title: Kibera

text: The project has also come under fire from urban planners who say that it risks repeating the mistakes of previous schemes, when poor families either shared two-room apartments with one or two other families to pay the rent, or sublet them to middle-class families and moved back into the slums. Workers earning a minimum wage in Kenya make less than US$2 per day. There is also controversy over the timing of the project, with the first phase, rehousing 7,500 people, being delayed by five years and one government official stating that if the project continues at the current pace it will take 1,178 years to complete.


title: Kibera

text: Kibera is featured in Fernando Meirelles's film "The Constant Gardener", which is based on the book of the same name by John le Carré. It is mentioned in the music video "World on Fire" by Sarah McLachlan, which profiled the work of Carolina for Kibera, a grassroots organisation named a Hero of Global Health in 2005 by "Time" magazine.


title: Kibera

text: Robert Neuwirth devotes a chapter of his book "Shadow Cities" to Kibera and calls it a squatter community, predicting that places like Kibera, Sultanbeyli in Istanbul, Turkey, and Dharavi in Mumbai, India, are the prototypes of the cities of tomorrow. Among other things, Neuwirth points out that such cities should be reconsidered and not viewed merely as slums, because many locals were drawn to them while escaping far worse conditions in rural areas. Michael Holman's 2005 novel "Last Orders at Harrods" is based on a fictional version of the slum, called "Kireba". Bill Bryson visited Africa for CARE and wrote a companion book called "Bill Bryson's African Diary", which includes a description of his visit to Kibera.


title: Kibera

text: Kibera is the backdrop for the award-winning short film "Kibera Kid", which featured a cast entirely drawn from residents. It has played in film festivals worldwide including the Berlin Film Festival and won a Student Emmy from Hollywood. Recently, Hot Sun Foundation and Hot Sun Films started the first film school in the slum, the Kibera Film School. The school teaches the youth from the slum how to make films and tell their stories. In 2009 through 2010, the Kibera Film School and Hot Sun Foundation collaborated on the feature follow-up to Kibera Kid, which is titled "Togetherness Supreme".


title: Kibera

text: In his documentary "Living with Corruption", Sorious Samura stayed with a family in Kibera to film the corruption that occurs even at the lowest levels of Kenyan society. Furthermore, Kibera is portrayed in the Austrian 2007 documentary .


title: Kibera

text: In 2011, the BBC aired a reality show documentary TV program called "Rich, Famous and in the Slums" about Kibera. The program showed four famous and rich people, after working at the worst jobs available in the slums, moving in with four local impoverished families and getting to meet the actual conditions in which they live. They were:


title: Kibera

text: "The Economist" published an article in 2012 suggesting that Kibera "may be the most entrepreneurial place on the planet" and that "to equate slums with idleness and misery is to misunderstand them".


title: Kibera

text: The Netflix 2015 series "Sense8" features a character named Capheus based in Kibera, showing the hardships of a fictional matatu driver there.


title: Seven Days Battles

text: The Seven Days Battles were a series of seven battles over seven days from June 25 to July 1, 1862, near Richmond, Virginia, during the American Civil War. Confederate General Robert E. Lee drove the invading Union Army of the Potomac, commanded by Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan, away from Richmond and into a retreat down the Virginia Peninsula. The series of battles is sometimes known erroneously as the Seven Days Campaign, but it was actually the culmination of the Peninsula Campaign, not a separate campaign in its own right.


title: Seven Days Battles

text: The Seven Days began on Wednesday, June 25, 1862, with a Union attack in the minor Battle of Oak Grove, but McClellan quickly lost the initiative as Lee began a series of attacks at Beaver Dam Creek (Mechanicsville) on June 26, Gaines's Mill on June 27, the minor actions at Garnett's and Golding's Farm on June 27 and 28, and the attack on the Union rear guard at Savage's Station on June 29. McClellan's Army of the Potomac continued its retreat toward the safety of Harrison's Landing on the James River. Lee's final opportunity to intercept the Union Army was at the Battle of Glendale on June 30, but poorly executed orders and the delay of Stonewall Jackson's troops allowed his enemy to escape to a strong defensive position on Malvern Hill. At the Battle of Malvern Hill on July 1, Lee launched futile frontal assaults and suffered heavy casualties in the face of strong infantry and artillery defenses.


title: Seven Days Battles

text: The Seven Days ended with McClellan's army in relative safety next to the James River, having suffered almost 16,000 casualties during the retreat. Lee's army, which had been on the offensive during the Seven Days, lost over 20,000. As Lee became convinced that McClellan would not resume his threat against Richmond, he moved north for the northern Virginia campaign and the Maryland campaign.


title: Seven Days Battles

text: The Peninsula campaign was the unsuccessful attempt by McClellan to capture the Confederate capital of Richmond and end the war. It started in March 1862, when McClellan landed his army at Fort Monroe and moved northwest, up the Virginia Peninsula beginning in early April. Confederate Brig. Gen. John B. Magruder's defensive position on the Warwick Line caught McClellan by surprise. His hopes for a quick advance foiled, McClellan ordered his army to prepare for a siege of Yorktown. Just before the siege preparations were completed, the Confederates, now under the direct command of Johnston, began a withdrawal toward Richmond.


title: Seven Days Battles

text: To start this was a very good move. The first heavy fighting of the campaign occurred in the Battle of Williamsburg (May 5), in which the Union troops managed some tactical victories, but the Confederates continued their withdrawal. An amphibious flanking movement to Eltham's Landing (May 7) was ineffective in cutting off the Confederate retreat. In the Battle of Drewry's Bluff (May 15), an attempt by the United States Navy to reach Richmond by way of the James River was repulsed.


title: Seven Days Battles

text: As McClellan's army reached the outskirts of Richmond, a minor battle occurred at Hanover Court House (May 27), but it was followed by a surprise attack by Johnston at the Battle of Seven Pines or Fair Oaks on May 31 and June 1. The battle was inconclusive, with heavy casualties, but it had lasting effects on the campaign. Johnston was wounded and replaced on June 1 by the more aggressive Robert E. Lee. Lee spent almost a month extending his defensive lines and organizing his Army of Northern Virginia; McClellan accommodated this by sitting passively to his front, waiting for dry weather and roads, until the start of the Seven Days. Lee, who had developed a reputation for caution early in the war, knew he had no numerical superiority over McClellan, but he planned an offensive campaign that was the first indication of the aggressive nature he would display for the remainder of the war.


title: Seven Days Battles

text: Lee's initial attack plan, similar to Johnston's plan at Seven Pines, was complex and required expert coordination and execution by all of his subordinates, but Lee knew that he could not win in a battle of attrition or siege against the Union Army. It was developed at a meeting on June 23. The Union Army straddled the rain-swollen Chickahominy River, with the bulk of the army, four corps, arrayed in a semicircular line south of the river. The remainder, the V Corps under Brig. Gen. Fitz John Porter, was north of the river near Mechanicsville in an L-shaped line facing north–south behind Beaver Dam Creek and southeast along the Chickahominy. Lee's plan was to cross the Chickahominy with the bulk of his army to attack the Union north flank, leaving only two divisions (under Maj. Gens. Benjamin Huger and John B. Magruder) to hold a line of entrenchments against McClellan's superior strength. This would concentrate about 65,500 troops to oppose 30,000, leaving only 25,000 to protect Richmond and to contain the other 60,000 men of the Union Army. The Confederate cavalry under Brig. Gen. J.E.B. Stuart had reconnoitered Porter's right flank—as part of a daring but militarily dubious circumnavigation of the entire Union Army from June 12 to 15—and found it vulnerable.


title: Seven Days Battles

text: Lee intended for Jackson to attack Porter's right flank early on the morning of June 26, and A.P. Hill would move from Meadow Bridge to Beaver Dam Creek, which flows into the Chickahominy, advancing on the Federal trenches. (Lee hoped that Porter would evacuate his trenches under pressure, obviating the need for a direct frontal assault.) Following this, Longstreet and D.H. Hill would pass through Mechanicsville and join the battle. Huger and Magruder would provide diversions on their fronts to distract McClellan as to Lee's real intentions. Lee hoped that Porter would be overwhelmed from two sides by the mass of 65,000 men, and the two leading Confederate divisions would move on Cold Harbor and cut McClellan's communications with White House Landing.


title: Seven Days Battles

text: McClellan also planned an offensive. He had received intelligence that Lee was prepared to move and that the arrival of Maj. Gen. Thomas J. "Stonewall" Jackson's force from the Shenandoah Valley was imminent (McClellan was aware of Jackson's presence at Ashland Station, but did nothing to reinforce Porter's vulnerable corps north of the river). He decided to resume the offensive before Lee could. Anticipating Jackson's reinforcements marching from the north, he increased cavalry patrols on likely avenues of approach. He wanted to advance his siege artillery about a mile and a half closer to the city by taking the high ground on Nine Mile Road around Old Tavern. In preparation for that, he planned an attack on Oak Grove, south of Old Tavern and the Richmond and York River Railroad, which would position his men to attack Old Tavern from two directions.


title: Seven Days Battles

text: The armies that fought in the Seven Days Battles comprised almost 200,000 men, which offered the potential for the largest battles of the war. However, the inexperience or caution of the generals involved usually prevented the appropriate concentration of forces and mass necessary for decisive tactical victories.


title: Seven Days Battles

text: The Confederate army was not a proper unified command as the Army of the Potomac was, but simply a thrown-together collection of all the troops that could be gathered for the defense of Richmond. This contributed to the poor coordination of the army during the battles and the inability of Robert E. Lee to destroy the Union army.


title: Seven Days Battles

text: The average strength of a division in the Army of the Potomac was about 9000 men (including non-combatants) with Casey's division being the smallest at around 7000 and Morell's being the largest at 11,000 men. The average strength of Confederate divisions varied from 12,000 men (A.P. Hill's division) to 5000 men (Theophilus Holmes's division). Confederate reports listed only combat troops and excluded non-combatants such as couriers, staff officers, and wagon drivers. Jackson's command was severely understrength from the Valley campaign and his own division had less than 2000 men, most of them being in the Stonewall Brigade while the brigades of Samuel Fulkerson and John R. Jones were down to nearly regimental size and were held in reserve for most of the Seven Days Battles. Ewell's three brigades numbered 3000 men total. Jackson was reinforced with the brigade of Alexander Lawton, recently arrived from Georgia, and numbering 3500 men. This brought his total strength to around 8000 men.


