title: Dharti Ka Veer Yodha Prithviraj Chauhan

text: In September 2006, the Vice President of India then, Bhairon Singh Shekhawat appreciated the channel and producers for the series.


title: Dharti Ka Veer Yodha Prithviraj Chauhan

text: Rajat Tokas received the best actor award in Indian Television Awards during 2007 for his lead role of Prithviraj Chauhan.


title: Dharti Ka Veer Yodha Prithviraj Chauhan

text: Sagar Pictures released an original soundtrack for the television series with lyrics and music by composer Ravindra Jain. The title song was written by Sohan Sharma and composed by Gaurav Issar. The songs were sung by Ajoy Chakrabarty, Udit Narayan, Roop Kumar Rathod, Babul Supriyo, Suresh Wadkar, Sushil Kumar, Shreya Ghoshal and Sadhna Sargam.


title: Terry Scott

text: Owen John "Terry" Scott (4 May 1927 – 26 July 1994) was an English actor and comedian who appeared in seven of the "Carry On films". He is also best known for appearing in the BBC1 sitcom "Terry and June" with June Whitfield.


title: Terry Scott

text: Scott was born and brought up in Watford, Hertfordshire and educated at Watford Field Junior School and Watford Grammar School for Boys. He was the youngest of three children, and the only surviving son after his brother Aubrey died when Scott was six. After National Service in the Navy at the end of World War II, he briefly studied accounting.


title: Terry Scott

text: Scott began his acting career with appearances on radio shows such as "Workers Playtime", which were followed by appearances on television. He gained an opportunity to perform in farce when he joined the Whitehall Theatre Company. With Bill Maynard he appeared at Butlin's Holiday Camp in Skegness, Lincolnshire and partnered him in the TV series "Great Scott - It's Maynard!". During the 1960s, he appeared alongside Hugh Lloyd in "Hugh and I" (1962–1967). They both appeared as Ugly Sisters in pantomime at The London Palladium and Scott reappeared in the same role with Julian Orchard in later years. Scott later appeared with Lloyd in "Hugh and I Spy" (1968) and in the 1969 sitcom "The Gnomes of Dulwich" (1969) as gnomes.


title: Terry Scott

text: Scott's novelty record "My Brother" (written by Mitch Murray, released in 1962 on Parlophone) was based on a schoolboy character (he dressed in the uniform to sing it on TV). In the 1970s, he had a role in TV commercials for Curly Wurly caramel bars, in which he again appeared dressed as a schoolboy, with short trousers and cap. He repeated this performance several times on BBC TVs long-running variety show "The Good Old Days". Scott had played a small role in the very first of the "Carry On films" series of films, "Carry On Sergeant" in 1958. In 1968 he returned to the series with a role in "Carry On Up the Khyber" (1968), playing main roles in six of the later films.


title: Terry Scott

text: He starred alongside June Whitfield in several series of the comedy "Happy Ever After" and its successor, "Terry and June". They had first worked together making a series of the sketch show "Scott On" (1968). They also featured in supporting roles together in the film version of "Bless This House". Although both Scott and Whitfield both made several "Carry On" appearances, they never appeared in the same film. From 1981 to 1992, Scott was the voice of Penfold the hamster in the animated series "Danger Mouse".


title: Terry Scott

text: He suffered from ill health for several years in the latter part of his life. In 1979, he had a life-saving operation after a brain haemorrhage. He also suffered from creeping paralysis and had to wear a neck brace.


title: Terry Scott

text: Scott was also diagnosed with cancer in 1987. He died from its effects at his family home in Witley, Surrey, on 26 July 1994, at the age of 67. He said of his last illness: "I know it would be better to give up the booze, fags and birds, but life would be so boring, wouldn't it?".


title: Terry Scott

text: When "Terry and June" ended in 1987, he suffered a nervous breakdown. The breakdown was in part brought on by his public confession that he had indulged in a series of affairs since his marriage to dancer Margaret Peden in 1957. The couple had four daughters: Sarah, Nicola, Lindsay and Ally.


title: A Fire Upon the Deep

text: A Fire Upon the Deep is a 1992 science fiction novel by American writer Vernor Vinge. It is a space opera involving superhuman intelligences, aliens, variable physics, space battles, love, betrayal, genocide, and a communication medium resembling Usenet. "A Fire Upon the Deep" won the Hugo Award in 1993, sharing it with "Doomsday Book" by Connie Willis.


title: A Fire Upon the Deep

text: Besides the normal print book editions, the novel was also included on a CD-ROM sold by ClariNet Communications along with the other nominees for the 1993 Hugo awards. The CD-ROM edition included numerous annotations by Vinge on his thoughts and intentions about different parts of the book, and was later released as a standalone e-book.


title: A Fire Upon the Deep

text: The novel is set in various locations in the Milky Way. The galaxy is divided into four concentric volumes called the "Zones of Thought"; it is not clear to the novel's characters whether this is a natural phenomenon or an artificially produced one, but it seems to roughly correspond with galactic-scale stellar density and a Beyond region is mentioned in the Sculptor Galaxy as well. The Zones reflect fundamental differences in basic physical laws, and one of the main consequences is their effect on intelligence, both biological and artificial. Artificial intelligence and automation is most directly affected, in that advanced hardware and software from the Beyond or the Transcend will work less and less well as a ship "descends" towards the Unthinking Depths. But even biological intelligence is affected to a lesser degree. The four zones are spoken of in terms of "low" to "high" as follows:


title: A Fire Upon the Deep

text: An expedition from Straumli Realm, an ambitious young human civilization in the high Beyond, investigates a five-billion-year-old data archive in the low Transcend that offers the possibility of unimaginable riches. The expedition's facility, High Lab, is gradually compromised by a dormant superintelligence within the archive later known as the Blight. However, shortly before the Blight's final "flowering", two self-aware entities created similarly to the Blight plot to aid the humans before the Blight can escape.


title: A Fire Upon the Deep

text: Recognizing the danger of what they have awakened, the researchers at High Lab attempt to flee in two ships, one carrying all the adults and the second carrying all the children in "coldsleep boxes". Suspicious, the Blight discovers that the first ship contains a data storage device in its cargo manifest; assuming it contains information that could harm it, the Blight destroys the ship. The second ship escapes. The Blight assumes that it is no threat, but later realizes that it is actually carrying away a "countermeasure" against it.


title: A Fire Upon the Deep

text: The ship lands on a distant planet with a medieval-level civilization of dog-like creatures, dubbed "Tines", who live in packs as group minds. Upon landing, however, the two surviving adults are ambushed and killed by Tine fanatics known as Flenserists, in whose realm they have landed. The Flenserists capture a young boy named Jefri Olsndot and his wounded sister, Johanna. While Jefri is taken deeper into Flenserist territory, Johanna is rescued by a Tine pilgrim who witnessed the ambush and delivers her to a neighboring kingdom ruled by a Tine named Woodcarver. The Flenserists tell Jefri that Johanna had been killed by Woodcarver and exploit him in order to develop advanced technology (such as cannon and radio communication), while Johanna and the knowledge stored in her "dataset" device help Woodcarver rapidly develop in turn.


title: A Fire Upon the Deep

text: A distress signal from the sleeper ship eventually reaches "Relay", a major node in the galactic communications network. A benign transcendent entity named "the Old One" contacts Relay, seeking information about the Blight and the humans who released it, and reconstitutes a human man named Pham Nuwen from an old wreck to act as its agent, using his doubt of his own memory's veracity to bend him to the Old One's will. Ravna Bergsndot, the only human Relay employee, traces the sleeper ship's signal to the Tines' world and persuades her employer to investigate what the human ship took from High Lab, contracting the merchant vessel "Out of Band II", owned by two sentient plant "Skroderiders", Blueshell and Greenstalk, to transport them.


title: A Fire Upon the Deep

text: Before the mission is launched, the Blight attacks Relay and concurrently kills Old One. As Old One dies, it downloads what information it can into Pham to defeat the Blight, and Pham, Ravna and the Skroderiders barely escape Relay's destruction in the "Out of Band II".


title: A Fire Upon the Deep

text: The Blight expands, taking over races and "rewriting" their people to become its agents, murdering several other Powers, and seizing other archives in the Beyond, looking for what was taken. It finally realizes where the danger truly lies and sends a hastily assembled fleet in pursuit of the "Out of Band II".


title: A Fire Upon the Deep

text: The humans arrive at the Tines' homeworld and ally with Woodcarver to defeat the Flenserists. Pham initiates Countermeasure, which extends the Slow Zone by thousands of light years, enveloping the Blight at the cost of wrecking thousands of uninvolved civilizations and causing trillions of deaths. The humans are stranded on the Tines world, now in the depths of the "Slow Zone". Activating the countermeasure costs Pham his life, but just before Pham dies, he realizes that, although his body is a reconstruction, his memories are real. Vinge expands on Pham's background story in "A Deepness in the Sky".


title: A Fire Upon the Deep

text: A race of humanoids with colorful butterfly-like wings who attempt to use the chaos wrought by the Blight to reestablish their waning hegemony. Despite their attractive, delicate appearance, the Aprahanti are an extremely fearsome and vicious species.


title: A Fire Upon the Deep

text: An ancient, malevolent super-intelligent entity which strives to constantly expand and can easily manipulate electronics and even organic beings.


title: A Fire Upon the Deep

text: All humans in the novel (except Pham) are descended from Nyjoran stock. Their ancestors were "Tuvo-Norsk" asteroid miners from Old Earth's solar system, which is noted as being on the other side of the galaxy in the Slow Zone. ("Nyjora" sounds similar to New Norwegian "New Earth".) One of the major human habitations is Sjandra Kei, three systems comprising roughly 28 billion individuals. Their main language is Samnorsk, the Norwegian term for a hypothetical unification of the Bokmål and Nynorsk forms of the language. (Vinge indicates in the book's dedication that several key ideas in it came to him while at a conference in Tromsø, Norway.)


title: A Fire Upon the Deep

text: A race of plantlike beings with fronds that are used for expression. The riders have no native capacity for short-term memory. Five billion years ago, someone gave the species wheeled mechanical constructs ("skrodes") to move around and to provide short-term memory. It is later revealed that their "benefactor" was the Blight, and it is able to corrupt and remotely operate the Riders via their skrodes.


title: A Fire Upon the Deep

text: A canid race, each "person" comprising a group mind of 4–8 members, who communicate using very short-range ultrasonic waves from drumlike organs called "tympana". Each "soul" can survive and evolve by adding members to replace those who die, potentially for hundreds of years, as Woodcarver does.


title: A Fire Upon the Deep

text: A race of insectoid humanoids which constitutes one of the "majority races" of the Vrinimi organization.


