the SS "A. J. Cermak" was named in Cermak’s honor. It was scrapped in 1964.


title: Anton Cermak

text: Cermak’s son-in-law, Otto Kerner Jr., served as the 33rd Governor of Illinois, and as a federal circuit judge.


title: Anton Cermak

text: His grandson, Frank J. Jirka, Jr., who was with him in Miami when he was assassinated, later became an Underwater Demolition Team officer in the United States Navy. Jirka was awarded a Silver Star and Purple Heart for his actions during the Battle of Iwo Jima; the wounds he suffered led to the amputation of both legs below the knee. After World War II, he became a physician, and in 1983, was elected president of the American Medical Association. Cermak’s great niece, Kajon Cermak, is a radio broadcaster. His daughter, Lillian, was married to Richey V. Graham, who served in the Illinois General Assembly.


title: Sardar

text: Sardar, also spelled as Sardaar/Sirdar (, , 'commander', literally 'headmaster'), is a title of royalty and nobility that was originally used to denote princes, noblemen, chiefs, kings and other aristocrats. It has also been used to denote a chief or leader of a tribe or group. It is used as a Persian synonym of the title "Emir" of Arabic origin.


title: Sardar

text: In modern history it is known as the title for Afghan Princes during the Afghan Royal Kingdom, descending from the Emir Sultan Mohammed Khan Telai. It was also used as a title of merit in the "Nishan-i-Sardari" for outstanding service in statecraft.


title: Sardar

text: The term and its cognates originate from Persian "sardār" () and have been historically used across Persia (Iran), the Ottoman Empire and Turkey (as "Serdar"), Mesopotamia (now Iraq), Syria], South Asia (Pakistan, India, Bangladesh and Nepal), the Caucasus, Central Asia, the Balkans and Egypt (as "Sirdar").


title: Sardar

text: The term "sardar" was used by Sikh leaders and generals who held important positions in various Sikh Misls. The title is still commonly used by Sikhs today. Though historically signifying one's military rank or membership of a locally important family, in the contemporary period the title is used widely in India and neighbouring countries for any respected Sikh male. "Sardar" was also used to refer to generals of the Maratha Empire. After the decline of feudalism, "sardar" later indicated a Head of State, a Commander-in-chief, and an army military rank. As a military rank, a "sardar" typically marked the Commander-in-Chief or the highest-ranking military officer in an army, akin to the modern Field Marshal, General of the Army or Chief of Army. The more administrative title "Sirdar-Bahadur" denoted a Governor-General or Chief Minister of a remote province, akin to a British Viceroy.


title: Sardar

text: In Himalayan mountaineering, a "sirdar" is a local leader of the Sherpas. Among other duties, he records the heights reached by each Sherpa, which factors into their compensation.


title: Kendrick Bourne

text: Kendrick L. Bourne (born August 4, 1995) is an American football wide receiver for the New England Patriots of the National Football League (NFL). He played college football at Eastern Washington. He also played for the San Francisco 49ers.


title: Kendrick Bourne

text: Bourne attended and played college football at Eastern Washington and contributed from 2013 to 2016. He was a respected receiver for EWU.


title: Kendrick Bourne

text: On April 30, 2017, the San Francisco 49ers signed Bourne to a three-year, US$1.67 million contract as an undrafted free agent. The contract included $25,000 guaranteed and a signing bonus of $5,000.


title: Kendrick Bourne

text: Throughout training camp, Bourne competed for a roster spot as a backup wide receiver against Aldrick Robinson, Bruce Ellington, DeAndre Smelter, Aaron Burbridge, DeAndre Carter, B. J. Johnson, and Victor Bolden Jr. Head coach Kyle Shanahan named Bourne the fifth wide receiver on the depth chart to begin the regular season, behind Marquise Goodwin, Pierre Garçon, Aldrick Robinson, and Trent Taylor.


title: Kendrick Bourne

text: He made his professional regular season debut during the San Francisco 49ers’ season-opening 23–3 loss against the Carolina Panthers. Bourne was inactive as a healthy scratch for the next five games (Weeks 2–6). On November 5, 2017, Bourne caught two passes for 39-yards during a 20–10 loss against the Arizona Cardinals. Bourne made his first career reception on a 25-yard pass by C. J. Beathard during the third quarter against the Cardinals. In Week 14, Bourne had a season-high four receptions for 85 receiving yards as the 49ers defeated the Tennessee Titans 25–23. He appeared in 11 games without a start during his rookie campaign and finished 16 receptions for 257 receiving yards. Head coach Kyle Shanahan praised Bourne's improvement over his rookie year.


title: Kendrick Bourne

text: Bourne entered camp as a backup wide receiver. Head coach Kyle Shanahan named him the fifth wide receiver on the depth chart to start the 2018 NFL season, behind Pierre Garçon, Marquise Goodwin, Trent Taylor, and Dante Pettis.


title: Kendrick Bourne

text: On September 16, 2018, Bourne caught his first career touchdown reception on a four-yard pass by quarterback Jimmy Garoppolo during a 30–27 victory against the Detroit Lions. On October 28, 2018, Bourne made his first career start after Pierre Garçon aggravated a knee injury. Bourne finished the 49ers’ 18–15 loss at the Arizona Cardinals in Week 8 with a season-high seven catches for 71-yards. In Week 15, he caught four passes for a season-high 73 receiving yards as the 49ers lost 14–9 against the Chicago Bears. Bourne finished the 2018 NFL season with 42 receptions for 487 yards and four touchdowns. He led all of the San Francisco 49ers’ wide receivers in receiving yards and receptions.


title: Kendrick Bourne

text: In the 2019 season, Bourne had 30 receptions for 358 receiving yards and five receiving touchdowns. Bourne tied with George Kittle for the most touchdown receptions on the team with five. The 49ers finished with a 13–3 record and earned the #1-seed for the NFC Playoffs. In the Divisional Round against the Minnesota Vikings, he had three receptions for 40 receiving yards and one receiving touchdown in the 27–10 victory. He had a quiet day with a single reception for six yards in the 37–20 victory over the Green Bay Packers in the NFC Championship. The 49ers reached Super Bowl LIV, but they lost 31–20 to the Kansas City Chiefs. Bourne had two receptions for 42 receiving yards in the game.


title: Kendrick Bourne

text: On April 6, 2020, Bourne was re-signed to a one-year, $3.259 million contract. He was placed on the reserve/COVID-19 list by the team on November 4, 2020, and activated two days later. He was placed back on the list on November 9, and activated again on November 13.


title: Kendrick Bourne

text: During Week 6 against the Dallas Cowboys, Bourne had a 75-yard touchdown on his only reception of the game as the Patriots lost 35–29 in overtime. In Week 7 against the New York Jets, Bourne threw his first career touchdowns pass a 25 yarder to receiver Nelson Agholor. He also had 4 receptions for 68 yard in the game as the Patriots won 54–13. In a Week 10 45–7 win against the Cleveland Browns, Bourne had 4 receptions for 98 yards and a touchdown, the 98 yards were a career high in a game for Bourne. In Week 12 against the Tennessee Titans, Bourne had 5 receptions for 61 yards and 2 touchdowns, including a 41 yarder and helped the Patriots win their 6th straight game 36–13.


title: John Badham

text: John MacDonald Badham (born August 25, 1939) is an English television and film director, best known for his films "Saturday Night Fever" (1977), "Dracula" (1979), "Blue Thunder" (1983), "WarGames" (1983), "Short Circuit" (1986), and "Stakeout" (1987).


title: John Badham

text: Badham was born in Luton, Bedfordshire, England, the son of U.S. Army General Henry Lee Badham Jr., and English-born actress Mary Iola Badham (née Hewitt). Henry, a native of Birmingham, Alabama, moved his family back to the US when John was two years old. John's parents and paternal grandparents are buried in Elmwood Cemetery in Birmingham. Henry was an aviator in both World Wars, and was posthumously inducted into the Alabama Aviation Hall of Fame in 2007. After retirement from the U.S. Air Force as a brigadier general, Henry became a businessman and helped develop the Ensley and Bessemer regions near Birmingham. This same line of business had brought his own father, John's grandfather, into association with Walker Percy, grandfather of writer Walker Percy.


title: John Badham

text: After World War II, Badham's family settled in Mountain Brook, an affluent suburb of Birmingham. He attended Indian Springs School, at that time a brand-new, liberal boys' school located a short distance south of Birmingham in Shelby County near the rural post office of Helena. He later went to college at Yale University.


title: John Badham

text: Badham worked in television for years, before his breakthrough in 1977 with "Saturday Night Fever", a massive worldwide hit starring John Travolta. "WarGames" (1983), starring Matthew Broderick, is his other signature film, renowned for its take on popular Cold War fears of nuclear terror as well as being one of the first films to deal with the subculture of amateur hacking.


title: John Badham

text: In addition to his numerous film credits, Badham has also directed and produced for TV, including credits for Rod Serling's "Night Gallery", and the A&E television series "The Beast". He has also contributed commentary to the web series "Trailers from Hell".


title: John Badham

text: In 1986, he signed a two-year development deal with production company Universal Pictures, in order to develop various film projects.