title: Seven Days Battles

text: D.H. Hill's division numbered around 7700 men, having numbered close to 10,000 before the heavy losses at Seven Pines. They were reinforced with Roswell Ripley's brigade, newly arrived from North Carolina, and numbering 2300 men, bringing the total strength of Hill's command to 10,000 men. James Longstreet's division numbered 9050 men on June 25 according to army ordnance chief Edward P. Alexander. It had numbered close to 12,000 men prior to losses at Seven Pines. Benjamin Huger's division numbered approximately 8600 men. William Whiting had around 4000 men in his two brigades. John Magruder's three divisions numbered about 13,000 men.


title: Seven Days Battles

text: McClellan's Army of the Potomac, with approximately 105,000 men, was organized largely as it had been at Seven Pines.


title: Seven Days Battles

text: Lee's Army of Northern Virginia was larger than the one he inherited from Johnston, and, at about 92,000 men, the largest Confederate army assembled during the war.


title: Seven Days Battles

text: McClellan planned to advance to the west, along the axis of the Williamsburg Road, in the direction of Richmond. Between the two armies was a small, dense forest, wide, bisected by the headwaters of White Oak Swamp. Two divisions of the III Corps were selected for the assault, commanded by Brig. Gens. Joseph Hooker and Philip Kearny. Facing them was the division of Confederate Maj. Gen. Benjamin Huger.


title: Seven Days Battles

text: Soon after 8 a.m., June 25, the Union brigades of Brig. Gens. Daniel E. Sickles (the Excelsior Brigade), Cuvier Grover, both of Hooker's division, and John C. Robinson stepped off. Although Robinson and Grover made good progress on the left and in the center, Sickles's New Yorkers encountered difficulties moving through their abatis, then through the upper portions of the creek, and finally met stiff Confederate resistance, all of which threw the Federal line out of alignment. Huger took advantage of the confusion by launching a counterattack with the brigade of Brig. Gen. Ambrose R. Wright against Grover's brigade. At a crucial moment in the battle, the 26th North Carolina of Brig. Gen. Robert Ransom's brigade, in their first combat engagement, delivered a perfectly synchronized volley of rifle fire against Sickles's brigade, breaking up its delayed attack and sending the 71st New York into a panicked retreat, which Sickles described as "disgraceful confusion."


title: Seven Days Battles

text: Heintzelman ordered reinforcements sent forward and also notified army commander McClellan, who was attempting to manage the battle by telegraph from away. McClellan ordered his men to withdraw back to their entrenchments, mystifying his subordinates on the scene. Arriving at the front at 1 p.m., seeing that the situation was not as bad as he had feared, McClellan ordered his men forward to retake the ground for which they had already fought once that day. The fighting lasted until nightfall.


title: Seven Days Battles

text: The minor battle was McClellan's only tactical offensive action against Richmond. His attack gained only at a cost of over 1,000 casualties on both sides and was not strong enough to derail the offensive planned by Robert E. Lee, which had already been set in motion.


title: Seven Days Battles

text: Lee's plan called for Jackson to begin the attack on Porter's north flank early on June 26. A.P. Hill's Light Division was to advance from Meadow Bridge when he heard Jackson's guns, clear the Union pickets from Mechanicsville, and then move to Beaver Dam Creek. D.H. Hill and Longstreet were to pass through Mechanicsville and support Jackson and A.P. Hill. South of the river, Magruder and Huger were to demonstrate to deceive the four Union corps on their front.


title: Seven Days Battles

text: Lee's intricate plan went awry immediately. Jackson's men, fatigued from their recent campaign and lengthy march, ran at least four hours behind schedule. By 3 p.m., A.P. Hill grew impatient and began his attack without orders, a frontal assault with 11,000 men. Porter extended and strengthened his right flank and fell back to concentrate along Beaver Dam Creek and Ellerson's Mill. There, 14,000 well entrenched soldiers, aided by 32 guns in six batteries, repulsed repeated Confederate attacks with substantial casualties.


title: Seven Days Battles

text: Jackson and his command arrived late in the afternoon and he ordered his troops to bivouac for the evening while a major battle was raging within earshot. His proximity to Porter's flank caused McClellan to order Porter to withdraw after dark behind Boatswain's Swamp, to the east. McClellan was concerned that the Confederate buildup on his right flank threatened his supply line, the Richmond and York River Railroad north of the Chickahominy, and he decided to shift his base of supply to the James River. He also believed that the diversions by Huger and Magruder south of the river meant that he was seriously outnumbered. (He reported to Washington that he faced 200,000 Confederates, but there were actually 85,000.) This was a strategic decision of grave importance because it meant that, without the railroad to supply his army, he would be forced to abandon his siege of Richmond. A.P. Hill, now with Longstreet and D.H. Hill behind him, continued his attack, despite orders from Lee to hold his ground. His assault was beaten back with heavy casualties.


title: Seven Days Battles

text: Overall, the battle was a Union tactical victory, in which the Confederates suffered heavy casualties and achieved none of their specific objectives due to the seriously flawed execution of Lee's plan. Instead of over 60,000 men crushing the enemy's flank, only five brigades, about 15,000 men, had seen action. Their losses were 1,484 versus Porter's 361. Despite the short-term Union success, however, it was the start of a strategic debacle. McClellan began to withdraw his army to the southeast and never regained the initiative.


title: Seven Days Battles

text: By the morning of June 27, the Union forces were concentrated into a semicircle with Porter collapsing his line into an east–west salient north of the river and the four corps south of the river remaining in their original positions. McClellan ordered Porter to hold Gaines's Mill at all costs so that the army could change its base of supply to the James River. Several of McClellan's subordinates urged him to attack Magruder's division south of the river, but he feared the vast numbers of Confederates he believed to be before him and refused to capitalize on the overwhelming superiority he actually held on that front.


title: Seven Days Battles

text: Lee continued his offensive on June 27, launching the largest Confederate attack of the war, about 57,000 men in six divisions. A.P. Hill resumed his attack across Beaver Dam Creek early in the morning, but found the line lightly defended. By early afternoon, he ran into strong opposition where Porter had deployed along Boatswain's Creek; the swampy terrain was a major obstacle to the attack. As Longstreet arrived to the south of A.P. Hill, he saw the difficulty of attacking over such terrain and delayed until Stonewall Jackson could attack on Hill's left.


title: Seven Days Battles

text: For the second time in the Seven Days, however, Jackson was late. D.H. Hill attacked the Federal right and was held off by the division of Brig. Gen. George Sykes; he backed off to await Jackson's arrival. Longstreet was ordered to conduct a diversionary attack to stabilize the lines until Jackson could arrive and attack from the north. In Longstreet's attack, Brig. Gen. George E. Pickett's brigade attempted a frontal assault and was beaten back under severe fire with heavy losses. Jackson finally reached D.H. Hill's position at 3 p.m. and began his assault at 4:30 p.m.


title: Seven Days Battles

text: Porter's line was saved by Brig. Gen. Henry W. Slocum's division moving into position to bolster his defense. Shortly after dark, the Confederates mounted another attack, poorly coordinated, but this time collapsing the Federal line. Brig. Gen. John Bell Hood's Texas Brigade opened a gap in the line, as did Pickett's Brigade on its second attempt of the day. By 4 a.m. on June 28, Porter withdrew across the Chickahominy, burning the bridges behind him.


title: Seven Days Battles

text: For the second day, Magruder was able to continue fooling McClellan south of the river by employing minor diversionary attacks. He was able to occupy 60,000 Federal troops while the heavier action occurred north of the river.


title: Seven Days Battles

text: Gaines's Mill was the only clear-cut Confederate tactical victory of the Peninsula Campaign. Union casualties from the 34,214 engaged were 6,837 (894 killed, 3,107 wounded, and 2,836 captured or missing). Of the 57,018 Confederates engaged, losses totaled 7,993 (1,483 killed, 6,402 wounded, 108 missing or captured). Since the Confederate assault was conducted against only a small portion of the Union Army (the V Corps, one fifth of the army), the army emerged from the battle in relatively good shape overall. However, although McClellan had already planned to shift his supply base to the James River, his defeat unnerved him and he precipitously decided to abandon his advance on Richmond.


title: Seven Days Battles

text: The night of June 27, McClellan ordered his entire army to withdraw to a secure base at Harrison's Landing on the James River. His actions have puzzled military historians ever since. The Union army was in a good position, having withstood strong Confederate attacks while only deploying one of its five corps in battle. Porter had performed well against heavy odds. Furthermore, McClellan was aware that the War Department had created a new Army of Virginia and ordered it to be sent to the Peninsula to reinforce him. But Lee had unnerved him, and he surrendered the initiative. He sent a telegram to the Secretary of War that included the statement: "If I save this Army now I tell you plainly that I owe no thanks to you or any other persons in Washington—you have done your best to sacrifice this Army." (The military telegraph department chose to omit this sentence from the copy given to the Secretary.)


title: Seven Days Battles

text: McClellan ordered Keyes's IV Corps to move west of Glendale and protect the army's withdrawal, while Porter was sent to the high ground at Malvern Hill to develop defensive positions. The supply trains were ordered to move south toward the river. McClellan departed for Harrison's Landing without specifying any exact routes of withdrawal and without designating a second-in-command. For the remainder of the Seven Days, he had no direct command of the battles. The Union retreat across the Chickahominy after Gaines's Mill was a psychological victory for the Confederacy, signaling that Richmond was out of danger.


title: Seven Days Battles

text: Lee's cavalry reported that Union troops had abandoned their defense of the Richmond and York River Railroad and the White House supply depot on the York River. That information, plus the sighting of large dust clouds south of the Chickahominy River, finally convinced Lee that McClellan was heading for the James. Until this time, Lee anticipated that McClellan would be withdrawing to the east to protect his supply line to the York River and positioned his forces to react to that, unable to act decisively while he awaited evidence of McClellan's intentions.