title: A Fire Upon the Deep

text: Vinge first used the concepts of "Zones of Thought" in a 1988 novella "The Blabber", which occurs after "Fire". Vinge's novel "A Deepness in the Sky" (1999) is a prequel to "A Fire Upon the Deep" set 20,000 years earlier and featuring Pham Nuwen. Vinge's "The Children of the Sky", "a near-term sequel to "A Fire Upon the Deep", set ten years later, was released in October 2011.


title: A Fire Upon the Deep

text: Vinge's former wife, Joan D. Vinge, has also written stories in the Zones of Thought universe, based on his notes. These include "The Outcasts of Heaven Belt", "Legacy", and (as of 2008) a planned novel featuring Pham Nuwen.


title: A Fire Upon the Deep

text: Vinge's original title for the novel was "Among the Tines"; its final title was suggested by his editors.


title: A Fire Upon the Deep

text: "A Fire Upon the Deep" shared the 1993 Hugo Award for Best Novel with "Doomsday Book". The book was nominated for the Nebula Award for Best Novel of 1992, the 1993 John W. Campbell Memorial Award for Best Science Fiction Novel, and the 1993 Locus Award for Best Science Fiction Novel.


title: A Fire Upon the Deep

text: Jo Walton wrote: "Any one of the ideas in "A Fire Upon the Deep" would have kept an ordinary writer going for years. For me it's the book that does everything right, the example of what science fiction does when it works. ... "A Fire Upon the Deep" remains a favourite and a delight to re-read, absorbing even when I know exactly what’s coming."


title: 1950s quiz show scandals

text: The 1950s quiz show scandals were a series of scandals involving the producers and contestants of several popular American television quiz shows. These shows' producers secretly gave assistance to certain contestants in order to prearrange the shows’ outcomes while still attempting to deceive the public into believing that these shows were objective and fair competitions. Producers fixed the shows sometimes with the free consent of contestants and out of various motives: improving ratings, greed, and the lack of regulations prohibiting such conspiracy in game show productions.


title: 1950s quiz show scandals

text: The scandals took place at a time when television was still emerging as a medium and had yet to become the established cultural force in American society that it is today. When the behavior of the producers and contestants was exposed, the public reacted with shock. Many expressed concern about the potential for the young medium of television to influence society in negative ways.


title: 1950s quiz show scandals

text: In response to the scandals, the government was widely pressured to impose stricter regulations on broadcasters. As a direct consequence, Congress amended the Communications Act of 1934 to prohibit networks from prearranging the outcomes of quiz shows. In the United States, it has since become standard industry practice for game show producers to monitor their own shows closely for cheating and to ensure fairness in play and compliance with broadcasting law to the highest degree possible.


title: 1950s quiz show scandals

text: The popularity of radio quiz shows between 1938 and 1956 led to the creation of television quiz shows, which became the successors to their radio antecedents. In 1954, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that radio and television quiz shows could give prizes to contestants, provided that they did not contribute any of their own money.


title: 1950s quiz show scandals

text: In September 1956, the Jack Barry-hosted game show "Twenty-One" premiered on NBC, its first show being played legitimately with no manipulation of the game by the producers at all. That initial broadcast was, in the words of co-producer Dan Enright, "a dismal failure", as the two contestants were so lacking in the required knowledge that they answered a large number of the questions incorrectly. Show sponsor Geritol, upon seeing this opening-night performance, reportedly became furious with the results and said in no uncertain terms that they did not want to see a repeat performance.


title: 1950s quiz show scandals

text: Three months into its run, "Twenty-One" featured a contestant, Herb Stempel, who had been coached by Enright to allow his opponent, Charles Van Doren, to win the game. Stempel took the fall as requested. A year later, Stempel told the "New York Journal-American"s Jack O'Brian that his winning run as champion on the series had been choreographed to his advantage, and that the show's producer then ordered him to purposely lose his championship to Van Doren. With no proof, an article was never printed.


title: 1950s quiz show scandals

text: Stempel's statements gained more credibility when fixing in another game, "Dotto," was publicized in August 1958. Quiz show ratings across the networks plummeted and several were cancelled amid allegations of fixing. The revelations were sufficient to initiate a nine-month long New York County grand jury. No indictments were handed down, and the findings of the grand jury were sealed by judge's order. A formal congressional subcommittee investigation began in August 1959. Enright was revealed to have rigged "Twenty-One"; Van Doren also eventually came forth with revelations about how he was persuaded to accept specific answers during his time on the show.


title: 1950s quiz show scandals

text: In 1960, Congress amended the Communications Act of 1934 to prohibit the fixing of quiz shows. As a result of that action, many networks canceled their existing quiz shows and replaced them with a higher number of public service programs.


title: 1950s quiz show scandals

text: In late 1956, Herb Stempel, a contestant on NBC's "Twenty-One", was coached by Enright. While Stempel was in the midst of his winning streak, both of the $64,000 quiz shows ("The $64,000 Question" and its spin-off, "The $64,000 Challenge") were in the top-ten rated programs but "Twenty-One" did not have the same popularity. Enright and his partner, Albert Freedman, were searching for a new champion to replace Stempel to boost ratings. They soon found what they were looking for in Van Doren, an English teacher at Columbia University. Van Doren decided to try out for the NBC quiz show "Tic-Tac-Dough." Enright, who produced both "Tic-Tac-Dough" and "Twenty-One," saw his tryout and was familiar with his prestigious family background that included multiple Pulitzer Prize-winning authors and highly respected professors at Columbia. As a result, Enright felt that Van Doren would be perfect as the new face of "Twenty-One."


title: 1950s quiz show scandals

text: After achieving winnings of $69,500, Stempel's scripted loss to the more popular Van Doren occurred on December 5, 1956. One of the questions Stempel answered incorrectly involved the winner of the 1955 Academy Award for Best Motion Picture. The correct answer was "Marty," one of Stempel's favorite movies. As instructed by Enright, however, he gave the incorrect answer "On the Waterfront," which had won the previous year. Although the manipulation of the contestants helped the producers maintain viewer interest and ratings, the producers had not anticipated the extent of Stempel's resentment at being required to lose the contest against Van Doren.


title: 1950s quiz show scandals

text: In December 1956, Dale Logue, a contestant on NBC's "The Big Surprise", filed a lawsuit against the show's production company, Entertainment Productions, Inc., seeking either $103,000 in damages or reinstatement on the show as a contestant. Her claim was that, after being asked a question she did not know in a "warm-up" session, that she was asked the same question again during the televised show. Her assertion was that this was done intentionally with the express purpose of eliminating her as a contestant. At the time Logue's lawsuit was filed, Steve Carlin, executive producer of Entertainment Productions, Inc., called her claim "ridiculous and hopeless". Assertions that Logue had been offered $10,000 to settle in January 1957 were called baseless. Charles Revson, head of Revlon and "The Big Surprise's" primary sponsor, asked the producers if Logue's accusation was true, and was told that it was not.


title: 1950s quiz show scandals

text: In April 1957, "Time" magazine published an article detailing the depths to which producers managed game shows, just short of involving the contestants themselves. This was followed by the August 20, 1957, "Look" magazine article "Are TV Quiz Shows Fixed?", which concluded "it may be more accurate to say they are controlled or partially controlled."


title: 1950s quiz show scandals

text: In August 1958, Stempel and Logue's credibility was bolstered when Edward Hilgemeier, Jr, a stand-by contestant on "Dotto" three months earlier, sent an affidavit to the FCC claiming that while backstage, he had found a notebook on set containing the answers contestant Marie Winn was to deliver.


title: 1950s quiz show scandals

text: The American public's reaction was swift and dramatic when the fraud became public; between 87% and 95% knew about the scandals as measured by industry-sponsored polls. Through late 1958 and early 1959, quiz shows implicated by the scandal were quickly cancelled. Among them, with their last-aired dates, were:


title: 1950s quiz show scandals

text: In late August 1958, New York prosecutor Joseph Stone convened a grand jury to investigate the allegations of the fixing of quiz shows. At the time of the empaneling, neither being a party to a fixed game show nor fixing a game show in the first place were crimes in their own right. Some witnesses in the grand jury acknowledged their role in a fixed show, while others denied it, directly contradicting one another. Many of the coached contestants, who had become celebrities due to their quiz-show success, were so afraid of the social repercussions of admitting the fraud that they were unwilling to confess to having been coached, even to the point of perjuring themselves to avoid backlash. Producers who had legally rigged the games to increase ratings, but did not want to implicate themselves, their sponsors, or the networks in doing so, categorically denied the allegations. After the 9-month grand jury, no indictments were handed down and the judge sealed the grand jury report in August 1959. In October 1959, the House Subcommittee on Legislative Oversight, under Representative Oren Harris's chairmanship, began to hold hearings to investigate the scandal. Stempel, Snodgrass, and Hilgemeier all testified.


title: 1950s quiz show scandals

text: The expansion of the probe led CBS president Frank Stanton to immediately announce cancellation of three more of its large-prize quiz shows between October 16 and October 19, 1959: "Top Dollar", "The Big Payoff", and "Name That Tune," explaining that this decision was made "because of the impossibility of guarding against dishonest practice". On November 2 when Van Doren said to the Committee in a nationally televised session that, "I was involved, deeply involved, in a deception. The fact that I, too, was very much deceived cannot keep me from being the principal victim of that deception, because I was its principal symbol."


title: 1950s quiz show scandals

text: All of the regulations regarding television in the late 1950s were defined under the Communications Act of 1934, which dealt with the advertising, fair competition, and labeling of broadcast stations. The act and regulations written by the FCC were indefinite in regard to fixed television programs. Because no specific laws existed regarding the fraudulent behavior in the quiz shows, whether the producers or contestants alike did anything illegal is debatable. Instead, one inference could be that the medium was ill-used. After concluding the Harris Commission investigation, Congress amended the Communications Act to prohibit the fixing of televised contests of intellectual knowledge or skill.


title: 1950s quiz show scandals

text: President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed the bill into law on September 13, 1960. The legislation allowed the FCC to require license renewals of less than the legally required three years if the agency believes it would be in the public interest, prohibited gifts to FCC members, and declared illegal any contest or game with intent to deceive the audience.


title: 1950s quiz show scandals

text: In September 1958, a New York grand jury called producers who had coached contestants to appear in testimony. A prosecutor on the case later estimated that of the 150 sworn witnesses before the panel, only 50 told the truth.


