title: English Education Act 1835

text: In 1861, Mill in the last chapter ('On the Government of Dependencies') of his 'Considerations on Representative Government' restated the doctrine Macaulay had advanced a quarter of a century earlier – the moral imperative to improve subject peoples, which justified reforms by the rulers of which the ruled were as yet unaware of the need for,


title: English Education Act 1835

text: "There are ... [conditions of society] in which, there being no spring of spontaneous improvement in the people themselves, their almost only hope of making any steps in advance [to 'a higher civilisation'] depends on the chances of a good despot. Under a native despotism, a good despot is a rare and transitory accident: but when the dominion they are under is that of a more civilised people, that people ought to be able to supply it constantly. The ruling country ought to be able to do for its subjects all that could be done by a succession of absolute monarchs guaranteed by irresistible force against the precariousness of tenure attendant on barbarous despotisms, and qualified by their genius to anticipate all that experience has taught to the more advanced nation. Such is the ideal rule of a free people over a barbarous or semi-barbarous one. We need not expect to see that ideal realised; but unless some approach to it is, the rulers are guilty of a dereliction of the highest moral trust which can devolve upon a nation: and if they do not even aim at it, they are selfish usurpers, on a par in criminality with any of those whose ambition and rapacity have sported from age to age with the destiny of masses of mankind"


title: English Education Act 1835

text: but Mill went on to warn of the difficulties this posed in practice; difficulties which whatever the merits of the Act of 1835 do not seem to have suggested themselves to Macaulay:


title: English Education Act 1835

text: It is always under great difficulties, and very imperfectly, that a country can be governed by foreigners; even when there is no disparity, in habits and ideas, between the rulers and the ruled. Foreigners do not feel with the people. They cannot judge, by the light in which a thing appears to their own minds, or the manner in which it affects their feelings, how it will affect the feelings or appear to the minds of the subject population. What a native of the country, of average practical ability, knows as it were by instinct, they have to learn slowly, and after all imperfectly, by study and experience. The laws, the customs, the social relations, for which they have to legislate, instead of being familiar to them from childhood, are all strange to them. For most of their detailed knowledge they must depend on the information of natives; and it is difficult for them to know whom to trust. They are feared, suspected, probably disliked by the population; seldom sought by them except for interested purposes; and they are prone to think the servilely submissive are the trustworthy. Their danger is of despising the natives; that of the natives is of disbelieving that anything the strangers do can be intended for their good.


title: Music of Dune (2021 film)

text: The music for the 2021 American film "Dune" was composed, conducted, and produced by Hans Zimmer. Zimmer wrote several soundtracks of music for the film, including for its as-yet-unreleased sequel, and heavily utilized choir—specifically female voices—percussion, and strings in the score's instrumentation, as well as acoustic and wind instruments. New, hybrid instruments were fabricated to conceive the "otherworldly" tonal desert sounds heard in the film. The music has been described as the composer's most "unorthodox" and experimental yet. In addition, the score for the film earned Zimmer his second Academy Award for Best Original Score. When "Dune: Part Two" was announced for a 2023 theatrical release, it was revealed that Zimmer had begun work on the film's music and had over an hour of music to assist the filmmakers in planning the film.


title: Music of Dune (2021 film)

text: From the very beginning, film director Denis Villeneuve hoped to reunite with Zimmer for the project, based on their shared passion for the novel. Though initially approached by longtime collaborator Christopher Nolan to compose for his then-upcoming film "Tenet", Zimmer ultimately chose to work on "Dune", as the book was a "favorite" of his during his childhood and teen years. He last collaborated with Villeneuve, and editor Joe Walker, on "Blade Runner 2049". In March 2019, Warner Bros. announced that the composer would be scoring the film.


title: Music of Dune (2021 film)

text: Zimmer and Villeneuve both "agreed that the music would need to have a spirituality to it...a sanctified quality...that would elevate the soul and have the effect that only sacred music can". Zimmer approached the score's composition with a "fresh" perspective, "just from the book", having never seen the 1984 film adaptation by David Lynch. He built around the concept of "Dune" being a different civilization, and spent "months and months creating new instruments" to accompany that feeling, "defining, creating, and seeking new sounds, pushing the envelope". The composer augmented human voices "to sound eerie and other-worldly" for the score, and based it on mainly female voices due to the shared sentiment between himself and Villeneuve that the "power of the human voice" remains constant in any civilization, and that "the female characters in the film drive the story".


title: Music of Dune (2021 film)

text: Three soundtrack albums for the film were released through WaterTower Music: "The Dune Sketchbook (Music from the Soundtrack)", "Dune (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack)", and "The Art and Soul of Dune", on September 3, September 17, and October 22 respectively.


title: Music of Dune (2021 film)

text: Villeneuve chose British rock band Pink Floyd's "Eclipse", from their 1973 album "The Dark Side of the Moon", as the "key musical element" in the first theatrical trailer released on September 9, 2020. Zimmer subsequently rearranged the track and recorded a cover version performed by a 32-piece ensemble of session singers from Los Angeles. "Variety" called the choice a "surprising" one, given that "trailers are not usually scored by the film's actual composer, much less a specially tailored cover of a classic rock song".