title: Seven Days Battles

text: While Lee's main attack at Gaines's Mill was progressing on June 27, the Confederates south of the Chickahominy performed a reconnaissance in force to determine the location of McClellan's retreating army. Magruder ordered Brig. Gen. Robert A. Toombs's brigade forward to "feel the enemy." Toombs, a Georgia politician with a disdain for professional officers, instead launched a sharp attack at dusk against Baldy Smith's VI Corps division near Old Tavern at the farm of James M. Garnett. The attack was easily repulsed by the brigade of Brig. Gen. Winfield S. Hancock.


title: Seven Days Battles

text: On June 28, Toombs again was ordered to conduct a reconnaissance, but turned it into an attack over the same ground, meeting the enemy at the farm of Simon Gouldin (also known as Golding). Toombs took it upon himself to order his fellow brigade commander, Col. George T. Anderson, to join the assault. Two of Anderson's regiments, the 7th and 8th Georgia, preceded Toombs's brigade into the assault and were subjected to a vigorous Federal counterattack by the 49th Pennsylvania and 43rd New York, losing 156 men.


title: Seven Days Battles

text: These were the only attacks south of the Chickahominy River in conjunction with Gaines's Mill, but they helped to convince McClellan that he was being subjected to attacks from all directions, increasing his anxiety and his determination to get his army to safety at the James.


title: Seven Days Battles

text: On Sunday, June 29, the bulk of McClellan's army concentrated around Savage's Station on the Richmond and York River Railroad, a Federal supply depot since just before Seven Pines, preparing for a difficult crossing through and around White Oak Swamp. It did so without centralized direction because McClellan had personally moved south of Malvern Hill after Gaines's Mill without leaving directions for corps movements during the retreat nor naming a second in command. Clouds of black smoke filled the air as the Union troops were ordered to burn anything they could not carry. Union morale plummeted, particularly so for those wounded, who realized that they were not being evacuated from Savage's Station with the rest of the Army.


title: Seven Days Battles

text: Lee devised a complex plan to pursue and destroy McClellan's army. Longstreet's and A.P. Hill's divisions looped back toward Richmond and then southeast to the crossroads at Glendale, Holmes's division headed farther south, to the vicinity of Malvern Hill, and Magruder's division was ordered to move due east to attack the Federal rear guard. Stonewall Jackson, commanding three divisions, was to rebuild a bridge over the Chickahominy and head due south to Savage's Station, where he would link up with Magruder and deliver a strong blow that might cause the Union Army to turn around and fight during its retreat. McClellan's rear guard at Savage's Station consisted five divisions from Sumner's II Corps, Heintzelman's III Corps, and Franklin's VI Corps. McClellan considered his senior corps commander, Sumner, to be incompetent, so he appointed no one to command the rear guard.


title: Seven Days Battles

text: Initial contact between the armies occurred at 9 a.m. on June 29, a four-regiment fight about west of Savage's Station, lasting for about two hours before disengaging. Meanwhile, Jackson was not advancing as Lee had planned. He was taking time to rebuild bridges over the Chickahominy and he received a garbled order from Lee's chief of staff that made him believe he should stay north of the river and guard the crossings. These failures of the Confederate plan were being matched on the Union side, however. Heintzelman decided on his own that his corps was not needed to defend Savage's Station, so he decided to follow the rest of the army without informing his fellow generals.


title: Seven Days Battles

text: Magruder was faced with the problem of attacking Sumner's 26,600 men with his own 14,000. He hesitated until 5 p.m., when he sent only two and a half brigades forward. Union artillery opened fire and pickets were sent forward to meet the assault. The two brigade front of Kershaw and Semmes began to push the narrow defensive line of one of Sedgwick's brigades. Sumner managed this part of the battle erratically, selecting regiments for combat from multiple brigades almost at random. By the time all of these units reached the front, the two sides were at rough parity—two brigades each. Although Magruder had been conservative about his attack, Sumner was even more so. Of the 26 regiments he had in his corps, only 10 were engaged at Savage's Station.


title: Seven Days Battles

text: The fighting turned into a bloody stalemate as darkness fell and strong thunderstorms began to move in. The "Land Merrimack"—the first instance of an armored railroad battery to be used in combat—bombarded the Union front, with some of its shells reaching as far to the rear as the field hospital. The final action of the evening was as the Vermont Brigade, attempting to hold the flank south of the Williamsburg Road, charged into the woods and were met with murderous fire, suffering more casualties of any brigade on the field that day.


title: Seven Days Battles

text: There were about 1,500 casualties on both sides, plus 2,500 previously wounded Union soldiers who were left to be captured when their field hospital was evacuated. Stonewall Jackson eventually crossed the river by about 2:30 a.m. on June 30, but it was too late to crush the Union Army, as Lee had hoped. General Lee reprimanded Magruder, but the fault for the lost opportunity must be shared equally with the poor staff work at Lee's own headquarters and a less than aggressive performance by Jackson.


title: Seven Days Battles

text: Most elements of the Union Army had been able to cross White Oak Swamp Creek by noon on June 30. About one third of the army had reached the James River, but the remainder was still marching between White Oak Swamp and Glendale. After inspecting the line of march that morning, McClellan rode south and boarded the ironclad USS "Galena" on the James.


title: Seven Days Battles

text: Lee ordered his army to converge on the retreating Union forces, bottlenecked on the inadequate road network. The Army of the Potomac, lacking overall command coherence, presented a discontinuous, ragged defensive line. Stonewall Jackson was ordered to press the Union rear guard at the White Oak Swamp crossing while the largest part of Lee's army, some 45,000 men, would attack the Army of the Potomac in mid-retreat at Glendale, about southwest, splitting it in two. Huger's division would strike first after a three-mile (5 km) march on the Charles City Road, supported by Longstreet and A.P. Hill, whose divisions were about to the west, in a mass attack. Holmes was ordered to capture Malvern Hill.


title: Seven Days Battles

text: The Confederate plan was once again marred by poor execution. Huger's men were slowed by felled trees obstructing the Charles City Road, spending hours chopping a new road through the thick woods. Huger failed to take any alternative route, and, fearing a counterattack, failed to participate in the battle. Magruder marched around aimlessly, unable to decide whether he should be aiding Longstreet or Holmes; by 4 p.m., Lee ordered Magruder to join Holmes on the River Road and attack Malvern Hill. Stonewall Jackson moved slowly and spent the entire day north of the creek, making only feeble efforts to cross and attack Franklin's VI Corps in the Battle of White Oak Swamp, attempting to rebuild a destroyed bridge (although adequate fords were nearby), and engaging in a pointless artillery duel. Jackson's inaction allowed some units to be detached from Franklin's corps in late afternoon to reinforce the Union troops at Glendale. Holmes's relatively inexperienced troops made no progress against Porter at Turkey Bridge on Malvern Hill, even with the reinforcements from Magruder, and were repulsed by effective artillery fire and by Federal gunboats on the James.


title: Seven Days Battles

text: At 2 p.m., as they waited for sounds of Huger's expected attack, Lee, Longstreet, and visiting Confederate President Jefferson Davis were conferring on horseback when they came under heavy artillery fire, wounding two men and killing three horses. A.P. Hill, the commander in that sector, ordered the president and senior generals to the rear. Longstreet attempted to silence the six batteries of Federal guns firing in his direction, but long-range artillery fire proved to be inadequate. He ordered Col. Micah Jenkins to charge the batteries, which brought on a general fight around 4 p.m.


title: Seven Days Battles

text: Although belated and not initiated as planned, the assaults by the divisions of A.P. Hill and Longstreet, under Longstreet's overall command, turned out to be the only ones to follow Lee's order to attack the main Union concentration. Longstreet's 20,000 men were not reinforced by other Confederate divisions of Huger and Jackson, despite their concentration within a three-mile (5 km) radius. They assaulted the disjointed Union line of 40,000 men, arranged in a two-mile (3 km) arc north and south of the Glendale intersection, but the brunt of the fighting was centered on the position held by the Pennsylvania Reserves division of the V Corps, 6,000 men under Brig. Gen. George A. McCall, just west of the Nelson Farm. (The farm was owned by R.H. Nelson, but its former owner was named Frayser and many of the locals referred to it as Frayser's, or Frazier's, Farm.)


title: Seven Days Battles

text: Three Confederate brigades made the assault, but Longstreet ordered them forward in a piecemeal fashion, over several hours. Brig. Gen. James L. Kemper's Virginians charged through the thick woods first and emerged in front of five batteries of McCall's artillery. In their first combat experience, the brigade conducted a disorderly but enthusiastic assault, which carried them through the guns and broke through McCall's main line with Jenkins's support, followed up a few hours later by Brig. Gen. Cadmus M. Wilcox's Alabamians. The Confederate brigades met stiff resistance in sometimes hand-to-hand combat.


title: Seven Days Battles

text: On McCall's flanks, the divisions of Brig. Gen. Joseph Hooker (to the south) and Brig. Gens. Philip Kearny and Henry W. Slocum (to the north), held against repeated Confederate attacks. Brig. Gen. John Sedgwick's division, which had units both in reserve and around White Oak Swamp, came up to fill a gap after a brutal counterattack. Heavy fighting continued until about 8:30 p.m. Longstreet committed virtually every brigade in the divisions under his command, while on the Union side they had been fed in individually to plug holes in the line as they occurred.


title: Seven Days Battles

text: The battle was tactically inconclusive, although Lee failed to achieve his objective of preventing the Federal escape and crippling McClellan's army, if not destroying it. Union casualties were 3,797, Confederate about the same at 3,673, but more than 40% higher in killed and wounded. Although Jackson's wing of the army and Franklin's corps comprised tens of thousands of men, the action at White Oak Swamp included no infantry activity and was limited to primarily an artillery duel with few casualties.


title: Seven Days Battles

text: The final battle of the Seven Days was the first in which the Union Army occupied favorable ground. Malvern Hill offered good observation and artillery positions, having been prepared the previous day by Porter's V Corps. McClellan himself was not present on the battlefield, having preceded his army to Harrison's Landing on the James, and Porter was the most senior of the corps commanders. The slopes were cleared of timber, providing great visibility, and the open fields to the north could be swept by deadly fire from the 250 guns placed by Col. Henry J. Hunt, McClellan's chief of artillery. Beyond this space, the terrain was swampy and thickly wooded. Almost the entire Army of the Potomac occupied the hill and the line extended in a vast semicircle from Harrison's Landing on the extreme right to Brig. Gen. George W. Morell's division of Porter's corps on the extreme left, which occupied the geographically advantageous ground on the northwestern slopes of the hill.