title: 1950s quiz show scandals

text: Other producers met the same fate as Barry and Enright, but were unable to redeem themselves afterwards unlike those two. One of the more notable is Cooper, whose "Dotto" ended up being his longest-running and most popular game. Hosts such as Jack Narz and Hal March continued to work on television after the scandals. March died in January 1970 from lung cancer. Narz, who passed a lie-detector test at the time of the "Dotto" affair, had an extensive career as a game-show host after the incident (which also allowed him to help his brother, James, who later took on the name Tom Kennedy, break into the television business.) Sonny Fox, the original host of "The $64,000 Challenge," left long before it could become tainted and became a popular children's host in the northeast, remembered best as the suave, genial host of the Sunday-morning learn-and-laugh marathon "Wonderama." (Fox later stated that his unintentional "predilection for asking the answers" was a factor in his decision to only rarely host game shows after the scandals.)


title: 1950s quiz show scandals

text: The quiz-show scandals exhibited the necessity for stronger network control over programming and production. Quiz-show scandals also justified and accelerated the growth of the networks' power over television advertisers concerning licensing, scheduling, and sponsorship of programs. The networks claimed to be ignorant, and victims of the scandals. The NBC president at the time stated, "NBC was just as much a victim of the quiz-show frauds as was the public."


title: 1950s quiz show scandals

text: A quiz for big money did not return until ABC premiered "100 Grand" in 1963. It went off the air after three shows, never awarding its top prize. Quiz shows still held a stigma throughout much of the 1960s, which was eventually eased by the success of the lower-stakes and fully legitimate answer-and-question game "Jeopardy!" in 1964, which ran until 1975. A revival was launched in 1984 that still airs to this day, with a rule that limited winning contestants to five consecutive appearances in effect from 1984 to 2003.


title: 1950s quiz show scandals

text: Big money quiz shows would not enjoy widespread popularity in the United States again until the late 1990s. In 1999, ABC launched the American adaptation of the British game show franchise, "Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?" to both enormous critical success and high ratings. Around the turn of 21st century, other American television networks launched similar quiz shows offering large sums of money, including Fox with "Greed" and NBC, who adapted the British game show, "The Weakest Link." In 2003, Sony Pictures Television changed the rules on "Jeopardy!" to allow players to win until they are defeated. At the end of Season 20 in July 2004, contestant Ken Jennings won over one million dollars after his thirtieth win in the first season of the rule. He won 74 games over two seasons, and only one other player (James Holzhauer) won over one million dollars during the Alex Trebek era (until January 7, 2021). In 2008, Sony added the Australian version's Million Dollar wedge to "Wheel of Fortune" where a player can win a huge sum by landing on the wedge and meeting a series of standards. Today, numerous high-stakes game shows and reality competition shows continue to air on broadcast American television.


title: Louis Agassiz

text: Jean Louis Rodolphe Agassiz ( ; ) FRS (For) FRSE (May 28, 1807 – December 14, 1873) was a Swiss-born American biologist and geologist who is recognized as a scholar of Earth's natural history.


title: Louis Agassiz

text: Spending his early life in Switzerland, he received a PhD at Erlangen and a medical degree in Munich. After studying with Georges Cuvier and Alexander von Humboldt in Paris, Agassiz was appointed professor of natural history at the University of Neuchâtel. He emigrated to the United States in 1847 after visiting Harvard University. He went on to become professor of zoology and geology at Harvard, to head its Lawrence Scientific School, and to found its Museum of Comparative Zoology.


title: Louis Agassiz

text: Agassiz is known for observational data gathering and analysis. He made institutional and scientific contributions to zoology, geology, and related areas, including multivolume research books running to thousands of pages. He is particularly known for his contributions to ichthyological classification, including of extinct species such as megalodon, and to the study of geological history, including the founding of glaciology.


title: Louis Agassiz

text: His theories on human, animal and plant polygenism have been criticised as implicitly supporting scientific racism.


title: Louis Agassiz

text: Louis Agassiz was born in the village of Môtier (now part of Haut-Vully which merged into Mont-Vully in 2016) in the Swiss Canton of Fribourg. He was the son of a pastor, Louis Rudolphe and his wife, Rose Mayor.


title: Louis Agassiz

text: His father was a Protestant clergyman, as had been his progenitors for six generations, and his mother was the daughter of a physician and an intellectual in her own right, who had assisted her husband in the education of her boys. He was educated at home until he spent four years at secondary school in Bienne, which he entered in 1818 and completed his elementary studies in Lausanne. Agassiz studied at the Universities of Zürich, Heidelberg and Munich. At the last one, he extended his knowledge of natural history, especially of botany. In 1829, he received the degree of doctor of philosophy at Erlangen and, in 1830, that of doctor of medicine at Munich.


title: Louis Agassiz

text: Moving to Paris, he came under the tutelage of Alexander von Humboldt and later received his financial benevolence. Humboldt and Georges Cuvier launched him on his careers of respectively geology and zoology. Ichthyology soon became a focus of Agassiz's life's work.


title: Louis Agassiz

text: In 1819 to 1820, the German biologists Johann Baptist von Spix and Carl Friedrich Philipp von Martius undertook an expedition to Brazil. They returned home to Europe with many natural objects, including an important collection of the freshwater fish of Brazil, especially of the Amazon River. Spix, who died in 1826, likely from a tropical disease, did not live long enough to work out the history of those fish, and Martius selected Agassiz for this project.


title: Louis Agassiz

text: Agassiz threw himself into the work with an enthusiasm that would go on to characterize the rest of his life's work. The task of describing the Brazilian fish was completed and published in 1829. It was followed by research into the history of fish found in Lake Neuchâtel. Enlarging his plans, he in 1830 issued a prospectus of a "History of the Freshwater Fish of Central Europe". In 1839, however, the first part of the publication appeared, and it was completed in 1842.


title: Louis Agassiz

text: In November 1832, Agassiz was appointed professor of natural history at the University of Neuchâtel, at a salary of about US$400 and declined brilliant offers in Paris because of the leisure for private study that that position afforded him. The fossil fish in the rock of the surrounding region, the slates of Glarus and the limestones of Monte Bolca, soon attracted his attention. At the time, very little had been accomplished in their scientific study. Agassiz as early as 1829, planned the publication of a work. More than any other, it would lay the foundation of his worldwide fame. Five volumes of his "Recherches sur les poissons fossiles" ("Research on Fossil Fish") were published from 1833 to 1843. They were magnificently illustrated, chiefly by Joseph Dinkel. In gathering materials for that work, Agassiz visited the principal museums in Europe. Meeting Cuvier in Paris, he received much encouragement and assistance from him.


title: Louis Agassiz

text: In 1833 he married Cecile Braun, the sister of his friend Alexander Braun and established his household at Neuchâtel. Trained to scientific drawing by her brothers, his wife was of the greatest assistance to Agassiz, with some of the most beautiful plates in "fossil" and "freshwater" fishes being drawn by her.


title: Louis Agassiz

text: Agassiz found that his palaeontological analyses required a new ichthyological classification. The fossils that he examined rarely showed any traces of the soft tissues of fish but instead, consisted chiefly of the teeth, scales, and fins, with the bones being perfectly preserved in comparatively-few instances. He therefore adopted a classification that divided fish into four groups (ganoids, placoids, cycloids, and ctenoids), based on the nature of the scales and other dermal appendages. That did much to improve fish taxonomy, but Agassiz's classification has since been superseded.


title: Louis Agassiz

text: With Louis de Coulon, both father and son, he founded the "Societé des Sciences Naturelles", of which he was the first secretary and in conjunction with the Coulons also arranged a provisional museum of natural history in the orphan's home. Agassiz needed financial support to continue his work. The British Association and the Earl of Ellesmere, then Lord Francis Egerton, stepped in to help. The 1290 original drawings made for the work were purchased by the Earl and presented by him to the Geological Society of London. In 1836, the Wollaston Medal was awarded to Agassiz by the council of that society for his work on fossil ichthyology. In 1838, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Society. Meanwhile, invertebrate animals engaged his attention. In 1837, he issued the "Prodrome" of a monograph on the recent and fossil Echinodermata, the first part of which appeared in 1838; in 1839–1840, he published two quarto volumes on the fossil echinoderms of Switzerland; and in 1840–1845, he issued his "Études critiques sur les mollusques fossiles" ("Critical Studies on Fossil Mollusks").


title: Louis Agassiz

text: Before Agassiz's first visit to England in 1834, Hugh Miller and other geologists had brought to light the remarkable fossil fish of the Old Red Sandstone of the northeast of Scotland. The strange forms of "Pterichthys", "Coccosteus", and other genera were then made known to geologists for the first time. They were of intense interest to Agassiz and formed the subject of a monograph by him published in 1844–1(45: "Monographie des poissons fossiles du Vieux Grès Rouge, ou Système Dévonien (Old Red Sandstone) des Îles Britanniques et de Russie" ("Monograph on Fossil Fish of the Old Red Sandstone, or Devonian System of the British Isles and of Russia"). In the early stages of his career in Neuchatel, Agassiz also made a name for himself as a man who could run a scientific department well. Under his care, the University of Neuchâtel soon became a leading institution for scientific inquiry.


title: Louis Agassiz

text: In 1842 to 1846, Agassiz issued his "Nomenclator Zoologicus", a classification list with references of all names used in zoological genera and groups.


title: Louis Agassiz

text: The vacation of 1836 was spent by Agassiz and his wife in the little village of Bex, where he met Jean de Charpentier and Ignaz Venetz. Their recently announced glacial theories had startled the scientific world, and Agassiz returned to Neuchâtel as an enthusiastic convert. In 1837, Agassiz proposed that the Earth had been subjected to a past ice age. He presented the theory to the Helvetic Society that ancient glaciers flowed outward from the Alps, and even larger glaciers had covered the plains and mountains of Europe, Asia, and North America and smothered the entire Northern Hemisphere in a prolonged ice age. In the same year, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. Before that proposal, Goethe, de Saussure, Ignaz Venetz, Jean de Charpentier, Karl Friedrich Schimper, and others had studied the glaciers of the Alps, and Goethe, Charpentier, and Schimper had even concluded that the erratic blocks of alpine rocks scattered over the slopes and summits of the Jura Mountains had been moved there by glaciers. Those ideas attracted the attention of Agassiz, and he discussed them with Charpentier and Schimper, whom he accompanied on successive trips to the Alps. Agassiz even had a hut constructed upon one of the Aar Glaciers and for a time made it his home to investigate the structure and movements of the ice.