title: Music of Dune (2021 film)

text: Following the onset of the Covid-19 pandemic, Zimmer told the publication in a June 2020 interview that "Working remotely is horrible, but I've done it. And if we have to do it like this, we'll do it like this." Recording sessions for the track were conducted in full compliance with Covid-19 protocols at the composer's Remote Control Productions studio in Santa Monica. Zimmer joined in remotely via FaceTime. Under the direction of Edie Lehmann Boddicker, the singers gathered four at a time, in "separate cubicles, divided by glass", over the course of eight sessions held earlier in the summer. Twelve performed the lyric lines, while the full group performed the choral parts. The entire song was recorded, but only thirteen lines were used in the three-minute long trailer. Boddicker commented that "[Zimmer] wanted to pay homage to the original, very back-phrased sound, a little spaced-out, so the vocals would not sound urgent. There's a kind of joy happening in the track, a lot of hopefulness. It's not despondent, just very peaceful and sounding not of this planet."


title: Music of Dune (2021 film)

text: Zimmer's version—spanning a runtime of one minute and 36 seconds—was released as a digital single on October 9. It has not been included on any soundtrack album released so far and is not featured in the final film.


title: Music of Dune (2021 film)

text: The Dune Sketchbook (Music from the Soundtrack) is the first soundtrack album released for the film, on September 3, 2021, in physical and digital formats. It contains "extended, immersive musical explorations" of works from the film's score, and was released in Dolby Atmos and Standard configurations, like its parent. The fifth track, "Paul's Dream", was one of two digital singles released on streaming platforms on July 22 prior to the album's drop. Zimmer announced their release via his Instagram account that same day. Originally heard in the film's theatrical trailer, the track, which features "a striking female voice singing", accompanies an "intense dream [sequence]" in the movie that Paul Atreides has "about his future and the future of Arrakis". According to "The Nerdist", the track shares the "layers and intensity" of the scene and "culminat[es] in that beautiful roar from the singer". "Classic FM" described the seven-minute long piece as "begin[ning] with whisperings and soft vocals, before building to a spine-tingling, imposing climax".


title: Music of Dune (2021 film)

text: A limited pressing of 3,000 copies of a special triple-vinyl edition of the sketchbook soundtrack, featuring artwork by Greg Ruth, was released on October 13. The colors of each vinyl—green, orange, and brown—are representative of the three key planets of "Dune": Arrakis, Caladan, and Giedi Prime.


title: Music of Dune (2021 film)

text: Dune (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) is the second soundtrack album for the film. Zimmer was inspired to look at the film's music "in a different way", "to take the audience on [a] journey beyond the movie", and felt it "must be available via an immersive technology that utilizes spatial audio" in order "to fully showcase" the "unique sounds" of the soundtrack. The album was his first to "wholeheartedly embrace" Dolby Atmos Music listening technology. According to the composer, the sound "wraps itself around you in a way that I haven't ever experienced before". The eighth track, "Ripples in the Sand", was the second of two digital singles—released to streaming platforms on July 22—that preceded the album's drop. "ClassicFM" described the track as having "a pacy, foreboding start" before reintroducing the "distinct vocals" heard previously on "Paul's Dream". The complete score was digitally released on September 17, 2021. Vocals were produced by Loire Cotler. The score was also nominated for Best Score Soundtrack for Visual Media at the 2022 Grammy Awards.


title: Music of Dune (2021 film)

text: After a special IMAX previewing of the first ten minutes of "Dune", "Slashfilm"s Vanessa Armstrong wrote that the score "brought home" the "alienness" of Arrakis as much as "the landscape and the costuming". Rafael Motamayor, in his film review for "Inverse", commented that "Zimmer delivers yet another rousing score that mixes grandiose and operatic sounds with a surprising rock style, lending "Dune" a unique sonic palette to match its visuals". "ClassicFM" called the score an "otherworldly, Saharan-esque soundtrack, with stirring vocals and electrifying strings".


title: Music of Dune (2021 film)

text: The Art and Soul of Dune is the third soundtrack album attached to the film. It contains "uniquely crafted versions of the film's main themes curated by Zimmer" to accompany a behind-the-scenes companion book written by executive producer Tanya Lapointe, titled "Insight Editions' The Art and Soul of Dune". Zimmer was inspired to compose a second score after viewing the book's material—it was the first time he had ever written original music for a book. The album was made available for free streaming and digital download on October 22, 2021, in conjunction with the film's theatrical US release date.


title: The Syndicate

text: The Syndicate is a British television drama series. It was written by Kay Mellor and is broadcast on BBC One. It sees five members of a betting syndicate win the lottery. Each series follows a different syndicate. The first series is set in a Leeds supermarket; the second, a public hospital in Bradford; the third, a crumbling stately home near Scarborough; and the fourth is set between a dog kennel in Yorkshire and Monaco.


title: The Syndicate

text: The theme tune for the first two series of the show is "All or Nothing", by the Small Faces. For the third series, a cover version of the same song performed by Scars on 45 was used. The score is composed by guitarist Hal Lindes from Dire Straits. The theme tune for Season four of the show is a cover of "The Gambler" performed by David Nowakowski featuring Rising Fever. Series 4 premiered on BBC One on 30 March 2021.


title: The Syndicate

text: In the first series the syndicate consists of workmates in a small local supermarket. It was written by Kay Mellor. Series 1 began on BBC One on 27 March 2012 and consisted of 5 episodes.


title: The Syndicate

text: The second series aired in 2013 on BBC One. It revolves around another syndicate in a similar situation. It was written by Kay Mellor. The series looks at a syndicate involving workers at a public hospital in Bradford, Yorkshire. Series 2 began on BBC One on 19 March 2013 and consisted of 6 episodes.