title: Seven Days Battles

text: Rather than flanking the position, Lee attacked it directly, hoping that his artillery would clear the way for a successful infantry assault. His plan was to attack the hill from the north on the Quaker Road, using the divisions of Stonewall Jackson, Richard S. Ewell, D.H. Hill, and Brig. Gen. William H.C. Whiting. Magruder was ordered to follow Jackson and deploy to his right when he reached the battlefield. Huger's division was to follow as well, but Lee reserved the right to position him based on developments. The divisions of Longstreet and A.P. Hill, which had been the most heavily engaged in Glendale the previous day, were held in reserve.


title: Seven Days Battles

text: Once again, Lee's complex plan was poorly executed. The approaching soldiers were delayed by severely muddy roads and poor maps. Jackson arrived at the swampy creek called Western Run and stopped abruptly. Magruder's guides mistakenly sent him on the Long Bridge Road to the southwest, away from the battlefield. Eventually the battle line was assembled with Huger's division (brigades of Brig. Gens. Ambrose R. Wright and Lewis A. Armistead) on the Confederate right and D.H. Hill's division (brigades of Brig. Gen. John Bell Hood and Col. Evander M. Law) on the Quaker Road to the left. They awaited the Confederate bombardment before attacking.


title: Seven Days Battles

text: Unfortunately for Lee, Henry Hunt struck first, launching one of the greatest artillery barrages in the war from 1 p.m. to 2:30 p.m. The Union gunners had superior equipment and expertise and disabled most of the Confederate batteries. Despite the setback, Lee sent his infantry forward at 3:30 p.m. and Armistead's brigade made some progress through lines of Union sharpshooters. By 4 p.m., Magruder arrived and he was ordered forward to support Armistead. His attack was piecemeal and poorly organized. Meanwhile, D. H. Hill launched his division forward along the Quaker Road, past Willis Church. Across the entire line of battle, the Confederate troops reached only within of the Union Center and were repulsed by nightfall with heavy losses. Maj. Gen. D.H. Hill is quoted as saying that, "It wasn't war, it was murder."


title: Seven Days Battles

text: Lee's army suffered 5,355 casualties (versus 3,214 Union) in this wasted effort, but continued to follow the Union army all the way to Harrison's Landing. On Evelington Heights, part of the property of Edmund Ruffin, the Confederates had an opportunity to dominate the Union camps, making their position on the bank of the James potentially untenable; although the Confederate position would be subjected to Union naval gunfire, the heights were an exceptionally strong defensive position that would have been very difficult for the Union to capture with infantry. Cavalry commander Jeb Stuart reached the heights and began bombardment with a single cannon. This alerted the Federals to the potential danger and they captured the heights before any Confederate infantry could reach the scene.


title: Seven Days Battles

text: The Seven Days Battles ended the Peninsula Campaign. Malvern Hill was not a tenable position in which to stay, and the Army of the Potomac quickly withdrew to Harrison's Landing, where it was protected by Union gunboats on the James River. The army was in no condition for a renewed offensive; nearly 16,000 men and officers had been killed, wounded, or captured between June 25 and July 1, particularly in the V Corps, which had done the heaviest fighting. Also, the survivors were extremely tired after a week of fighting and marching with little food or sleep, most of the artillery ammunition had been used up, and the summer weather was taking its toll with the army sick lists getting longer and longer. Meanwhile, the equally-exhausted Army of Northern Virginia, with no reason to remain in the James bottomlands, pulled back to the Richmond lines to lick its wounds.


title: Seven Days Battles

text: McClellan wrote a series of letters to the War Department to argue that he was facing upwards of 200,000 Confederates and that he needed major reinforcements to launch a renewed offensive on Richmond. McPherson notes that the maximum number of Army of Northern Virginia troops that Lee could bring was in fact 92,000. By giving him the commands in Northern Virginia, troops from the Washington garrison, and whatever forces could be pulled from the West, he argued that he might have a fighting chance. General-in-Chief Henry Halleck replied that McClellan's requests were impossible and that if the Confederate army was really as large as he claimed, trying to reinforce him with Pope and Burnside's commands in Northern Virginia would be suicide since the Confederates could easily crush either Union army with their overwhelming strength. Halleck also pointed out that mosquito season was coming up in August–September, and remaining on the swampy Virginia Peninsula at that time of the year would be inviting a disastrous malaria and yellow fever epidemic. On August 4, the order came down for McClellan to withdraw from the Peninsula and to return to the Aquia Creek area at once.


title: Seven Days Battles

text: Both sides suffered heavy casualties. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia suffered about 20,000 casualties (3,494 killed, 15,758 wounded, and 952 captured or missing) out of a total of over 90,000 soldiers during the Seven Days. McClellan reported casualties of about 16,000 (1,734 killed, 8,062 wounded, and 6,053 captured or missing) out of a total of 105,445. Despite their victory, many Confederates were stunned by the losses. The number of casualties in the Seven Days Battles surpassed the total number of casualties in the Western Theater of the war until that point in the year.


title: Seven Days Battles

text: The effects of the Seven Days Battles were widespread. After a successful start on the Peninsula, which foretold an early end to the war, Northern morale was crushed by McClellan's retreat. Despite heavy casualties, which the less-populated South could ill afford, and clumsy tactical performances by Lee and his generals, Confederate morale skyrocketed, and Lee was emboldened to continue his aggressive strategy through the Second Battle of Bull Run and the Maryland Campaign. McClellan's previous position as general-in-chief of all the Union armies, which had been vacant since March, was filled on July 23, 1862, by Major General Henry W. Halleck, but McClellan retained command of the Army of the Potomac. Meanwhile, Robert E. Lee embarked on a thorough reorganization of the Army of Northern Virginia by forming it into two corps, commanded by James Longstreet and Stonewall Jackson. Lee also removed several generals, such as John Magruder and Benjamin Huger, who had performed poorly during the Seven Days Battles.


title: The Durutti Column

text: The Durutti Column are an English post-punk band formed in 1978 in Manchester, England. The band is a project of guitarist and occasional pianist Vini Reilly who is often accompanied by Bruce Mitchell on drums and Keir Stewart on bass, keyboards and harmonica. They were among the first acts signed to Factory Records by label founder Tony Wilson.


title: The Durutti Column

text: In 1978 Tony Wilson and Alan Erasmus, later partners in Factory Records, assembled a band around the remnants of local punk rock band Fast Breeder, drummer Chris Joyce and guitarist Dave Rowbotham. The name was derived from a misspelling of the Durruti Column, an anarchist military unit in the Spanish Civil War, named after Buenaventura Durruti. The name was also taken from a four-page comic strip entitled "Le Retour de la Colonne Durruti" ("The Return Of The Durruti Column") by André Bertrand, which was handed out amidst student protests in October 1966 at Strasbourg University.


title: The Durutti Column

text: On 25 January, Vini Reilly, former guitarist for local punk rock band Ed Banger and the Nosebleeds, joined, followed some weeks later by co-member vocalist Phil Rainford and, by the end of February, bassist Tony Bowers arrived from Alberto y Lost Trios Paranoias. The line-up was short-lived as Rainford was sacked in July, and replaced by actor Colin Sharp, who also became one of the songwriters. Rainford went on to produce for Nico and Suns of Arqa.


title: The Durutti Column

text: The Durutti Column played at the Factory club (organised by their managers), and cut two numbers for the first Factory Records release "A Factory Sample", a double 7" compilation also featuring Joy Division, John Dowie and Cabaret Voltaire. On the eve of recording a debut album, the band broke up after a dispute about Wilson and Erasmus's choice of producer, Martin Hannett. Rowbotham, Bowers and Joyce went on to form The Mothmen (the latter two becoming members of Simply Red some years later), Sharp went on to form The Roaring 80s, SF Jive, and Glow, and also dedicated himself to acting; only Reilly remained.


title: The Durutti Column

text: With everyone's departure, The Durutti Column defaulted to Reilly's solo project. Other musicians contributed to recordings and live performances as occasioned. Former Alberto Y Lost Trios Paranoias drummer Bruce Mitchell doubled as co-manager with Wilson throughout their career on Factory and for many years afterwards.


title: The Durutti Column

text: The first album, 1980's "The Return of the Durutti Column" (title inspired by a 1967 Situationist International poster that includes that phrase), was produced by Martin Hannett. Reilly: "...he more or less got sounds for me that no one else could understand that I wanted. And he understood that I wanted to play the electric guitar but I didn't want this horrible distorted, usual electric guitar sound and he managed to get that." The record featured a sandpaper sleeve (like the title of the record, inspired by a Situationist joke, a book – Guy Debord's "Mémoires" – with a sandpaper cover to destroy other books on the shelf). "I didn't even know it was going to be an album. It was just the case of jumping at the chance of being in the studio. I actually didn't get up in time, Martin had to physically get me out of bed to get me to the studio – that's how little I believed it would happen. I was still doing late night petrol station shifts. I was even more amazed when Tony presented me with a white label. I was completely baffled. 'What, this is really going to be an album? You must be insane! No-one's going to buy this!' And then Tony got the idea from the Situationists about the sandpaper book, and decided to do some with a sandpaper sleeve. It was Joy Division that stuck the sandpaper onto the card. I was mortified."


title: The Durutti Column

text: The music was unlike anything else performed by post-punk acts at the time. Reilly rooting himself in "new wave" with "...an attempt at experimental things"; the record contained nine gentle guitar instrumentals (later releases occasionally feature Reilly's soft and hesitant vocals) including elements from jazz, folk, classical music and rock. Reilly: "...I had a lot of classical training when I was young, guitar and formal training, the scales I write with and the techniques I use are classical techniques and scales – a lot of minor melodic and minor harmonic scales, which generally aren't used in pop music. Usually it's pentatonic". Hannett's production included adding electronic rhythm and other effects, including birdsong on "Sketch for Summer". The album was accompanied by a flexidisc with two tracks by Hannett alone.