title: Louis Agassiz

text: Agassiz visited England, and with William Buckland, the only English naturalist who shared his ideas, made a tour of the British Isles in search of glacial phenomena, and became satisfied that his theory of an ice age was correct. In 1840, Agassiz published a two-volume work, "Études sur les glaciers" ("Studies on Glaciers"). In it, he discussed the movements of the glaciers, their moraines, and their influence in grooving and rounding the rocks and in producing the striations and "roches moutonnées" seen in Alpine-style landscapes. He accepted Charpentier and Schimper's idea that some of the alpine glaciers had extended across the wide plains and valleys of the Aar and Rhône, but he went further by concluding that in the recent past, Switzerland had been covered with one vast sheet of ice originating in the higher Alps and extending over the valley of northwestern Switzerland to the southern slopes of the Jura. The publication of the work gave fresh impetus to the study of glacial phenomena in all parts of the world.


title: Louis Agassiz

text: Familiar then with recent glaciation, Agassiz and the English geologist William Buckland visited the mountains of Scotland in 1840. There, they found clear evidence in different locations of glacial action. The discovery was announced to the Geological Society of London in successive communications. The mountainous districts of England, Wales, and Ireland were understood to have been centres for the dispersion of glacial debris. Agassiz remarked "that great sheets of ice, resembling those now existing in Greenland, once covered all the countries in which unstratified gravel (boulder drift) is found; that this gravel was in general produced by the trituration of the sheets of ice upon the subjacent surface, etc."


title: Louis Agassiz

text: In his later years, Agassiz applied his glacial theories to the geology of the Brazilian tropics, including the Amazon. Agassiz began with a working hypothesis which could be tested by the results of fieldwork to find either inconclusive, or conclusively supporting or refuting evidence. A hypothesis that can be conclusively refuted is better than a hypothesis that difficult to test. Agassiz had a close association with his student and field assistant, the geologist Charles Hartt who eventually refuted Agassiz's theories about the Amazon based on his fieldwork there. Instead of evidence for any glacial processes, he found chemically weathered sediments from marine and tropical fluvial, not glacial, processes, a finding that later geologists confirmed. Agassiz hypothesis that the Amazon was affected by the Last Glacial Maximum was correct, although the mechanism causing the effect was non-glacial. The Amazon rainforest was split into two large blocks by extensive savanna during the LGM.


title: Louis Agassiz

text: With the aid of a grant of money from the king of Prussia, Agassiz crossed the Atlantic in the autumn of 1846 to investigate the natural history and geology of North America and to deliver a course of lectures on "The Plan of Creation as shown in the Animal Kingdom" by invitation from John Amory Lowell, at the Lowell Institute in Boston, Massachusetts. The financial offers that were presented to him in the United States induced him to settle there, where he remained to the end of his life. He was elected a foreign honorary member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1846.


title: Louis Agassiz

text: In 1846, still married to Cecilie, who remained with their three children in Switzerland, Agassiz met Elizabeth Cabot Cary at a dinner. The two developed a romantic attachment, and when his wife died in 1848, they made plans to marry, and the ceremony that took place on April 25, 1850, in Boston, Massachusetts at King's Chapel. Agassiz brought his children to live with them, and Elizabeth raised and developed close relationships with her step-children. She had no children of her own.


title: Louis Agassiz

text: Agassiz had a mostly cordial relationship with the Harvard botanist Asa Gray despite their disagreements. Agassiz believed each human race had been separately created, but Gray, a supporter of Charles Darwin, believed in the shared evolutionary ancestry of all humans. In addition, Agassiz was a member of the Scientific Lazzaroni, a group of mostly physical scientists who wanted American academia to mimic the more autocratic academic structures of European universities, but Gray was a staunch opponent of that group.


title: Louis Agassiz

text: Agassiz's engagement for the Lowell Institute lectures precipitated the establishment in 1847 of the Lawrence Scientific School at Harvard University, with Agassiz as its head. Harvard appointed him professor of zoology and geology, and he founded the Museum of Comparative Zoology there in 1859 and served as its first director until his death in 1873. During his tenure at Harvard, Agassiz studied the effect of the last ice age in North America. In August 1857, Agassiz was offered the chair of palaeontology in the Museum of Natural History, Paris, which he refused. He was later decorated with the Cross of the Legion of Honor.


title: Louis Agassiz

text: Agassiz continued his lectures for the Lowell Institute. In succeeding years, he gave lectures on "Ichthyology" (1847–1848), "Comparative Embryology" (1848–1849), "Functions of Life in Lower Animals" (1850–1851), "Natural History" (1853–1854), "Methods of Study in Natural History" (1861–1862), "Glaciers and the Ice Period" (1864–1865), "Brazil" (1866–1867), and "Deep Sea Dredging" (1869–1970). In 1850, he had married Elizabeth Cabot Cary, who later wrote introductory books about natural history and a lengthy biography of her husband after he had died.


title: Louis Agassiz

text: Agassiz served as a nonresident lecturer at Cornell University while he was also on faculty at Harvard. In 1852, he accepted a medical professorship of comparative anatomy at Charlestown, Massachusetts, but he resigned in two years. From then on, Agassiz's scientific studies dropped off, but he became one of the best-known scientists in the world. By 1857, Agassiz was so well-loved that his friend Henry Wadsworth Longfellow wrote "The Fiftieth Birthday of Agassiz" in his honor and read it at a dinner given for Agassiz by the Saturday Club in Cambridge. Agassiz's own writing continued with four (of a planned 10) volumes of "Natural History of the United States", published from 1857 to 1862. He also published a catalog of papers in his field, "Bibliographia Zoologiae et Geologiae", in four volumes between 1848 and 1854.


title: Louis Agassiz

text: Stricken by ill health in the 1860s, Agassiz resolved to return to the field for relaxation and to resume his studies of Brazilian fish. In April 1865, he led a party to Brazil. After his return in August 1866, an account of the expedition, "A Journey in Brazil", was published in 1868. In December 1871, he made a second eight-month excursion, known as the "Hassler" expedition under the command of Commander Philip Carrigan Johnson (the brother of Eastman Johnson) and visited South America on its southern Atlantic and Pacific Seaboards. The ship explored the Magellan Strait, which drew the praise of Charles Darwin.


title: Louis Agassiz

text: His second wife, Elizabeth Cary Agassiz, the daughter of Thomas Graves Cary, of Boston, who was president of Radcliffe college in 1898, desired to share his studies and aided her husband in preparing his "A Journey in Brazil". In connection with their son, Alexander Agassiz, she wrote "Seaside Studies in Natural History" and "Marine Animals of Massachusetts". Elizabeth wrote at the Strait that "the "Hassler" pursued her course, past a seemingly endless panorama of mountains and forests rising into the pale regions of snow and ice, where lay glaciers in which every rift and crevasse, as well as the many cascades flowing down to join the waters beneath, could be counted as she steamed by them... These were weeks of exquisite delight to Agassiz. The vessel often skirted the shore so closely that its geology could be studied from the deck."


title: Louis Agassiz

text: From his first marriage to Cecilie Braun, Agassiz had two daughters, Ida and Pauline, and a son, Alexander.


title: Louis Agassiz

text: In 1863, Agassiz's daughter Ida married Henry Lee Higginson, who later founded the Boston Symphony Orchestra and was a benefactor to Harvard and other schools. On November 30, 1860, Agassiz's daughter Pauline was married to Quincy Adams Shaw (1825–1908), a wealthy Boston merchant and later a benefactor to the Boston Museum of Fine Arts. Pauline Agassiz Shaw later became a prominent educator, suffragist, and philanthropist.


title: Louis Agassiz

text: In the last years of his life, Agassiz worked to establish a permanent school in which zoological science could be pursued amid the living subjects of its study. In 1873, the private philanthropist John Anderson gave Agassiz the island of Penikese, in Buzzards Bay, Massachusetts (south of New Bedford), and presented him with $50,000 to endow it permanently as a practical school of natural science that would be especially devoted to the study of marine zoology. The school collapsed soon after Agassiz's death but is considered to be a precursor of the nearby Woods Hole Marine Biological Laboratory.


title: Louis Agassiz

text: Agassiz had a profound influence on the American branches of his two fields and taught many future scientists who would go on to prominence, including Alpheus Hyatt, David Starr Jordan, Joel Asaph Allen, Joseph Le Conte, Ernest Ingersoll, William James, Charles Sanders Peirce, Nathaniel Shaler, Samuel Hubbard Scudder, Alpheus Packard, and his son Alexander Emanuel Agassiz. He had a profound impact on the paleontologist Charles Doolittle Walcott and the natural scientist Edward S. Morse. Agassiz had a reputation for being a demanding teacher. He would allegedly "lock a student up in a room full of turtle-shells, or lobster-shells, or oyster-shells, without a book or a word to help him, and not let him out till he had discovered all the truths which the objects contained." Two of Agassiz's most prominent students detailed their personal experiences under his tutelage: Scudder, in a short magazine article for" Every Saturday", and Shaler, in his "Autobiography". Those and other recollections were collected and published by Lane Cooper in 1917, which Ezra Pound would draw on for his anecdote of Agassiz and the sunfish.


title: Louis Agassiz

text: In the early 1840s, Agassiz named two fossil fish species after Mary Anning ("Acrodus anningiae" and "Belenostomus anningiae") and another after her friend, Elizabeth Philpot. Anning was a paleontologist known around the world for important finds, but because of her gender, she was often not formally recognized for her work. Agassiz was grateful for the help that the women gave him in examining fossil fish specimens during his visit to Lyme Regis in 1834.


title: Louis Agassiz

text: Agassiz died in Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1873 and was buried on the Bellwort Path at Mount Auburn Cemetery, joined later by his wife. His monument is a boulder from a glacial moraine of the Aar near the site of the old , not far from the spot where his hut once stood. His grave is sheltered by pine trees from his old home in Switzerland.


title: Louis Agassiz

text: The Cambridge elementary school north of Harvard University was named in his honor, and the surrounding neighborhood became known as "Agassiz" as a result. The school's name was changed to the Maria L. Baldwin School on May 21, 2002, because of concerns about Agassiz's involvement in scientific racism and to honor Maria Louise Baldwin, the African-American principal of the school, who served from 1889 to 1922. The neighborhood, however, continued to be known as Agassiz. Circa 2009, neighborhood residents decided to rename the neighborhood's community council as the "Agassiz-Baldwin Community". Then, in July 2021, culminating a two-year effort on the part of neighborhood residents, the Cambridge City Council voted unanimously to change the name to the Baldwin Neighborhood. An elementary school, the Agassiz Elementary School in Minneapolis, Minnesota, existed from 1922 to 1981.