title: The Syndicate

text: BBC One renewed "The Syndicate" for a third series of six episodes, and the first episode was broadcast on 2 June 2015. This series was filmed in Yorkshire in 2014. The BBC announced the details of the third series of the programme on 21 October 2014. Actor/comedian Lenny Henry stars in the series, which chronicles the lottery win of a staff syndicate at a crumbling stately home. Lynda Bellingham was due to play the role of a solicitor, in a role written especially for her by Kay Mellor, but she died shortly before filming commenced.


title: The Syndicate

text: On 1 February 2013, it was announced that ABC had ordered a pilot for a US remake. It was renamed "Lucky 7" and written by David Zabel and Jason Richman. "Lucky 7" was cancelled on 4 October 2013 after only two episodes were broadcast, due to extremely low ratings.


title: Krystal (restaurant)

text: Krystal is an American regional fast food restaurant chain headquartered in Dunwoody, Georgia, with restaurants in the Southeastern United States and Puerto Rico. It is known for its small, square hamburgers, called sliders in places other than the Southeast, with steamed-in onions. Krystal moved its headquarters from Chattanooga, Tennessee, where it had been based since 1932, to the Atlanta suburb of Dunwoody in early 2013.


title: Krystal (restaurant)

text: Founded on October 24, 1932, in Chattanooga, Tennessee, during the first years of the Great Depression, entrepreneur Rody Davenport Jr. and partner J. Glenn Sherrill theorized that even in a severe economic upheaval, "People would patronize a restaurant that was kept spotlessly clean, where they could get a good meal with courteous service at the lowest possible price." The restaurant's first customer, French Jenkins, ordered six "Krystals" and a cup of coffee, all for the price of 35¢, thus proving their theory true.


title: Krystal (restaurant)

text: Davenport had visited Chicago's White Castle restaurants, taking notes of successful features, before setting forth on his own venture. Davenport and Sherrill set up the first Krystal at the corner of 7th and Cherry Streets in Chattanooga. The first Krystal was a modular building constructed in Chicago and shipped to Chattanooga for final installation. The oldest Krystal still in operation is located on Cherokee Boulevard in Chattanooga's Northshore District. Krystal is the seventh or eighth-oldest hamburger chain in the United States (the oldest being White Castle) and the oldest in the South.


title: Krystal (restaurant)

text: Regarding the origins of the Krystal name, company legend states that Davenport and his wife were riding down a mountain road when Mrs. Mary McGee Davenport saw a lawn ornament in the shape of a crystal ball. While gazing at the lawn ornament, Mrs. Davenport commented that since Davenport and Sherrill felt cleanliness was a cornerstone of the concept, they should name the restaurant Crystal for "clean as a crystal" - yet with a "K" to add a little twist. Krystal's restaurants through the years often sported a crystal ball on the top.


title: Krystal (restaurant)

text: From the early 1930s through the early 1960s, the chain served much of its food not in take-out containers but on inexpensive porcelain dishes with the "Krystal" moniker. The waiters and waitresses wore white uniforms, and food was offered through counter service. In the 1950s, Krystal opened its first drive-through window - which most locations maintain today. A 2013 study of seven fast food franchises found that service at Krystal drive-throughs was the slowest, with an average wait time of 218 seconds. It was, however, the most accurate in terms of fulfilling orders.


title: Krystal (restaurant)

text: In the 1950s, cake doughnuts were served as a breakfast and dessert item. From about 1970 until 1986, "bone-in" kettle fried chicken and related sides were offered. These items were sometimes sold from a stand-alone addition to the hamburger restaurants.


title: Krystal (restaurant)

text: DavCo, a division of Krystal, operated Wendy's franchises from the 1960s until 2017, when the franchises were bought back by Wendy's and sold to NPC International. Between 1983 and 1988, DavCo also operated the Po' Folks family restaurant chain.


title: Krystal (restaurant)

text: Krystal restaurants, both company-owned and franchised, operate in Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, South Carolina, and Tennessee. There is a Krystal in West Memphis, Arkansas (directly across the Mississippi River from Memphis, Tennessee). Krystal has also operated several restaurants in Texas over the years. It is often compared to the northern restaurant chain White Castle, and other than the South Central Kentucky and Nashville, Tennessee markets, the two restaurants' market areas do not generally overlap.


title: Krystal (restaurant)

text: Krystal maintained its corporate headquarters in Chattanooga from 1932 to 2013, and was owned by Argonne Capital Group from 2012 and ending in 2020 when Fortress Investment Group LLC and its operating partner, Golden Child Holdings acquired Krystal. In the late 1990s, Krystal emerged from a bankruptcy proceeding and a sale of assets that placed majority ownership outside the heirs of the founding families. Krystal's period of structural change and uncertainty in the late 1990s gave way to a successful rebirth with reported customer satisfaction and an evolving menu. Port Royal Holdings, Inc. owned the chain from 1997 to 2012, expanding the chain to a peak of over 420 locations in 11 states in 2002, before downsizing and closing dozens of locations. Ten new locations were added in 2011, 11 more in 2012–2013, and 25 more were planned for 2014 throughout the Southeast.


title: Krystal (restaurant)

text: Krystal's product line centers on a square hamburger patty slider with a steamed bun, together with diced onions, pickle, and mustard, and collectively called a "Krystal". Small hot dogs called "pups" are also featured menu items. The chain has occasionally expanded its menu to include larger burgers, such as the "Big Angus Burger", a full-size hamburger made of 100% Angus beef.


title: Krystal (restaurant)

text: Krystal is known for a diverse breakfast menu, which includes a made-to-order country breakfast, meat and egg sandwiches, and biscuits, as well as other items. One particularly popular breakfast item is the Scrambler, which includes a layered stack of scrambled eggs, sausage, grits, and cheese served in a styrofoam cup. Other variations of the Scrambler also feature pancakes, sausage gravy, or southwestern-style spices.