title: The Durutti Column

text: "LC" ("Lotta Continua", Italian for "continuous struggle"), released in 1981, was recorded without Hannett, and introduced percussionist Bruce Mitchell, Reilly's most frequent musical partner and occasional manager. It was recorded on a four-track cassette deck at home (while it was slightly padded in the studio, the tape hiss is intact); among the first crisp, professionally released recordings made cheaply at home. The EP "Deux Triangles", released in 1982, contained three instrumentals, with piano emphasised over guitar. "Another Setting" (1983) was again Reilly and Mitchell; in 1984 the band was expanded to include Richard Henry (trombone), Maunagh Fleming (cor anglais and oboe), Blaine Reininger (of Tuxedomoon; violin and viola), Mervyn Fletcher (saxophone), Caroline Lavelle (cello), and Tim Kellett (trumpet). The album "Without Mercy", arranged by John Metcalfe, was intended as an instrumental evocation of the poem "La Belle Dame sans Merci" by John Keats.


title: The Durutti Column

text: "Say What You Mean" was a departure from roots with the addition of deep electronic percussion. Kellett and Metcalfe remained (Metcalfe playing viola); they also appear alongside Reilly and Mitchell on "Circuses and Bread" (Factory Benelux in 1985) and "Domo Arigato". The latter is a live album recorded in Tokyo and the first pop album released in the UK solely on the relatively new compact disc format (and also available on VHS and LaserDisc.)


title: The Durutti Column

text: Kellett left to join Simply Red, but guested on "The Guitar and Other Machines" (1987), the first new UK album to be released on Digital Audio Tape (as well as the usual media of LP, audio cassette and CD). "The Guitar and Other Machines" has a far more direct sound than earlier records, with guest vocals from Stanton Miranda and Reilly's then partner, Pol, and the use of a sequencer and drum machine in addition to Mitchell's drumming. The album was produced by Stephen Street, who also produced Morrissey's solo album "Viva Hate" (1988), on which Reilly played guitar. Reilly has said he was neither properly credited nor compensated for composing most of the music on "Viva Hate".


title: The Durutti Column

text: "Vini Reilly" (1989), also produced by Reilly and Street, features extensive use of sampling, with looped samples of vocalists (including Otis Redding, Tracy Chapman, Annie Lennox and Joan Sutherland) used as the basis for several tracks. Initial copies came with a 7" or CD single, "I Know Very Well How I Got My Note Wrong", credited to "Vincent Gerard and Steven Patrick", in which a take of the Morrissey B-side "I Know Very Well How I Got My Name" dissolves into laughter after Reilly hits a wrong note.


title: The Durutti Column

text: On "Obey the Time" (1990) Mitchell played on only one track, the album being otherwise a solo recording by Reilly, heavily influenced by contemporary dance music. The album's title is a phrase uttered by the titular character of William Shakespeare's "Othello" toward his fiance, Desdemona in Act One, Scene Two: "I have but an hour of love, of worldly matters and direction, To spend with thee: we must obey the time." An accompanying single, "The Together Mix", featured two reworkings of album tracks by Together, Jonathon Donaghy and Suddi Raval (Donaghy was killed in a car crash in Ibiza before the single was released). This was to be the last Durutti Column record released by Factory, in early 1991.


title: The Durutti Column

text: For the first few years after the demise of Factory, the only Durutti Column album releases were "Lips That Would Kiss" (a 1991 collection of early singles, compilation contributions and unreleased material on the separate label Factory Benelux), and "Dry" (1991) and "Red Shoes" (1992), Italian collections of alternate versions and unreleased outtakes.


title: The Durutti Column

text: Former member Dave Rowbotham was killed by an unknown assailant in 1991. He was later memorialised by the Happy Mondays in the song "Cowboy Dave".


title: The Durutti Column

text: In 1993, Tony Wilson attempted to revive Factory Records, and "Sex and Death" was the first release on Factory Too (a subdivision of London Records). The album was once again produced by Stephen Street, with Mitchell and Metcalfe, and it included, on the track "The Next Time", Peter Hook of New Order. "Time Was Gigantic ... When We Were Kids", which followed in 1998, was produced by Keir Stewart, who also played on the album and has frequently worked with Reilly since. "Fidelity" was released between these albums in 1996 by Les Disques du Crépuscule and was produced by Laurie Laptop.


title: The Durutti Column

text: The eight albums recorded for Factory ("The Return of the Durutti Column", "LC", "Another Setting", "Without Mercy", "Domo Arigato", "The Guitar and Other Machines", "Vini Reilly" and "Obey the Time") were re-released with additional material by Factory Too/London, under the banner Factory Once, between 1996 and 1998.


title: The Durutti Column

text: In 1998, Durutti Column contributed "It's Your Life Baby" to the AIDS benefit compilation album "" produced by the Red Hot Organization.


title: The Durutti Column

text: Factory Too effectively ended in 1998, and subsequent Durutti Column albums have been on independent labels Artful Records ("Rebellion" [2001], "Someone Else's Party" [2003], "Keep Breathing" [2006], "Idiot Savants" [2007]) or Kookydisc ("Tempus Fugit" [2004], "Sunlight to Blue . . . Blue to Blackness" [2008]). Kookydisc has also released two further volumes of "The Sporadic Recordings" (along with a slightly edited re-release of the first volume from 1989), remastered versions of two very scarce LPs from the early 1980s ("Live At The Venue" [2004] and "Amigos Em Portugal" [2005]), and two subscription-club discs of rare and unreleased material. A download-only release, "Heaven Sent (It Was Called Digital, It Was Heaven Sent)", first appeared in 2005 via Wilson's project F4, which was marketed as the fourth version of Factory Records.


title: The Durutti Column

text: A short Jeff Noon play adapted for BBC Radio 3, Dead Code - Ghosts of the Digital Age (BBC Radio 3, 2005), was partially soundtracked by The Durutti Column.


title: The Durutti Column

text: On 7 September 2009, Colin Sharp died from a brain haemorrhage. Reilly suffered a stroke in 2011, following which he was left unable to play the guitar the way he did before.


title: Celia Johnson

text: Dame Celia Elizabeth Johnson, (18 December 1908 – 26 April 1982) was an English actress, whose career included stage, television and film. She is especially known for her roles in the films "In Which We Serve" (1942), "This Happy Breed" (1944), "Brief Encounter" (1945) and "The Captain's Paradise" (1953). For "Brief Encounter", she was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actress. A six-time BAFTA Award nominee, she won the BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role for "The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie" (1969).


title: Celia Johnson

text: Johnson began her stage acting career in 1928, and subsequently achieved success in West End and Broadway productions. She continued performing in theatre for the rest of her life and much of her later work was in television, including winning the BAFTA TV Award for Best Actress for the BBC "Play for Today", "Mrs Palfrey at the Claremont" (1973). She suffered a stroke and died soon after at the age of 73.


title: Celia Johnson

text: Born in Richmond, Surrey, and nicknamed "Betty", Johnson was the second daughter of John Robert Johnson and Ethel (née Griffiths) Johnson. Her first public performance was in 1916, when she played a role in a charity performance of "King Cophetua and the Beggar Maid" to raise funds for returned First World War soldiers.


title: Celia Johnson

text: She attended St Paul's Girls' School in London from 1919 until 1926, and played in the school's orchestra under Gustav Holst. She acted in school productions, but had no other acting experience, when she was accepted to study at Royal Academy of Dramatic Art in 1926, where she was in the same class as Margaretta Scott. She later spent a term in Paris, studying under Pierre Fresnay at the Comédie Française. She later recalled her choice of an acting career with the comment, "I thought I'd rather like it. It was the only thing I was good at. And I thought it might be rather wicked."


title: Celia Johnson

text: Her stage début, and first professional role, was as Sarah in George Bernard Shaw's "Major Barbara" at the Theatre Royal, Huddersfield in 1928. She went to London the following year to take the place of Angela Baddeley in the part of Currita in "A Hundred Years Old", which was performed at the Lyric Theatre in Hammersmith. In 1930 Johnson played in "Cynara" with Sir Gerald Du Maurier and Dame Gladys Cooper. She made her first trip to the United States the following year to star as Ophelia in a New York City production of "Hamlet".


title: Celia Johnson

text: She returned to London, where she appeared in a number of minor productions, before establishing herself with a two-year run in "The Wind and the Rain" (1933–35). She married the journalist Peter Fleming in 1935, and in 1939 gave birth to their first child, a son. Her theatre career flourished with her portrayals of Elizabeth Bennet in "Pride and Prejudice" (1940) and the second Mrs. de Winter in "Rebecca" (1940); the production of the latter was halted when the theatre was destroyed by a Luftwaffe bomb in September 1940.


title: Celia Johnson

text: During the Second World War, Johnson lived with her widowed sister and sister-in-law and helped care for their combined seven children. Unable to commit her time to the often lengthy run of a play, Johnson preferred the less time-consuming schedules of film and radio, that allowed her to devote time to her family, and her work for the Women's Auxiliary Police Corps. She appeared in "In Which We Serve" (1942) and "This Happy Breed" (1944), both directed by David Lean and written by Noël Coward.


title: Celia Johnson

text: Lean and Coward sought Johnson for the next production, "Brief Encounter" (1945). She accepted the role with misgivings because of her family responsibilities, but was interested in the part, writing to her husband, "There is no getting away from the fact that it is a very good part and one which I should love to play. I have found myself already planning how I should play bits and how I should say lines..." A romantic drama about a conventional middle class housewife who falls in love with a married doctor she meets in the refreshment room at a railway station, the film was well-received, and is now regarded as a classic. Johnson was awarded the New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actress and was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actress.


title: Celia Johnson

text: After the war, Johnson concentrated on her family life, which included two daughters born in 1946 and 1947 and her occasional acting work was secondary for the following decade.


title: Celia Johnson

text: In 1952, she opened "The Grass is Greener". In 1957 she acted with Ralph Richardson in "The Flowering Cherry". As a member of Laurence Olivier's National Theatre Company, Johnson appeared in the plays "The Master Builder" (1964) with Olivier and "Hay Fever" (1965), and later reprised her roles in the television productions.


title: Celia Johnson

text: For her role in "The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie" (1969), she received the BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role. She was created a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in 1958, "for services to the theatre", and was raised to Dame Commander (DBE) in 1981.


