title: Alina Boz

text: In 2021, she was cast in the movie "Bandırma Füze Kulübü" and depicted the leading female role of Leyla, the movie was set in the late 1950s and focused on a group of qualified students who began constructing missiles. In 2022, Boz starred in the short film "Babamın Öldüğü Gün" and depicted the character of Hale, who was the coping the death of her father, with her sister Sema, portrayed by Nur Fettahoğlu.


title: Common bile duct

text: The common bile duct, sometimes abbreviated as CBD, is a duct in the gastrointestinal tract of organisms that have a gallbladder. It is formed by the confluence of the common hepatic duct and cystic duct and terminates by uniting with pancreatic duct, forming the ampulla of Vater. The flow of bile from the ampulla of Vater into the duodenum is under the control of the sphincter of Oddi.


title: Common bile duct

text: When the sphincter of Oddi is closed, newly synthesized bile from the liver is forced into storage in the gallbladder. When open, the stored and concentrated bile (now mixed with pancreatic secretions) exits into the duodenum and takes part in digestion. This conduction of bile is the main function of the common bile duct. The hormone cholecystokinin, when stimulated by a fatty meal, promotes bile secretion by increased production of hepatic bile, contraction of the gallbladder, and relaxation of the sphincter of Oddi.


title: Common bile duct

text: Several problems can arise within the common bile duct, usually related to its obstruction. Opinions vary slightly on the maximum calibre of a normal CBD, but 6mm is one accepted upper limit of normal with a further 1mm diameter allowed for each decade over 60 years.


title: Common bile duct

text: It normally gets slightly dilated after cholecystectomy, with upper limit (95% prediction interval) being about 10 mm after a few months.


title: Common bile duct

text: On abdominal ultrasonography, the common bile duct is most readily seen in the porta hepatis (where the CBD lies anterior to the portal vein and hepatic artery). The absence of Doppler signal distinguishes it from the portal vein and hepatic artery.


title: Common bile duct

text: If obstructed by a gallstone, a condition called choledocholithiasis can result. In this obstructed state, the duct is especially vulnerable to an infection called ascending cholangitis. One form of treatment is a cholecystenterostomy. Rare deformities of the common bile duct are cystic dilations (4 cm), choledochoceles (cystic dilation of the ampula of Vater (3–8 cm)), and biliary atresia.


title: Common bile duct

text: Obstruction of the common bile duct and related jaundice has been documented since at least since the time of Erasistratus.


title: Goliath frog

text: The goliath frog (Conraua goliath), otherwise known commonly as the giant slippery frog and the goliath bullfrog, is a species of frog in the family Conrauidae. The goliath frog is the largest living frog. Specimens can grow up to in length from snout to vent, and weigh up to . This species has a relatively small habitat range in Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea. Its numbers are dwindling due to habitat destruction and its collection for food and the pet trade.


title: Goliath frog

text: Sexual dimorphism between the sexes is minimal. In a sample of 15 individuals, weights ranged between , and snout-vent lengths were between . Their eyes can be nearly in diameter. The conspicuous tympanum has a diameter around and is separated from the eye by about in adults. Goliath frog eggs and tadpoles are about the same size as other frogs despite their very large adult form.


title: Goliath frog

text: A lateral fold extends from the eye to the posterior portion of the tympanum. Toes are fully webbed, with large interdigital membranes extending down to the toe tips. The second toe is the longest. The skin on the dorsum and on top of the limbs is granular. Dorsal coloration is green sienna, while the abdomen and ventral part of the limbs are yellow/orange. They have acute hearing, but no vocal sac, and also lack nuptial pads.


title: Goliath frog

text: The Goliath frog is mainly found near waterfalls in Equatorial Guinea and Cameroon. Their habitat is divided into two main seasons: the dry season which occurs from November to April and the rainy season which occurs from May to October.


title: Goliath frog

text: The Goliath frog is one of the largest frogs and since it has such a large size, it has an extremely selective distribution. This species is primarily located in a dense equatorial forest fringe which is somewhat parallel to the coast and surrounded by rivers. The Goliath frog was located in Sanaga Basin mainly appearing near the Nachtigal cascades and in the Sakbayeme rapids, in Kienke Basin, Ntem Basin mainly being located near the rapids of the Mensolo and Nsana, in Mbía Basin where it was found to be very abundant in the rapids and cascades. These distribution patterns emphasize its limited environment which tends to have a clear preference for water territories.


title: Goliath frog

text: The primary threat to the goliath frog is hunting, as it is considered a food source in its native range. The IUCN has highlighted the need for conservation measures, in cooperation with local communities, to make sure the hunting is at sustainable levels. To a lesser extent they are also threatened by habitat loss and degradation. They were extensively exported to zoos and the pet trade, but have proven shy and nervous in captivity. Although captives may live longer than their wild counterparts, the species has not been bred in captivity. Due to their classification as an endangered species, the Equatorial Guinean government has declared that no more than 300 goliaths may be exported per year for the pet trade, but few now seem to be exported from this country.


title: Goliath frog

text: It was determined in a study that the Goliath frog consumes a wide variety of food which suggests that the frog is omnivorous with a carnivorous preference. Their prey are terrestrial, aquatic, and semi-aquatic indicating that they hunt both on land and in water. Food preferences were different among the different weight groups of each frog which could be correlated to different stages of development. For frogs who weigh < 400 g (could be equivalent to the young), they consumed Annelids, Arachnids, Myriapods, Insects, Crustaceans, Gasteropods, and Reptiles. For frogs who weigh > 1000 g (could be equivalent to a fully developed frog), they consumed Arachnids, Myriapods, Insects, Crustaceans, and Gasteropods with a significantly higher occurrence of Myriapods. This shows that Annelids and Reptiles are present only in the diet of low weight frogs which emphasizes the more diversified diet for younger Goliath frogs.


title: Goliath frog

text: Like most amphibians, water is vital for their reproduction. Because the goliath frog lacks a vocal sac, it does not produce mating calls, a behavior generally present in frogs and toads. The egg masses consist of several hundred to a few thousand eggs, approximately each, and often attached to aquatic vegetation. There are three main nest types, all semi-circular in shape and located in or near a river: In the first they clear a section in a river pool. In the second they expand an already existing pool, daming it off from the river. In the final they dig a pool, roughly wide and deep, sometimes moving quite large stones in the process. This may partially explain the goliath frog's large size, as larger frogs may be more successful at moving heavy objects when constructing their nests. Adults have also been shown to guard the nests at night. Although not confirmed, there are indications that the nest is constructed by the male, while the female guards the nest with the eggs. Larval development takes between 85 and 95 days.


title: Goliath frog

text: While the reproductive behavior for this species is mostly not well-known, studies by Lamotte, Perret, and Zahl have allowed an overall chronological table of larval development to be created.


title: Goliath frog

text: Typically after 24 hours, the cover of the egg mass becomes yellow and the eggs become dark gray-brown. These egg masses were found attached to the bottom of plants.


title: Goliath frog

text: First Month: no organs were differentiated and only the ocular region showed significant pigmentation and transparent external gills. The lengths varied from 8-10mm and while the body/tail appeared to be slightly pigmented, the abdomen was always nearly white.


title: Goliath frog

text: Second Month: The activity of the tadpoles increased greatly for they are now beginning to feed on leaves. Furthermore, they have developed a denser pigmentation, and the spiraculum and anal tube are now beginning to become visible. Additionally, the mouth and the eyes are beginning to function. Sizes are ranging from 19 mm to 21mm. As the month continues, pigmentation is becoming more intense via the presence of nearly black spots, two rows of teeth are developing on both the upper and lower lip, feeding increases greatly, and their size becomes 24mm.


title: Goliath frog

text: Third Month: The posterior legs are now beginning to form and the length of the tadpoles are around 40mm. As the month progresses, the posterior legs become larger and joints/fingers are becoming more distinguishable. The total length of the tadpoles is now 45 mm. Finally, at the end of the month, anterior legs have fully appeared, posterior legs are grown with long and powerful fingers accompanying this growth, the mouth has become an arched slot line, tail regression has begun, and these tadpoles begin to put their head out of the water in order to breathe.


title: Goliath frog

text: Fourth Month: All of the specimens in the experiment reached the final stage of metamorphosis. The tail has been either completely or nearly reabsorbed, the shape and color of adults is obtained with slightly lighter and greener pigmentation, the total length is 35 mm. The large size characteristic of these frogs is not obtained yet. The entire process of larval development takes approximately 85-95 days to complete.


title: Goliath frog

text: The goliath frog can live up to 15 years in the wild. In captivity, they can live up to 21 years. It is preyed upon by snakes, Nile crocodiles, Nile monitors, and humans, among other predators.


title: Goliath frog

text: The Goliath Frog creates nests as sites for their offspring as a form of parental care. There are three main types of nests: type 1 mainly contains rock pools that were cleared from detritus and leaf litter, type 2 contains existing washouts at riverbanks, and type 3 were depressions dug by the frogs into the gravel riverbanks. Each nest type contains advantages and disadvantages. Nest type 1 was the easiest to create since only cleaning of the substrate was required to create the nest. Consequently, these types of nests were the least reliable since they were usually positioned in the river bed which makes them extremely vulnerable to being washed out by the rising water levels and to having predators enter the nest. Both nest types 2 and 3 were less likely to be washed out, however, they have an increased risk for being dried-up during the dry season. Consequently, while each nest promotes clear advantages, nests are typically constructed depending on the environment cues (whether it is the dry season or the rainy season). The construction of these nests can also explain how the Goliath Frog became the largest frog. Digging out these nests which exceed 1 m in diameter is an extremely arduous task. Other species which perform this task are also quite large in size. This includes: male African Bullfrogs, Gladiator Frogs, and the Bornean Giant River Frog.


title: Goliath frog

text: Typically, the Goliath Frog attaches its eggs either underwater, in small groups to rocks, or in gravel or larger pieces of wood. The construction of the nests may help reduce predation for it would be more difficult for the fish and shrimp (species which typically eat the eggs) to find the eggs and it may prevent the eggs from being washed away by the rapid current. However, in contrast, the changing water levels may also cause an increase in predation, cause more of the eggs to spill out, and increase tadpole morality as well since the tadpoles and eggs may remain trapped within the nests. Additionally, these nests allow the Goliath frogs to become less dependent on existing structures for egg deposition which can allow these frogs to prolong their breeding season and also increase the amount of suitable breeding sites (they are determined to be suitable by the absence of predators or water presence since water is required for the offspring to survive).