title: Krystal (restaurant)

text: In 1998, Krystal introduced the Krystal Chik, a fried chicken breast filet slider served on the signature steamed square bun. Krystal Chiks are extremely popular, along with other chicken, chili, and dessert items. Krystal continues to focus on their core menu products, but is also in the process of redesigning and upgrading their stores to appeal to a mobile and multi-tasking audience.


title: Krystal (restaurant)

text: In the mid-2000s, Krystal tested a prototype for a new high-tech drive-in featuring individual television monitors for ordering and watching television (audio accessed via car stereo), and indoor and outdoor seating areas with multiple big-screen television monitors and free digital jukeboxes.


title: Krystal (restaurant)

text: On January 19, 2020, Krystal filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection, citing "shifting consumer tastes and preferences, growth in labor and commodity costs, increased competition, and unfavorable lease terms" in the filing.


title: Krystal (restaurant)

text: Krystal restaurants were the host of the Krystal Square Off, a competitive eating contest, from 2004 to 2009. The current world record is 103 Krystal burgers consumed in eight minutes by Joey Chestnut, set at the 2007 competition.


title: Teenage Dream (Katy Perry song)

text: "Teenage Dream" is a song by American singer Katy Perry. It was released as the second single from her third studio album of the same name on July 23, 2010. This song was written by Perry, Bonnie McKee, Dr. Luke, Max Martin, and Benny Blanco. McKee describes "Teenage Dream" as a throwback song to the euphoric feelings of being in love as a teenager while Perry described the song as reminiscent of her youth. Musically, "Teenage Dream" is a mid-tempo pop song with a retro sound. It is styled in the genres of power pop and electropop, while taking influence from other genres such as disco and pop rock. Perry starts the song in a high-pitched voice while her vocals grow stronger as the song progresses. Lyrically, "Teenage Dream" discusses being with a lover who makes one feel young again.


title: Teenage Dream (Katy Perry song)

text: Critics were initially divided about the song at release. However, the song has received retrospective critical acclaim with "Glamour" calling it "one of the best pop songs of all time." The song topped the US "Billboard" Hot 100, becoming Perry's third number-one single on that chart, and her second consecutive number-one single after "California Gurls". It also reached number one in Ireland, New Zealand, and Slovakia. "Teenage Dream" entered the top ten in 13 countries total. "Teenage Dream" has been certified eight times Platinum in the United States, six times Platinum in Australia, four times Platinum in Canada, and Gold or Platinum in eight additional countries.


title: Teenage Dream (Katy Perry song)

text: A music video for the song was filmed in various locations around Perry's hometown in Santa Barbara, California and was directed by Yoann Lemoine (a.k.a. Woodkid). The video showcases Perry being in love with her high school boyfriend. Perry has performed the song on "Saturday Night Live", the 2010 Teen Choice Awards, 53rd Annual Grammy Awards, the Super Bowl XLIX halftime show, and in every one of her concert tours since the California Dreams Tour. "Teenage Dream" was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance, becoming Perry's third nomination in the category. The song has been covered numerous times, appearing on "American Idol", "The Voice", and "Glee".


title: Teenage Dream (Katy Perry song)

text: When Perry and McKee first met in 2004, they both were "really into "Lolita"" and "had a mutual fascination with the adolescent state of mind." They explored the themes in their first records: Perry wrote "One of the Boys", which touched on the early stages of discovering that boys could be more than friends, whereas McKee wrote "Confessions of a Teenage Girl", which was about using sexual power to one's advantage. For the "Teenage Dream" sessions, Perry and McKee had a "forever young" idea in mind. Perry at first wrote a lyric about Peter Pan, but they later deemed it as "too young" since "we wanted it to have more edge, more sex." Another version included the lines "And the next thing you know / You're a mom in a minivan", which made them laugh uncontrollably for an hour. There was a final version that was based around the metaphor of "trying me on" comparing clothes to sex, in a similar manner to Madonna's 1985 single "Dress You Up". It was rejected by the producers, as McKee explained, "Luke always makes us 'Benny Proof' everything. He says that if Benny doesn't get it, America won't get it." Blanco showed them the Teenagers's 2007 single "Homecoming" and asked them to write in a similar style. McKee said that "[We] looked at each other with dread, knowing we had to start all over again... We were both so over it we just called it a night."


title: Teenage Dream (Katy Perry song)

text: McKee continued working on the song the following days. She explained, "I thought about my own adolescent years, my own first love. I thought about watching Baz Luhrmann's 'Romeo and Juliet' and putting on a little mini disco ball light and just dreaming of Leo. I thought about me and my friends sitting around at slumber parties in the '90s, giddy even just THINKING about boys... I thought about what Benny said and I listened to the song again, and I was like the Teenagers... that's such a great word, Teenager. It is a very descriptive word; it packs a lot of emotion and imagery into three syllables... I couldn't believe after all of our agonizing over 'youth' themes, that we had overlooked such an obvious one – the teenage condition." The following week, Perry invited McKee, Luke, and Martin to write at her hometown of Santa Barbara, California. McKee tried to approach Luke about her idea, but he was upset about the amount of time he had spent working in the chorus, so he banned them from changing it. They started working on the verses, where Perry had already prepared most of the imagery.