title: John Badham

text: Badham has been considered to direct films that ended up being helmed by other directors, such as "The Wiz" (1978), "Brubaker" (1980), "First Blood" (1982), "Staying Alive" (1983), "The Dead Zone" (1983), "Starman" (1984), "Project X" (1987), "Short Circuit 2" (1988), "Ghost Dad" (1990), "Patriot Games" (1992), "The Firm" (1993), and "Dragonheart" (1996).


title: John Badham

text: Badham's sister, Mary Badham, was nominated for an Oscar for her role as "Scout" Finch in the film "To Kill a Mockingbird". They worked together on one project, William Castle's "Let's Kill Uncle", released in 1966; Badham was Castle's casting director, and Mary played one of the leads.


title: John Badham

text: Badham's former wife is retired model Jan Speck of "The New Treasure Hunt". She had assorted cameo roles in many of his projects, starting in the 1980s.


title: Michael E. Knight

text: Michael Edward Knight (born May 7, 1959) is an American actor, best known for his role as Tad Martin on ABC soap opera "All My Children".


title: Michael E. Knight

text: Knight was born in Princeton, New Jersey. He was educated at The Thacher School in Ojai, California, and attended Wesleyan University, graduating in 1980, a year ahead of schedule.


title: Michael E. Knight

text: Knight's first major acting role was portraying Tad Martin on the soap opera "All My Children". His first stint on the show ran from 1982–1986. He returned from 1988–1990, and again from 1992 until the ABC series finale in 2011 and the online revival of the series in 2013. Knight also appeared as Ted Orsini on "AMC" from 1993–1994. His reason for initially leaving "All My Children" was to pursue acting projects on the West Coast, which included a starring role in the feature film "Date with an Angel" (1987), and various primetime appearances — including "Murder, She Wrote", "Dear John" and "Grapevine". Knight co-starred in the off-Broadway play "Wrong Turn at Lungfish", and he appeared in the ABC movie for television "She Stood Alone: The Tailhook Scandal", and in the off-Broadway "Cakewalk" with Linda Lavin.


title: Michael E. Knight

text: Knight was honored with two Daytime Emmy Awards for 'Outstanding Younger Leading Actor' (1986 and 1987). In 2001, he was honored with his third Daytime Emmy Award. He also received the 1997 Soap Opera Digest Award for 'Best Supporting Actor' and a nomination in the same category in 1998. In 2005, he was nominated for an Emmy for 'Outstanding Leading Actor'.


title: Michael E. Knight

text: Knight was married from June 27, 1992 through 2006 to "One Life to Live" star Catherine Hickland, who was previously married to actor David Hasselhoff who coincidentally had played a character named "Michael Knight".


title: Michael E. Knight

text: Knight and Hickland were honored for their charitable work by the West End Intergenerational Residence in Manhattan in 1999.


title: Michael E. Knight

text: In 2015 and 2016, Knight had a recurring role as Dr. Simon Neville on CBS' "The Young and the Restless". On February 2, 2017, Knight made a surprise appearance on the Hallmark Channel's "Home & Family" show, where he was reunited with a number of his former "All My Children" castmates.


title: Michael E. Knight

text: On September 30, 2019, Knight began appearing in a recurring role on "General Hospital" as lawyer Martin Gray.


title: Fiona Fullerton

text: Fiona Elizabeth Fullerton (born 10 October 1956) is a British actress and singer, known for her role as Alice in the 1972 film "Alice's Adventures in Wonderland" and as Bond girl KGB spy Pola Ivanova in the 1985 James Bond film "A View to a Kill".


title: Fiona Fullerton

text: Fullerton is the daughter of Bernard and Pamela (née Crook) Fullerton. An only child, Fullerton was born at Ungwan Sarki Kaduna in Kaduna State, Nigeria. She had lived with her parents in Singapore, Germany and the United States. After weekly ballet lessons, at the age of 9 she was accepted into Elmhurst Ballet School in Camberley, Surrey as a boarder.


title: Fiona Fullerton

text: Fullerton made her film acting debut at the age of 12 in 1969 with a role in "Run Wild, Run Free". Subsequent credits included: "Nicholas and Alexandra" (as Anastasia), "Alice's Adventures in Wonderland" (as Alice) at the age of 15, and "The Human Factor".


title: Fiona Fullerton

text: On television, Fullerton was among the original cast members on the BBC hospital drama "Angels" in 1975. She later appeared in series such as "The Charmer", "Hold the Dream" and "To Be the Best". In 1982, she starred on the West End stage as Guinevere in the musical "Camelot", alongside Richard Harris.


title: Fiona Fullerton

text: In 1985, she played the role of Pola Ivanova in the James Bond film "A View to a Kill". In 1986 she appeared in the TV series "Shaka Zulu".


title: Fiona Fullerton

text: Fullerton has her own property company, which buys and manages flats, mainly in London. She also writes a series of columns on property investing. She is also a brand ambassador for "RatedPeople.com", a home improvement site.


title: Fiona Fullerton

text: Fullerton married actor Simon MacCorkindale in 1976 at the age of nineteen, but the marriage ended in divorce in 1981. She then spent thirteen years living and working in London. She met Neil Shackell and the couple married shortly after meeting in 1994, and now live in the Cotswolds with his son James and their daughter Lucy (born 1995).


title: Toussaint Charbonneau

text: Toussaint Charbonneau (March 20, 1767 – August 12, 1843) was a French-Canadian explorer, trader and a member of the Lewis and Clark Expedition. He is also known as the husband of Sacagawea.


title: Toussaint Charbonneau

text: Charbonneau was born in Boucherville, Québec (near Montréal) around 1759 or 1767. Boucherville was a community with strong links to exploration and the fur trade.


title: Toussaint Charbonneau

text: His paternal great grandmother Marguerite de Noyon was the sister of Jacques de Noyon, who had explored the region around Kaministiquia, present day Thunder Bay, Ontario, in 1688. In the late 1790s Charbonneau became a fur trader who lived among the Hidatsa and Mandan native tribes.


title: Toussaint Charbonneau

text: Charbonneau worked, for a time, as a fur trapper with the North West Company (NWC), assigned to the Pine Fort on the Assiniboine River in what is now Manitoba. The North West Company was founded to compete with the dominant Hudson Bay Company, which was an English company that employed many Frenchmen. This company pushed west, which allowed it to trade with the Mandan and Hidatsa native tribes. John MacDonell, recorder of one of their expeditions, first noted Charbonneau in their historical journal. After several routine mentions of Charbonneau, MacDonell wrote on May 30, 1795: "Toussaint. Charbonneau was stabbed at the Manitou-a-banc end of the Portage la Prairie, Manitoba in the act of committing a Rape upon her Daughter by an old Saultier woman with a Canoe Awl— a fate he highly deserved for his brutality— It was with difficulty he could walk back over the portage."


title: Toussaint Charbonneau

text: While living among the Hidatsa people, Charbonneau purchased or won a Shoshone girl: Sacagawea (Bird Woman) from the Hidatsa. The Hidatsa had captured Sacagawea on one of their annual raiding and hunting parties to the west. It is possible that Sacagawea had little choice in the matter, or that she chose it because it was preferable to her previous position. When he married Sacagawea in 1804, he was already married to Otter Woman, another Shoshone woman. Charbonneau eventually considered these women to be his wives, though whether they were bound through Native American custom or simply through common-law marriage is undetermined. By the summer of 1804, Sacagawea was pregnant with their first child.


title: Toussaint Charbonneau

text: In November 1804, Meriwether Lewis and William Clark came to the area, built Fort Mandan, and recruited members to the Corps of Discovery. Originally, Lewis and Clark were working with a Frenchman named Larocque, however the relationship became increasingly tense. This led Lewis and Clark to recruit Charbonneau who worked under Laroque. Charbonneau was asked to join the expedition as a translator. While Charbonneau could speak French and some Hidatsa, Lewis and Clark were more enthusiastic about having two Shoshone women join them. With Charbonneau, Sacagawea, and Otter Woman's skills combined, the expedition gained the ability to speak Hidatsa and Shoshone. They hired Charbonneau on November 4, and his wives moved into Fort Mandan with Charbonneau a week later.


title: Toussaint Charbonneau

text: On February 11, 1805 at the fort, Charbonneau and Sacagawea's son Jean-Baptiste was born. William Clark nicknamed the baby Pomp.