title: Goliath frog

text: The process of constructing a nest for the offspring is used as a method of promoting a male’s reproductive benefits to the females. It also serves as the main parental investment since once the female deposits the eggs after fertilization, there is no more parental investment.


title: Goliath frog

text: The Goliath Frog is endangered due to deforestation, overhunting, and parasites. One particular parasite is one species of microfilaria which belongs to the Icoseilla genus. This parasite is often found within the blood and lymphatic system and its spread throughout the lymphatic system can cause lethargy and mortality when the infection is serious. This parasite was more prevalent during the dry season which is primarily due to the water speed decreasing thereby allowing more potential breeding sites created. Since there are more breeding sites (it is important to note that their primary habitat is near rivers and waterfalls, but in the dry season, they tend to create breeding sites in areas that contain less water), there would be more opportunity for the mosquitos to infect the frogs thereby increasing the contagion rate. Furthermore, there was a positive relationship detected between host size and parasite abundance: the greater the size of the host, the more intense the infection would be. Within this species, male goliath frogs were found to be more significantly infected when compared to the females which can be due to the weight difference between the two. Additionally, as within most species, as age increases, the severity of the infection will also increase.


title: Goliath frog

text: There are also parasites that mainly target the gastro-intestinal tract of this frog. These parasites are called helminth parasites which are worm-like parasites divided into three main groups: flukes which are leaf-shaped flatworms, tapeworms which are elongated flatworms that inhabit extraintestinal tissues, and roundworms which inhabit intestinal and extraintestinal sites. The Goliath frog, however, was mainly infected by Nematodes (90.5%) which is a specific type of roundworm. The helminth species discovered within the Goliath frog was extremely similar to those discovered in amphibian hosts in other African countries emphasizing that its location/habitat is the main cause of the prevalence of this predator. However, the Goliath frog was also infected by the nymph of Sebekia sp which could be primarily due to these frogs sharing the same habitat of crocodiles (definitive host) and fishes (intermediate host). Frogs that originate in Loum and Yabassi which are places within Cameroon had the largest variety of helminth species whereas frogs from Nkondjock had the smallest variety. This could be explained by the difference in agricultural activities, deforestation, and poaching. Liver weight was examined to reveal that there is a higher accumulation of toxic products at Loum due to the significant increase in agriculture practice. Consequently, land use effects and their impact on water habitats plays a significant role in the pattern of parasitism and land use by goliath frogs. Additionally, the direct life cycles of the helminths may play an important role in species diversity Parasites which have direct life cycles spend a majority of their adult life within one host which allows their offspring to be spread from one host to another. These types of parasites also often lack an intermediate stage which means that they must be able to survive in the outside environment as well and be able to establish themselves within a new host. This ability to adapt to new environments contributes greatly to the complexity of helminth communities of goliath frogs.


title: Goliath frog

text: Chytridiomycosis is an infectious disease which affects many different species of amphibians worldwide. It is caused by the chytrid fungus which has the capability of causing random deaths due to its high mortality rate. This fungus tends to invade the surface layers of the skin thereby causing damage to the outer keratin layer (this fungus only attacks the parts of the frog’s skin that contains keratin). As the tadpole continues to grow, more keratin becomes present on the skin thereby allowing the fungus to spread to many parts of the body resulting in the death of the tadpole. Amphibian skin is vital because it is physiologically active meaning it plays important roles in regulating respiration, water, and electrolytes. While the method of how this fungus kills frogs is not known, it can be hypothesized that its invasion through the skin is related since it can cause an electrolyte depletion, osmotic imbalance, and make it more difficult for the frog to breathe. When infected with this fungus, a frog may have discolored skin, peeling on the outside layers of its skin, be sluggish, and have its legs spread slightly away from itself. This fungus is also transmittable since it can be directly transferred through contact between frogs and tadpoles or through exposure to infected water. Thus, it is highly spreadable and with its high mortality rate among frogs, it is extremely deadly.


title: Goliath frog

text: The Goliath Frog contains extensive skin folds to promote respiratory gas exchange at high altitudes. Additionally, the lungs within these frogs are reduced to about ⅓ of the volume of other frogs and they also contain a smaller heart. This is primarily due to their difference in predation methods. Goliath frogs are typically sit-and-wait predators. This means that they tend to capture/trap their prey either by luring them or using elements of surprise by acting extremely stealthy. As a result, they have a reduced metabolic rate and a unique method of breathing. When attempting to breathe, each buccal movement (a method in which the mouth expands and contracts in order to promote the movement of air into the lungs) pumps air at a rapid rate and the process of getting the oxygen removed from the air is slightly more efficient in this species of frog. These adaptations are very useful for the production of territorial and reproductive calls created by these frogs. Typically, the call of the goliath frog which is produced by the frog opening its mouth is admitted at an high frequency of 4.4 kHz. Furthermore, the Goliath Frog does not contain a vocal sac which causes the process for making noises/calls for reproduction to be different than most frogs.


title: Goliath frog

text: While effects of climate change, agriculture, and deforestation greatly affect this species to the extent of making them endangered, they are also mainly captured by the locals who use lanterns to get their attention and then shortly after, they immobilize them using meshed nets. In Nkombia, they are also captured with nets during the day while they are resting on the rocks. However, this method of capture is not very effective for they are able to escape quite well due to their ability to jump 1.2 to 3m high. Humans are the main predators for this species and are the main cause of their endangerment.


title: Simha (film)

text: Simha () is a 2010 Indian Telugu-language action drama film directed by Boyapati Srinu and produced by Paruchuri Kireeti under the United Movies banner. The film stars Nandamuri Balakrishna in a dual role, along with Nayantara, Sneha Ullal, Namitha as female leads. Music is composed by Chakri, art direction by A. S. Prakash, cinematography by Arthur Wilson and editing by Kotagiri Venkateswara Rao.


title: Simha (film)

text: Released on 30 April 2010, the film was commercially successful and ended up becoming the highest-grossing Telugu film of the year. Balakrishna received his second Nandi Award for Best Actor for this film.


title: Simha (film)

text: The film begins with Srimanarayana a university professor in Hyderabad a scared and esteemed personality. He is unable to tolerate any sort of injustice and smacks the lawbreakers. Besides, a malice faction leader Veerakesavudu lying under coma for the past 28 years. Since his condition is worst doctors shift him to the govt hospital. On the way, Srimanarayana rescues a student from acid attack. Whereat, he unintentionally punches Veerakesavudu and he walks up. Srimanarayana resides with her grandmother who is perturbed by many breakups of his matrimony for the emotional nature. Mahima a female lecturer in the college entices him, though he doesn't reciprocate. In the interim, Janaki a fresher whose acquaintance with Srimanarayana initiates a squabble. However, it turns into a crush learning his real identity.


title: Simha (film)

text: Once, Srimanarayana shields her from a group of goons when she divulges her past. Janaki is the daughter of a business tycoon Jagadish Prasad, who holds a rivalry with Gopi a gangster, Veerakesavudu's son. After recouping Veerakesavudu compiled Jagadish Prasad to knit Janaki with Gopi and he forcibly accepts out of threat. At the time of the wedding, chaos erupts and Gopi kills Janaki’s brother Anand when Jagadish Prasad secretly sent her down to continue her studies. Listening to it, Srimanarayana vows to protect her and accommodates her at his next door. Plus, he welcomes her proposal which makes Mahima to backup. Meanwhile, Gopi finds the whereabouts of Janaki and abducts her by backstabbing Srimanarayana. Anyhow, he retrieves and safeguards her. After reaching home, they are reattacked. Simultaneously, Jagadish Prasad arrives and attacks Srimanarayana out of distortion when he, unfortunately, knifes his grandmother. Then, enraged Srimanarayana flares up on him and his grandmother impedes him. Later, Srimanarayana seeks reality when she spins back.


title: Simha (film)

text: Now the tale shifts to 30 years ago at Bobbili where Veerakesavudu and his family ruthlessly upholds dictatorship, and suppress townsfolk under his toe with aid of law & order. During that cataclysm, Dr. Narasimha belongs to the royal dynasty, father of Srimanarayana, returns from abroad and establishes a hospital, and serves the 24x7 free of cost. Moreover, he is mettlesome and defies the enormity of these brutal. In that process, he eliminates lots of Veerakesavudu’s men including his brothers too. Narasimha leads delightful life with his ideal wife Gayatri who is always affectionate and supports his piousness. Jagadish Prasad is her brother who mingled with Veerakesavudu in business and is warned by Narasimha to stay away from them otherwise he will face the upshot.


title: Simha (film)

text: On the eve of a festival, the knaves’ ploy to slay him when Jagadish Prasad remains silent. At that point, Narasimha onslaughts when he treacherously runs through showing endanger to Gayatri. Nevertheless, he slaughters everyone when hits Veerakesavudu on the head, and he goes into a coma. Henceforth, Narasimha & Gayatri leaves their breath together. Being cognizant of it, Srimanarayana proceeds to Bobbili to accomplish his father’s aim. Despite the grandmother's hindrance to being out of violence. All the while, Janaki moves with Jagadish Prasad who is regretful and feels atonement to fix his daughter’s match in Narasimha’s family. As well as, he sends her with Gopi right away. By the time, he lands Srimanarayana seizes Veerakesavudu and takes him to the spot of his parent’s death. At last, he ceases the baddies. Finally, the movie ends on a happy note with Srimanarayana continuing his father's legacy.


title: Simha (film)

text: Along with Boyapati, writer Koratala Siva worked on the film. In 2016, Koratala said that he asked for story and dialogue credit but Boyapati responded that he would have to choose only one of them. An angry Koratala walked away and he was credited for neither. Boyapati responded that Koratala should not have raised the issue which happened years ago.


title: Simha (film)

text: While S. Chinna composed the film score, all the songs featured in the film were composed by Chakri. Music released on ADITYA Music Company. The music was released on 31 March 2010 directly into market. The audio function of the movie was called off as Nandamuri Balakrishna met with an accident.