title: Teenage Dream (Katy Perry song)

text: Perry described the process "a very pure moment for me" and continued saying, "[It was] where I started my creative juices. And also it kind of exudes this euphoric feeling because everybody remembers what their teenage dreams were — all the girls that were on your poster walls." After she recorded the vocals, McKee pulled Luke and Martin aside and told them her idea, to which they responded, "Well why didn't you say that in the first place?". The chorus was rewritten, and the line "Skin tight jeans" was taken from the early "trying me on" version. When the final version was finished, McKee said, "We were all so pumped that it had paid off. I remember Max sitting back and saying 'I wish we could bottle this feeling'. It was really magical." Perry commented that even though the song was rewritten many times, she was "so happy to finally get somewhere that we all agreed on" after it was finished. During an interview in June 2010, Perry confirmed "Teenage Dream" as the second single from the album, and said that the song was about "kind of like feeling that way when you were a teenager: really emotional, really invested... It's intense being in love and being a teenager." After confirming that "Teenage Dream" was also the title of the album, she explained that it was a throwback to her teenage years, as she thought back to her youth while contemplating marriage to her boyfriend Russell Brand. She added, "To me, this year is pretty heavy. I am going to be getting married and putting out this record, and there is so much going on that it's nice to think of those young dreams."


title: Teenage Dream (Katy Perry song)

text: "Teenage Dream" is a midtempo love song with a strong beat that follows the retro sound of previous single "California Gurls". It is predominantly a power pop and electropop song, which features influences of disco and pop rock. According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com, by Alfred Music Publishing, the song is written in the key of B major, and moves at a tempo of 120 beats per minute. It starts with the sequence of B–B played by a guitar. These intervals are played on guitar throughout the song, but with the addition of different bass notes from halfway through the first verse, the overall harmony can be heard as E – Gm – Fsus. The general chord progression of the song is made from the progression E - Gm – F. Perry's vocals in the song span from the note of B to the note of F. The song starts with relatively high vocals, with Perry singing in head voice; it also continues during the second verse. Amos Barshad of "New York" said that "if not for a bluntly muscular chorus ('You! ... make! ... me!'), [the song] is nearly a ballad." The lyrics refer to being with a lover that makes one feel like a teenager. According to James Montgomery of MTV, the lyrics refer to being in love, and about the feelings of commitment and security that it brings. They also talk about taking the relationship further in lines such as: "Let's go all the way tonight / No regrets, just love / We can dance until we die / You and I / We'll be young forever".


title: Teenage Dream (Katy Perry song)

text: In a 2014 article in "Slate", composer Owen Pallett analyzed the song using music theory to explain its success. He focused on two factors: the tonal interplay of the chords and melody, and Perry's use of syncopation in her vocals. "This song is all about suspension—not in the voice-leading 4–3 sense, but in the emotional sense, which listeners often associate with 'exhilaration,' being on the road, being on a roller coaster, travel," he explained.


title: Teenage Dream (Katy Perry song)

text: That suspension is created "simply, by denying the listener any I chords," Pallett explains. After the first few lines, the B tonic chord that repeats throughout the song is offset by bass notes that give it a more dominant 7th feel. "The I chord will never appear again," he observes. At the same time, however, Perry begins singing the melody on that note, and returns to it frequently, even when it clashes with the dominant V chord as she sings "feel like I'm living a". "[T]he vocal melody establishes the key so clearly that there is no doubt ... Her voice is the sun and the song is in orbit around it," he concludes. "The insistence of the tonic in the melody keeps your ears' eyes fixed on the destination, but the song never arrives there. Weightlessness is achieved. Great work, songwriters!" Pallett notes other classic pop songs, such as Fleetwood Mac's "Dreams" and Coldplay's "Viva la Vida", that employ the same device.


title: Teenage Dream (Katy Perry song)

text: "The second key to this song's Enormous Chart Success," Pallett continues, "has to do with the weighting of the melody lines." Perry begins singing each verse on the beat ("you think I'm pretty ...") but then falls off it before the end of the first line ("... makeup on"), syncopating the melody, creating additional tension. "Her lines dovetail elegantly into each other. This contributes to the feeling of suspension that I mentioned above. As listeners, we're waiting for her to get to the point." Pallett says she does indeed do this in the pre-chorus, when she accentuates the imperatives ("Let's go all the way tonight ...") by returning to the beat. Pallett than calls it "genius" that the chorus itself inverts the weighting of the verses, as the line "You make me feel like I'm living a teenage dream" goes from off beat to on and then back again, in a single line.


title: Teenage Dream (Katy Perry song)

text: Further, Pallett writes, in the song's bridge, Perry adds more complexity to the song—and makes it more memorable, in his opinion—by taking the simple step of singing the "let you put your hands on me in my skintight jeans" lyrics entirely on beat, including the reiteration of the song's title. "How brilliant. The title of the song is rhythmically weighted two ways—it's like a flank attack. Two sides of the same face. You WILL remember the name of this song."


title: Teenage Dream (Katy Perry song)

text: Critics were divided by "Teenage Dream" at the time of its release. Craig Marks of "Billboard" said that along with "California Gurls", the songs "are textbook summer singles whose ingenious pop hooks and zillion-dollar drum tracks are stamped with Perry's knack for a memorable line and frothy, gum-snapping persona." "Billboard" named "Teenage Dream" as the "second best song of the 2010s so far" in 2015. James Montgomery of MTV commented that "Teenage Dream" showed a "definite change of pace for Perry. While it's still as saccharine sweet as her previous hits, there's also a rather, well, "mature" quality to it (despite the title)." Amos Barshad of "New York" said, "Right now, it's feeling a bit too earnest, and not nearly as catchy as the follow-up single from Perry's first album ('Hot n Cold', most definitely still a jam). That said, we are now mentally preparing ourselves for its ubiquity." Alyssa Rosenberg of "The Atlantic" dismissed the lyrics as "simply annoying and incoherent" and added that "the hook and chorus aren't nearly compelling enough to pull me back into it."