title: Toussaint Charbonneau

text: In the winter, as the expedition was being prepared, Charbonneau had second thoughts about his role with Lewis and Clark. This was because Charbonneau had received gifts from the North West Company upon news of his newborn son. The gifts given to him included: two arms’ length of scarlet cloth and one of blue, a pair of corduroy coats, one vest, a length of red cloth decorated with bars, 200 musket balls, a supply of powder, three knives, and some tobacco. This upset Lewis and Clark as they saw these gifts as a bribe for Charbonneau to work with the company to deter American ventures in the fur trade. On top of being dissatisfied with the requirement to stand guard and perform manual labor amongst other tasks, he was also being treated as a traitor by his new employers. On March 12, 1805, he quit the expedition. However, on March 17 he returned and apologized, requesting to re-join the company; he was re-hired the following day. His performance during the journey was mixed: Meriwether Lewis called him "a man of no peculiar merit", and many historians have painted Charbonneau in a distinctly unfavorable light. One of the most well-known anecdotes about Charbonneau is the incident with the "white pirogue." On May 14, 1805, the pirogue guided by Charbonneau was hit by a gust of wind and lost control. Charbonneau panicked and nearly capsized the boat, which would have meant the loss of valuable equipment and papers. It was only with the help of his wife, Sacagawea, that these important items were saved. Meriwether Lewis was irate, writing that Charbonneau was "perhaps the most timid waterman in the world." Charbonneau was also known for his short temper with his wives. On August 14, 1805, he struck Sacagawea in a fit of anger and was reprimanded by Clark. This occasion, in addition to the rape incident earlier in his life, gave Charbonneau a bad reputation.


title: Toussaint Charbonneau

text: Charbonneau, however, did make several contributions to the success of the expedition. He was helpful when the expedition encountered French trappers from Canada and he served as a cook; his recipe for "boudin blanc" (a sausage made from bison meat) was praised by several members of the party. Additionally, his skill in striking a bargain came in handy when the expedition acquired much-needed horses at the Shoshone encampment.


title: Toussaint Charbonneau

text: Charbonneau and his family stayed with the Lewis and Clark expedition until August 1806. He was paid $500.33, plus a horse and a lodge, for his nineteen months with the expedition. In addition to the payment, William Clark wrote a parting letter to Charbonneau, inviting a continued relationship. He even asked if it was possible for Jean Baptiste to stay with the expedition to be raised by Clark.


title: Toussaint Charbonneau

text: Clark offered to set up Charbonneau and his family in St. Louis after the expedition. Charbonneau initially declined Clark's offer, as he preferred life with the Mandan and Hidatsa. However, the family relocated to St. Louis in 1809 so that Jean Baptiste could be educated. Charbonneau bought land from Clark and briefly took up farming. He gave it up after a few months, selling the land back to Clark for 100 dollars. He also left Sacagawea and his two sons Toussaint and Jean Baptiste in Clark’s protection. In April, 1811, Charbonneau started working for Henry M. Brackenridge, an explorer headed up the Missouri River. In Charbonneau’s company was his older wife, Otter Woman.


title: Toussaint Charbonneau

text: He then took a job with Manuel Lisa's Missouri Fur Company, and was stationed at Fort Manuel Lisa Trading Post in present-day North Dakota. During this time, Sacagawea was pregnant and gave birth to a girl named Lisette. Shortly after the birth, Sacagawea died on December 20, 1812. Lisette was taken back to St. Louis to live with Jean Baptiste. The following year Charbonneau signed over formal custody of his son Jean Baptiste and daughter Lisette to William Clark.


title: Toussaint Charbonneau

text: During the period of 1811–1838, Charbonneau also worked for the Upper Missouri Agency's Indian Bureau (a federal agency) as a translator. He earned from $300 to $400 per year from the government. He may have gained this position by the patronage of William Clark, who was from 1813 the governor of the Missouri Territory; upon Clark's death, Charbonneau's employment with the government came to an abrupt halt. Surviving records show that Charbonneau was widely disliked by others in the Missouri Territory. Part of the reason for this may be his casual attitude toward employment: he was variously hired by Lisa's Missouri Fur Company and by John Jacob Astor's American Fur Company, bitter rivals. He is also said to have abandoned another employer, James Kipp, while on a fur expedition in 1834.


title: Toussaint Charbonneau

text: Charbonneau is known to have had a total of five wives, all young Native American women whom he married when they were sixteen years old or younger, which was not unusual for the time. He may have had more wives who have been lost to the record, however. His last known wife, an Assiniboine girl, was 14 when she married him in 1837; he was more than 70 years old.


title: Toussaint Charbonneau

text: While his exact death date is not known, Charbonneau probably died in 1843, because that is the year Jean-Baptiste settled his father's estate. It is generally accepted that he died and was buried in Fort Mandan, North Dakota, but some believe he is buried in Richwoods, Missouri with a headstone marked "Toussaint Charboneau, 1781–1866" [sic]. While these dates are wrong, people in Richwoods claim to be descendants of Charbonneau.


title: Bee pollen

text: Bee pollen, also known as bee bread and ambrosia, is a ball or pellet of field-gathered flower pollen packed by worker honeybees, and used as the primary food source for the hive. It consists of simple sugars, protein, minerals and vitamins, fatty acids, and a small percentage of other components. Bee pollen is stored in brood cells, mixed with saliva, and sealed with a drop of honey. Bee pollen is harvested as food for humans and marketed as having various, but yet unproven, health benefits.


title: Bee pollen

text: In honeybees ("Apis" species) pollen is stored in the chambers of the hives. It differs from field gathered pollen as honey bee secretions induce a fermentation process, where biochemical transformations break down the walls of flower pollen grains and render the nutrients more readily available.


title: Bee pollen

text: Forager bees that gather pollen do not eat it themselves, since they stop producing the proteolytic enzymes necessary to digest it when they transition to foraging. The foragers unload the pollen they gather directly into open cells located at the interface between the brood and stored honey, creating a typical band of what is called bee bread – the substance which is the main food source for honey bee larvae and workers.


title: Bee pollen

text: Foraging bees bring pollen back to the hive, where they pass it off to other worker bees, who pack the pollen into cells with their heads. During collection and possibly packing, the pollen is mixed with nectar and bee salivary secretions, signalling the start of the lactic fermentation process. Bee pollen is the primary source of protein for the hive.


title: Bee pollen

text: Bees other than "Apis" typically form pollen into balls; these are primarily ground-nesting bees or twig-nesting bees, most of which are solitary, such as leafcutter bees. With the leafcutter bee, as in most such bees, when the pollen ball is complete, the female lays an egg on top of the pollen ball, and seals the brood cell. The egg hatches and the larva consumes the pollen directly; the pollen is not stored separately from the brood. This method of pollen usage can also be seen in the wood-nesting bee species "Xylocopa sulcatipes" and "Xylocopa sonorina".


title: Bee pollen

text: Like honey and propolis, other well-known honey bee products that are gathered rather than secreted (i.e., in contrast to royal jelly and beeswax), the exact chemical composition depends on the plants from which the worker bees gather the pollen, and can vary from hour to hour, day to day, week to week, colony to colony, even in the same apiary, with no two samples of bee pollen being exactly identical. Accordingly, chemical and nutritional analyses of bee pollen apply only to the specific samples being tested and cannot be extrapolated to samples gathered in other places or other times.


title: Bee pollen

text: Although there is no specific chemical composition, the average composition is said to be 40–60% simple sugars (fructose and glucose), 20–60% proteins, 3% minerals and vitamins, 1–32% fatty acids, and 5% diverse other components. Bee bread is a niche for yeasts and bacteria, including lactic acid bacteria, "Bifidobacterium", "Bacillus" spp., and others. A study of bee pollen samples showed that they may contain 188 kinds of fungi and 29 kinds of bacteria. Despite this microbial diversity, stored pollen is a preservation environment similar to honey, and contains consistently low microbial biomass.


title: Bee pollen

text: Bee pollen has been touted by herbalists as a treatment for a variety of medical conditions. Bee bread is growing in commercial interest due to its high nutritional properties: is very good source of bioactive compounds not only with antioxidant, but also antimicrobial effect. Bee bread is rich in micronutrients, minerals, and phenolic compounds.


title: Bee pollen

text: Potential risks of consuming bee pollen include contamination by fungal mycotoxins, pesticides, or toxic metals. Bee pollen is safe for short term use, but for those with pollen allergies, allergic reactions may occur (shortness of breath, hives, swelling, and anaphylaxis). Bee pollen is not safe for pregnant women and should not be used during breastfeeding. The Food and Drug Administration has warned against the use of some bee pollen products because they are adulterated with unapproved drugs including sibutramine and phenolphthalein.


title: Bee pollen

text: There are several artificial pollen diets available for honey bees that incorporate a variety of ingredients like soy, corn gluten, yeast, egg, or milk protein, but they often fail to provide the essential macronutrients (such as lipids and proteins), micronutrients (vitamins and minerals), and antioxidants needed by honey bees to thrive.


title: History of the Democratic Republic of the Congo

text: Discovered in the 1990s, human remains in the Democratic Republic of the Congo have been dated to approximately 90,000 years ago. The first real states, such as the Kongo, the Lunda, the Luba and Kuba, appeared south of the equatorial forest on the savannah from the 14th century onwards.


text: The Kingdom of Kongo controlled much of western and central Africa including what is now the western portion of the DR Congo between the 14th and the early 19th centuries. At its peak it had many as 500,000 people, and its capital was known as Mbanza-Kongo (south of Matadi, in modern-day Angola). In the late 15th century, Portuguese sailors arrived in the Kingdom of Kongo, and this led to a period of great prosperity and consolidation, with the king's power being founded on Portuguese trade. King Afonso I (1506–1543) had raids carried out on neighboring districts in response to Portuguese requests for slaves. After his death, the kingdom underwent a deep crisis.