title: Simha (film)

text: Upon release, the film opened to mostly positive reviews from audience as well as critics. Sify noted "Simha is out and out a formulaic movie. The urge of director Boyapati Srinu can be clearly felt in the theatre when he showed Balakrishna in an extraordinary manner." Rediff gave a two star rating saying "One knows what to expect from a Balakrishna film and Simha is a perfect example of that: a true mainstream entertainer catering to the masses with high-voltage action, overdose of violence and the mandatory songs. Balakrishna has put in a restrained performance." The Times of India stated "Balakrishna is back in his element as a fiery doctor and does a good job. Nayantara delivers a knock-out performance. While Sneha has no role to play, Namitha exudes enough oomph. Even baddies like Sai kumar, Aditya Menon and Kota Srinivas Rao put in a decent performance".


title: Simha (film)

text: "Simha" collected more than distributor share and became highest grossing Telugu film of the year. The film ran for 50 days in 338 centers and 100 days in 92 centres. The film's satellite rights were sold off at 5 crore.


title: Romanization of Ukrainian

text: The romanization of Ukrainian, or Latinization of Ukrainian, is the representation of the Ukrainian language in Latin letters. Ukrainian is natively written in its own Ukrainian alphabet, which is based on the Cyrillic script. Romanization may be employed to represent Ukrainian text or pronunciation for non-Ukrainian readers, on computer systems that cannot reproduce Cyrillic characters, or for typists who are not familiar with the Ukrainian keyboard layout. Methods of romanization include transliteration (representing written text) and transcription (representing the spoken word).


title: Romanization of Ukrainian

text: In contrast to romanization, there have been several historical proposals for a native Ukrainian Latin alphabet, usually based on those used by West Slavic languages, but none have caught on.


title: Romanization of Ukrainian

text: Transliteration is the letter-for-letter representation of text using another writing system. Rudnyckyj classified transliteration systems into scientific transliteration, used in academic and especially linguistic works, and practical systems, used in administration, journalism, in the postal system, in schools, etc. Scientific transliteration, also called the scholarly system, is used internationally, with very little variation, while the various practical methods of transliteration are adapted to the orthographical conventions of other languages, like English, French, German, etc.


title: Romanization of Ukrainian

text: Depending on the purpose of the transliteration it may be necessary to be able to reconstruct the original text, or it may be preferable to have a transliteration which sounds like the original language when read aloud.


title: Romanization of Ukrainian

text: "Scientific transliteration", also called the "academic", "linguistic", "international", or "scholarly" system, is most often seen in linguistic publications on Slavic languages. It is purely phonemic, meaning each character represents one meaningful unit of sound, and is based on the Croatian Latin alphabet. Different variations are appropriate to represent the phonology of historical Old Ukrainian (mid 11th–14th centuries) and Middle Ukrainian (15th–18th centuries).


title: Romanization of Ukrainian

text: A variation was codified in the 1898 Prussian Instructions for libraries, or "Preußische Instruktionen" (PI), and widely used in bibliographic cataloguing in Central Europe and Scandinavia. With further modifications it was published by the International Organization for Standardization as recommendation ISO/R 9 in 1954, revised in 1968, and again as an international standard in 1986 and 1995.


title: Romanization of Ukrainian

text: Representing all of the necessary diacritics on computers requires Unicode, Latin-2, Latin-4, or Latin-7 encoding. Other Slavic based romanizations occasionally seen are those based on the Slovak alphabet or the Polish alphabet, which include symbols for palatalized consonants.


title: Romanization of Ukrainian

text: The "ALA-LC Romanization Tables" were first discussed by the American Library Association in 1885, and published in 1904 and 1908, including rules for romanizing Church Slavic, the pre-reform Russian alphabet, and Serbo-Croatian. Revised tables including Ukrainian were published in 1941, and remain in use virtually unchanged according to the latest 2011 release. This system is used to represent bibliographic information by US and Canadian libraries, by the British Library since 1975, and in North American publications.


title: Romanization of Ukrainian

text: In addition to bibliographic cataloguing, simplified versions of the Library of Congress system are widely used for romanization in the text of academic and general publications. For notes or bibliographical references, some publications use a version without ligatures, which offers sufficient precision but simplifies the typesetting burden and easing readability. For specialist audiences or those familiar with Slavic languages, a version without ligatures and diacritical marks is sometimes used. For broader audiences, a "modified Library of Congress system" is employed for personal, organizational, and place names, omitting all ligatures and diacritics, ignoring the soft sign ь (ʹ), with initial Є- ("I͡E-"), Й- ("Ĭ-"), Ю- ( "I͡U-"), and Я- ("I͡A-") represented by "Ye-", "Y-", "Yu-", and "Ya-", surnames' terminal -ий ("-yĭ") and -ій ("-iĭ") endings simplified to "-y", and sometimes with common first names anglicized, for example, Олександр ("Oleksandr") written as "Alexander".


title: Romanization of Ukrainian

text: Similar principles were systematically described for Russian by J. Thomas Shaw in 1969, and since widely adopted. Their application for Ukrainian and multilingual text were described in the 1984 English translation of Kubiiovych's "Encyclopedia of Ukraine" and in the 1997 translation of Hrushevskyi's "History of Ukraine-Rus", and other sources have referred to these, for example, historian Serhii Plokhy in several works. However, the details of usage vary, for example, the authors of the "Historical Dictionary of Ukraine" render the soft sign ь before о with an "i", "thus Khvyliovy, not Khvylovy, as in the "Encyclopedia of Ukraine"".


title: Romanization of Ukrainian

text: Requires Unicode for connecting diacritics, but only plain ASCII characters for a simplified version.


title: Romanization of Ukrainian

text: "British Standard 2979:1958 "Transliteration of Cyrillic and Greek Characters"", from BSI, is used by the Oxford University Press. A variation is used by the British Museum and British Library, but since 1975 their new acquisitions have been catalogued using Library of Congress transliteration.


title: Romanization of Ukrainian

text: In addition to the "British" system, the standard also includes tables for the "International" system for Cyrillic, corresponding to ISO/R 9:1968 (and ISO's recommendation reciprocally has an alternate system corresponding to BSI's). It also includes tables for romanization of Greek.


title: Romanization of Ukrainian

text: "BGN/PCGN romanization" is a series of standards approved by the United States Board on Geographic Names and Permanent Committee on Geographical Names for British Official Use. Pronunciation is intuitive for English-speakers. For Ukrainian, the former BGN/PCGN system was adopted in 1965, but superseded there by the Ukrainian National System in 2019. A modified version is also mentioned in the Oxford Style Manual.


title: Romanization of Ukrainian

text: The Soviet Union's GOST, COMECON's SEV, and Ukraine's Derzhstandart are government standards bodies of the former Eurasian communist countries. They published a series of romanization systems for Ukrainian, which were replaced by ISO 9:1995. For details, see GOST 16876-71. The Derzhstandart 1995 system (invented by Maksym Vakulenko) is also mentioned in the DSTU 9112:2021 standard (approved in 2022) as the "B system"; the new standard also includes an "A system" with diacritical marks and some differences from ISO 9:1995: г=ğ, ґ=g, є=je, и=y, і=i, х=x, ь=j, ю=ju, я=ja.


title: Romanization of Ukrainian

text: ISO 9 is a series of systems from the International Organization for Standardization. The ISO published editions of its "international system" for romanization of Cyrillic as recommendations (ISO/R 9) in 1954 and 1968, and standards (ISO 9) in 1986 and 1995. This was originally derived from scientific transliteration in 1954, and is meant to be usable by readers of most European languages. The 1968 edition also included an alternative system identical to the British Standard.


title: Romanization of Ukrainian

text: The 1995 edition supports most national Cyrillic alphabets in a single transliteration table. It is a pure transliteration system, with each Cyrillic character represented by exactly one unique Latin character, making it reliably reversible, but sacrificing readability and adaptation to individual languages. It considers only graphemes and disregards phonemic differences. So, for example, г (Ukrainian He or Russian Ge) is always represented by the transliteration "g"; ґ (Ukrainian letter Ge) is represented by "g̀".


title: Romanization of Ukrainian

text: Representing all of the necessary diacritics on computers requires Unicode, and a few characters are rarely present in computer fonts, for example g-grave: g̀.


title: Romanization of Ukrainian

text: This is the official system of Ukraine, also employed by the United Nations and many countries' foreign services. It is currently widely used to represent Ukrainian geographic names, which were almost exclusively romanized from Russian before Ukraine's independence in 1991, and for personal names in passports. It is based on English orthography, and requires only ASCII characters with no diacritics. It can be considered a variant of the "modified Library of Congress system", but does not simplify the -ий and -ій endings.


title: Romanization of Ukrainian

text: Its first version was codified in Decision No. 9 of the Ukrainian Committee on Issues of Legal Terminology on April 19, 1996, stating that the system is binding for the transliteration of Ukrainian names in English in legislative and official acts.


title: Romanization of Ukrainian

text: A new official system was introduced for transliteration of Ukrainian personal names in Ukrainian passports in 2007.


title: Romanization of Ukrainian

text: An updated 2010 version became the system is used for transliterating all proper names and was approved as Resolution 55 of the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine, January 27, 2010. This modified earlier laws and brought together a unified system for official documents, publication of cartographic works, signs and indicators of inhabited localities, streets, stops, subway stations, etc.


title: Romanization of Ukrainian

text: It has been adopted internationally. The 27th session of the UN Group of Experts on Geographical Names (UNGEGN) held in New York 30 July and 10 August 2012 after a report by the State Agency of Land Resources of Ukraine (now known as Derzhheokadastr: Ukraine State Service of Geodesy, Cartography and Cadastre) experts approved the Ukrainian system of romanization. The BGN/PCGN jointly adopted the system in 2020.


title: Romanization of Ukrainian

text: Official geographic names are romanized directly from the original Ukrainian and not translated. For example, "Kyivska oblast" not "Kyiv Oblast", "Pivnichnokrymskyi kanal" not "North Crimean Canal".


title: Romanization of Ukrainian

text: Romanization intended for readers of other languages than English is usually transcribed phonetically into the familiar orthography. For example, "y", "kh", "ch", "sh", "shch" for anglophones may be transcribed "j", "ch", "tsch", "sch", "schtsch" for German readers (for letters й, х, ч, ш, щ), or it may be rendered in Latin letters according to the normal orthography of another Slavic language, such as Polish or Croatian (such as the established system of scientific transliteration, described above).