title: Celia Johnson

text: Johnson was married to Peter Fleming from 1935 until Fleming's death from a heart attack in 1971, while on a shooting expedition near Glencoe in Argyll, Scotland. Fleming was the brother of the James Bond creator Ian Fleming.


title: Celia Johnson

text: Since the late 1990s, the two sisters, Kate Grimond and Lucy Fleming, have co-owned the Ian Fleming estate.


title: Celia Johnson

text: Johnson distanced herself from her acting career while her children were young, preferring to devote her attention to her family. She was described as a woman "always ready to laugh" and "maternal in a light-hearted way" and her daughter recalled that she was often torn between her desire to care for her family and her need to be involved in the "mechanics" of acting.


title: Celia Johnson

text: In 1982, she was touring with Sir Ralph Richardson in Angela Huth's "The Understanding" and the play's West End run had been announced. On one of her days off, she was at her home in Nettlebed, Oxfordshire playing bridge with friends, when she collapsed from a stroke. She died a few hours later in her home. She left an estate worth £150,557.


title: Celia Johnson

text: On 18 December 2008, to mark the centenary of her birth, a blue plaque was unveiled at her childhood home in Richmond. Among the guests at the ceremony were her daughters, Lucy Fleming and Kate Grimond. In "The Times", Grimond noted that the "tragedy of theatre" is that even the best performances fade from memory, and that her mother's current reputation rests almost entirely on her performance in "Brief Encounter". Grimond noted that the advent of video allowed the film to be seen by a new audience, and that modern appraisals of the film had led to its being regarded as a classic.


title: Engineering management

text: Engineering management is the application of the practice of management to the practice of engineering.


title: Engineering management

text: Engineering management is a career that brings together the technological problem-solving ability of engineering and the organizational, administrative, legal and planning abilities of management in order to oversee the operational performance of complex engineering driven enterprises. A Master of Engineering Management (MEM) is sometimes compared to a Master of Business Administration (MBA) for professionals seeking a graduate degree as a qualifying credential for a career in engineering management.


title: Engineering management

text: Stevens Institute of Technology is believed to have the oldest engineering management department, established as the School of Business Engineering in 1908. This was later called the Bachelor of Engineering in Engineering Management (BEEM) program and moved into the School of Systems and Enterprises. Syracuse University established the first graduate engineering management degree in the United States, which was first offered in 1957. In 1967 the first university department explicitly titled "Engineering Management" was founded at the Missouri University of Science and Technology (Missouri S&T, formerly the University of Missouri-Rolla, formerly Missouri School of Mines). In 1959, Western Michigan University began offering the predecessor to the modern engineering management bachelor's degree (titled "Industrial Supervision") and in 1977, Western Michigan University started its MS degree in Manufacturing Administration, later renamed as Engineering Management.


title: Engineering management

text: Outside the United States, in Germany the first department concentrating on Engineering Management was established 1927 at Technical University of Berlin. In Turkey the Istanbul Technical University has a Management Engineering Department established in 1982, offering a number of graduate and undergraduate programs in Management Engineering (in English). In UK the University of Warwick has a specialised department WMG (previously known as Warwick Manufacturing Group) established in 1980, which offers a graduate programme in MSc Engineering Business Management.


title: Engineering management

text: Michigan Technological University began an Engineering Management program in the School of Business & Economics in the Fall of 2012.


title: Engineering management

text: In Canada, Memorial University of Newfoundland has started a complete master's degree Program in Engineering Management.


title: Engineering management

text: In Denmark, the Technical University of Denmark offers a MSc program in Engineering Management (in English).


title: Engineering management

text: In Pakistan, University of Engineering and Technology, Taxila, University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore and National University of Science and Technology (NUST) offer admission both at Master and Doctorate level in Engineering Management while Capital University of Science & Technology (CUST), NED University of Engineering & Technology, Karachi and Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering Sciences and Technology have been running a Master of Engineering/MS in Engineering Management program. A variant of this program is within Quality Management. COMSATS (CIIT) offers a MSc Project Management program to Local and Overseas Pakistanis as an on-campus/off-campus student.


title: Engineering management

text: In Italy, the first Engineering Management program was established in 1972 at the University of Calabria by Beniamino Andreatta. Politecnico di Milano offers degrees in Management Engineering., among many other public or private (and publicly-accredited) universities belonging to the same post-secondary academic degrees'classification.


title: Engineering management

text: In Russia, since 2014 the Faculty of Engineering Management of The Russian Presidential Academy of National Economy and Public Administration (RANEPA) offers bachelor's and master's degrees in Engineering Management.


title: Engineering management

text: In France, the EPF will offer, from January 2018, a 2-year Engineering & Management major in English for the 4th and 5th years of its 5-year Engineering master's degree. The final 2 years are open to students who have completed an undergraduate engineering degree elsewhere.


title: Engineering management

text: Engineering Management is a broad field and can cover a wide range of technical and managerial topics. An important resource is the Engineering Management Body of Knowledge (EMBoK). The topics below are representative of typical topics in the field.


title: Engineering management

text: Leadership and organization management are concerned with the skills involving positive direction of technical organizations and motivation of employees. Often a manager must shape engineering policy within an organization.


title: Engineering management

text: Operations management is concerned with designing and controlling the process of production and redesigning business operations in the production of goods or services. Operations research deals with quantitative models of complex operations and uses these models to support decision-making in any sector of industry or public services. Supply chain management is the process of planning, implementing and managing the flow of goods, services and related information from the point of origin to the point of consumption.


title: Engineering management

text: Engineering law and the related statutes are critical to management practice and engineering. Engineering legislation makes engineering a controlled activity and an engineering manager must know which statutes apply to their practice. Codes of ethics can be enshrined in law. Professional misconduct and negligence are defined in law. An engineering manager must be licensed as an engineer and may have engineers, technicians and natural scientists reporting to her or him. Understanding how licensed engineers supervise non-licensed technicians and natural scientists is critical to safe practice.


title: Engineering management

text: An engineering manager must always use engineering legislation to push back against schedule pressure or budget pressure to ensure public safety.


title: Engineering management

text: Introducing and utilizing new technology is a major route to cost reduction and quality improvement in production engineering.


title: Engineering management

text: The Management of Technology (MOT) theme builds on the foundation of management topics in accounting, finance, economics, organizational behavior and organizational design. Courses in this theme deal with operational and organizational issues related to managing innovation and technological change.


title: Engineering management

text: New product development (NPD) is the complete process of bringing a new product to market. Product engineering refers to the process of designing and developing a device, assembly, or system such that it be produced as an item for sale through some production manufacturing process. Product engineering usually entails activity dealing with issues of cost, producibility, quality, performance, reliability, serviceability, intended lifespan and user features. Project Management techniques are used to manage the design and development progress using the phase-gate model in the product development process. Design for manufacturability (also sometimes known as design for manufacturing or DFM) is the general engineering art of designing products in such a way that they are easy to manufacture.


title: Engineering management

text: Systems engineering is an interdisciplinary field of engineering and engineering management that focuses on how to design and manage complex systems over their life cycles.


title: Engineering management

text: Industrial engineering is a branch of engineering which deals with the optimization of complex processes, systems or organizations. Industrial engineers work to eliminate waste of time, money, materials, man-hours, machine time, energy and other resources that do not generate value.


title: Engineering management

text: Management science uses various scientific research-based principles, strategies, and analytical methods including mathematical modeling, statistics and numerical algorithms to improve an organization's ability to enact rational and meaningful management decisions by arriving at optimal or near optimal solutions to complex decision problems.


title: Engineering management

text: Engineering design management represents the adaptation and application of customary management practices, with the intention of achieving a productive engineering design process. Engineering design management is primarily applied in the context of engineering design teams, whereby the activities, outputs and influences of design teams are planned, guided, monitored and controlled.


title: Engineering management

text: Critical to management success in engineering is the study of human factors and safety culture involved with highly complex tasks within organizations large and small. In complex engineering systems, human factors safety culture can be critical in preventing catastrophe and minimizing the realized hazard rate. Critical areas of safety culture are minimizing blame avoidance, minimizing power distance, an appropriate ambiguity tolerance and minimizing a culture of concealment. Increasing organizational empathy and an ability to clearly report problems up the chain of management is important to the success of any engineering program.


title: Engineering management

text: Managing an engineering firm is in opposition to the management of a law firm. Law firms keep secrets while engineering firms succeed when information is deiminated clearly and quickly. Engineering managers must push against a culture of concealment which may be promoted by the law department.


title: Engineering management

text: Managers in an engineering firm must be ready to push back against schedule and budget constraints from the executive suite. Engineering managers must use engineering law to push back against the executive suite to ensure public safety. The executive suite in an engineering organization can become consumed with financial data imperiling public safety.


title: Engineering management

text: Engineering management programs typically include instruction in accounting, economics, finance, project management, systems engineering, industrial engineering, mathematical modeling and optimization, management information systems, quality control & six sigma, operations management, operations research, human resources management, industrial psychology, safety and health.


title: Engineering management

text: There are many options for entering into engineering management, albeit that the foundation requirement is an engineering license.


title: Engineering management

text: Although most engineering management programs are geared for graduate studies, there are a number of institutions that teach EM at the undergraduate level. Over twenty undergraduate engineering management related programs are accredited by ABET including: West Point (United States Military Academy), Western Michigan University (ABET-accredited by ETAC of ABET), Stevens Institute of Technology, Clarkson University, Gonzaga University, Virginia Tech, Arizona State University, Missouri University of Science and Technology. Graduates of these programs regularly command nearly $65,000 their first year out of school.


title: Engineering management

text: Outside the US, Istanbul Technical University Management Engineering Department offers an undergraduate degree in Management Engineering, attracting top students. The University of Waterloo offers a 4-year undergraduate degree (5 years including co-op education) in the field of Management Engineering. This is the first program of its kind in Canada. In Peru, Pacifico University offers a five-year undergraduate degree in this field, the first program in this country. In Germany, ESB Business School offers a 4-year undergraduate program which consists of five semesters at ESB Business School, two mandatory internships, one is mandatory to be in another country than Germany, and also one mandatory semester abroad. In the annual applied university ranking of the magazine Wirtschaftswoche, the Engineering Management course of ESB Business School is ranked on place five of all applied universities in Germany. The magazine surveyed more than 500 recruiters in the German industry from which university they are most likely to recruit students and which universities satisfy their needs regarding experience in working with projects, multilingual education, and ability to communicate most.m


title: Engineering management

text: Many universities offer Master of Engineering Management degrees. Missouri S&T is credited with awarding the first Ph.D. in Engineering Management in 1984. The National Institute of Industrial Engineering based in Mumbai has been awarding degrees in the field of Post Graduate Diploma in Industrial Engineering since 1973 and the Fellowship (Doctoral) degrees have been awarded since 2008.