title: Louis Agassiz

text: An ancient glacial lake that formed in central North America, Lake Agassiz, is named after him, as are Mount Agassiz in California's Palisades, Mount Agassiz, in the Uinta Mountains of Utah, Agassiz Peak in Arizona, Agassiz Rock in Massachusetts and in his native Switzerland, the Agassizhorn in the Bernese Alps. Agassiz Glacier (Montana) and Agassiz Creek in Glacier National Park and Agassiz Glacier (Alaska) in Saint Elias Mountains, Mount Agassiz in Bethlehem, New Hampshire in the White Mountains also bear his name. A crater on Mars "Crater Agassiz" and a promontorium on the moon are also named in his honor. A headland situated in Palmer Land, Antarctica, is named in his honor, Cape Agassiz. A main-belt asteroid, 2267 Agassiz, is also named in association with him.


title: Louis Agassiz

text: In 2005, the European Geosciences Union Division on Cryospheric Sciences established the Louis Agassiz Medal, awarded to individuals in recognition of their outstanding scientific contribution to the study of the cryosphere on Earth or elsewhere in the solar system.


title: Louis Agassiz

text: Agassiz took part in a monthly gathering called the Saturday Club at the Parker House, a meeting of Boston writers and intellectuals. He was therefore mentioned in a stanza of the Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr. poem ":"


title: Louis Agassiz

text: In 1850, Agassiz commissioned daguerreotypes, which were described as "haunting and voyeuristic" of the enslaved Renty Taylor and Taylor's daughter, Delia, to further his arguments about black inferiority. They are the earliest known photographs of enslaved persons. Agassiz left the images to Harvard, and they remained in the Peabody Museum's attic until 1976, when they were rediscovered by Ellie Reichlin, a former staff member. The 15 daguerrotypes were in a case with the embossing "J. T. Zealy, Photographer, Columbia," with several handwritten labels, which helped in later identification. Reichlin spent months doing research to try to identify the people in the photos, but Harvard University did not make efforts to contact the families and licensed the photos for use.


title: Louis Agassiz

text: In 2011, Tamara Lanier wrote a letter to the president of Harvard that identified herself as a direct descendant of the Taylors and asked the university to turn over the photos to her.


title: Louis Agassiz

text: In 2019, Taylor's descendants sued Harvard for the return of the images and unspecified damages. The lawsuit was supported by 43 living descendants of Agassiz, who wrote in a letter of support, "For Harvard to give the daguerreotypes to Ms. Lanier and her family would begin to make amends for its use of the photos as exhibits for the white supremacist theory Agassiz espoused." Everyone must evaluate fully "his role in promoting a pseudoscientific justification for white supremacy."


title: Louis Agassiz

text: After Agassiz came to the United States, he wrote prolifically in the field of scientific polygenism. His purpose was to develop better working hypotheses so a complete theory could explain his and his colleagues collective observations of the natural world. He was a superior scientist in his era, and the outstanding natural scientist of his generation in the North America. Distinguished Professor of English Christoph Irmscher called him the "Creator of American Science".


title: Louis Agassiz

text: After scientific colleagues explained their findings, he became an early proponent of the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) because there was sufficient evidence. He sought further evidence which could support or refute LGM as he researched worldwide. He wrote to his wife of the discovery of an extinct Mammoth under glacial ice floes in Siberia. Since Agassiz did not have the benefit of the insights of plate tectonics, and the lack of "missing link" fossil evidence in his era, it seemed to him and many others that the evidence indicated that there had been multiple creation events separated by worldwide and/or regional catyclysms, rather than a single creation event.


title: Louis Agassiz

text: He did not consider Darwin's Theory of Evolution to have sufficient evidence when it was first presented in 1859. In fact, he had also identified the wide variety of speciation during his own earlier field work. He well knew the earth was much older than some Bible readers assumed. He rejected the Lamarckian idea of inheritance of acquired characteristics that Darwin had accepted and later expanded upon in his writings on heredity.


title: Louis Agassiz

text: Agassiz asserted that the evidence being presented by his contemporaries was not sufficient to conclude that migration and adaptation could account for the geographical distribution patterns of flora and fauna. Similar concerns from other fields of scientific inquiry led to the explanatory theory of continental drift being more fully developed in the early 20th century but at an implausibly high rate for the separation of the Americas from Europe and Africa of 250 cm/year. The evidence proving the mechanism of plate tectonics did not occur until 1968, with a rate about 2.5 cm/year.


title: Louis Agassiz

text: Agassiz asserted the evidence indicated that the people of earth were not obviously descended from a single biological pair Adam and Eve, a co-Adamist conjecture proven correct in the 21st century by identification of Y-chromosomal Adam and Mitochondrial Eve.


title: Louis Agassiz

text: Lurie (1954) mentions that Agassiz developed (what in retrospect is considered) a co-Adamist hypothesis to explain the distribution of life forms, which holds that animals, plants, and humans were all created in "special provinces" with distinct populations of species created in and for each province, and that these populations were endowed with different attributes. A more exacting explanation is that Agassiz succinctly described what was obvious around the world: Various regions have differentiated species of plants and animals, and mankind appeared to be speciated also. "Special provinces" means "uniquely speciated zones" or in Agassiz own words: "natural zoological provinces". He considered this hypothesis testable, and matched to the available evidence. He also indicated that there were obvious geographical barriers that were the likely cause of speciation. His observation and thoughts were presented at a time when it was important to carefully explain why a single creation event was unlikely. The available fossil record showed major gaps rather than a continuum of species through the ages because researchers had not discovered locations that contained the "missing link" fossils. So Agassiz and others focused on Variation, which contributed to the Modern Synthesis in the mid-20th century, while the principles of gene flow would not be developed until over a century in the future.


title: Louis Agassiz

text: According to Agassiz, as presented by the anthropologist Josiah Clark Nott in 1854, the conditions in which particular creatures live "are the conditions necessary to their maintenance, and what among organized beings is essential to their temporal existence must be at least one of the conditions under which they were created". Where a modern reader of the above excerpt might conclude he was speaking about individuals being created, he specifically describes swarms, nations and plants – what is now referred to as taxa – as the "beings".


title: Louis Agassiz

text: Agassiz was opposed to evolution, believing that the theory of evolution reduced the wisdom of God to an impersonal materialism. Agassiz was influenced by philosophical idealism. Agassiz believed that one species of humans exists, but many different creations of races occurred. According to Agassiz, genera and species were ideas in the mind of God; their existence in God's mind prior to their physical creation meant that God could create humans as one species, yet in several distinct and geographically separate acts of creation. Agassiz was in modern terms a creationist who believed nature had order because God created it directly. Agassiz viewed his career in science as a search for ideas in the mind of the creator expressed in creation. Stephen Jay Gould asserted that Agassiz's observations sprang from racist bias, in particular from his revulsion on first encountering African-Americans in the United States. Referencing letters written by Agassiz, Gould compares Agassiz' public display of dispassionate objectivity to his private correspondence, in which he describes "the production half breeds" as "a sin against nature..." Describing the interbreeding of white and black people, he warns, "We have already had to struggle, in our progress, against the influence of universal equality... but how shall we eradicate the stigma of a lower race when its blood has once been allowed to flow freely into our children." In contrast, others have asserted that, despite favoring polygenism, Agassiz rejected racism and believed in a spiritualized human unity. However, in the same article, Agassiz asks the reader to consider the hierarchy of races, mentioning "The indomitable, courageous, proud Indian, — in how very different a light he stands by the side of the submissive, obsequious, imitative negro, or by the side of the tricky, cunning, and cowardly Mongolian! Are not these facts indications that the different races do not rank upon one level in nature[?]"


title: Louis Agassiz

text: Agassiz never supported slavery and claimed his views on polygenism had nothing to do with politics. His views on polygenism have been claimed to have emboldened proponents of slavery.


title: Louis Agassiz

text: Accusations of racism against Agassiz have prompted the renaming of landmarks, schoolhouses, and other institutions (which abound in Massachusetts) that bear his name. Opinions about those moves are often mixed, given his extensive scientific legacy in other areas, and uncertainty about his actual racial beliefs. In 2007, the Swiss government acknowledged his "racist thinking", but declined to rename the Agassizhorn summit. In 2017, the Swiss Alpine Club declined to revoke Agassiz's status as a member of honor, which he received in 1865 for his scientific work, because the club considered that status to have lapsed on Agassiz's death. In 2020, the Stanford Department of Psychology asked for a statue of Louis Agassiz to be removed from the front façade of its building. In 2021, Chicago Public Schools announced they would remove Agassiz's name from an elementary school and rename it for the abolitionist and political activist, Harriet Tubman.


title: Louis Agassiz

text: Following Darwin's elucidation of evolutionary theory in 1859, which in its early years had inconsistencies, Agassiz sponsored expeditions and motivated others to continue to advance natural history in the direction the evidence promoted. He had a great deal of respect for scientists who did actual field work to discover new evidence, even for scientists such as Darwin and his Darwinist colleagues at Harvard. Finding evidence to corroborate or refute a hypothesis could be arduous and life-threatening. The Thayer Expedition of 1865-66 included his personal artist-illustrator Jacques Burkhardt, Brazilian naturalist Joao Coutinho, associate researcher Charles Frederick Hartt and students Walter Hunnewell, William James, and Stephen van Rensselaer Thayer with additional Harvard students. Hartt succumbed to yellow fever on a later expedition, James developed lifelong infirmities and others, including Agassiz himself had shortened lifespans.


title: Lucy, Lady Duff-Gordon

text: Lucy Christiana, Lady Duff-Gordon (née Sutherland; 13 June 1863 – 20 April 1935) was a leading British fashion designer in the late 19th and early 20th centuries who worked under the professional name Lucile.


title: Lucy, Lady Duff-Gordon

text: The first British-based designer to achieve international acclaim, Lucy Duff-Gordon was a widely acknowledged innovator in couture styles as well as in fashion industry public relations. In addition to originating the "mannequin parade", a precursor to the modern fashion show, and training the first professional models, she launched slit skirts and low necklines, popularized less restrictive corsets, and promoted alluring and pared-down lingerie.


title: Lucy, Lady Duff-Gordon

text: Opening branches of her London house, Lucile Ltd, in Chicago, New York City, and Paris, her business became the first global couture brand, dressing a trend-setting clientele of royalty, nobility, and stage and film personalities. Duff-Gordon is also remembered as a survivor of the sinking of the RMS "Titanic" in 1912, and as the losing party in the precedent-setting 1917 contract law case of "Wood v. Lucy, Lady Duff-Gordon", in which Judge Benjamin N. Cardozo wrote the opinion for New York's highest court, the New York Court of Appeals, upholding a contract between Duff-Gordon and her advertising agent that assigned the agent the sole right to market her name. It was the first case of its kind, clothes labelled and sold at a lowered cost in a cheaper market under an expensive "brand name".