title: Romanization of Ukrainian

text: Czech and Slovak standard transliteration uses letters with diacritics (ž, š, č, ď, ť, ň, ě) and letters i, y, j, h, ch, c in the local meaning. Diphthong letters are transcribed as two letters (ja, je, ji, ju, šč). Czech transliteration was used, for example, on hiking signs in Transcarpathia, which was established according to the methodology of the Czech Tourists Club – the Ukrainian markers replaced that later with the English transcription. However, the fact that Ukraine itself has started to use English transliteration on its documents and boards, also influences the practice in Czech and Slovak, which is also penetrated by English transliteration of Ukrainian.


title: Romanization of Ukrainian

text: Users of public-access computers or mobile text messaging services sometimes improvise informal romanization due to limitations in keyboard or character set. These may include both sound-alike and look-alike letter substitutions. Example: "YKPAIHCbKA ABTOPKA" for "УКРАЇНСЬКА АВТОРКА". See also Volapuk encoding.


title: Romanization of Ukrainian

text: For telegraph transmission. Each separate Ukrainian letter had a 1:1 equivalence to a Latin letter. Latin Q, W, V, and X are equivalent to Ukrainian Я (or sometimes Щ), В, Ж, Ь. Other letters are transcribed phonetically. This equivalency is used in building the KOI8-U table.


title: Romanization of Ukrainian

text: Transcription is the representation of the spoken word. Phonological, or phonemic, transcription represents the phonemes, or meaningful sounds of a language, and is useful to describe the general pronunciation of a word. Phonetic transcription represents every single sound, or phone, and can be used to compare different dialects of a language. Both methods can use the same sets of symbols, but linguists usually denote phonemic transcriptions by enclosing them in slashes / ... /, while phonetic transcriptions are enclosed in square brackets [ ... ].


title: Romanization of Ukrainian

text: The International Phonetic Alphabet precisely represents pronunciation. It requires a special Unicode font.


title: Romanization of Ukrainian

text: In many contexts, it is common to use a modified system of transliteration that strives to be read and pronounced naturally by anglophones. Such transcriptions are also used for the surnames of people of Ukrainian ancestry in English-speaking countries (personal names have often been translated to equivalent or similar English names, e.g., "Alexander" for "Oleksandr", "Terry" for "Taras").


title: Romanization of Ukrainian

text: Typically such a modified transliteration is based on the ALA-LC, or Library of Congress (in North America), or, less commonly, the British Standard system. Such a simplified system usually omits diacritics and ligatures (tie-bars) from, e.g., "i͡e", "ï" or "ĭ", often simplifies "-yĭ" and "-iĭ" word endings to "-y", omits romanizing the Ukrainian soft sign ("ь") and apostrophe ("'"), and may substitute "ya, ye, yu, yo" for "ia, ie, iu, io" at the beginnings of words. It may also simplify doubled letters. Unlike in the English language where an apostrophe is punctuation, in the Ukrainian language it is a letter. Therefore sometimes Rus' is translated with an apostrophe, even when the apostrophe is dropped for most other names and words.


title: Romanization of Ukrainian

text: Conventional transliterations can reflect the history of a person or place. Many well-known spellings are based on transcriptions into another Latin alphabet, such as the German or Polish. Others are transcribed from equivalent names in other languages, for example Ukrainian "Pavlo" ("Paul") may be called by the Russian equivalent "Pavel", Ukrainian "Kyiv" by the Russian equivalent "Kiev".


title: Romanization of Ukrainian

text: The employment of romanization systems can become complex. For example, the English translation of Kubijovyč's "Ukraine: A Concise Encyclopædia" uses a modified Library of Congress (ALA-LC) system as outlined above for Ukrainian and Russian names—with the exceptions for endings or doubled consonants applying variously to personal and geographic names. For technical reasons, maps in the Encyclopedia follow different conventions. Names of persons are anglicized in the encyclopedia's text, but also presented in their original form in the index. Various geographic names are presented in their anglicized, Russian, or both Ukrainian and Polish forms, and appear in several forms in the index. Scientific transliteration is used in linguistics articles. The Encyclopedia's explanation of its transliteration and naming convention occupies 2-1/2 pages.


title: Álvaro Vázquez

text: Álvaro Vázquez García (born 27 April 1991) is a Spanish professional footballer who plays as a striker for Indian Super League club FC Goa.


title: Álvaro Vázquez

text: Born in Barcelona, Catalonia, Vázquez spent most of his life in Badalona. He joined RCD Espanyol's youth system in 2005 at the age of 14, and four years later he made his senior debut, appearing with the reserves in Segunda División B and suffering relegation.


title: Álvaro Vázquez

text: Vázquez made his first-team – and La Liga – debut on 21 September 2010, coming on as a substitute for Sergio García midway through the second half of a 3–0 away loss to Real Madrid. Only five days later, he scored the game's only goal in a home fixture against CA Osasuna, and remained with the main squad for the rest of the season, mainly acting as backup to Dani Osvaldo.


title: Álvaro Vázquez

text: After Osvaldo departed for A.S. Roma in summer 2011, Vázquez was made starter by manager Mauricio Pochettino. In January 2012, over only four days, he scored four goals in two games: first, he equalised through a header in the last minutes of the local derby against FC Barcelona (1–1 home draw), then added a hat-trick to help defeat Córdoba CF in the round of 16 of the Copa del Rey (4–2 home win, 5–4 on aggregate).


title: Álvaro Vázquez

text: After spending the 2012–13 campaign with fellow league side Getafe CF, Vázquez became coach Michael Laudrup's eighth Spanish signing for his Swansea City team on 2 September 2013, with the loan move being subject to international clearance. He made his Premier League debut on the 22nd in a 2–0 away victory over Crystal Palace, setting up Nathan Dyer for the second goal.


title: Álvaro Vázquez

text: Vázquez returned to his first club Espanyol on 31 August 2016 after agreeing to a four-year contract. On 11 January 2018, after being rarely used, he was loaned to Gimnàstic de Tarragona of Segunda División for six months.


title: Álvaro Vázquez

text: On 23 August 2018, Vázquez joined fellow second-division team Real Zaragoza on a one-year loan. Upon returning, he terminated his contract with Espanyol on 18 June 2019 and signed a three-year deal with Sporting de Gijón on 10 July.


title: Álvaro Vázquez

text: Vázquez moved to second-tier CE Sabadell FC on 12 January 2021, on loan for the remainder of the season.


title: Álvaro Vázquez

text: On 30 August 2021, Vázquez signed a one-year contract with Kerala Blasters FC. He made his debut in the Indian Super League on 19 November, losing 4–2 at ATK Mohun Bagan FC. He scored his first goal for the club on 5 December in the 2–1 home defeat of Odisha FC, repeating the feat the following week against SC East Bengal (1–1) and also having a goal disallowed early on. He scored for the third consecutive match on 19 December, doubling the lead against defending champions Mumbai City FC in an eventual 3–0 win; he was voted player of the match for his performance in the latter.


title: Álvaro Vázquez

text: On 4 February 2022, Vázquez netted from behind the half-line (59 meters) against NorthEast United FC, which proved crucial to a 2–1 victory. His side reached the season's final, losing to Hyderabad FC on penalties.


title: Álvaro Vázquez

text: In April 2022, it was reportedly agreed that Vázquez would join FC Goa as a free agent. On 24 June, the player agreed to a two-year deal.


title: Álvaro Vázquez

text: Vázquez represented Spain at the 2011 FIFA U-20 World Cup in Colombia. He finished the competition with five goals (tied with Henrique of eventual champions Brazil), as the nation reached the quarter-finals.


title: Álvaro Vázquez

text: Also in 2011, Vázquez made his debut for the under-21 team. He helped them win the 2013 UEFA European Championship by scoring in his only appearance, the 3–0 group stage win against the Netherlands.


title: Babes in Toyland (band)

text: Babes in Toyland was an American alternative rock band from Minneapolis, Minnesota, formed in 1987. The band was founded by vocalist and guitarist Kat Bjelland, along with drummer Lori Barbero and bassist Michelle Leon, who was later replaced by Maureen Herman in 1992.


title: Babes in Toyland (band)

text: Babes in Toyland released three studio albums: "Spanking Machine" (1990), followed by the commercially successful "Fontanelle" (1992), and "Nemesisters" (1995), before becoming inactive in 1997 and eventually disbanding in 2001.


title: Babes in Toyland (band)

text: In 2014, the band reunited, and the following year began performing live together for the first time in over a decade. They completed an international tour throughout 2015, during which bassist Herman was fired and replaced with Clara Salyer. The band later broke up in 2020.


title: Babes in Toyland (band)

text: Babes in Toyland formed in 1987, after frontwoman Kat Bjelland met drummer Lori Barbero at a friend's barbecue. Originally from Woodburn, Oregon and a former resident of San Francisco, Bjelland had moved to Minneapolis to form a band. Bjelland was a self-taught guitarist, and at the time Barbero had no experience playing any instruments. Bjelland commented: "Hopefully, from being technically inexperienced, you can use your imagination, and play the drums like an instrument instead of just being a beat-keeper. And play the bass like you feel it, from your gut, instead of saying, 'Here's my scales.'" In its initial formation in 1987, in addition to Bjelland and Barbero, the band included Kris Holetz on bass and singer Cindy Russell.


title: Babes in Toyland (band)

text: Following the departures of Holetz and Russell, it was believed that the band briefly recruited Bjelland's friend and former bandmate, Courtney Love, on bass, as Love claimed to have been "kicked out" of the band. However, during a 2015 interview, Bjelland and Barbero refuted this, with Barbero stating: "She lived in my house, and one time I think when we were rehearsing she came down and probably picked up something and tried to play and we were just like, "get out of here." However, Michelle Leon, who was hired as the group's bass player, claimed that she was briefly replaced by Love as bassist shortly after joining. After the group rehearsed with Love on "a couple" of occasions, Leon stated Barbero called her and asked her to re-join the band. It has been noted that several songs from the Babes In Toyland's debut album shared lyrics and verses with several songs by Hole, most notably Hole's first several singles, including b-sides from "Retard Girl" and "Dicknail".


title: Babes in Toyland (band)

text: The group began performing shows at local art galleries and other venues in late 1987. Local journalist Jon Bream recalled: "They were a sort of loud, abrasive, angry, obnoxious thing at first and very amateurish in a sense. And then they developed over time into something that was pretty amazing...The shows just seemed to make more sense. There was a focus there...They were able to connect with the audience." In 1989, they released their first single, "Dust Cake Boy", through Sub Pop records' singles club in 1989. The band entered the studio in 1989 to record their debut album, "Spanking Machine", which was recorded with grunge producer Jack Endino at Seattle's Reciprocal Recording and released in April 1990 on Minneapolis' Twin/Tone Records. The album caught the attention of underground rock band Sonic Youth, whose frontman Thurston Moore invited the band to perform on Sonic Youth's 1990 European tour to promote their latest album, "Goo". Babes in Toyland subsequently performed alongside Sonic Youth at 1991's Reading Festival, which was documented in Dave Markey's music documentary, "".