title: Engineering management

text: Western Michigan University began offering the MS in Manufacturing Administration degree in 1977 and later renamed the degree as Master of Science in Engineering Management. WMU's MSEM alumni work in the automotive, medical, manufacturing, and service sectors, often in roles of project manager, engineering manager, and senior leadership in engineering and technical organizations.


title: Engineering management

text: Cornell University started one of the first Engineering Management Masters programs in 1988 with the launch of their Master of Engineering (M.Eng.) in Engineering Management. The program allows students access to courses and programs in the College of Engineering, Johnson School of Management, and across Cornell University more broadly.


title: Engineering management

text: Massachusetts Institute of Technology offers a Master in System Design and Management, which is a member of the Consortium of Engineering Management.


title: Engineering management

text: Lamar University offers a Master of Engineering Management degree with flexible content to adjust to diverse engineering fields, with core content that includes operations management, accounting, and decision sciences.


title: Engineering management

text: Netaji Subhas Institute of technology (NSIT, website as http://www.nsit.ac.in/ under University of Delhi)New Delhi also provides M.tech degree in Engineering management. Admission to this program happens through GATE(Graduate Aptitude Test in Engineering) examination.


title: Engineering management

text: Students in the University of Kansas' Engineering Management Program are practicing professionals employed by over 100 businesses, manufacturing, government or consulting firms. There are over 200 actively enrolled students in the program and approximately 500 alumni.


title: Engineering management

text: Istanbul Technical University Management Engineering Department offers a graduate degree, and a Ph.D. in Management Engineering.


title: Engineering management

text: According to the American Society for Engineering Education (ASEE) PRISM Magazine (March 2008) the largest Master's of Engineering Management (MEM) programs (in terms of degrees awarded for 2005–2006) are shown in the following chart.


title: Engineering management

text: Large and small engineering driven firms often require the expertise of external management consultants that specialize in companies where engineering practice and product development are key drivers of value. Most engineering management consultants will have as a minimum a professional engineering qualification. But usually they will also have graduate degrees in engineering and or business or a management consulting designation. It involves providing management consulting service that is specific to professional engineering practice or to the engineering industry sector. Engineering management consultancies, are typically boutique firms and have a more specialized focus than the traditional mainstream consulting firms, A T Kearney, Boston Consulting Group, KPMG, PWC, and McKinsey. Applied science and engineering practice requires a combination of "management art", science, and engineering practice. There are many professional service companies delivering services in a consultancy type relationship to the engineering industry, including law, accounting, human resources, marketing, politics, economics, finance, public affairs, and communication. Commonly, engineering management consultants are used when firms require a combination of special technical knowledge, and management know how, to enhance knowledge or transform organizational performance and also keep any intellectual property developed confidential.


title: Engineering management

text: Engineering management consulting is concerned with the development, improvement, implementation and evaluation of integrated systems of organizations, people, money, knowledge, information, equipment, energy, materials and/or processes. Management Engineering Consultants strive to improve upon existing organizations, processes, products or systems. Engineering management consulting draws upon the principles and methods of engineering analysis and synthesis, as well as the mathematical, physical and social sciences together with the principles and methods of engineering design to specify, predict, and evaluate the results to be obtained from such systems or processes. Engineering management consulting can focus on the social impact of the product, process or system that is being analyzed. There is also an overlap between engineering management consulting and management science in services that require the adoption of more analytical approaches to problem solving.


title: Engineering management

text: Examples of where engineering management consulting might be used include developing and leading a company wide business transformation initiative, or designing and implementing a new product development process, designing and implementing a manufacturing engineering process, including an automated assembly workstation. Management engineers may specialize in the acquisition and implementation of Computer aided design (CAD), Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) and Computer-aided engineering (CAE) applications. Services may include strategizing for various operational logistics, new product introductions, or consulting as an efficiency expert. It may include using management science techniques to develop a new financial algorithm or loan system for a bank, streamlining operation and emergency room location or usage in a hospital, planning complex distribution schemes for materials or products (referred to as Supply Chain Management), and shortening lines (or queues) at a bank, hospital, or a theme park. Management engineering consultants typically use computer simulation (especially discrete event simulation), along with extensive mathematical tools and modeling and computational methods for system analysis, evaluation, and optimization.


title: Engineering management

text: There are a number of societies and organizations dedicated to the field of engineering management. One of the largest societies is a division of IEEE, the Engineering Management Society, which regularly publishes a trade magazine. Another prominent professional organization in the field is the American Society for Engineering Management (ASEM), which was founded in 1979 by a group of 20 engineering managers from industry. ASEM currently certifies engineering managers (two levels) via the Certified Associate in Engineering Management (CAEM) or Certified Professional in Engineering Management (CPEM) certification exam. The Master of Engineering Management Programs Consortium is a consortium of nine universities intended to raise the value and visibility of the MEM degree. Also, engineering management graduate programs have the possibility of being accredited by ABET, ATMAE, or ASEM. In Canada, the Canadian Society for Engineering Management (CSEM) is a constituent society of the Engineering Institute of Canada (EIC), Canada's oldest learned engineering society.


title: United States hand grenades

text: The military of the United States has used many different types of hand grenades since its foundation. Presented on this page is a basic overview.


title: United States hand grenades

text: More commonly known as the "Pineapple", the Mk II series (also written Mk 2) was the most common US fragmentation grenade of the Second World War. The Mk II had a grooved exterior originally intended to aid fragmentation of the grenade. However, later studies showed that this design has no effect on fragmentation, though it does provide a non-slip surface that improves grip. The filling was either EC blank fire powder (approx. smokeless small arms powder) or flaked TNT (approx. ); TNT became the common filler from 1942 onwards.


title: United States hand grenades

text: The Mk II was also available in a little-known HE-Blast (better known as "concussion") variant and a combined effect HE-Frag variant. This was largely superseded by the Mk III series. The Mk IIA1 (also written Mk 2A1) used the M10A2 or M10A3 fuzes, upgrades to the previous M10A1 fuze used in the Mk II. Later reissued Mk II variants featured the modern M204 series fuze.


title: United States hand grenades

text: Unlike the Mk II, the Mk III (also written Mk 3) was a cylindrical grenade designed to be used as an offensive weapon for clearing rooms, trenches, and other enclosed spaces (i.e., at close range). A concussion grenade, the Mk III series was designed to incapacitate through the pressure and impulse produced by the explosion. The MkIII had a far larger TNT filling than the Mk II series; up to of TNT, in comparison to . Although a minimum-fragmentation grenade, large fragments (most likely the fuze assembly, or surrounding material) could be projected as far as from the detonation point. The differences between the Mk III, the Mk IIIA1 (also written Mk 3A1) and the Mk IIIA2 (also written Mk 3A2) were improved versions of the M6 fuze: the Mk III featured the M6/A1, the Mk IIIA1 the M6A2, and the Mk IIIA2, the M6A3. Later reissued Mk III variants featured the modern M206 series fuze.


title: United States hand grenades

text: The M26 series is in many ways an upgrade in basic principle of the Mk II: a similarly shaped, but not visibly ribbed, fragmentation grenade. The M26 has a filling of Composition B contained within a sheet steel two-part outer shell which covers a prenotched fragmentation coil inner liner. The use of the inner liner creates a highly predictable fragment pattern and casualty radius. The grenade was found to have problems with incomplete detonation of the filler, and the M26A1 featured a tetryl booster to ensure complete detonation. The M61 grenade was the product of a further Product Improvement Project or PIP, and is identical to the M26A1 with the exception of the additional safety clip for the spoon of the grenade on the M61. The M26A2 is identical to the M26A1 except for being fitted with the M217 impact fuze. The M57 is the equivalent of the M61 for the M26A1, and is the same as the M26A2 with the exception of the additional safety clip on the spoon of the grenade.


title: United States hand grenades

text: Similar in format to the M26, the M33 is a spherical fragmentation grenade also filled with Composition B explosive. Unlike the M26, the inner wall is prescored and does not contain a fragmentation coil. The grenade has a smooth surface, unlike the Mk II series "pineapple" casing. The M67 was part of a similar PIP, and is identical to the M33 with the exception of the additional safety clip for the spoon of the grenade on the M67. Early M33 grenades were also more of an oval shape before transitioning over to the more spherical shape of the M67. The M67 is the current issue HE-Frag grenade for the US military. The M33A1 is the impact version of the M33, using the M217 electrical impact fuze in place of the normal delay fuze. At an unknown time the M33A1 was redesignated as the M59. There should be no difference between these grenades except that the M33A1 may be more ovular in shape than the more spherical M59. The M68 is the same as the M59, with the exception of the additional safety clip.


title: United States hand grenades

text: Scalable Offensive Hand Grenade that delivers blast effects. The grenades are "stackable," meaning up to three can be connected to increase blast power. The base grenade has a non-removable, 3.5 second fuse and a body encasing of high explosive, so three connected grenades can have up to of blast force.


title: United States hand grenades

text: Picatinny Arsenal is developing the Enhanced Tactical Multi-Purpose (ET-MP) hand grenade to combine fragmentation and concussive effects in a single weapon. The grenade fills the gap left by the withdrawal of the MK3A2 concussion grenade from service in 1975, which was used to clear bunkers by detonating in confined spaces where blast pressure would reverberate off the walls, but whose exterior coating contained up to 50% asbestos, which can be hazardous to troops when inhaled, especially in a room after one detonated inside; that left the M67, introduced in 1968, as the only anti-personnel grenade in the inventory. The ET-MP allows soldiers to choose between fragmentation and blast overpressure effects by flipping a switch. It also has improved safety, being the first Insensitive Munitions-qualified lethal grenade in the Army's portfolio with an electronic fuse, or delay mechanism, instead of a mechanical fuse that can be narrowed down into milliseconds and, until armed, will not be able to detonate. The grenade is designed for ambidextrous use, so the same arming procedure is used for either hand, whereas the M67 required a different procedure for left-handed use. Research for the ET-MP grenade began in 2010, with entry expected in 2020.