text: The Atlantic slave trade occurred from approximately 1500 to 1850, with the entire west coast of Africa targeted, but the region around the mouth of the Congo suffered the most intensive enslavement. Over a strip of coastline about long, about 4 million people were enslaved and sent across the Atlantic to sugar plantations in Brazil, the US and the Caribbean. From 1780 onwards, there was a higher demand for slaves in the US which led to more people being enslaved. By 1780, more than 15,000 people were shipped annually from the Loango Coast, north of the Congo.


text: In 1870, explorer Henry Morton Stanley arrived in and explored what is now the DR Congo. Belgian colonization of DR Congo began in 1885 when King Leopold II founded and ruled the Congo Free State. However, de facto control of such a huge area took decades to achieve. Many outposts were built to extend the power of the state over such a vast territory. In 1885, the Force Publique was set up, a colonial army with white officers and black soldiers. In 1886, Leopold made Camille Jansen the first Belgian governor-general of Congo. Over the late 19th century, various Christian (including Catholic and Protestant) missionaries arrived intending to convert the local population. A railway between Matadi and Stanley Pool was built in the 1890s. Reports of widespread murder, torture, and other abuses in the rubber plantations led to international and Belgian outrage and the Belgian government transferred control of the region from Leopold II and established the Belgian Congo in 1908.


text: Following unrest, Belgium granted Congo independence in June 1960. However, the Congo remained unstable, leading to the Congo Crisis, where the regional governments of Katanga and South Kasai attempted to gain independence with Belgian support. Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba tried to suppress secession with the aid of the Soviet Union as part of the Cold War, causing the United States to support a coup led by Colonel Joseph Mobutu in September 1960. Lumumba was handed over to the Katangan government and executed in January 1961. The successionist movements were later defeated by the Congolese government as were the Soviet-backed Simba rebels. Following the end of the Congo Crisis in 1965, Joseph Kasa-Vubu was deposed and Mobutu seized complete power of the country and later renamed it Zaire. He sought to Africanize the country, changing his own name to Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu Wa Za Banga, and demanded that African citizens change their Western names to traditional African names. Mobutu sought to repress any opposition to his rule, which he successfully did throughout the 1980s. However, with his regime weakened in the 1990s, Mobutu was forced to agree to a power-sharing government with the opposition party. Mobutu remained the head of state and promised elections within the next two years that never took place.


text: During the First Congo War, Rwanda invaded Zaire, in which Mobutu lost his power during this process. In 1997, Laurent-Désiré Kabila took power and renamed the country the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Afterward, the Second Congo War broke out, resulting in a regional war in which many different African nations took part and in which millions of people were killed or displaced. Kabila was assassinated by his bodyguard in 2001, and his son, Joseph, succeeded him and was later elected president by the Congolese government in 2006. Joseph Kabila quickly sought peace. Foreign soldiers remained in the Congo for a few years and a power-sharing government between Joseph Kabila and the opposition party was set up. Joseph Kabila later resumed complete control over the Congo and was re-elected in a disputed election in 2011. In 2018, Félix Tshisekedi was elected president; in the first peaceful transfer of power since independence.


text: The area now known as the Democratic Republic of the Congo was populated as early as 80,000 years ago, as shown by the 1988 discovery of the Semliki harpoon at Katanda, one of the oldest barbed harpoons ever found, which is believed to have been used to catch giant river catfish. During its recorded history, the area has also been known as "Congo", "Congo Free State", "Belgian Congo", and "Zaire".


text: The Kingdom of Kongo existed from the 14th to the early 19th century. Until the arrival of the Portuguese it was the dominant force in the region along with the Kingdom of Luba, the Kingdom of Lunda, the Mongo people and the Anziku Kingdom.


text: The Congo Free State was a corporate state privately controlled by Leopold II of Belgium through the "Association Internationale africaine", a non-governmental organization. Leopold was the sole shareholder and chairman. The state included the entire area of the present the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Under Leopold II, the Congo Free State became one of the most infamous international scandals of the turn of the twentieth century. The report of the British Consul Roger Casement led to the arrest and punishment of white officials who had been responsible for cold-blooded killings during a rubber-collecting expedition in 1900, including a Belgian national who caused the shooting of at least 122 Congolese natives. Estimates of the total death toll vary considerably. The first census was only done in 1924, so it is even more difficult to quantify the population loss of the period. Roger Casement's famous 1904 report estimated ten million people. According to Casement's report, indiscriminate "war", starvation, reduction of births and Tropical diseases caused the country's depopulation. European and U.S. press agencies exposed the conditions in the Congo Free State to the public in 1900. By 1908 public and diplomatic pressure had led Leopold II to annex the Congo as the Belgian Congo colony.


text: On 15 November 1908 King Leopold II of Belgium formally relinquished personal control of the Congo Free State. The renamed Belgian Congo was put under the direct administration of the Belgian government and its Ministry of Colonies.


text: Belgian rule in the Congo was based around the "colonial trinity" ("trinité colonial") of state, missionary and private company interests. The privileging of Belgian commercial interests meant that large amounts of capital flowed into the Congo and that individual regions became specialized. The interests of the government and private enterprise became closely tied; the state helped companies break strikes and remove other barriers imposed by the indigenous population. The country was split into nesting, hierarchically organized administrative subdivisions, and run uniformly according to a set "native policy" ("politique indigène")—in contrast to the British and the French, who generally favored the system of indirect rule whereby traditional leaders were retained in positions of authority under colonial oversight. There was also a high degree of racial segregation. Large numbers of white immigrants who moved to the Congo after the end of World War II came from across the social spectrum, but were nonetheless always treated as superior to blacks.


text: During the 1940s and 1950s, the Congo experienced an unprecedented level of urbanization and the colonial administration began various development programs aimed at making the territory into a "model colony". Notable advances were made in treating diseases such as African trypanosomiasis. One of the results of these measures was the development of a new middle class of Europeanised African "évolués" in the cities. By the 1950s the Congo had a wage labor force twice as large as that in any other African colony. The Congo's rich natural resources, including uranium—much of the uranium used by the U.S. nuclear programme during World War II was Congolese—led to substantial interest in the region from both the Soviet Union and the United States as the Cold War developed.


text: During the latter stages of World War II a new social stratum emerged in the Congo, known as the "évolué"s. Forming an African middle class in the colony, they held skilled positions (such as clerks and nurses) made available by the economic boom. While there were no universal criteria for determining "évolué status", it was generally accepted that one would have "a good knowledge of French, adhere to Christianity, and have some form of post-primary education." Early on in their history, most "évolué"s sought to use their unique status to earn special privileges in the Congo. Since opportunities for upward mobility through the colonial structure were limited, the "évolué" class institutionally manifested itself in elite clubs through which they could enjoy trivial privileges that made them feel distinct from the Congolese "masses". Additional groups, such as labor unions, alumni associations, and ethnic syndicates, provided other Congolese the means of organization. Among the most important of these was the Alliance des Bakongo (ABAKO), representing the Kongo people of the Lower Congo. However, they were restricted in their actions by the administration. While white settlers were consulted in the appointment of certain officials, the Congolese had no means of expressing their beliefs through the governing structures. Though native chiefs held legal authority in some jurisdictions, in practice they were used by the administration to further its own policies.


text: Up into the 1950s, most "évolué"s were concerned only with social inequalities and their treatment by the Belgians. Questions of self-government were not considered until 1954 when ABAKO requested that the administration consider a list of suggested candidates for a Léopoldville municipal post. That year the association was taken over by Joseph Kasa-Vubu, and under his leadership, it became increasingly hostile to the colonial authority and sought autonomy for the Kongo regions in the Lower Congo. In 1956 a group of Congolese intellectuals under the tutelage of several European academics issued a manifesto calling for a transition to independence over the course of 30 years. The ABAKO quickly responded with a demand for "immediate independence". The Belgian government was not prepared to grant the Congo independence and even when it started realizing the necessity of a plan for decolonization in 1957, it was assumed that such a process would be solidly controlled by Belgium. In December 1957 the colonial administration instituted reforms that permitted municipal elections and the formation of political parties. Some Belgian parties attempted to establish branches in the colony, but these were largely ignored by the population in favour of Congolese-initiated groups. Nationalism fermented in 1958 as more "évolué"s began interacting with others outside of their own locales and started discussing the future structures of a post-colonial Congolese state. Nevertheless, most political mobilisation occurred along tribal and regional divisions. In Katanga, various tribal groups came together to form the Confédération des associations tribales du Katanga (CONAKAT) under the leadership of Godefroid Munongo and Moïse Tshombe. Hostile to immigrant peoples, it advocated provincial autonomy and close ties with Belgium. Most of its support was rooted in individual chiefs, businessmen, and European settlers of southern Katanga. It was opposed by Jason Sendwe's Association Générale des Baluba du Katanga (BALUBAKAT).