title: Babes in Toyland (band)

text: British DJ John Peel was also a fan of the album, citing it as his "favourite album of 1990." During the band's tour with Sonic Youth in 1990, Babes in Toyland recorded a radio session for John Peel, one of the many Peel Sessions. The band also completed a second session with Peel in 1991, and the sessions were released as "The Peel Sessions" — the band's second EP — in 1992. Their first EP, "To Mother", was composed of outtakes from "Spanking Machine" and was released in July 1991; "To Mother" was a commercial success, entering the UK Indie Chart at number one, and remaining in the top position for ten weeks.


title: Babes in Toyland (band)

text: After touring in 1991, the band entered the studio for a second time to record their major label follow-up to "Spanking Machine". Bassist Michelle Leon left the group in early 1992, shortly after the murder of Joe Cole, her then boyfriend. Maureen Herman was recruited as her replacement. With this new line-up, the band signed with Warner Bros.'s Reprise Records. Their second studio album, "Fontanelle" was recorded in Cannon Falls, Minnesota and in New York City, and featured production from Sonic Youth's Lee Ranaldo. "Fontanelle" was released in 1992, and sold over 250,000 copies in the United States alone. The lead single on the album, "Bruise Violet," is said to be an attack on Courtney Love. However, Bjelland denied this, saying instead that "Violet" was the name of a muse to both her and Love. A music video for "Bruise Violet" was shot in the SoHo loft of photographer Cindy Sherman, who also appears in the video as Bjelland's doppelganger. Sherman's photos appear on the covers of "Fontanelle" and the group's second EP, "Painkillers", and the imagery was recreated on stage banners with the artist's permission.


title: Babes in Toyland (band)

text: In 1993, the band was chosen to take part in that year's Lollapalooza tour, playing alongside such acts as Primus, Alice in Chains, Dinosaur Jr. and Rage Against the Machine. During dates at Lollapalooza, the band released their third and final EP, "Painkillers", in June 1993. In 1994, journalist Neal Karlen began writing "Babes in Toyland: The Making and Selling of a Rock and Roll Band", which dealt with the band's signing to Warner and the recording of "Fontanelle". Commenting on the book in retrospect, Bjelland said: "I feel bad for [Karlen]. He told me he lost a lot of his notes halfway through, and he spent his advance. So he made a lot of it up. Part of it’s true. But a lot of it’s not. He’s apologized."


title: Babes in Toyland (band)

text: On April 8, 1994, Babes in Toyland played a benefit show for Rock Against Domestic Violence with 7 Year Bitch, and Jack Off Jill in Miami at the Cameo Theater, the same day lead-singer of American grunge rock band Nirvana, Kurt Cobain, had been found dead in his Seattle home. Around the same time, the band were featured on the cover of "Entertainment Weekly", and were referenced in a 1995 episode of the sitcom "Roseanne"


title: Babes in Toyland (band)

text: In May 1995, the band released their final album, "Nemesisters". The album received mixed reviews, with Lorraine Ali of "Spin" writing: "With "Nemesisters", Babes in Toyland's molten core seems to have somewhat solidified; this album ultimately lacks the conviction, depth, and even direction of its predecessors." The band described the recording process of the album "diverse", "experimental" and "spontaneous" and that the writing and recording process was "very different" as the band were working under pressure. Tours for the album took place throughout Europe - notably with a date at Denmark's Roskilde Festival - the United States, and Australia.


title: Babes in Toyland (band)

text: The band lost their contract with their record label when Herman left the band due to hip problems in 1996. Dana Cochrane, formerly of the band Mickey Finn, played bass with the band on live gigs in 1996 and 1997. Original bassist Michelle Leon briefly rejoined the band for a short period in 1997, when Babes in Toyland were constantly breaking up and reforming and planning on releasing a fourth studio album. In 1998, the band was credited with the song "Overtura: Astroantiquity/Attacatastrophy" on the CD "Songs of the Witchblade: A Soundtrack to the Comic Book", which Bjelland co-produced. Bjelland and Barbero played with a new bassist, Jessie Farmer, in 2000.


title: Babes in Toyland (band)

text: However, a year earlier, Bjelland had formed a new band, Katastrophy Wife. Babes in Toyland performed a reunion show billed as "The Last Tour" on November 21, 2001which was released as a live album called "Minneapolism"and this was not only the last Babes in Toyland show, but also the last official activity at the time. Bjelland played a number of shows in Europe in 2002 under the title Babes in Toyland with a new drummer and bassist from the British band Angelica; however, Bjelland stopped using the name after Barbero and Herman raised legal issues.


title: Babes in Toyland (band)

text: In an interview with Lancer Radio at Pasadena College on July 26, 2014, Kat Bjelland and Maureen Herman confirmed that they were getting back together to write new material and play shows. They played their first reunion show in Pioneertown, California at Pappy And Harriet's Pioneertown Palace on February 10, 2015. They played their second show at The Roxy Theatre in Los Angeles, California on February 12, 2015. They were introduced by Tom Morello of Rage Against the Machine who recalled on his experiences performing with the band at Lollapalooza in 1993. The show's other celebrity guests included Patty Schemel, Eric Erlandson, Brody Dalle, and Donita Sparks.


title: Babes in Toyland (band)

text: The band embarked on an international tour in May 2015, beginning with shows in England, Scotland, Spain, and Italy, followed by a North American tour, which included performances at Seattle's Bumbershoot festival and the Montreal Pop festival. In Minneapolis, where the band formed, the trio played on the Walker Art Center's lawn for the two-day Rock the Garden festival, June 20–21, 2015.


title: Babes in Toyland (band)

text: In August 2015, midway through the band's tour, bassist Herman was fired from the band, for originally unspecified reasons, and replaced with Clara Salyer. In December 2015, Herman claimed the reason she had been asked to leave the band was due to an article she had written for the website Boing Boing on the sexual assault of Runaways bassist Jackie Fox by manager Kim Fowley in 1975 and Joan Jett's denial of having witnessed it. Herman stated that because of Barbero's business connections with Jettnamely Barbero producing an album for a band under Jett's record label, Blackheart RecordsHerman was kicked out of the band. Barbero responded in a subsequent interview:


title: Babes in Toyland (band)

text: In May 2020, Lori Barbero confirmed on the podcast Conan Neutron's Protonic Reversal that Babes In Toyland once again broke up and there was very little chance of further reunions.


title: Babes in Toyland (band)

text: Stephen Thomas Erlewine wrote of the band: "Babes in Toyland is about as harsh as rock music getsguitarist Kat Bjelland screams and thrashes her guitar to the gut-pounding, throttling beat of bassist Maureen Herman and drummer Lori Barbero... the all-female trio offer no escape from their strongly female-oriented, but not necessarily feminist, rock." Kathleen Hanna of Bikini Kill said in a 2010 interview: "Babes in Toyland was a band that was hugely important to us and we were like, God if only we could play awesome shows like Babes in Toyland".


title: Babes in Toyland (band)

text: The band has been honored with a star on the outside mural of the Minneapolis nightclub First Avenue, recognizing performers that have played sold-out shows or have otherwise demonstrated a major contribution to the culture at the iconic venue. Receiving a star "might be the most prestigious public honor an artist can receive in Minneapolis", according to journalist Steve Marsh.


title: Great bustard

text: The great bustard (Otis tarda) is a bird in the bustard family, the only member of the genus "Otis". It breeds in open grasslands and farmland from northern Morocco, South and Central Europe, to temperate Central and East Asia. European populations are mainly resident, but Asian populations migrate farther south in winter. It has been listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List since 1996.


title: Great bustard

text: Portugal and Spain now have about 60% of the world's population. It became extinct in Great Britain when the last bird was shot in 1832. Recent attempts to reintroduce it into England have met with some success and there is a population of 40 birds on Salisbury Plain, a British Army training area. Here the lack of public access allows them the freedom needed as a large ground-nesting bird.


title: Great bustard

text: The genus "Otis" was introduced in 1758 by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in the tenth edition of his "Systema Naturae". Linnaeus placed four species in the genus but of these the type species was designated as the great bustard ("Otis tarda") by George Robert Gray in 1840. Pliny the elder briefly mentions a bird that has been taken to be the bustard in his "Natural History" that was published around 77 AD. He gave the Ancient Greek name ωτις/"ōtis", ωτιδος/"ōtidos" and the Latin "aves tardas". These names were mentioned by the Pierre Belon in 1555 and Ulisse Aldrovandi in 1600.


title: Great bustard

text: The common names of the great bustard are derived from the Latin "avis tarda". The English name comes from the Old French "bistarda" and some other languages: "abetarda" (pt), "abetarda" (gl), "avutarda" (es). The naturalist William Turner listed the English spelling "bustard" and "bistard" in 1544. The specific name, "tarda", is Latin for "slow" and "deliberate", which is apt to describe the typical walking style of the species.


title: Great bustard

text: The adult male great bustard is amongst the heaviest living flying animals. A male is typically tall, with a length of around and has a wingspan. The male can range in weight from . The heaviest verified specimen, collected in Manchuria, was about , a world record for heaviest flying bird. In a study in Spain, one male weighed as much as . Larger specimens have been reported but remain unverified. Average male weights as reported have been fairly variable: in Russia, males weighed a median of ; in Spain, males weighed a mean of during breeding season and during non-breeding; in Germany, males weighed a mean of ; and the Guinness World Records has indicated that male bustards in Great Britain weighed an average of . Average weight of males is almost an exact match to that of male Kori bustards. Among all flying animals and land birds, male Andean condors ("Vultur gryphus") may match or exceed the mean body masses of these male bustards but not their maximum weights. Furthermore, male swans of the two largest species (trumpeter and mute) may attain a similar average mass depending on season and region. Among both bustards and all living birds, the upper reported mass of this species is rivaled by that of the kori bustard ("Ardeotis kori"), which, due to its relatively longer tarsi and tail, is both longer and taller on average and is less sexually dimorphic. In terms of weight ranges reported, the great Indian bustard ("Ardeotis nigriceps") also only lags slightly behind these species.