title: United States hand grenades

text: In September 1942 the United States standardized a Molotov cocktail-style device that was nominally designated as a "grenade". It consisted of a pint-sized clear glass bottle with a crimped metal cap. It was dubbed "frangible" because it was made of glass, which is brittle and easily broken.


title: United States hand grenades

text: Most fillers were liquid compounds selected because they were activated by exposure to the air, thus not requiring a detonator. FS was a mixture of sulfur trioxide and chlorosulfuric acid that created a heavy, acrid screening smoke.


title: United States hand grenades

text: A smoke grenade similar visually to the Mk III HE-Blast grenade, the M8 (also written AN/M8) is filled with hexachloroethane (HC), a chemical agent that produces a thick white smoke when burned. The M8 is used for signaling and screening purposes, and since it works by burning the HC for its effect, it can also be used as an improvised incendiary device. HC smoke is toxic and can cause more serious health problems with prolonged exposure. The M83 (also written AN/M83) is a modernized version of the M8, using TA (Terephthalic Acid) instead of HC as the filler mixture. The Model 308-1 White Smoke was a modified version of the M8 produced at the Special Operations Branch of the Naval Weapons Center at China Lake California, often simply referred to as China Lake. The Model 308-1 was modified for a US Navy SEAL requirement with a greater burning rate, meaning a greater smoke output but a shorter overall burning time.


title: United States hand grenades

text: The M15 is a white phosphorus smoke grenade, nicknamed "Willie Peter" or "Willie Pete" (for "white phosphorus"), used for screening and signaling purposes. It is cylindrical, but with rounded edges compared to those of the M8. WP has many of the same properties of HC, and is also burned to create the effect, giving the M15 a similar incendiary capability. The M16 was a colored version of the grenade that was originally available in red, orange, yellow, green, blue, violet, and black smoke versions. This was later simplified to red, yellow, green, and violet. The M34 grenade was a variant of the M15 designed to be usable as a rifle grenade using the M2 series of grenade launching adapters, and was ribbed to give the fins better grip on the grenade body.


title: United States hand grenades

text: A purpose-designed "smoke flare", the M18 was a smoke grenade visually similar to the M8, but with a different type of filler and internal construction. The M18 was produced with six colors of smoke: yellow, green, red, blue, orange, and violet. It was used extensively in the Vietnam War and since. A non-submersible variant of the M18 with a flotation bladder was also made, for use in marking at sea.


title: United States hand grenades

text: A variant of the XM47 series, which is in the following section, the XM48 is a "skittering" type smoke grenade: the filler is burned internally and vented through ports in the grenade body, making the grenade spin erratically. The XM48 series burns an unknown filler for a red-colored smoke, probably WP or HC based, and is not known to be standardized.


title: United States hand grenades

text: An illumination grenade, with a magnesium filler ignited by a wick type fuze, the Mk 1 Mod 0 was first produced during the Second World War. The Mod 1 probably featured an improved type fuze, moving away from the simple wick lighter design. The Mod 2 featured a simplified overall design, while the Mod 3 replaced the single-piece steel body with a two-piece plastic shell.


title: United States hand grenades

text: Developed as a joint project between the US Navy and the DuPont Chemical company, the EX 1 and EX 2 were part of the Target Illumination and Recovery Aid (TIARA) program. DuPont created a number of essentially glow-in-the-dark fillers, finally settling on the non-toxic PB-155 compound. PB-155 (also known as TIARA 5) glows when it oxidizes and therefore could be used to mark things at night with minimal fuss. Developed specifically for the US Navy SEALs, the first production models were created in 1963. The EX 1 Mod 0 was a hand grenade, based on the M25A2 chemical grenade described in the following section. Testing in 1963 showed that the TIARA 5 mixture had averse effects on the functioning of the C12 fuze integral to the M25A2 design. This led to the replacement of the fuze's integral primer, the M39A1, with a model that was resistant to the filler mixture, the M5. The EX 2 Mod 0, visibly more similar to other cylindrical smoke and chemical grenades (such as the AN/M8 and M18 discussed in this section) was designed to be used as a rifle grenade using the M2 series of grenade launcher adapters.


title: United States hand grenades

text: The US Army also tested a plastic chemiluminescent grenade in 1966, utilizing the PB-155 filler and the M217 impact fuze, with negative results about the mixture's usefulness for the intended role, with the brightness and duration of functioning being "insufficient".


title: United States hand grenades

text: The M1 grenade could be filled with any of a number of chemical compounds depending upon the effect required, in both lethal and non-lethal combinations. Most fillers were liquid compounds selected because they were activated by exposure to the air, thus not requiring a detonator. AC filler (Hydrocyanic Acid) was a blood agent. CNS (Chloracetophenone solution) was a tear gas made from CN gas (Chloracetophenone) dissolved in Chlorpicrin and Chloroform. M1 (B Chlorvinyldichlorarsine, or "Lewisite") was a liquid that turned into a powerful vesicant gas upon exposure that chemically burned the surfaces of exposed skin and lungs.


title: United States hand grenades

text: The M6/M7 series were cylindrical riot control grenades, with a variety of fillers, including CN, CS, and DM. DM is a substance that causes a burning sensation in nose and throat and a heavy tight feeling in the chest, accompanied by a nauseating effect. All of these weapons are burning type grenades that work by burning the filler and emitting the resulting smoke through holes in the body. The M6/A1 is filled with CN-DM, the M7/A1 with CN, the M7A2 (also written ABC-M7A2) with CS, and the M7A3 (also written ABC-M7A3) with the CS in pelletized rather than gelatin capsule form. The M7A2 and M7A3 have 3 emission holes on top and one on the bottom, the M6 and M7 have 6 emission holes on top and 1 on the bottom, and the M6A1 and M7A1 have 4 emission holes on the top and one on the bottom. The M54 is a variant of the M7 series designed to be dropped for aerial launchers.


title: United States hand grenades

text: A spherical riot control grenade, the M25/A1 (also written ABC-M25/A1) is filled with CN. The grenade is of plastic construction and is a bursting type. The M25A2 featured improved body construction, and later models were filled with CS (and possibly DM) rather than CN.


title: United States hand grenades

text: A rubber ball riot control grenade, the XM47 series are known as "skittering grenades", as the gas is burned internally and vented through ports in the grenade body, in effect making the grenade spin erratically. This is designed to make it harder for the target or targets to retrieve and throw back the grenade. The XM47E3 is filled with CS, but information on the other variants is scarce. It is probably safe to assume that at least one is filled with CN, and then others might have the filler in different solid forms. The XM47E3 was the standardized as the M47.


title: United States hand grenades

text: In September 1942 the United States standardized a Molotov cocktail-style device that was nominally designated as a "grenade". It consisted of a pint-sized clear glass bottle with a crimped metal cap. It was dubbed "frangible" because it was made of glass, which is brittle and easily broken. The most common types of fillers for the M1 were not surprisingly a number of incendiary agents. The various fillers changed as the chemical technology improved, and created a number of more standardized Molotov cocktails.


title: United States hand grenades

text: AW was an incendiary mixture of Phosphorus with Rubber dissolved in Gasoline. The phosphorus ignited when exposed to the air, setting off the gasoline - it also burned on its own but could not be put out with water. The dissolved rubber allowed the gasoline to adhere to surfaces while burning. It was made obsolete in 1943.


title: United States hand grenades

text: The Alcohol-Gasoline model was exactly what it said on the tin: a mixture of grain alcohol and gasoline. It used an M1 fuze, which released a chemical powder that would ignite the mixture.


title: United States hand grenades

text: The GA filler was liquid or solidified ("jellied") gasoline. It was ignited with an M2 fuze, which used a safer and more reliable time-delay pull-fuze.


title: United States hand grenades

text: Models with IM filler (Gasoline mixed with an incendiary thickener) or NP filler (a mixture of gasoline and Naphtha Palmate) were fuzed with an M3 Igniter fuze attached to the bottle with a Timmerman strap safety. The M3 Igniter fuze assembly consisted of a fuze body, a striker, and a .38-caliber Blank cartridge. The Timmerman Strap was a metal band under tension around the surface of the grenade that was hooked up to a striker safety in the fuse body. (If the bottle broke prematurely, the Timmerman strap safety would prevent the striker from going off on impact.) To activate the grenade, the user pulled the safety pin from the fuse assembly. He then threw the bottle against the target hard enough to shatter the glass. When the bottle broke, the Timmerman strap fell off, deactivating the strap safety and allowing the striker to engage. The fuze spring in the fuze body activated the striker, which struck the cartridge. The blank cartridge set off a pyrotechnic flash, which ignited the thickened gasoline filler.


title: United States hand grenades

text: A cylindrical grenade visually identical to the M8, the M14 (also written AN/M14) is a purpose designed incendiary grenade. Working off the intense and violent reaction of the thermate filler, the result of the deployment of the M14 is molten iron. This means the M14 is primarily employed on material to be destroyed in a roughly secure environment and not as an offensive or defensive weapon. The grenade has the ability to melt right through an engine block. Also, since the thermate reaction uses iron oxide instead of oxygen for its oxidizing agent, the grenade can work under water.


title: United States hand grenades

text: Another variant of the Model 308-1 designed by the Special Operations Branch of the Naval Weapons Center at China Lake, California, the 308-1 Napalm was in direct response to SEAL requirements for a more offensive incendiary device over the M14. Issued as a kit, the user would take the included powdered Napalm ("M1 Thickener") and then fill the grenade with gasoline to produce a complete incendiary device.


title: United States hand grenades

text: The M116/A1 is not technically a stun grenade, but is in fact a hand grenade simulator, designed to create a realistic but not dangerous grenade-like effect for exercises. The M116 series is usually fitted with a pull string igniter and fuze assembly. An improvised stun grenade was created from the M116 series by US Navy SEALs, by replacing this fuze with an M201 series igniting fuze. This new weapon was nicknamed the "Flash-Crash". There are certain dangers from using the M116-based Flash-Crash however, mainly the metal body, from which potentially dangerous fragments may break when employing the device in hostage rescue situations.