text: In October 1958 a group of Léopoldville "évolués" including Patrice Lumumba, Cyrille Adoula and Joseph Iléo established the Mouvement National Congolais (MNC). Diverse in membership, the party sought to peacefully achieve Congolese independence, promote the political education of the populace, and eliminate regionalism. The MNC drew most of its membership from the residents of the eastern city of Stanleyville, where Lumumba was well known, and from the population of the Kasai Province, where efforts were directed by a Muluba businessman, Albert Kalonji. Belgian officials appreciated its moderate and anti-separatist stance and allowed Lumumba to attend the All-African Peoples' Conference in Accra, Ghana, in December 1958 (Kasa-Vubu was informed that the documents necessary for his travel to the event were not in order and was not permitted to go). Lumumba was deeply impressed by the Pan-Africanist ideals of Ghanaian President Kwame Nkrumah and returned to the Congo with a more radical party programme. He reported on his trip during a widely attended rally in Léopoldville and demanded the country's "genuine" independence.


text: Fearing that they were being overshadowed by Lumumba and the MNC, Kasa-Vubu and the ABAKO leadership announced that they would be hosting their own rally in the capital on 4 January 1959. The municipal government (under Belgian domination) was given short notice, and communicated that only a "private meeting" would be authorised. On the scheduled day of the rally the ABAKO leadership told the crowd that had gathered that the event was postponed and that they should disperse. The mass was infuriated and instead began hurling stones at the police and pillaging European property, initiating three days of violent and destructive riots. The Force Publique, the colonial army, was called into service and suppressed the revolt with considerable brutality. In wake of the riots Kasa-Vubu and his lieutenants were arrested. Unlike earlier expressions of discontent, the grievances were conveyed primarily by uneducated urban residents, not "évolué"s. Popular opinion in Belgium was one of extreme shock and surprise. An investigative commission found the riots to be the culmination of racial discrimination, overcrowding, unemployment, and wishes for more political self-determination. On 13 January the administration announced several reforms, and the Belgian King, Baudouin, declared that independence would be granted to the Congo in the future.


text: Meanwhile, discontent surfaced among the MNC leadership, who were bothered by Lumumba's domination over the party's politics. Relations between Lumumba and Kalonji also grew tense, as the former was upset with how the latter was transforming the Kasai branch into an exclusively Luba group and antagonising other tribes. This culminated into the split of the party into the MNC-Lumumba/MNC-L under Lumumba and the MNC-Kalonji/MNC-K under Kalonji and Iléo. The latter began advocating federalism. Adoula left the organisation. Alone to lead his own faction and facing competition from ABAKO, Lumumba became increasingly strident in his demands for independence. Following an October riot in Stanleyville he was arrested. Nevertheless, the influence of himself and the MNC-L continued to grow rapidly. The party advocated for a strong unitary state, nationalism, and the termination of Belgian rule and began forming alliances with regional groups, such as the Kivu-based Centre du Regroupement Africain (CEREA). Though the Belgians supported a unitary system over the federal models suggested by ABAKO and CONAKAT, they and more moderate Congolese were unnerved by Lumumba's increasingly extremist attitudes. With the implicit support of the colonial administration, the moderates formed the Parti National du Progrès (PNP) under the leadership of Paul Bolya and Albert Delvaux. It advocated centralisation, respect for traditional elements, and close ties with Belgium. In southern Léopoldville Province, a socialist-federalist party, the Parti Solidaire Africain (PSA) was founded. Antoine Gizenga served as its president, and Cléophas Kamitatu was in charge of the Léopoldville Province chapter.


text: Following the riots in Leopoldville 4–7 January 1959, and in Stanleyville on 31 October 1959, the Belgians realised they could not maintain control of such a vast country in the face of rising demands for independence. Belgian and Congolese political leaders held a Round Table Conference in Brussels beginning on 18 January 1960.


text: At the end of the conference, on 27 January 1960, it was announced that elections would be held in the Congo on 22 May 1960, and full independence granted on 30 June 1960. The elections produced the nationalist Patrice Lumumba as prime minister, and Joseph Kasavubu as president.


text: On independence the country adopted the name "Republic of the Congo" (République du Congo). The French colony of Middle Congo (Moyen Congo) also chose the name Republic of the Congo upon its independence, so the two countries were more commonly known as Congo-Léopoldville and Congo-Brazzaville, after their capital cities.


text: In 1960, the country was very unstable—regional tribal leaders held far more power than the central government—and with the departure of the Belgian administrators, almost no skilled bureaucrats remained in the country. The first Congolese graduated from university only in 1956, and very few in the new nation had any idea how to manage a country of such size.


text: On 5 July 1960, a military mutiny by Congolese soldiers against their European officers broke out in the capital and rampant looting began. On 11 July 1960 the richest province of the country, Katanga, seceded under Moise Tshombe. The United Nations sent 20,000 peacekeepers to protect Europeans in the country and try to restore order. Western paramilitaries and mercenaries, often hired by mining companies to protect their interests, also began to pour into the country. In this period Congo's second richest province, Kasai, also announced its independence on 8 August 1960.


text: After trying to get help from the United States and the United Nations, Prime Minister Lumumba turned to the USSR for assistance. Nikita Khrushchev agreed to help, offering advanced weaponry and technical advisors. The United States viewed the Soviet presence as an attempt to take advantage of the situation and gain a proxy state in sub-Saharan Africa. UN forces were ordered to block any shipments of arms into the country. The United States also looked for a way to replace Lumumba as leader. President Kasavubu had clashed with Prime Minister Lumumba and advocated an alliance with the West rather than the Soviets. The U.S. sent weapons and CIA personnel to aid forces allied with Kasavubu and combat the Soviet presence.


text: On 23 August, the Congolese armed forces invaded South Kasai and perpetrated massacres against the Luba people. Lumumba was dismissed from office on 5 September 1960 by Kasavubu who publicly blamed him for the massacres in South Kasai and for involving Soviets in the country. On 14 September 1960, with CIA support, Colonel Joseph Mobutu overthrew the government and arrested Lumumba. A technocratic government, the College of Commissioners-General, was established.


text: On 17 January 1961 Mobutu sent Lumumba to Élisabethville (now Lubumbashi), capital of Katanga. In full view of the press he was beaten and forced to eat copies of his own speeches. For three weeks afterward, he was not seen or heard from. Then Katangan radio announced implausibly that he had escaped and been killed by villagers. It was soon clear that in fact he had been tortured and killed along with two others shortly after his arrival. In 2001, a Belgian inquiry established that he had been shot by Katangan gendarmes in the presence of Belgian officers, under Katangan command. Lumumba was beaten, placed in front of a firing squad with two allies, cut up, buried, dug up and what remained was dissolved in acid.


text: In Stanleyville, those loyal to the deposed Lumumba set up a rival government under Antoine Gizenga which lasted from 31 March 1961 until it was reintegrated on 5 August 1961. After some reverses, UN and Congolese government forces succeeded in recapturing the breakaway provinces of South Kasai on 30 December 1961, and Katanga on 15 January 1963.


text: Beginning in 1964, in the east of the country, Soviet and Cuban backed rebels called the Simbas rose up, taking a significant amount of territory and proclaiming a communist "People's Republic of the Congo" in Stanleyville. As the Congolese government was reclaiming territory from the Simbas, the rebels resorted to taking the local white population hostage. Belgian and American forces pushed the Simbas out of Stanleyville in November 1964 during a hostage rescue operation. Congolese government forces, supported by European mercenaries, fully defeated the Simba rebels by November 1965. The Simba rebels executed 20,000 Congolese and 392 Western hostages, including 268 Belgians, during the rebellion. Tens of thousands of people were killed in total during the suppression of the Simbas.


text: Unrest and rebellion plagued the government until November 1965, when Lieutenant General Joseph-Désiré Mobutu, by then commander in chief of the national army, seized control of the country and declared himself president for the next five years. Mobutu quickly consolidated his power, despite the Stanleyville mutinies of 1966 and 1967, and was elected unopposed as president in a sham election in 1970 for a seven-year term.


text: Embarking on a campaign of cultural awareness, President Mobutu renamed the country the "Republic of Zaire" in 1971 and required citizens to adopt African names and drop their French-language ones. The name comes from Portuguese, adapted from the Kongo word "nzere" or "nzadi" ("river that swallows all rivers"). Among other changes, Leopoldville became Kinshasa and Katanga Shaba.


text: Relative peace and stability prevailed until 1977 and 1978 when Katangan Front for Congolese National Liberation rebels, based in the Angolan People's Republic, launched the Shaba I and II invasions into the southeast Shaba region. These rebels were driven out with the aid of French and Belgian paratroopers plus Moroccan troops. An Inter-African Force remained in the region for some time afterwards.


text: Zaire remained a one-party state in the 1980s. Although Mobutu successfully maintained control during this period, opposition parties, most notably the Union pour la Démocratie et le Progrès Social (UDPS), were active. Mobutu's attempts to quell these groups drew significant international criticism.


text: As the Cold War came to a close, internal and external pressures on Mobutu increased. In late 1989 and early 1990, Mobutu was weakened by a series of domestic protests, by heightened international criticism of his regime's human rights practices, by a faltering economy, and by government corruption, most notably his own massive embezzlement of government funds for personal use.