title: Great bustard

text: The great bustard is also arguably the most sexual dimorphic extant bird species, in terms of the size difference between males and females. Adult male great bustards measured in Spain weighed on average 2.48 times more than females. Going on mass, the only known bird with a higher dimorphism is the green peafowl ("Pavo muticus") as the males are apparently near four times as heavy as females. The female is about a third smaller in linear dimensions, typically measuring in height, about in length and across the wings. Overall, the female's weight can range from . Like male weights, females weights are quite variable as reported: in Germany, females had a mean weight of , in Spain, females had a mean weight of and in Russia, females reportedly had a median weight of . The latter figure indicates that eastern birds (presumably "O. t. dybowskii") are considerably less sexually dimorphic in body mass than in other populations. Perhaps because of this physical sexual dimorphism, there is a skewed sex ratio of about 1.5:1 female to male.


title: Great bustard

text: An adult male is brown above, barred with blackish colouration, and white below, with a long grey neck and head. His breast and lower neck sides are chestnut and there is a golden wash to the back and the extent of these bright colours tending to increase as the male ages. In the breeding season, the male has long white neck bristles, which measure up to in length, continually growing from the third to the sixth year of life. In flight, the long wings are predominantly white with brown showing along the edges of the lower primary and secondary feathers and a dark brown streak along the upper-edge of the wing. The breast and neck of the female are buff, with brown and pale colouration over the rest of the plumage rendering it well camouflaged in open habitats. Immature birds resemble the female. The eastern subspecies ("O. t. dybowskii") is more extensively grey in colour in both sexes, with more extensive barring on the back. The great bustard has long legs, a long neck and a heavy, barrel-chested body. It is fairly typical of the family in its overall shape and habitat preferences. Three other bustard species overlap in range with this species: the Macqueen's ("Chlamydotis macqueenii"), houbara ("Chlamydotis undulata") and little bustards ("Tetrax tetrax"). However, none of these attains the plumage coloration nor approach the body sizes of this species. Thus, the great bustard is essentially unmistakable.


title: Great bustard

text: These birds' habitat is grassland or steppe defined by open, flat or somewhat rolling landscapes. They can be found on undisturbed cultivation and seem to prefer areas with wild or cultivated crops such as cereals, vineyards and fodder plants. However, during the breeding season, they actively avoid areas with regular human activity and can be disturbed by agricultural practices. Great bustards are often attracted to areas with considerable insect activity.


title: Great bustard

text: The breeding range of the great bustard currently stretches from Portugal to Manchuria, though previously the species bred even further east in Russian Primorsky Krai. Due to population declines across much of the range, more than half of the global population is now found in central Spain with around 30,000 individuals. Smaller populations are in southern Russia and the Great Hungarian Plain.


title: Great bustard

text: The species is gregarious, especially in winter when gatherings of several dozen birds may occur. Male and female groups do not mix outside of the breeding season. The great bustard has a stately slow walk but tends to run when disturbed rather than fly. Running speeds have not been measured but adult females have been known to outrun red foxes ("Vulpes vulpes"), which can reach a trotting speed of . Both sexes are usually silent but can engage in deep grunts when alarmed or angered. The displaying adult male may produce some booming, grunting and raucous noises. The female may utter some guttural calls at the nest and brooded young make a soft, trilling call in communication with their mothers.


title: Great bustard

text: Some individuals in Iberian populations make short seasonal movements of 5 – 200 km, particularly males which appear to move in response to higher summer temperatures. European populations are sedentary or make irregular movements in response to severe winter weather. Populations breeding along the Volga River in Russia migrate 1000 km to overwinter in Crimea and Kherson Oblast. Populations breeding in northern Mongolia migrate over 2000 km to overwinter in Shaanxi Province of China. In migratory populations, great bustards often gather in larger numbers at pre-migratory sites in order to move collectively to winter grounds. In the Iberian Peninsula, bustards that engage in migration seem to choose different periods for movements based on sex. No population is known to use the same grounds for wintering and summering. Great Bustards are strong fliers and reach speeds of 48 km/hr (30 mph) to 98 km/hr (60 miles/hr)during migration.


title: Great bustard

text: The great bustard breeds in March, and a single male may mate with up to five females. Before mating, the males moult into their breeding plumage around January. Males establish dominance in their groups during winter, clashing violently by ramming into and hitting each other with their bills. Like other bustards, the male great bustard displays and competes for the attention of females on what is known as a lek. In this species, the male has a flamboyant display beginning with the strutting male puffing up his throat to the size of a football. He then tilts forwards and pulls his head in so that the long whiskery chin feathers point upwards and the head is no longer visible. He next cocks his tail flat along his back, exposing the normally hidden bright white plumage then he lowers his wings, with the primary flight feathers folded but with the white secondaries fanning out. The displaying males, who may walk around for several minutes at a time with feathers flared and head buried waiting for hens to arrive, have been described as a "foam-bath" because of their appearance. All breeding great bustards also moult again from June to September.


title: Great bustard

text: One to three olive or tan coloured, glossy eggs (two eggs being the average) are laid by the female in May or June. The nests, which are shallow scrapes made by the female on dry, soft slopes and plains, are usually situated close to the prior lek location. Nests are situated in sparse clusters, with a study in Inner Mongolia finding nests at a minimal apart from each other. In the same study, nests were placed at mid-elevation on a hill, at about . Nesting sites are typically in dense grassy vegetation about , likely for protection against predation, with extensive exposure to sunlight. Eggs weigh about and are on average tall by wide. The female incubates the eggs alone for 21 to 28 days. The chicks almost immediately leave the nest after they hatch, although they do not move very far from their mother until they are at least 1 year old. Young great bustards begin developing their adult plumage at about 2 months, and begin to develop flying skills at the same time. They practice by stretching, running, flapping, and making small hops and jumps to get airborne. By three months they are able to fly reasonable distances. If threatened, the young stand still, using their downy plumage, mainly sepia in colour with paler buffy streaks, as camouflage. Juveniles are independent by their first winter, but normally stay with their mother until the next breeding season. Males usually start to mate from 5 to 6 years of age, although may engage in breeding display behaviour at a younger age. Females usually first breed at 2 to 3 years old.


title: Great bustard

text: The species is omnivorous, taking different foods in differing seasons. In northwestern Spain in August, 48.4% of the diet of adult birds was green plant material, 40.9% was invertebrates and 10.6% was seeds. In the same population during winter, seeds and green plant material constituted almost the entirety of the diet. Alfalfa is seemingly preferred in the diet of birds from Spain. Other favoured plant life in the diet can including legumes, crucifers, common dandelion and grapes and the dry seeds of wheat and barley. Among animal prey, insects are generally eaten and are the main food for young bustards in their first summer, though they then switch to the seasonal herbivorous preferences of adults by winter. Coleoptera (including beetles), Hymenoptera (including bees, wasps and ants) and Orthoptera (including crickets, grasshoppers and locusts) are mainly taken, largely based on availability and abundance. Small vertebrates, including small rodents, frogs, lizards and chicks of other birds, may supplement the diet when the opportunity arises. Great bustards may eat toxic blister beetles of the genus "Meloe" to self-medicate (Zoopharmacognosy) increasing sexual arousal of males.


title: Great bustard

text: In winter the feeding intensity increased and then decreased through the morning in both sexes, and was lower in flocks of males than in flocks of females. This sexual difference is greater where legume availability was smaller in central Spain. Males that foraged slightly less intensively than females could compensate with longer periods of foraging and bigger bite size that would allow them to obtain enough food relative to their absolute daily energy requirements. The size of morning foraging area is smaller in sites with more legume availability, likely because legumes are the most preferred substrate type.


title: Great bustard

text: Great bustards typically live for around 10 years, but some have been known to live up to 15 years or more. The maximum known life span for the species was 28 years. Adult males seem to have a higher mortality rate than females due mainly to fierce intraspecies fighting with other males during the breeding season. Many males may perish in their first couple of years of maturity due to this cause.


title: Great bustard

text: Although little detailed information has been obtained of predators, over 80% of great bustards die in the first year of life and many are victims of predation. Chicks are subject to predation by the fact that they are ground-dwelling birds which are reluctant to fly. Predators of eggs and hatchlings include raptors, corvids, hedgehogs, foxes, weasels, badgers ("Meles" ssp.), martens ("Martes" ssp.), rats ("Rattus" ssp.) and wild boars ("Sus scrofa"). The most serious natural predators of nests are perhaps red foxes and hooded crows ("Corvus cornix"). Chicks grow very quickly, by 6 months being nearly two-thirds of their adult size, and are predated by foxes, lynxes, wolves ("Canis lupus"), dogs, jackals and eagles. Predation on adult male great bustards has been reportedly committed by white-tailed eagles ("Haliaeetus albicilla") while golden eagles ("Aquila chrysaetos") are potential predators and eastern imperial eagles ("Aquila heliaca") have been known to prey on great bustards (but not likely to include adult males). Great bustards of unspecified age and sex have been found amongst Eurasian eagle-owl ("Bubo bubo") prey remains in Bulgaria. A possible act of predation on a great bustard was observed to be committed by a much smaller raptor, the western marsh harrier ("Circus aeruginosus"), though it was likely that this bustard was "weak or injured" if it was taken alive. The bold, conspicuous behaviour of the breeding adult male bustard may attract the same large mammalian predators that predate chicks, such as wolves and lynx, while the more inconspicuous female may sometimes be attacked by various predators. However, predation is generally fairly rare for adults due to their size, nimbleness and safety in numbers due to their social behaviour.


title: Great bustard

text: Occasionally, other natural causes may contribute to mortality in the species, especially starvation in harsh winter months. However, major causes of mortality in recent centuries have been largely linked to human activity, as described below.


title: Great bustard

text: As of 2008, the global population numbered between 44,000 and 51,000 birds (Palacin & Alonso 2008), about 38,000 to 47,000 in Europe, with 30,000 or more than half in Spain. Hungary had the next largest Great Bustard population with about 1,555 in the year 2012, followed by Ukraine and Austria. Between 4,200 and 4,500 were found in east Asia. In recent times, there have been steep declines throughout eastern and central Europe and in Asia, particularly in Kazakhstan and Mongolia.