title: Teenage Dream (Katy Perry song)

text: Retrospectively, the song has received acclaim, appearing in several critics lists of Perry's best songs. "Entertainment Weekly" praised the song, saying it captures "all the contact-high euphoria of falling in love for the first time [...] minus the awkward bits of being an actual adolescent [...] in one pure, radiant blast of let’s-go-all-the-way-tonight bliss." "Rolling Stone" ranked it number four on their "Best Singles of 2010" list and "The Village Voice" ranked it 14th on its 38th annual Pazz & Jop critics' poll.


title: Teenage Dream (Katy Perry song)

text: In 2014, "Gawker" ranked it the best number-one single of the last ten years while "Pitchfork" ranked it the 35th best song released in the first half of the 2010s and the 102nd best song of the 2010s. In 2018, NPR listed "Teenage Dream" at number 63 on their list of the 200 Greatest Songs by Women of the 21st Century. "Billboard" ranked the song at number two on their list of 20 best songs of the 2010s so far in 2015, and also placed it on their list of The 100 Songs That Defined The Decade in 2019. "uDiscover Music" ranked "Teenage Dream" at number eight in the list of 20 Katy Perry songs that shaped 21st-century pop music.


title: Teenage Dream (Katy Perry song)

text: "Slate" wrote that "Teenage Dream"'s widespread success "mistify all the Katy Perry haters in the world". "Metro" called "Teenage Dream" a perfect pop song, further wrote that "there are, really, few songs that you could ever class as perfect, and the choices are obviously almost always subjective, but Katy Perry's 'Teenage Dream' is perhaps one no-one can argue with". "Glamour" compared the song to Michael Jackson's "Thriller", Madonna's "Like a Prayer", and Britney Spears' "...Baby One More Time" and called it "one of the best pop tunes ever crafted". New Zealand musician Lorde cited "Teenage Dream" as an influence, said "When I put that song on, I'm as moved as I am by anything by David Bowie, by Fleetwood Mac, by Neil Young. It lets you feel something you didn’t know you needed to feel... There's something holy about it". Country musician Maren Morris said she grew up listening to "Teenage Dream" and called the song "one of the greatest songs of all time".


title: Teenage Dream (Katy Perry song)

text: "Teenage Dream" debuted at number 20 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 dated August 7, 2010, becoming the week's Hot Shot debut. It also debuted on the Hot Digital Songs chart at number 11 with 84,000 downloads, and on the Radio Songs chart at number 75. According to Nielsen Broadcast Data Systems, "Teenage Dream" set the record for most added song in a week with 64 new stations and 14.9 million plays. The following week, it jumped to number seven on the Hot 100, due to a radio audience of 29.5 million impressions and an increase of 183,000 downloads. On the issue dated September 18, 2010, the song topped the chart becoming her second consecutive number one-single and her third overall number one-single. As of August 2020, the song has been certified 8 times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) and sold 5 million copies in the United States.


title: Teenage Dream (Katy Perry song)

text: The same week the song topped the charts in the US, it debuted at number 20 in the Canadian Hot 100. On the September 2 issue of the Canadian Digital Download Chart, "Teenage Dream" rose to number one, making it her third number one on that tally. It went to number one in New Zealand on the August 30 chart making it her third number one in New Zealand that year, preceded by "If We Ever Meet Again" with Timbaland in early 2010 and "California Gurls". Overall the song remained at the top for four weeks in New Zealand. It was her fourth number one overall achieving this with "I Kissed a Girl" in 2008. On September 5, 2010, "Teenage Dream" debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number two selling over 86,000 units in its debut week. It was kept off top spot by the release of Olly Murs' debut single "Please Don't Let Me Go". The following week it stayed at number two behind Alexandra Burke's "Start Without You", before moving down to number three the following week. The song reached number one on the Scottish Singles Chart.


title: Teenage Dream (Katy Perry song)

text: The music video for "Teenage Dream" was filmed in Santa Barbara, California, in July 2010, and was directed by Yoann Lemoine. Perry planned the concept along with the songwriters during the sessions. Pictures from the shoot feature Perry kneeling in the sand looking at a man (played by Josh Kloss) wearing speedos, while others show her kissing the man in a hotel pool. She commented about the filming on her Twitter, saying, "That's a wrap for Teenage Dream! So gorgeous [...] In my hometown. I got to cast all my friends in the new music vid for Teenage Dream = amazing insanity." The video features images of Perry in a car with a boyfriend, then, Perry is shown in a party with her friends, and the closing scene shows Perry kissing her boyfriend under the water. Perry was interviewed online via YouTube, where she talked about the music video. She said: "It is gonna be completely different from 'California Gurls.' With 'Teenage Dream' you'll see a very raw, almost vulnerable [side] ... I had to wear so many less layers of makeup. I had to make out with a boy which was very traumatizing, I was kind of mean to him. I would be the one to call cut because I was like, 'oh I can't do this!' I feel so horrible. But I know it's a job. [Russell and I] understand what our work is."