text: In April 1990, Mobutu declared the Third Republic, agreeing to a limited multi-party system with free elections and a constitution. As details of the reforms were delayed, soldiers in September 1991 began looting Kinshasa to protest their unpaid wages. Two thousand French and Belgian troops, some of whom were flown in on U.S. Air Force planes, arrived to evacuate the 20,000 endangered foreign nationals in Kinshasa.


text: In 1992, after previous similar attempts, the long-promised Sovereign National Conference was staged, encompassing over 2,000 representatives from various political parties. The conference gave itself a legislative mandate and elected Archbishop Laurent Monsengwo Pasinya as its chairman, along with Étienne Tshisekedi wa Mulumba, leader of the UDPS, as prime minister. By the end of the year Mobutu had created a rival government with its own prime minister. The ensuing stalemate produced a compromise merger of the two governments into the High Council of Republic-Parliament of Transition (HCR-PT) in 1994, with Mobutu as head of state and Kengo Wa Dondo as prime minister. Although presidential and legislative elections were scheduled repeatedly over the next two years, they never took place.


text: By 1996, tensions from the war and genocide in neighboring Rwanda had spilled over into Zaire. Rwandan Hutu militia forces (Interahamwe) who had fled Rwanda following the ascension of a Tutsi-led government had been using Hutu refugee camps in eastern Zaire as bases for incursions into Rwanda. In October 1996


text: Rwandan forces attacked refugee camps in the Rusizi River plain near the intersection of the Congolese, Rwandan and Burundi borders meet, scattering refugees. They took Uvira, then Bukavu, Goma and Mugunga.


text: Hutu militia forces soon allied with the Zairian armed forces (FAZ) to launch a campaign against Congolese ethnic Tutsis in eastern Zaire. In turn, these Tutsis formed a militia to defend themselves against attacks. When the Zairian government began to escalate the massacres in November 1996, Tutsi militias erupted in rebellion against Mobutu.


text: The Tutsi militia was soon joined by various opposition groups and supported by several countries, including Rwanda and Uganda. This coalition, led by Laurent-Desire Kabila, became known as the Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la Libération du Congo-Zaïre (AFDL). The AFDL, now seeking the broader goal of ousting Mobutu, made significant military gains in early 1997. Various Zairean politicians who had unsuccessfully opposed the dictatorship of Mobutu for many years now saw an opportunity for them in the invasion of Zaire by two of the region's strongest military forces. Following failed peace talks between Mobutu and Kabila in May 1997, Mobutu left the country on 16 May. The AFDL entered Kinshasa unopposed a day later, and Kabila named himself president, reverting the name of the country to the Democratic Republic of the Congo. He marched into Kinshasa on 20 May and consolidated power around himself and the AFDL.


text: Kabila demonstrated little ability to manage the problems of his country, and lost his allies. To counterbalance the power and influence of Rwanda in DRC, Ugandan troops created another rebel movement called the Movement for the Liberation of Congo (MLC), led by the Congolese warlord Jean-Pierre Bemba. They attacked in August 1998, backed by Rwandan and Ugandan troops. Soon afterwards, Angola, Namibia, and Zimbabwe became involved militarily in the Congo, with Angola and Zimbabwe supporting the government. While the six African governments involved in the war signed a ceasefire accord in Lusaka in July 1999, the Congolese rebels did not and the ceasefire broke down within months.


text: Kabila was assassinated in 2001 by a bodyguard called Rashidi Kasereka, 18, who was then shot dead, according to Justice Minister Mwenze Kongolo. Another account of the assassination says that the real killer escaped.


text: Kabila was succeeded by his son, Joseph. Upon taking office, Kabila called for multilateral peace talks to end the war. Kabila partly succeeded when a further peace deal was brokered between him, Uganda, and Rwanda leading to the apparent withdrawal of foreign troops.


text: Currently, the Ugandans and the MLC still hold a wide section of the north of the country; Rwandan forces and its front, the Rassemblement Congolais pour la Démocratie (RCD) control a large section of the east; and government forces or their allies hold the west and south of the country. There were reports that the conflict is being prolonged as a cover for extensive looting of the substantial natural resources in the country, including diamonds, copper, zinc, and coltan. The conflict was reignited in January 2002 by ethnic clashes in the northeast and both Uganda and Rwanda then halted their withdrawal and sent in more troops. Talks between Kabila and the rebel leaders, held in Sun City, lasted a full six weeks, beginning in April 2002. In June, they signed a peace accord under which Kabila would share power with former rebels. By June 2003, all foreign armies except those of Rwanda had pulled out of Congo.


text: Few people in the Congo have been unaffected by the conflict. A survey conducted in 2009 by the ICRC and Ipsos shows that three-quarters (76%) of the people interviewed have been affected in some way–either personally or due to the wider consequences of armed conflict.


text: The response of the international community has been incommensurate with the scale of the disaster resulting from the war in the Congo. Its support for political and diplomatic efforts to end the war has been relatively consistent, but it has taken no effective steps to abide by repeated pledges to demand accountability for the war crimes and crimes against humanity that were routinely committed in Congo.


text: The United Nations Security Council and the U.N. Secretary-General have frequently denounced human rights abuses and the humanitarian disaster that the war unleashed on the local population, but have shown little will to tackle the responsibility of occupying powers for the atrocities taking place in areas under their control, areas where the worst violence in the country took place. In particular Rwanda and Uganda have escaped any significant sanction for their role.


text: DR Congo had a transitional government in July 2003 until the election was over. A constitution was approved by voters and on 30 July 2006 the Congo held its first multi-party elections since independence in 1960. Joseph Kabila took 45% of the votes and his opponent Jean-Pierre Bemba 20%. That was the origin of a fight between the two parties from 20 to 22 August 2006 in the streets of the capital, Kinshasa. Sixteen people died before policemen and MONUC took control of the city. A new election was held on 29 October 2006, which Kabila won with 70% of the vote. Bemba has decried election "irregularities". On 6 December 2006 Joseph Kabila was sworn in as president.


text: In December 2011, Joseph Kabila was re-elected for a second term as president. After the results were announced on 9 December, there was violent unrest in Kinshasa and Mbuji-Mayi, where official tallies showed that a strong majority had voted for the opposition candidate Etienne Tshisekedi. Official observers from the Carter Center reported that returns from almost 2,000 polling stations in areas where support for Tshisekedi was strong had been lost and not included in the official results. They described the election as lacking credibility. On 20 December, Kabila was sworn in for a second term, promising to invest in infrastructure and public services. However, Tshisekedi maintained that the result of the election was illegitimate and said that he intended also to "swear himself in" as president.


text: On 19 January 2015 protests led by students at the University of Kinshasa broke out. The protests began following the announcement of a proposed law that would allow Kabila to remain in power until a national census can be conducted (elections had been planned for 2016). By Wednesday 21 January clashes between police and protesters had claimed at least 42 lives (although the government claimed only 15 people had been killed).


text: Similarly, in September 2016, violent protests were met with brutal force by the police and Republican Guard soldiers. Opposition groups claim 80 dead, including the Students' Union leader. From Monday 19 September Kinshasa residents, as well as residents elsewhere in Congo, were mostly confined to their homes. Police arrested anyone remotely connected to the opposition as well as innocent onlookers. Government propaganda, on television, and actions of covert government groups in the streets, acted against opposition as well as foreigners. The president's mandate was due to end on 19 December 2016, but no plans were made to elect a replacement at that time and this caused further protests.


text: On 30 December 2018 the presidential election to determine the successor to Kabila was held. On 10 January 2019, the electoral commission announced opposition candidate Félix Tshisekedi as the winner of the vote. He was officially sworn in as president on 24 January 2019. in the ceremony of taking of the office Félix Tshisekedi appointed Vital Kamerhe as his chief of staff. In June 2020, chief of staff Vital Kamerhe was found guilty of embezzling public funds and he was sentenced to 20 years in prison. However, Kamerhe was released in December 2021.


text: The political allies of former president Joseph Kabila, who stepped down in January 2019, maintained control of key ministries, the legislature, judiciary and security services. However, President Felix Tshisekedi succeeded to strengthen his hold on power. In a series of moves, he won over more legislators, gaining the support of almost 400 out of 500 members of the National Assembly. The pro-Kabila speakers of both houses of parliament were forced out. In April 2021, the new government was formed without the supporters of Kabila. President Felix Tshisekedi succeeded to oust the last remaining elements of his government who were loyal to former leader Joseph Kabila. In January 2021, DRC's President Félix Tshisekedi pardoned all those convicted in the murder of Laurent-Désiré Kabila in 2001. Colonel Eddy Kapend and his co-defendants, who have been incarcerated for 15 years, were released.


text: The inability of the state and the world's largest United Nations peacekeeping force to provide security throughout the vast country has led to the emergence of up to 120 armed groups by 2018, perhaps the largest number in the world. Armed groups are often accused of being proxies or being supported by regional governments interested in Eastern Congo's vast mineral wealth. Some argue that much of the lack of security by the national army is strategic on the part of the government, who let the army profit from illegal logging and mining operations in return for loyalty. Different rebel groups often target civilians by ethnicity and militias often become oriented around ethnic local militias known as "Mai-Mai".