title: Great bustard

text: Sizeable populations exist in Spain (23,055 birds), Russia (8,000 birds), Turkey (800–3,000 birds), Portugal (1,435 birds) and Mongolia (1,000 birds). In Germany and Austria the populations are small (Germany 2016: 232 birds; Austria 2012: 335 birds) but steadily growing for about two decades. Elsewhere, the populations are declining due to habitat loss throughout its range. A sizeable population also exists in Hungary (1,100–1,300 birds) where the Eastern European steppe zone ends, near Dévaványa town and also in the Hortobágy National Park, Nagykunság and Nagy-Sárrét regions. The population is down from a population of 10,000–12,000 before the Second World War.


title: Great bustard

text: Agrienvironment schemes as unirrigated legumes fostered a population increase of great bustards in Castilla y Leon, central Spain.


title: Great bustard

text: The great bustard is classified as vulnerable at the species level. There are myriad threats faced by great bustards. Increasing human disturbance could lead to habitat loss caused by the ploughing of grasslands, intensive agriculture, afforestation, increased development of irrigation schemes, and the construction of roads, power lines, fencing and ditches. Mechanisation, chemical fertilizers and pesticides, fire and predation by dogs are serious threats for chicks and juveniles, and hunting of adults contributes to high mortality in some of their range countries. Agricultural activity is a major disturbance at nest and, in Hungary, few successful nests are found outside of protected areas.


title: Great bustard

text: Bustards, despite their large size, are able to fly at high speed and are often mutilated or killed by overhead electricity cables, which are placed in the West Pannonia region of Eastern Austria and Western Hungary just at their flying height. The electricity companies affected have buried part of the dangerous cables, and have marked remaining aerial parts with fluorescent markers to warn off the birds. These measures have rapidly reduced bustard mortality. Bustards are also occasionally killed by collisions with automobiles or by entanglement in wires.


title: Great bustard

text: The great bustard was formerly native in Great Britain and a bustard forms part of the design of the Wiltshire Coat of Arms and as supporters for the Cambridgeshire arms. As early as 1797, the naturalist and wood engraver Thomas Bewick commented in his "A History of British Birds" that "Both this [the little bustard] and the Great Bustard are excellent eating, and would well repay the trouble of domestication; indeed, it seems surprising, that we should suffer these fine birds to be in danger of total extinction, although, if properly cultivated, they might afford as excellent a repast as our own domestic poultry, or even as the Turkey, for which we are indebted to distant countries." Bewick's prediction was correct; the great bustard was hunted out of existence in Britain by the 1840s.


title: Great bustard

text: In 2004, a project overseeing the reintroduction to Salisbury Plain in Wiltshire using eggs taken from Saratov in Russia was undertaken by The Great Bustard Group, a UK Registered Charity that aims to establish a self-sustaining population of great bustards in the UK. The reintroduced birds have laid eggs and raised chicks in Britain in 2009 and 2010. Although the great bustard was once native to Britain, great bustards are considered an alien species under English law. The reintroduction of the great bustard to the UK by the Great Bustard Group is being carried out in parallel with researchers from the University of Bath who are providing insight into the habitat of native great bustard populations in Russia and Hungary. On January 19, 2011, it was announced that the Great Bustard Project had been awarded EU LIFE+ funding, reportedly to the tune of £1.8 million. By 2020 the population in Wiltshire exceeded 100 birds. In Hungary, where the species is the national bird, great bustards are actively protected. The Hungarian authorities are seeking to preserve the long-term future of the population by active protection measures; the area affected by the special ecological treatment had grown to by the summer of 2006.


title: Great bustard

text: Under the auspices of the Convention on Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS), also known as the Bonn Convention, the Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) on the Conservation and Management of Middle-European Populations of the Great Bustard was concluded and came into effect on June 1, 2001. The MoU provides a framework for governments, scientists, conservation bodies and others to monitor and coordinate conservation efforts in order to protect the middle-European populations of the great bustard.


title: Mike Medavoy

text: Morris Mike Medavoy (born January 21, 1941) is an American film producer and business executive. He is the co-founder of Orion Pictures (1978), former chairman of TriStar Pictures, former head of production for United Artists (1974–1978), and the current chairman and CEO of Phoenix Pictures.


title: Mike Medavoy

text: Morris Mike Medavoy was born in Shanghai, China. His father, Michael, was a garage mechanic and his mother, Dora, owned a dress shop and Chinese actresses as clients. His parents were both from Jewish families. His mother was born in Harbin, Manchuria (to parents originally from Odessa), and his father was born in Ukraine. Medavoy lived in Chile from 1947 to 1957, and he studied at the Liceo Valentín Letelier de Santiago learning to speak Spanish fluently in addition to Russian, which is his first language. The family moved to Los Angeles and they lived with Medavoy's aunt. He became an American citizen in 1963 and graduated from UCLA that same year. Joining the U.S. Army Reserve in 1963 he served at Fort Ord in California until 1969.


title: Mike Medavoy

text: Medavoy began his career at Universal Studios in 1964. In 1965 he became an agent at the General Artists Corporation later moving to Creative Management Associates. He became Creative Management's vice president of the motion picture department in 1967, working with Steven Spielberg and Francis Ford Coppola among others. He headed to International Famous Agency in 1970.


title: Mike Medavoy

text: In 1974, United Artists brought Medavoy in as senior vice president of production. There he was part of the team responsible for making "One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest", "Rocky", and "Annie Hall", which won Best Picture Oscars in 1975, 1976, and 1977 respectively. United Artists made more notable films at the time including "Apocalypse Now", "Raging Bull", "Network", "The Black Stallion", and "Coming Home".


title: Mike Medavoy

text: In 1978, Medavoy co-founded Orion Pictures which was a joint venture with Warner Brothers, and fellow United Artists executives Arthur Krim; Robert Benjamin; Eric Pleskow; and William Bernstein. While Medavory was at Orion, the company released notable and successful films including "Platoon", "Amadeus", "RoboCop", "Hannah and Her Sisters", "The Terminator", "Dances with Wolves", and "The Silence of the Lambs".


title: Mike Medavoy

text: In 1990, Medavoy became the chairman of TriStar Pictures and oversaw the release of films such as "Philadelphia", "", "Sleepless in Seattle", "Cliffhanger", "The Fisher King", "Legends of the Fall", and "Hook". He left in 1994 after having disputes with Sony Pictures chairman Peter Guber.


title: Mike Medavoy

text: In 1995, Medavoy co-founded Phoenix Pictures with Arnold W. Messer which they set up at Sony Pictures Entertainment in November. As its chairman and CEO, he co-produced such films as "The People vs. Larry Flynt", "The Mirror Has Two Faces", "U Turn", "Apt Pupil", "The Thin Red Line", "The 6th Day", "Basic", "All the King's Men", "Zodiac", "Pathfinder", and "Miss Potter", among others. "The Thin Red Line" and "The People vs. Larry Flynt" received Oscar nominations. Phoenix Pictures has produced "Shutter Island" and "Black Swan". "Shutter Island" was released on February 19, 2010, earning over $42 million its opening weekend. "Black Swan" was directed by Darren Aronofsky and won numerous awards including the Oscar® and Golden Globe for Best Actress (Natalie Portman).


title: Mike Medavoy

text: In 2011, Medavoy announced a project depicting the 2010 Chilean mining accident that left 33 men trapped underground for 69 days. He collaborated with Chilean officials and Academy Award-nominated screenwriter José Rivera; they created an authentic retelling of the story. Medavoy explains, "at its heart, [it is] about the triumph of the human spirit and a testament to the courage and perseverance of the Chilean people".


title: Mike Medavoy

text: Also in 2011 Medavoy announced his collaboration with The Shanghai Film Group to create both a feature film and six-hour miniseries. The feature was an adaptation of the novel "The Cursed Piano", a love story set in Japanese-occupied China about persecuted Jews seeking refuge from occupied Europe. The mini-series, "Tears of a Sparrow" focuses in detail on the experiences of the Jews in Shanghai. Medavoy also worked on "Dandelion Wine" which was adapted from a novel with the same name written by Ray Bradbury.


title: Mike Medavoy

text: In 2015, it was announced that he and Eric Esrailian would produce "The Promise" which stars Oscar Isaac and Christian Bale.


title: Mike Medavoy

text: Medavoy was appointed to the board of directors of the Museum of Science and Industry in Los Angeles by Governor Jerry Brown and was appointed by Mayor Richard Riordan as a commissioner on the Los Angeles Board of Parks and Recreations. He is a member of the board of directors of the University of Tel Aviv. He also serves on the board of trustees of the UCLA Foundation and is a member of the Chancellor's Associates, the Dean's Advisory Board at the UCLA School of Theater, Film and Television; and the Alumni Association's Student Relations Committee. Medavoy is the co-chairman of the Burkle Center for UCLA's Center for International Relations and served as a member of the board of advisors at the John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University for five years. In 2002, Governor Gray Davis appointed him to the California Anti-Terrorism Information Center's Executive Advisory Board; he is a member of both the Council on Foreign Relations and the Homeland Security Advisory Council. Medavoy is also on the Baryshnikov Arts Center Advisory Committee in New York, and serves on the advisory board of the USC Center on Public Diplomacy. The Medavoys' charity work includes C.O.A.C.H. For Kids (Community Outreach Assistance for Children's Heath, with Cedar Sinai Medical Center) and Irena Medavoy is the Executive Vice Chairman. The agency provides free medical care to inner city children.


title: Mike Medavoy

text: In 1984, Medavoy was the co-finance chair of the Gary Hart campaign. He also actively participated in President Clinton's campaigns in 1992 and 1996. In 2008, he supported Barack Obama's candidacy and his wife, Irena, served as the co-finance chair of the campaign.


title: Mike Medavoy

text: He was married to Marcia Rogers, the daughter of publicist Henry C. Rogers and Roz (Jaffe) Rogers and former wife of Mark Goddard. In 1986, he married political activist Patricia Duff. In 1993, they separated and divorced; she remarried Ron Perelman in 1994.


title: Mike Medavoy

text: He is presently married to Irena Gerasimenko, a philanthropist, activist, former model, actress, and co-founder of Team Safe-T (which endeavors to prepare schools for emergency situations). Gerasimenko is a charity executive and fundraiser for Industry Task Force. The couple has a son, Nick. (Mike Medavoy has a producer son Brian Medavoy from a previous marriage). Irena Medavoy writes for The Huffington Post about the topic of unrealistic female media images. When their son, Nick (who is 6'8") was born, Mike Medavoy sang 'Singing In the Rain' to him.