title: Lucy, Lady Duff-Gordon

text: The daughter of civil engineer Douglas Sutherland (1838–1865) and his Anglo-French-Canadian wife Elinor Saunders (1841–1937), Lucy Christiana Sutherland was born in London, England, and raised in Guelph, Ontario, Canada, after her father's death from typhoid fever. When her mother remarried in 1871 to the bachelor David Kennedy (d. 1889), Lucy moved with them and her sister, the future novelist Elinor Glyn, to Saint Helier on the Isle of Jersey. Lucy acquired her love of fashion through dressing her collection of dolls, by studying gowns worn by women in family paintings, and by later making clothes for herself and Elinor. Returning to Jersey, after a visit to relatives in England in 1875, Lucy and Elinor survived the wreck of their ship when it ran aground in a gale.


title: Lucy, Lady Duff-Gordon

text: In 1884, Lucy married for the first time, to James Stuart Wallace, with whom she had a child, Esme (1885–1973; later wife of the 2nd Earl of Halsbury and mother of Tony Giffard, 3rd Earl of Halsbury). Wallace was an alcoholic and regularly unfaithful, and Lucy sought consolation in love affairs, including a long relationship with the famous surgeon Sir Morell Mackenzie. The Wallaces separated circa 1890, and Lucy started divorce proceedings in 1893; the divorce was finalized in 1895. In 1900, Lucy Sutherland Wallace married a Scottish baronet, landowner and sportsman Sir Cosmo Duff-Gordon.


title: Lucy, Lady Duff-Gordon

text: In order to support herself and her daughter after the end of her first marriage, Lucy Duff-Gordon began working as a dressmaker from home. In 1893, she opened Maison Lucile at 24 Old Burlington St., in the heart of the fashionable West End of London, having worked for a year previously from her mother's flat at 25 Davies Street. In 1897, Lucy Duff-Gordon opened a larger shop at 17 Hanover Square, Westminster, before a further move (c. 1903–04) to 14 George Street, Oxford. In 1903, the business was incorporated as "Lucile Ltd" and the following year moved to 23 Hanover Square, where it operated for the next 20 years. Duff Gordon was eventually bankrupted after she revealed in the American press that she was not designing much of the clothing that was attributed to her name. She spent her later years selling imported clothing and smaller collections in a succession of unsuccessful small 'boutiques'.


title: Lucy, Lady Duff-Gordon

text: Lucile Ltd served a wealthy clientele including aristocracy, royalty, and theatre stars. The business expanded, with salons opening in New York City in 1910, Paris in 1911, and Chicago in 1915, making it the first leading couture house with full-scale branches in three countries.


title: Lucy, Lady Duff-Gordon

text: Lucile was most famous for its lingerie, tea gowns, and evening wear. Its luxuriously layered and draped garments in soft fabrics of blended pastel colours, often accentuated with sprays of hand-made silk flowers, became its hallmark. However, Lucile also offered simple, smart tailored suits and daywear. The dress illustrated at right typifies the classically draped style often found in Lucile designs. Lucy Duff-Gordon originally designed it in Paris, for Lucile Ltd's spring 1913 collection, and later specially adapted it for London socialite Heather Firbank and other well-known clients, including actress Kitty Gordon and dancer Lydia Kyasht of the Ballets Russes. The example illustrated was worn by Miss Firbank and is preserved in the Victoria and Albert Museum.


title: Lucy, Lady Duff-Gordon

text: Lucy Duff-Gordon is also widely credited with training the first professional fashion models (called "mannequins") as well as staging the first runway or "catwalk" style shows. These affairs were theatrically inspired, invitation-only, tea-time presentations, complete with a stage, curtains, mood-setting lighting, music from a string band, souvenir gifts, and programmes.


title: Lucy, Lady Duff-Gordon

text: Another innovation in the presentation of her collections was what she called her "emotional gowns". These dresses were given descriptive names, influenced by literature, history, popular culture and her interest in the psychology and personality of her clients.


title: Lucy, Lady Duff-Gordon

text: Some well-known clients, whose clothing influenced many when it appeared in early films, on stage, and in the press, included: Irene Castle, Lily Elsie, Gertie Millar, Gaby Deslys, Billie Burke, and Mary Pickford. Lucile costumed numerous theatrical productions, including the London première of Franz Lehár's operetta "The Merry Widow" (1907), the "Ziegfeld Follies" revues on Broadway (1915–21), and the D. W. Griffith silent movie "Way Down East" (1920). Lucile creations were also frequently featured in Pathé and Gaumont newsreels of the 1910s and 20s, and Lucy Duff-Gordon appeared in her own weekly spot in the British newsreel "Around the Town" (c. 1919–21).


title: Lucy, Lady Duff-Gordon

text: Early Lucile Ltd sketches, archived at the Victoria and Albert Museum, provide evidence that in 1904 the salon employed at least one sketch artist to record Lucy Duff-Gordon's designs for in-house use. As demands grew on her time, especially in the United States during World War I, she was aided by sketch artists Robert Kalloch, Roger Bealle, Gilbert Clarke, Howard Greer, Shirley Barker, Travis Banton, and Edward Molyneux, who created ideas based on the "Lucile look". In her memoir, Lucy Duff-Gordon credited her corps of assistants for their contributions to the success of the New York branch of Lucile Ltd. Many of these assistants' drawings were published in the press and signed "Lucile", though occasionally the signature of the artist, such as Molyneux, appeared. It was general practice for couture houses to use professional artists to execute drawings of designs as they were being created, as well as of the artist's own ideas for each season's output and for individual clients. These drawings were overseen by Lucy Duff-Gordon, who often critiqued them, adding notes, instructions, dates, and sometimes her own signature or initials, indicating she approved the design.


title: Lucy, Lady Duff-Gordon

text: Like many couturiers, Lucy Duff-Gordon designed principally on the human form. Her surviving personal sketchbooks indicate her limited technical ability as a sketch artist, but a skill at recording colour. Surviving Lucile Ltd sketches reveal numerous artists of varying talent levels, and these are often mis-attributed to herself. Howard Greer admitted in his autobiography that the sketches he and his colleagues executed were often confused interpretations of the Lucile style that did not match their employer's vision. Moreover, he claimed customers were not always pleased by the actual dresses created from the sketches he and the other assistants submitted.


title: Lucy, Lady Duff-Gordon

text: Unprecedented for a leading couturière, Lucy Duff-Gordon promoted her collections journalistically. In addition to a weekly syndicated fashion page for the Hearst newspaper syndicate (1910–22), she wrote monthly columns for "Harper's Bazaar" and "Good Housekeeping" (1912–22). A Hearst writer ghost wrote the newspaper page after 1918, but the designer herself penned the "Good Housekeeping" and "Harper's Bazaar" features throughout their duration, although the responsibility of producing a regular piece proved difficult, and she missed several deadlines. Lucile fashions also appeared regularly in "Vogue", "Femina", "Les Modes", "L'art et la Mode", and other leading fashion magazines (1910–22). Along with Hearst publications, Lucile contributed to "Vanity Fair", "Dress", "The Illustrated London News", "The London Magazine", "Pearson's Magazine", and "Munsey's".


title: Lucy, Lady Duff-Gordon

text: In addition to her career as a couturière, costumier, journalist, and pundit, Lucy Duff-Gordon took significant advantage of opportunities for commercial endorsement, lending her name to advertising for brassieres, perfume, shoes, and other luxury apparel and beauty items. Among the most adventurous of her licensing ventures were a two-season, lower-priced, mail-order fashion line for Sears, Roebuck & Co. (1916–17), which promoted her clothing in special de luxe catalogues, and a contract to design interiors for limousines and town cars for the Chalmers Motor Co., later Chrysler Corporation (1917).


title: Lucy, Lady Duff-Gordon

text: In 1912, Lucy Duff-Gordon travelled to America on business in connection with the New York branch of Lucile Ltd. She and her husband, Sir Cosmo, booked first class passage on the ocean liner under the alias "Mr. and Mrs. Morgan". Her secretary, Laura Mabel Francatelli, nicknamed "Franks", accompanied the couple.


title: Lucy, Lady Duff-Gordon

text: On 14 April, at 11:40 pm the "Titanic" struck an iceberg and began to sink. During the evacuation, the Duff-Gordons and Francatelli escaped in Lifeboat No. 1. Although the boat was designed to hold 40 people, it was lowered with only 12 people aboard, seven of them male crew members.


title: Lucy, Lady Duff-Gordon

text: Some time after the "Titanic" sank, while afloat in Lifeboat No. 1, Lucy Duff-Gordon reportedly commented to her secretary, "There is your beautiful nightdress gone." A fireman, annoyed by her comment, replied that while the couple could replace their property, he and the other crew members had lost everything in the sinking. Sir Cosmo then offered each of the men £5 (equivalent to £ in ) to aid them until they received new assignments. While on the RMS "Carpathia", the Cunard liner that rescued "Titanic"'s survivors, Sir Cosmo presented the men from Lifeboat No. 1 with cheques drawn on his bank, Coutts. This action later spawned gossip that the Duff-Gordons had bribed their lifeboat's crew not to return to save swimmers out of fear the vessel would be swamped.


title: Lucy, Lady Duff-Gordon

text: These rumours were fuelled by the tabloid press in the United States and, eventually, in the United Kingdom. On 17 May, Sir Cosmo Duff-Gordon testified at the London hearings of the British Board of Trade inquiry into the disaster. On 20 May, Lady Duff-Gordon took the stand. The couple's testimony attracted the largest crowds during the inquiry.


title: Lucy, Lady Duff-Gordon

text: While Sir Cosmo faced tough criticism during cross-examination, his wife had it slightly easier. Dressed in black, with a large, veiled hat, she told the court she remembered little about what happened in the lifeboat on the night of the sinking, due to seasickness, and she could not recall specific conversations. Lawyers did not seem to have pressed her very hard. Lucy Duff-Gordon noted that for the rest of her husband's life he was brokenhearted over the negative coverage by the “yellow press", during his cross-examination at the inquiry. The final report by the inquiry determined that the Duff-Gordons did not deter the crew from any attempt at rescue through bribery or any other method of coercion.


title: Lucy, Lady Duff-Gordon

text: In 2012 a box of documents and letters concerning the Titanic sinking belonging to the Duff-Gordons was rediscovered at the London office of Veale Wasbrough Vizards, the legal firm that merged with Tweedies, which had represented the couple. Among the papers was an inventory of the possessions Lucy Duff Gordon had lost, the total value listed as £3,208 3s 6d. One letter detailed what she wore when leaving the ship: two dressing gowns "for warmth", a muff, and her "motor hat". A faded grey silk kimono with typical Fortuny-style black cord edging, for some time thought to have been worn by her that night, is now understood to have belonged to her daughter Esme, Countess of Halsbury, as its distinctive print dates the item to post World War I. An apron said to have been worn by Francatelli can be seen at the Maritime Museum in Liverpool, and her life-jacket was sold, along with correspondence about her experiences in the disaster, at Christie's auction house, London, in 2007.