title: Teenage Dream (Katy Perry song)

text: A lyric video with pictures was uploaded to Perry's YouTube account on July 26, 2010. A 30-second snippet was released on August 5, 2010. The clip showed Perry in a montage of locations around Santa Barbara including riding a late 1960s white BMW New Class convertible, kissing her love interest on the bed at the Sunset Motel in Santa Barbara, and dancing on the beach with her friends. The full video premiered on MTV on August 10, 2010, at 8:00pm ET. Its UK premiere was at 10:45pm on ITV2. The 4:39 minute long official remix was posted on Katy Perry's Vevo account on YouTube on October 27, 2010, featuring an inserted party scene.


title: Teenage Dream (Katy Perry song)

text: Perry performed "Teenage Dream" at the MTV World Stage 2010 held in Sunway Surfbeach, Malaysia. Perry performed her songs "California Gurls", "Hot n Cold" and "Teenage Dream" on "Sunrise" in Australia. On August 9, 2010, she performed it as the opening song of the Teen Choice Awards when she was hosting the award ceremony. She then appeared and performed "Teenage Dream" on the "Late Show with David Letterman" and "Today" show. The same month, Perry traveled to Europe and performed the song on "The Album Chart Show" in the UK, on "Le Grand Journal" in France and on UK chat show "". On September 25, 2010, she was the musical guest and performed the song on "Saturday Night Live". In October 2010, she performed the song on "Wetten, dass..?" in Germany. Perry performed the song with actor Darren Criss for the first time on the "Trevor Project Live" on December 5, 2010.


title: Teenage Dream (Katy Perry song)

text: On February 13, 2011, Perry performed "Teenage Dream" at the 53rd Annual Grammy Awards. The song was featured on the set list of the California Dreams Tour in 2011 as the opening act of the show. The show begins with a video screen introduction which tells the story of a girl named Katy who lives in a colorless world wasting her life cutting meat for a mean old butcher. One night, Perry escapes her dreadful reality by falling asleep and visits a vibrant candy land in search for her pet cat, Kitty Purry and also for the love of her life, the Baker's Boy, played by Nick Zano. Perry then appears on stage and starts performing "Teenage Dream" with her dancers, while wearing a white dress with spinning peppermints. For Obama's 2012 presidential candidacy, Perry performed several of her hit songs dressed as a ballot, including "Teenage Dream", "Firework", and "Wide Awake". Expressing solidarity for his campaign, the box next to Obama's name was shaded. For her 2014–15 The Prismatic World Tour and her 2017-2018 , "Teenage Dream" was included on the setlist.


title: Teenage Dream (Katy Perry song)

text: The Beelzebubs, a male a cappella group from Tufts University, covered "Teenage Dream" and gained prominence when it was used on the American musical television series "Glee" in the episode "Never Been Kissed". The Beelzebubs provided the arrangement and back-up vocals (recorded during September in New York City) for the performance, and actors playing students from the fictional Dalton Academy Warblers lip-synced to their vocals. The lead vocals were provided by Darren Criss, playing Blaine Anderson in the episode. Following the airing of the episode in the US on November 9, 2010, the track was released as a single credited to the "Glee" cast; the recording is also featured on "". The cover sold 55,000 copies through the iTunes Store on the first day, breaking the group's first-day sales record previously held by "Empire State of Mind". Selling 214,000 copies over the week, the song debuted at the eighth position on the "Billboard" Hot 100, surpassing "Don't Stop Believin'" for the highest first-week sales of any "Glee" song, and first top ten by Glee Cast on the chart since "Don't Stop Believin'". It remains the third best-selling recording in the show's history, having sold 652,000 copies in the United States. The song also charted at number ten in Canada, twenty-four in Australia, and eighteen in Ireland. The cover was included in a list of no particular order of the 210 best songs of 2010, published by the "New York Post".


title: Teenage Dream (Katy Perry song)

text: The song appears in three Glee albums: "", "" and the live album "". Criss covered the song again on "Glee"s season four episode, "The Break-Up", on October 4, 2012, with a slower, piano-only version. Unlike the original version, which was lip-synced, Criss sang this version live on set to capture the emotion of the performance.


title: Brent Weeks

text: Brent Weeks (born March 7, 1977) is an American fantasy writer. His debut novel, "The Way of Shadows", was a "New York Times" best seller in April 2009. Each of the five books in his Lightbringer Series made the NYT list as well, starting with "The Black Prism" in 2010. He lives and works near Portland, Oregon with his wife, Kristi, and their two daughters.


title: Brent Weeks

text: Weeks was born in Whitefish, Montana on . He attended Whitefish High School, and graduated from Hillsdale College in 2000 with a degree in English. He has said that he decided to try writing novels during a semester abroad at Oxford College, an experience that was influential to him personally and professionally. He briefly worked as a teacher at Salem Academy in Oregon and as a bartender before moving to writing full-time.


title: Brent Weeks

text: Weeks has published two complete series, The Night Angel Trilogy and The Lightbringer Series. All eight novels are published by Orbit Books, a division of Hachette Book Group. His writing has been heavily influenced by the Classics (including "The Odyssey" and "Dante's Inferno"), Shakespeare, William Butler Yeats, and J. R. R. Tolkien.


title: Brent Weeks

text: The entire "Night Angel Trilogy",—"The Way of Shadows, Shadow's Edge," and "Beyond the Shadows"—was published as mass market paperback volumes in October 2008. Since its debut, the trilogy has been printed in more than 14 languages, and has more than one million copies in print. "The Way of Shadows" was also published as a graphic novel by Yen Press, adapted by Andrew McDonald and Ivan Brandon. Orbit Books published a hardcover 10th Anniversary Edition of the trilogy in November 2018. "Perfect Shadow", a novella set in the Night Angel universe, was published by Subterranean Press as a lettered & numbered hardcover edition in 2011, and is currently available from Orbit as an ebook. There are more than 4 million copies of his books in print.