title: Mike Medavoy

text: In 2002, Simon & Schuster published Medavoy's book, "You're Only As Good As Your Next One: 100 Great Films, 100 Good Films and 100 For Which I Should Be Shot", co-written by Josh Young, which became a best-seller and was subsequently released in paperback in 2003. In 2009, Mike published "American Idol After Iraq; Competing for Hearts and Minds in the Global Media Age," with co-author Nathan Gardels, editor of the "National Political Quarterly".


title: Plantar fascia

text: The plantar fascia is the thick connective tissue (aponeurosis) which supports the arch on the bottom (plantar side) of the foot. It runs from the tuberosity of the calcaneus (heel bone) forward to the heads of the metatarsal bones (the bone between each toe and the bones of the mid-foot).


title: Plantar fascia

text: The plantar fascia is a broad structure that spans between the medial calcaneal tubercle and the proximal phalanges of the toes. Recent studies suggest that the plantar fascia is actually an aponeurosis rather than true fascia. The Dorland’s Medical Dictionary defines an aponeurosis as: (i) a white, flattened or ribbon-like tendinous expansion, serving mainly to connect a muscle with the parts that it moves, (ii) a term formerly applied to certain fasciae. Further, it defines the plantar aponeurosis as bands of fibrous connective tissue radiating toward the bases of the toes from the medial process of the tuber calcanei (posterior half of the calcaneus).


title: Plantar fascia

text: The plantar fascia is made up of predominantly longitudinally oriented collagen fibers. There are three distinct structural components: the medial component, the central component (plantar aponeurosis), and the lateral component (see diagram at right). The central component is the largest and most prominent.


title: Plantar fascia

text: In younger people the plantar fascia is also intimately related to the Achilles tendon, with a continuous fascial connection between the two from the distal aspect of the Achilles to the origin of the plantar fascia at the calcaneal tubercle. However, the continuity of this connection decreases with age to a point that in the elderly there are few, if any, connecting fibers. There are also distinct attachments of the plantar fascia and the Achilles tendon to the calcaneus so the two do not directly contact each other. Nevertheless, there is an indirect relationship whereby if the toes are dorsiflexed, the plantar fascia tightens via the windlass mechanism. If a tensile force is then generated in the Achilles tendon it will increase tensile strain in the plantar fascia. Clinically, this relationship has been used as a basis for treatment for plantar fasciitis, with stretches and night stretch splinting being applied to the gastrocnemius/soleus muscle unit.


title: Plantar fascia

text: The plantar fascia contributes to support of arch of the foot by acting as a tie-rod, where it undergoes tension when the foot bears weight. One biomechanical model estimated it carries as much as 14% of the total load of the foot. In an experiment using cadavers, it was found that failure of the plantar fascia averaged at loads of 1189 ± 244 newtons (121 ± 24 kgf or 267 ± 55 lbf). Failure most often occurred at the proximal attachment to the calcaneus, which is consistent with the usual location of symptoms (i.e. in plantar fasciitis). Complete rupture or surgical release of the plantar fascia leads to a decrease in arch stiffness and a significant collapse of the longitudinal arch of the foot. By modeling it was predicted such conditions would result in a 17% increase in vertical displacement and a 15% increase in horizontal elongation of the foot when it was loaded at . Surgical release also significantly increases both stress in the plantar ligaments and plantar pressures under the metatarsal heads. Although most of the figures mentioned above are from either cadaver studies or investigations using models, they highlight the relatively large load the plantar fascia is subjected to while contributing to the structural integrity of the foot.


title: Plantar fascia

text: The plantar fascia also has an important role in dynamic function during gait. It was found the plantar fascia continuously elongated during the contact phase of gait. It went through rapid elongation before and immediately after mid-stance, reaching a maximum of 9% to 12% elongation between mid-stance and toe-off. During this phase the plantar fascia behaves like a spring, which may assist in conserving energy. In addition, the plantar fascia has a critical role in normal mechanical function of the foot, contributing to the "windlass mechanism". When the toes are dorsiflexed in the propulsive phase of gait, the plantar fascia becomes tense, resulting in elevation of the longitudinal arch and shortening of the foot (see 3A). One can liken this mechanism to a cable being wound around the drum of a windlass (see 3B); the plantar fascia being the cable, the metatarsal head the drum, and the handle, the proximal phalanx.


title: Market manipulation

text: In economics and finance, market manipulation is a type of market abuse where there is a deliberate attempt to interfere with the free and fair operation of the market; the most blatant of cases involve creating false or misleading appearances with respect to the price of, or market for, a product, security or commodity.


title: Market manipulation

text: Market manipulation is prohibited in most countries, in particular, it is prohibited in the United States under Section 9(a)(2) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, in the European Union under Article 12 of the "Market Abuse Regulation", in Australia under Section 1041A of the Corporations Act 2001, and in Israel under Section 54(a) of the securities act of 1968. In the US, market manipulation is also prohibited for wholesale electricity markets under Section 222 of the Federal Power Act and wholesale natural gas markets under Section 4A of the Natural Gas Act.


title: Market manipulation

text: The US Securities Exchange Act defines market manipulation as "transactions which create an artificial price or maintain an artificial price for a tradable security".


title: Market manipulation

text: To filter out or disregard false and misleading social media posts that were posted for the sole purpose of artificially inflating the market valuation of listed securities.


title: Market manipulation

text: Agreements, often written, among a group of traders to delegate authority to a single manager to trade in a specific stock for a work period of time and then to share in the resulting profits or losses. In Australia section 1041B prohibits pooling.


title: Market manipulation

text: When an advisor enters into a trade for the sole purpose of earning commission. For example buying and selling the same stock either on the same day or over multiple days with no consideration for the benefit of the client


title: Market manipulation

text: This scheme is usually orchestrated by savvy online message board posters (a.k.a. "Bashers") who make up false and/or misleading information about the target company in an attempt to get shares for a cheaper price. This activity, in most cases, is conducted by posting libelous posts on multiple public forums. The perpetrators sometimes work directly for unscrupulous Investor Relations firms who have convertible notes that convert for more shares the lower the bid or ask price is; thus the lower these Bashers can drive a stock price down by trying to convince shareholders they have bought a worthless security, the more shares the Investor Relations firm receives as compensation. Immediately after the stock conversion is complete and shares are issued to the Investor Relations firm, consultant, attorney or similar party, the basher/s then become friends of the company and move quickly to ensure they profit on a classic Pump & Dump scheme to liquidate their ill-gotten shares. (See pump and dump.)


title: Market manipulation

text: A pump and dump scheme is generally part of a more complex grand plan of market manipulation on the targeted security. The perpetrators (usually stock promoters) convince company affiliates and large position non-affiliates to release shares into a free trading status as "Payment" for services for promoting the security. Instead of putting out legitimate information about a company the promoter sends out bogus e-mails (the "Pump") to millions of unsophisticated investors (Sometimes called "Retail Investors") in an attempt to drive the price of the stock and volume to higher points. When the stock price and volume has reached a target level the promoter sells their shares (the "Dump") at the now elevated prices, taking money off the duped investors who are left holding a stock whose price subsequently falls.


title: Market manipulation

text: When a group of traders create activity or rumours in order to drive the price of a security up. An example is the Guinness share-trading fraud of the 1980s. In the US, this activity is usually referred to as "painting the tape". Runs may also occur when trader(s) are attempting to drive the price of a certain share down, although this is rare. (see Stock Bashing)


title: Market manipulation

text: Actions designed to artificially raise the market price of listed securities and give the impression of voluminous trading in order to make a quick profit.


title: Market manipulation

text: In a wash trade the manipulator takes both the buy and the sell side of a trade, often using a third party as a proxy to trade on behalf of the manipulator, for the purpose of generating activity and increasing the price. This is more involved than churning because the orders are actually fulfilled.


title: Market manipulation

text: In a bear raid there is an attempt to push the price of a stock down by heavy selling or short selling.


title: Market manipulation

text: This works with a company that is very distressed on paper, with impossibly high debt, consistently high annual losses but very few assets, making it look as if bankruptcy must be imminent. The stock price gradually falls as people new to the stock short it on the basis of the poor outlook for the company, until the number of shorted shares greatly exceeds the total number of shares that are not held by those aware of the lure and squeeze scheme (henceforward "people in the know"). In the meantime, people in the know increasingly purchase the stock as it drops to lower and lower prices. When the short interest has reached a maximum, the company announces it has made a deal with its creditors to settle its loans in exchange for shares of stock (or some similar kind of arrangement that leverages the stock price to benefit the company), knowing that those who have short positions will be squeezed as the price of the stock sky-rockets. Near its peak price, people in the know start to sell, and the price gradually falls back down again for the cycle to repeat.


title: Market manipulation

text: Quote stuffing is made possible by high-frequency trading programs that can execute market actions with incredible speed. However, high-frequency trading in and of itself is not illegal. The tactic involves using specialized, high-bandwidth hardware to quickly enter and withdraw large quantities of orders in an attempt to flood the market, thereby gaining an advantage over slower market participants.


title: Market manipulation

text: Cross-market manipulation occurs when a trader trades in one market for the purpose of manipulating the price of an asset in another market, capitalizing off the price-moving effects thus generated, instead of with the bona fide intent of profiting off the trade itself.


title: Market manipulation

text: A type of manipulation possible when financial instruments are settled based on benchmarks set by the trading of physical commodities, for example in United States Natural Gas Markets. The manipulator takes a large long (short) financial position that will benefit from the benchmark settling at a higher (lower) price, then trades in the physical commodity markets at such a large volume as to influence the benchmark price in the direction that will benefit their financial position.


title: Market manipulation

text: Spoofing is a disruptive algorithmic trading entity employed by traders to outpace other market participants and to manipulate commodity markets. Spoofers feign interest in trading futures, stocks and other products in financial markets creating an illusion of exchange pessimism in the futures market when many offers are being cancelled or withdrawn, or false optimism or demand when many offers are being placed in bad faith. Spoofers bid or offer with intent to cancel before the orders are filled. The flurry of activity around the buy or sell orders is intended to attract other high-frequency traders (HFT) to induce a particular market reaction such as manipulating the market price of a security. Spoofing can be a factor in the rise and fall of the price of shares and can be very profitable to the spoofer who can time buying and selling based on this manipulation.