text: Laurent Nkunda with other soldiers from RCD-Goma who were integrated into the army defected and called themselves the National Congress for the Defence of the People (CNDP). Starting in 2004, CNDP, believed to be backed by Rwanda as a way to tackle the Hutu group Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda (FDLR), rebelled against the government, claiming to protect the Banyamulenge (Congolese Tutsis). In 2009, after a deal between the DRC and Rwanda, Rwandan troops entered the DRC and arrested Nkunda and were allowed to pursue FDLR militants. The CNDP signed a peace treaty with the government where its soldiers would be integrated into the national army.


text: In April 2012, the leader of the CNDP, Bosco Ntaganda and troops loyal to him mutinied, claiming a violation of the peace treaty and formed a rebel group, the March 23 Movement (M23), which was believed to be backed by Rwanda. On 20 November 2012, M23 took control of Goma, a provincial capital with a population of one million people. The UN authorized the Force Intervention Brigade (FIB), which was the first UN peacekeeping force with a mandate to neutralize opposition rather than a defensive mandate, and the FIB quickly defeated M23. The FIB was then to fight the FDLR but were hampered by the efforts of the Congolese government, who some believe tolerate the FDLR as a counterweight to Rwandan interests. Since 2017, fighters from M23, most of whom had fled into Uganda and Rwanda (both were believed to have supported them), started crossing back into DRC with the rising crisis over Kabila's extension of his term limit. DRC claimed of clashes with M23.


text: After rising insecurity, President Tshisekedi declared a "state of siege" or state of emergency in North Kivu, as well as Ituri province, in the first such declaration since the country's independence. The military and police took over positions from civilian authorities and some saw it as a powerplay since the civilian officials were part of the opposition to the President. A similar declaration was avoided for South Kivu, in a move believed to avoid antagonizing armed groups with ties to regional powers such as Rwanda.


text: The Allied Democratic Forces (ADF) has been waging an insurgency in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and is blamed for the Beni massacre in 2016. While the Congolese army maintains that the ADF is an Islamist insurgency, most observers feel that they are only a criminal group interested in gold mining and logging. In March 2021, the United States claimed that the ADF was linked to the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant as part of the Islamic State's Central Africa Province. By 2021, the ADF was considered the deadliest of the many armed groups in the east of the country.


text: Ethnic conflict in Kivu has often involved the Congolese Tutsis known as Banyamulenge, a cattle herding group of Rwandan origin derided as outsiders, and other ethnic groups who consider themselves indigenous. Additionally, neighboring Burundi and Rwanda, who have a thorny relationship, are accused of being involved, with Rwanda accused of training Burundi rebels who have joined with Mai Mai against the Banyamulenge and the Banyamulenge is accused of harboring the RNC, a Rwandan opposition group supported by Burundi. In June 2017, the group, mostly based in South Kivu, called the National People's Coalition for the Sovereignty of Congo (CNPSC) led by William Yakutumba was formed and became the strongest rebel group in the east, even briefly capturing a few strategic towns. The rebel group is one of three alliances of various Mai-Mai militias and has been referred to as the Alliance of Article 64, a reference to Article 64 of the constitution, which says the people have an obligation to fight the efforts of those who seek to take power by force, in reference to President Kabila. Bembe warlord Yakutumba's Mai-Mai Yakutumba is the largest component of the CNPSC and has had friction with the Congolese Tutsis who often make up commanders in army units. In May 2019, Banyamulenge fighters killed a Banyindu traditional chief, Kawaza Nyakwana. Later in 2019, a coalition of militias from the Bembe, Bafuliru and Banyindu are estimated to have burnt more than 100, mostly Banyamulenge, villages and stole tens of thousands of cattle from the largely cattle-herding Banyamulenge. About 200,000 people fled their homes.


text: Clashes between Hutu militias and militias of other ethnic groups has also been prominent. In 2012, the Congolese army in its attempt to crush the Rwandan backed and Tutsi-dominated CNDP and M23 rebels, empowered and used Hutu groups such as the FDLR and a Hutu dominated Maï Maï Nyatura as proxies in its fight. The Nyatura and FDLR even arbitrarily executed up to 264 mostly Tembo civilians in 2012. In 2015, the army then launched an offensive against the FDLR militia. The FDLR and Nyatura were accused of killing Nande people and of burning their houses. The Nande-dominate UPDI militia, a Nande militia called Mai-Mai Mazembe and a militia dominated by Nyanga people, the "Nduma Defense of Congo" (NDC), also called Maï-Maï Sheka and led by Gédéon Kyungu Mutanga, are accused of attacking Hutus. In North Kivu, in 2017, an alliance of Mai-Mai groups called the National Movement of Revolutionaries (MNR) began attacks in June 2017 includes Nande Mai-Mai leaders from groups such as Corps du Christ and Mai-Mai Mazembe. Another alliance of Mai-Mai groups is CMC which brings together Hutu militia Nyatura and are active along the border between North Kivu and South Kivu. In September 2019, the army declared it had killed Sylvestre Mudacumura, head of the FDLR, and in November that year the army declared it had killed Juvenal Musabimana, who had led a splinter group of the FDLR.


text: In Northern Katanga Province starting in 2013, the Pygmy Batwa people, whom the Luba people often exploit and allegedly enslave, rose up into militias, such as the "Perci" militia, and attacked Luba villages. A Luba militia known as "Elements" or "Elema" attacked back, notably killing at least 30 people in the "Vumilia 1" displaced people camp in April 2015. Since the start of the conflict, hundreds have been killed and tens of thousands have been displaced from their homes. The weapons used in the conflict are often arrows and axes, rather than guns.


text: Elema also began fighting the government mainly with machetes, bows and arrows in Congo's Haut Katanga and Tanganyika provinces. The government forces fought alongside a tribe known as the Abatembo and targeting civilians of the Luba and the Tabwa tribes who were believed to be sympathetic to the Elema.


text: In the Kasaï-Central province, starting in 2016, the largely Luba Kamwina Nsapu militia led by Kamwina Nsapu attacked state institutions. The leader was killed by authorities in August 2016 and the militia reportedly took revenge by attacking civilians. By June 2017, more than 3,300 people had been killed and 20 villages have been completely destroyed, half of them by government troops. The militia has expanded to the neighboring Kasai-Oriental area, Kasaï and Lomami.


text: The UN discovered dozens of mass graves. There was an ethnic nature to the conflict with the rebels being mostly Luba and Lulua and have selectively killed non-Luba people while the government allied militia, the Bana Mura, constituting people from the Chokwe, Pende, and Tetela, have committed ethnically motivated attacks against the Luba and Lulua.


text: The Ituri conflict in the Ituri region of the north-eastern DRC involved fighting between the agriculturalist Lendu and pastoralist Hema ethnic groups, who together made up around 40% of Ituri's population, with other groups including the Ndo-Okebo and the Nyali. During Belgian rule, the Hema were given privileged positions over the Lendu while long time leader Mobutu Sese Seko also favored the Hema. While "Ituri conflict" often refers to the major fighting from 1999 to 2003, fighting has existed before and continues since that time. During the Second Congolese Civil War, Ituri was considered the most violent region. An agricultural and religious group from the Lendu people known as the "Cooperative for the Development of Congo" or CODECO allegedly reemerged as a militia in 2017 and began attacking the Hema as well as the Alur people to control the resources in the region, with the Ndo-Okebo and the Nyali also involved in the violence. After disagreements over negotiating with the government and the killing of CODECO's leader, Ngudjolo Duduko Justin, in March 2020, the group splintered and violence spread into new areas. In late 2020, CODECO briefly held the capital of the province, Bunia, but retreated. In June 2019, attacks by CODECO led to 240 people being killed and more than 300,000 people fleeing.


text: The Allied Democratic Forces (ADF), mostly active in North and South Kivu has also been involved in Ituri province. President Tshisekedi declared a "state of siege" or state of emergency in the province in May 2021 to tackle ADF. However, ADF killed 57 civilians in one attack in the same month in one of its deadliest single attacks. 30 people were massacred in September 2021 by the ADF. The President is accused of promoting former rebel leaders and generals accused of war crimes to be in charge of the province.


text: In October 2009 a conflict started in Dongo, Sud-Ubangi District where clashes had broken out over access to fishing ponds.


text: Nearly 900 people were killed between 16 and 17 December 2018 around Yumbi, a few weeks before the Presidential election, when mostly those of the Batende tribe massacred mostly those of the Banunu tribe. About 16,000 fled to neighboring Republic of the Congo. It was alleged that it was a carefully planned massacre, involving elements of the national military.


title: Yellow line (road marking)

text: A single yellow line is a road marking that is present on the side of the carriageway across the British Isles.


title: Yellow line (road marking)

text: In the United Kingdom, the Isle of Man and Ireland, It indicates that parking or waiting at that roadside is prohibited at certain times of day. The exact times vary by area and are indicated by signs at the roadside, or by Controlled Parking Zone entry signs. Stopping to load and to pick up or set down passengers is generally allowed unless additional restrictions apply.