title: Lucy, Lady Duff-Gordon

text: The "Titanic" episode is one of the most prominent aspects of Lucy Duff-Gordon's life, thanks partly to motion pictures. The films, however, portrayed her without great attention to accuracy. She has been portrayed by Harriette Johns in "A Night to Remember" (1958); by Rosalind Ayres in James Cameron's epic "Titanic" (1997); and by Sylvestra Le Touzel in the British miniseries "Titanic" (2012). She is also a key character in the novel "The Dressmaker", by Kate Alcott, which portrays both the sinking of the Titanic and the negative publicity that followed for the Duff-Gordons.


title: Lucy, Lady Duff-Gordon

text: Lucy Duff-Gordon had another close call three years after surviving the "Titanic", when she booked passage aboard the final voyage of the RMS "Lusitania". It was reported in the press that she cancelled her trip due to illness. The "Lusitania" was sunk by a German torpedo on 7 May 1915.


title: Lucy, Lady Duff-Gordon

text: In 1917, Lucy Duff-Gordon lost the New York Court of Appeals case of "Wood v. Lucy, Lady Duff-Gordon", in which Judge Benjamin N. Cardozo established precedent in the realm of contract law when he held the designer to a contract that assigned the sole right to market her professional name to her advertising agent, Otis F. Wood, despite the fact that the contract lacked explicit consideration for her promise. Cardozo noted that, "A promise may be lacking, and yet the whole writing may be 'instinct with an obligation'" and, if so, "there is a contract." 222 N.Y. 88, 118 N.E. 214 (1917).


title: Lucy, Lady Duff-Gordon

text: Although the term "creator of fashions" was part of the tagline in 'Lucile's' columns for the Hearst papers, some observers have claimed that Cardozo's tone revealed a certain disdain for her position in the world of fashion. Others accept that he was merely echoing language used by the defendant in her own submissions to the court as well as in her publicity.


title: Lucy, Lady Duff-Gordon

text: Lucy Duff-Gordon's connection to her design empire began to disintegrate following a restructuring of Lucile, Ltd in 1918–19. An acrimonious battle emerged in the press, culminating in her public acknowledgement that many Lucile dresses were not designed by her. Lucy Duff-Gordon's autobiography acknowledges that this had been the case since at least 1911.


title: Lucy, Lady Duff-Gordon

text: By September 1922, she had ceased designing for the company, which effectively closed. A completely new 'Lucile' was formed, using the same premises in Paris, and different designs, but it gradually failed. Meanwhile, its founder (who continued to be known as 'Lucile') worked from private premises designing personally for individual clients. She was briefly associated with the firm of Reville, Ltd., maintained a ready-to-wear shop of her own and lent her name to a wholesale operation in America.


title: Lucy, Lady Duff-Gordon

text: Lucy Duff-Gordon also continued as a fashion columnist and critic after her design career ended, contributing to London's "Daily Sketch" and "Daily Express" (1922–1930), and she penned her best-selling autobiography "Discretions and Indiscretions" (1932).


title: Lucy, Lady Duff-Gordon

text: Lady Duff-Gordon died of breast cancer, complicated by pneumonia, in a Putney, London nursing home in 1935, aged 71. The date of her death, 20 April, was the fourth anniversary of her husband's death.


title: Lucy, Lady Duff-Gordon

text: In addition to her mark on culture, history, and the law, there has been a resurgence of interest in her work as a designer. She originated the fashion component of her sister Elinor Glyn's 'It girl' concept.


title: Trihexyphenidyl

text: Trihexyphenidyl (THP, benzhexol, trihex, marketed as Artane and others) is an antispasmodic drug used to treat stiffness, tremors, spasms, and poor muscle control. It is an agent of the antimuscarinic class and is often used in management of Parkinson's disease. It was approved by the FDA for the treatment of Parkinson's in the US in 2003.


title: Trihexyphenidyl

text: Trihexyphenidyl is used for the symptomatic treatment of Parkinson's disease in mono and combination therapy. It is active in postencephalitic, arteriosclerotic, and idiopathic forms. The drug is also commonly used to treat extrapyramidal side effects occurring during antipsychotic treatment. It reduces the frequency and duration of oculogyric crises as well as of dyskinetic movements and spastic contractions. Trihexyphenidyl may improve psychotic depression and mental inertia frequently associated with Parkinson's disease and symptomatic problems caused by antipsychotic treatment.


title: Trihexyphenidyl

text: The drug cannot cure Parkinson's disease, but may provide substantial alleviation of symptoms. An estimated 50–75% of people with Parkinson's disease will react positively and experience a 20–30% symptomatic improvement. To increase therapeutic activity, trihexyphenidyl is often given concomitantly with levodopa or other antimuscarinic or antihistaminic (e.g. diphenhydramine) agents. Combination therapy with dopamine agonists such as cabergoline is also possible. This is often termed a 'multidimensional approach'. It has also been prescribed for essential tremor and akathisia.


title: Trihexyphenidyl

text: Dose-dependent side effects are frequent, but typically lessen over time as the body adapts to the medication. All of the following symptoms considered, Artane has been shown to dramatically and consistently improve neurologic defects in people aged 16–86 over the course of five years. People who are older or who have psychiatric conditions may become confused or develop delirium. Side effects include but are not limited to:


title: Trihexyphenidyl

text: Trihexyphenidyl is a pregnancy category C drug. It is advised to only use with caution if benefits outweigh risks.


title: Trihexyphenidyl

text: Trihexyphenidyl (THP) and other antiparkinsonian drugs are known to be substances of abuse. This is true both in abusers of other substances and in chronic schizophrenics, the latter being infrequent abusers of other drugs. Trihexyphenidyl mimics an atropine intoxication with mydriasis, dryness of mucous membranes, red face, atonic states of bowels and bladder, and hyperthermia in high doses. Central consequences are agitation, confusion, and hallucinations. An untreated overdose may be fatal, particularly in children. Premortal signs are respiratory depression and cardiac arrest. A specific antagonist is physostigmine which combines a peripheral and a central action. Carbachol can be used to treat atonic bowel and bladder. The vital functions should be monitored and stabilized. It may be necessary to treat hyperthermia with cooling blankets. Clinical case reports have repeatedly shown overdose of trihexyphenidyl alongside other substances.


title: Trihexyphenidyl

text: The exact mechanism of action in parkinsonian syndromes is not precisely understood, but it is known that trihexyphenidyl blocks efferent impulses in parasympathetically innervated structures like smooth muscles (spasmolytic activity), salivary glands, and eyes (mydriasis). In higher doses direct central inhibition of cerebral motor centers may contribute. In very high doses central toxicity as seen in atropine overdose is noted. It binds to the M1 muscarinic receptor and possibly the dopamine receptor. Trihexyphenidyl is rapidly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract. The onset of action is within 1 hour after oral dosing. The peak activity is noted after 2 to 3 hours. The duration of action of one single dose is 6 to 12 hours in a dose dependent manner. It is excreted in the urine, probably as unchanged drug. More precise data in animals and humans have so far not been determined.


title: Trihexyphenidyl

text: Artane, or its generic form Trihexyphenidyl HCL, was approved by the FDA on June 25, 2003 for the clinical use of all types of parkinsonism. However, it has been clinically relevant in trials pertaining to Parkinson's disease since 1949. Artane is an anticholinergic drug which is prescribed by doctors throughout the world. It is also abused, typically in combination with other drugs or delicate pharmaceutical agents. Prisons in Iraq were among the places where abuse was obvious, along with within communities of Iraqi soldiers.


title: Trihexyphenidyl

text: In a 2008 news report, trihexyphenidyl was seen to be used for recreational purposes among Iraqi soldiers and police, among other prescription drugs. The report states that the drugs were taken to relieve combat stress. Although that may be the case for some, others used Artane as a substitute or more intense version of LSD. This was especially prevalent in the 1960s, according to a report in "The New Yorker". Similarly to those in Iraqi forces, some of the appeal was that the individual may retain partial control while under the influence.


title: Trihexyphenidyl

text: The neurologist Oliver Sacks reports using the drug recreationally in the 1960s. He recalled taking "a large dose" knowing full well the drug was intended for people with Parkinson's. More recounts of Dr. Sacks' experiences including experimentation with mescaline, psilocybin, LSD, and probably DMT have been compared in his book "Hallucinations".


title: Trihexyphenidyl

text: During the 1970s, trihexyphenidyl(trade name Parkan) was the most popular recreationally used prescription drug in Hungary.


title: Trihexyphenidyl

text: In the first way, the initial 2-(1-piperidino)propiophenone is synthesized in turn by the aminomethylation of acetophenone using paraformaldehyde and piperidine in a Mannich reaction. In the second step the 2-(1-piperidino)propiophenone is reacted with cyclohexylmagnesium bromide in a Grignard reaction.


title: Rolex Daytona

text: The Rolex Cosmograph Daytona is a mechanical chronograph wristwatch designed to meet the needs of racing drivers by measuring elapsed time and calculating average speed. Its name refers to Daytona, Florida, where racing flourished in the early 20th century. It has been manufactured by Rolex since 1963 in three distinct generations (or series); the second series was introduced in 1988, and the third in 2000. While cosmetically similar, the second series introduced a self-winding movement (the first series is hand-wound), and the third series brought manufacture of the movement in-house to Rolex.


title: Rolex Daytona

text: The first series included an "exotic" variant dial now known as the Rolex "Paul Newman" Daytona, named after the famed actor, who received the watch as a gift from his wife, Joanne Woodward, and popularized it by wearing it consistently while pursuing his racing career. Years later, the actor's watch, which had been gifted to his daughter's boyfriend in 1984, was sold in 2017 at the Phillips New York "Winning Icons" auction for a record (for wristwatches) $17.8 million.


title: Rolex Daytona

text: The current Cosmograph Daytona is equipped with a tachymetric scale, a sweep seconds hand for reading to 1/8 of a second, and elapsed-time hours and minute displays. Its Rolex calibre 4130 has the particularity of using a vertical (rather than lateral) clutch to activate the chronograph, and was engineered to feature a reduced number of components for greater reliability. The minute and hour systems of this series is simplified with one single mechanism placed on a side of the movement (used to consist of two mechanisms placed on both sides of the movement). With a 40mm case, it is available in a variety of materials.


title: Rolex Daytona

text: There have been three series of the Cosmograph Daytona. Prior to the release of the "Daytona", Rolex produced chronographs using movements sourced from outside manufacturers housed in conventional and, starting in the 1940s, Oyster cases. Rolex introduced a more modern chronograph in 1955, designated Reference 6234, and manufactured approximately 500 per year until 1961, the year it was discontinued. The dial of Reference 6234 was not marked "Cosmograph" or "Daytona". The Reference (model) number is marked on the side of the case at the 12 o'clock position, where it is hidden under the strap lugs. Reference 6234 has three smaller sub-dials, to mark the passage of seconds up to 60 seconds (at the 9 o'clock position), minutes up to 30 minutes (at the 3 o'clock position), and hours up to 12 hours (at the 6 o'clock position); all of these match the color of the main dial. It also featured a tachymeter scale on the outer chapter ring, and a telemeter chronograph scale on the inner chapter ring. Reference 6234 was succeeded by Reference 6238, which dropped the telemeter scale and updated its appearance to include many features that would be adopted for its successor Reference 6239.


title: Rolex Daytona

text: Rolex became the official timekeeper of the Daytona International Speedway in 1962, and to mark the occasion, Reference 6234 was replaced with Cosmograph Reference 6239, introduced in 1963 as the first chronograph from Rolex nicknamed "Daytona". However, the original Reference 6239 did not include "Daytona" on the dial (and was in fact nicknamed "Le Mans" for the famous 24 Hours of Le Mans race). In addition to the chronograph features, the wristwatch featured a bezel engraved with a tachymeter, as the watch was intended for racing drivers.


title: Rolex Daytona

text: The original series, produced in small quantities from circa 1963 to the later 1980s, had a four-digit model or reference number, and had a manual wind movement. The movement is essential to distinguish the original series from the later two series, as the other two movements are self-wound. These first versions with four-digit model numbers are the rarest of the Daytonas. The first version, Reference 6239 featured plain pushers (timing buttons) and did not have the "Oyster" features to enhance water resistance, which include a screw-down winding crown and screw-down timing buttons. Reference 6240 introduced these "Oyster" features to the Cosmograph Daytona in 1965, but the "Oyster" Daytonas were manufactured in parallel with other models which retained the plain pushers until 1972. Various models of the original series could also be distinguished by different bezel materials.


title: Rolex Daytona

text: The movement used in the original series was a manual wind movement manufactured by Valjoux, which was designated Calibre 72. It was reworked by Rolex and redesignated as Calibre 722. References 6263 and 6265 (produced from 1970) were Oyster versions. The movement used remained based on the manual-wind Valjoux Calibre 72, but with some refinements, and was called the Rolex Calibre 727. These Daytonas are very rare and very collectible. The movement has proven to be exceptionally reliable and accurate. In fact, the Cal. 727 was certified as a chronometer in some cases.


title: Rolex Daytona

text: Cosmetically, original series Daytonas carried sub-dials in a single color that contrasted with the color of the main dial (i.e., both variants: a black dial with white sub-dials, and a white dial with black sub-dials), in contrast with Reference 6238, which retained a monotone scheme and a tachymeter within the crystal. However, rare "albino" variants of the Daytona are known to exist where sub-dial colors match the main dial like Reference 6238. The first known "Albino Daytona" was owned by Eric Clapton. The word "Daytona" was added below the 12 o'clock "Rolex Cosmograph" signature in 1964, then moved to a position above the 6 o'clock (hours) sub-dial by 1967. The first of the "exotic" dials (later named "Paul Newman" dials) were introduced in 1965.


title: Rolex Daytona

text: The Rolex Daytona was inspired by racecar drivers and enthusiasts, most notably, iconic actor Paul Newman, who reportedly wore his Daytona every day after he was gifted one by his wife. Newman typically wore it on a leather military strap, and was photographed wearing it in this fashion for the 1972 book "Paul Newman - Les images d'une vie". The caseback bore a custom engraving: "DRIVE CAREFULLY ME". By 2005, Newman had replaced it with a Reference 6263 Daytona with a conventional dial, also a gift, bearing the inscription "DRIVE SLOWLY, JOANNE". The second Daytona was reportedly purchased in 1984, which prompted Newman to gift the first Daytona to his daughter's boyfriend, James Cox, that year.


title: Rolex Daytona

text: This original series was in very short supply by the early 1990s, which led to a second series to meet demand, introduced in 1988 with Reference 16520. The second series uses a modified automatic winding movement, originally manufactured by Zenith for their "El Primero" watch, designated by Zenith as Calibre 3019PHC. The movement was originally designed in 1969 after development commenced in 1962 and remains the highest VPH (vibrations per hour) mass-produced chronograph movement on the market at 36,000 VPH. After Zenith was sold to the American company of the same name in 1971, the company discontinued production of mechanical movements in 1975. However, Charles Vermot, a senior engineer for Martel Watch Company (where the El Primero was made, and which had been acquired in 1959 by Zenith) had, over a period of months, secretly disassembled the tooling for the El Primero and stored it in the factory attic after the closure had been announced in 1975.


title: Rolex Daytona

text: After Zenith Radio resold Zenith in 1978, Ebel decided to purchase some unassembled Calibre 3019PHC movements in 1981, which Zenith assembled out of leftover spare parts. Rolex expressed interest in using the 3019PHC to power a new series of Daytonas, but would not award the ten-year contract to Zenith until they could resume production of new movements. Production resumed in 1986 after Vermot showed company leaders where he had saved the tooling and production notes. Rolex modified the movement by reducing the beats to 28,800 VPH to increase the power reserve, and made a few other changes, retaining only 50% of the original parts. The modified movement was designated Calibre 4030 by Rolex.


title: Rolex Daytona

text: The second series Daytonas used a sapphire crystal (in lieu of the acrylic crystal of the original series); the case diameter grew from on the original to for the second series; the dials were now glossy; and the sub-dials were now largely the same color as the dial, with an outer track in a contrasting color. These later series Daytonas, pre-dating in-house movements, were accurate and reliable; they were produced in limited quantities from 1988 to 2000.


title: Rolex Daytona

text: The second series uses a five-digit Reference number. The "Chairman Daytona" was created in 1991 as a variant of Reference 16528; it has a galvanised blue dial and the tachymeter markings go to 400 units/hr. Two second series Daytonas were sold with leather straps: Reference 16518 (yellow gold) and 16519 (white gold).


title: Rolex Daytona

text: The third series, introduced in 2000, has a movement made by Rolex (designated Calibre 4130) and a six-digit model number, Reference 116520. Externally, the third series may be distinguished by close examination of the dial; the two sub-dials at the 3 and 9 o'clock positions are now slightly above an imaginary line drawn between the 3 and 9 o'clock chapters, and the running seconds sub-dial has been relocated from the 9 o'clock position to the 6 o'clock position.


title: Rolex Daytona

text: The six-digit Daytonas are certified, self-winding chronometers with chronograph functions. Rolex has sponsored the 24 Hours of Daytona sports car race, which became known as Rolex 24 at Daytona, from 1991, and named its chronograph watch after the race. Stainless steel variants of the Daytona remain very difficult to acquire, and a waiting list exists for interested purchasers of new watches, as production is limited to a few thousand per year.


title: Rolex Daytona

text: The rarest Daytonas are those with what has been called the "exotic" or "Paul Newman" dial. It is said that Newman wore one of these watches, given to him by his wife Joanne Woodward when he took up automobile racing, from 1972. While other sources agree it was a gift from Woodward, they assert the watch was presented to Newman earlier, during the filming of "Winning" in 1968 or 1969. It is estimated that only one in twenty Daytonas were equipped with the "exotic" dial because they were slow to sell, and that only 2,000 to 3,000 such "exotic" dial variants were ever manufactured.


title: Rolex Daytona

text: Its distinguishing features are subtle. First, a Paul Newman dial must be in an original series watch (with a four-digit Reference number), installed by Rolex Geneva as original. All of the original series had acrylic domed crystals. In addition, the sub-dials of a "Paul Newman" Daytona have block markers instead of plain lines, have crosshairs across each sub-dial meeting at the centre, and the seconds sub-dial (placed at 9:00) is marked at the 15, 30, 45 and 60 positions, whereas a normal Daytona seconds sub-dial is marked at 20, 40 and 60. The dial may or may not have the word "Daytona" written on the dial above the hour sub-dial located at 6:00. The dial came in four color and layout combinations, and was installed as an option by Rolex on the Daytona line of watches in the original series. The watch went out of production in the early 1970s, and Rolex does not supply any replacement version of it. The outer track of the main dial is finished in a contrasting color that matches the color of the sub-dials. The typeface used on the sub-dials is different as well. Since the dials were made by Singer for Rolex, there are contemporary watches from other manufacturers which feature the same "exotic" dial.


title: Rolex Daytona

text: The earliest "Paul Newman" Daytonas are Reference 6239 model watches, which use a black or white dial, and are known as three-color watches, as they have the name "Daytona" and hashmarks on the outer track painted in red. They were succeeded by the Reference 6241 watches, which replaced the engraved stainless steel bezel with a black acrylic bezel. References 6262 (steel bezel) and 6264 (black bezel) were the last of the three-color watches as Rolex began to transition to Calibre 727, and the final References 6265 (steel bezel) and 6263 (black bezel) used a two-color dial (where the outer track hashes no longer are painted in red) with an "Oyster" case, featuring a screw-down crown and pushers. Examples of the Reference 6240 Paul Newman have been postulated to exist, which would be either two- or three-color dials. A similar dial was used in the prototype Rolex Yachtmaster, of which three examples are known to exist.


title: Rolex Daytona

text: In 1984, Paul Newman gave his first Rolex Daytona to James Cox, then the boyfriend of his daughter, Nell Newman. Cox, who put the watch up for auction in 2017, said that Newman gave him the watch in 1984 as a gift after offering to repair the treehouse at the Newman home in Westport, Connecticut. Woodward bought Newman a new watch in 1984, and he gave the Rolex Daytona to Cox.


title: Rolex Daytona

text: The original Daytona watches were not in demand when produced, and were relatively inexpensive ($210 + tax when introduced), but later became highly collectible and fetched high prices at auction. In 1988, a stainless "Paul Newman" Daytona (Ref. 6241) was listed in an auction catalog with an estimated closing price of $3,000 to $3,500. In 2013, during a special Rolex Daytona-themed auction held in Geneva on 10 November, Christie's sold a rare Rolex Daytona Ref. 6263 in steel, manufactured in 1969, for (well over one million US dollars).


title: Rolex Daytona

text: On 26 October 2017, a Rolex Daytona (Ref. 6239) watch formerly owned by the actor Paul Newman was sold for US$17.75 million in New York, making it the second most expensive wristwatch and the third most expensive watch ever sold at auction (as of July 2020).