title: Yellow line (road marking)

text: Double yellow lines along the edge of the carriageway indicate that waiting restrictions apply to the road (which includes the carriageway, footway and verge). A driver may stop for passengers to board or alight and to load or unload (unless there are also 'loading restrictions' - see below). The regulation applies to all vehicles. The restriction applies from the centre of the carriageway to the back of the footway.


title: Yellow line (road marking)

text: In the Channel Islands, a yellow line parallel to the road indicates no waiting (in Jersey) or no stopping (in Guernsey) at any time of day.


title: Yellow line (road marking)

text: Countries formerly part of the British Empire are likely to retain a modified version of the British laws including the basic principles regarding road safety.


title: Yellow line (road marking)

text: In Malta for example, a single yellow line, means no waiting (i.e. no parking, but alighting of passengers is permitted). The sign is applicable all day.


title: Yellow line (road marking)

text: In Malaysia, single yellow lines are used on most roads leading to cities or towns or busy areas to mark parking restriction for certain times.


title: Yellow line (road marking)

text: In Jersey a yellow line perpendicular to the road indicates traffic should wait behind the line until the major road is clear (give way to other traffic) and is often accompanied with a Give way sign or a Yellow yield triangle painted on the road.


title: Yellow line (road marking)

text: In Guernsey a yellow line perpendicular to the road means STOP and Give Way to traffic on the major road. Sometimes a yellow arrow is painted on the road to warn users of a yellow line ahead.


title: Yellow line (road marking)

text: In New South Wales, Australia, a broken single yellow line next to the kerb indicates a clear way, where parking is strictly prohibited during certain times of the day and/or special events. In the rest of Australia, an unbroken yellow kerb line is a no stopping line; a driver must not stop except in an emergency. Single yellow lines are also used in areas with high snow fall to mark the far left side of the road.


title: Yellow line (road marking)

text: In Czech Republic, Italy, Germany, Belgium, Poland and The Netherlands yellow lines are normally not common in the regular traffic. However, during roadworks, yellow lines overrule the usual white lines to guide the vehicles through the site.


title: Yellow line (road marking)

text: In Switzerland, yellow lines are used to delimitate special lanes for specific types of vehicules, such as buses, taxis or bikes.


title: Yellow line (road marking)

text: In Ireland, yellow lines are used to mark the near side of the carriageway/shoulder. White lines are used between lanes (including centre lines) and on centre medians. Broken yellow lines may be crossed, but motorists may not cross solid yellow lines.


title: Yellow line (road marking)

text: A solid yellow centre line must not be crossed except to turn into or out of a driveway. A broken yellow line next to the kerb indicates no stopping, while a broken yellow centre line indicates you are approaching a solid yellow centre line. A perpendicular yellow line at an intersection indicates a compulsory stop.


title: Yellow line (road marking)

text: In the Philippines, solid single yellow lines in some cities indicate bus lanes or bicycle lanes, which are restricted lanes for use solely by those vehicles. It is forbidden for vehicles on either side to cross the line. In certain areas, solid lines may give way to segmented single yellow lines which indicate that private vehicles may cross or merge into the bus lane, though buses are still forbidden from merging the other way. Buses still retain right-of-way in such cases.


title: Yellow line (road marking)

text: Yellow lines are used to indicate that traffic on the other side of the line is going in the opposite direction. A solid yellow line indicates that crossing it to overtake is not allowed. A segmented yellow line, with a ratio of 3:1 of segment length to space length, indicates that crossing it to overtake is allowed, but may be dangerous, and caution should be exerted. A segmented yellow line, with a ratio of 1:3 of segment length to space length, indicates that crossing it to overtake is allowed. When there is a combined line, all the same rules apply to the line on the side closest to the driver.


title: Yellow line (road marking)

text: Yellow lines can be used to designate the median regardless of if there is a physical barrier between the two combined lines. Yellow lines are also used on ramps and one-way roads, along the left edge of the road.


title: Yellow line (road marking)

text: In Canada, a single broken yellow line is used to separate traffic coming from opposite directions and means that passing is allowed. A single solid yellow line means that passing is allowed but with extreme caution.


title: Yellow line (road marking)

text: In the United States, single solid yellow lines are expressly prohibited on two-way undivided roadways by Section 3B.01 of the "Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices". A single broken yellow line separates opposing traffic and means that passing with care is allowed for traffic in either direction. Section 3B.06 authorizes use of a single solid yellow line in only two contexts: on divided highways (that is, divided by a median strip) to mark the left side of the lane closest to the median (for traffic in both directions), and to mark the left side of the leftmost lane on one-way ramps.


title: Yellow line (road marking)

text: In Indonesia, single and double yellow markings are used to mark the median of national roads (handled by Ministry of Public Works and Public Housing). Passing is allowed on broken single or double mark. For lane separation of national roads, white markings is still used. Provincial, city/regency, and local roads still use white markings for the median. Single markings are used for one lane, two way national roads.


title: Yellow line (road marking)

text: Yellow road lines are used in the centre of the road in areas with large amounts of snow to contrast with the white colour of snow. These lines are white in areas where there is infrequent or no snow.


title: Yellow line (road marking)

text: In Lebanon, crossing a yellow line means you entered the area where traffic is coming from the opposite direction. A single solid yellow line means that passing is not advised but you may pass, with extreme caution. A single dashed yellow line means passing is allowed. A double solid yellow line means passing is not allowed under any circumstances. A double dashed line means passing is allowed only if there are no cars you can see coming from the opposite direction.


title: Yellow line (road marking)

text: A yellow line (solid or dashed) indicates that crossing the line will place a driver in a lane where opposing traffic is coming at the driver. A double yellow line is a painted marking separating two lanes of a road. It consists of two parallel, solid yellow lines, and its presence indicates a two-direction no-passing restriction or no passing zone, where traffic in both directions is strictly prohibited from crossing the line to pass other traffic. Some states, like California, paint a black line down the middle to help drivers see the double yellow line. Where such a marking is present and one vehicle comes up behind another, the faster vehicle cannot cross the double yellow line to overtake the slower vehicle, must match its speed, and must follow the slower vehicle until they reach a passing zone or the slower vehicle turns off the road. There are four major exceptions to the rule against crossing a double yellow line: (1) turning left into a side street or driveway; (2) passing bicyclists or pedestrians (where they are obstructing through traffic on roads lacking a shoulder and/or a bike lane); (3) emergency maneuvers; and (4) temporary traffic flow changes due to road work. As with regular passing zones, opposing traffic always has right of way.


title: Yellow line (road marking)

text: In rural areas, the double yellow line may have segments where one of the lines becomes dashed (in which case it is no longer a "double yellow"). This kind of marking designates a one-direction no-passing zone. Drivers traveling on the side closest to the dashed line may pass with care when safe, while drivers traveling on the side closest to the line that remains solid are prohibited from passing.


title: Yellow line (road marking)

text: Two municipalities in the state of Rhode Island—Bristol and Warwick—replace the double yellow line with red, white, and blue striping along certain routes.


title: Yellow line (road marking)

text: In some states, it is not against the law to overtake vehicles in the presence of solid yellow lines if it is safe to do so. For example, Vermont State Law also allows passing across the double yellow line when no traffic is on the opposing side, however, one must pass quickly and return to the proper side. Pennsylvania does permit passing on double yellow lines when not also posted with "Do Not Pass" signage. However, these states are unusual. Most states strictly enforce a ban on crossing a double yellow line (outside of the above-noted exceptions) and overtaking another vehicle across a solid yellow line is usually considered a serious traffic violation in most states.


title: Yellow line (road marking)

text: Some parts of the US use a doubled set of double yellow lines (sometimes called "double-double yellow lines") to demarcate a painted median strip, which vehicles are not permitted to cross. This differs from a single set of double yellow lines, which may be crossed in certain circumstances.


title: Yellow line (road marking)

text: In British Columbia, it is against the law to touch or cross a solid double yellow line at any time, except to avoid obstructions on the highway, or when a vehicle is entering or exiting the highway, if the vehicle can safely do so without affecting the flow of other vehicles.


title: Yellow line (road marking)

text: In the Philippines, double yellow lines (usually on either side of white segmented lines) indicate it is strictly forbidden for vehicles on either side of the lanes to overtake or counter-flow. These markings are commonly seen on blind curves and in bridges.


title: Yellow line (road marking)

text: In India, double yellow line, in contrast with a double white line, indicates a no-passing restriction. Double white is just a no-passing suggestion.


title: Yellow line (road marking)

text: Double yellow verge lines as a parking restriction were first introduced in the UK by section 51 of the Road Traffic Act 1960 (repealed in 1972 and replaced by later legislation).


title: Yellow line (road marking)

text: Countries that were once part of th British Empire are likely to retain a modified version of the British laws including the basic principles regarding road safety. The countries that use double yellow lines include:


title: Yellow line (road marking)

text: Double yellow lines along the edge of the carriageway indicate that waiting restrictions apply to the road (which includes the carriageway, footway and verge). Double yellow lines mean no waiting at any time, unless there are signs that specifically indicate seasonal restrictions. A driver may stop for passengers to board or alight and to load or unload (unless there are also 'loading restrictions' - see below). The regulation applies to all vehicles. The restriction applies from the centre of the carriageway to the back of the footway.