title: Brent Weeks

text: The first novel in his Lightbringer Series", The Black Prism," was released in 2010. The series was originally intended to be a trilogy, but his publishers announced in 2012 (to coincide with the release of book 2, "The Blinding Knife") that it would span four books, the third of which, "The Broken Eye", was released in August 2014.


title: Brent Weeks

text: On May 11, 2016, Brent Weeks announced via email newsletter and his website that Lightbringer #4, "The Blood Mirror," would be published on October 25/27 of 2016 (US/UK release dates, respectively). He also announced that "There will be five books in the Lightbringer Series, not four..." Weeks did not, however, indicate a release date.


title: Brent Weeks

text: The fifth and final book in the Lightbringer Series, "The Burning White", was published on October 22, 2019. Weeks wrote a longform essay for the promotional tour of the book, titled "On Ending Well".


title: Brent Weeks

text: Each book in the Lightbringer Series appeared on the "New York Times" Bestseller List, with "The Burning White" reaching #4 on the Combined Print & E-book list. "The Black Prism" was recently listed among the best Sci-Fi & Fantasy Novels of the 2010s by BookBub.


title: Brent Weeks

text: On June 6, 2022, Weeks announced on Twitter that the fourth book of the Night Angel series would be released in the Spring of 2023.


title: Gagauz Republic

text: The Gagauz Republic (; ; , "Respublika Gagauzija") was an unrecognised state that separated from Moldova during the dissolution of the Soviet Union but later peacefully joined Moldova after being "de facto" independent from 1990 to 1994.


title: Gagauz Republic

text: The Special Congress of Representatives of the Gagauz people was held on 12 November 1989, in which the Gagauz Republic was proclaimed in the Moldavia, but on the next day the Presidium of the Supreme Council of the Moldavia abolished the Special Congress decisions, calling them unconstitutional.


title: Gagauz Republic

text: The Congress of People's Deputies of the Steppe South of the Moldavia declared independence from the Moldavia and the establishment of the Gagauz Republic on 19 August 1990. Two days later, the Presidium of the Supreme Council of the Moldavia held an emergency meeting, and a decision was reached to declare the republic illegal and the congress unconstitutional. A detachment of Moldovan volunteers and police units were sent to Gagauzia to quell the dissidence, but the arrival of SSV soldiers prevented bloodshed.


title: Gagauz Republic

text: In December 1994, on the basis of agreements reached by the Gagauz Republic and the Republic of Moldova, a document on the peaceful integration of Gagauzia with autonomous rights was signed. The integration was carried out from December 1994 to June 1995, when the Gagauz Republic legally dissolved and became the Autonomous Territorial Unit of Gagauzia.


title: Gagauz Republic

text: As the Gagauzia conflict was developing and tensions between the Gagauz and the central government in Chișinău remained high, the Gagauz localities started establishing paramilitary structures for their self-defense. The most prominent one was the Budjak Battalion (; ), led by the Gagauz nationalist and politician .


title: Nullification crisis

text: The nullification crisis was a sectional political crisis in the United States from 1832 to 1833, during the presidency of Andrew Jackson, which involved a confrontation between the state of South Carolina and the federal government. It ensued after South Carolina declared the federal Tariffs of 1828 and 1832 unconstitutional and therefore null and void within the sovereign boundaries of the state. However, courts at the state and federal level, including the U.S. Supreme Court, repeatedly have rejected the theory of nullification by states.


title: Nullification crisis

text: The controversial and highly protective Tariff of 1828 was enacted into law during the presidency of John Quincy Adams. The tariff was strongly opposed in the South, since it was perceived to put an unfair tax burden on the Southern agrarian states that imported most manufactured goods. The tariff's opponents expected that Jackson's election as president would result in a significant reduction of it. When the Jackson administration failed to take any action to address their concerns, South Carolina's most radical faction began to advocate that the state nullify the tariff. They subscribed to the legal theory that if a state believed a federal law unconstitutional, it could declare the law null and void in the state. In Washington, an open split on the issue occurred between Jackson and Vice President John C. Calhoun, a native South Carolinian and the most effective proponent of the constitutional theory of state nullification.


title: Nullification crisis

text: On July 1, 1832, before Calhoun resigned the vice presidency to run for the Senate, where he could more effectively defend nullification, Jackson signed into law the Tariff of 1832. This compromise tariff received the support of most Northerners and half the Southerners in Congress. South Carolina remained unsatisfied, and on November 24, 1832, a state convention adopted the Ordinance of Nullification, which declared that the Tariffs of 1828 and 1832 were unconstitutional and unenforceable in South Carolina after February 1, 1833. South Carolina initiated military preparations to resist anticipated federal enforcement, but on March 1, 1833, Congress passed both the Force Bill—authorizing the president to use military forces against South Carolina—and a new negotiated tariff, the Compromise Tariff of 1833, which was satisfactory to South Carolina. The South Carolina convention reconvened and repealed its Nullification Ordinance on March 15, 1833, but three days later, nullified the Force Bill as a symbolic gesture of principle.


title: Nullification crisis

text: The crisis was over, and both sides found reasons to claim victory. The tariff rates were reduced and stayed low to the satisfaction of the South, but the states' rights doctrine of nullification remained controversial. By the 1850s, the issues of the expansion of slavery into the western territories and the threat of the Slave Power became the central issues in the nation.


title: Nullification crisis

text: The extent of this change and the problem of the actual distribution of powers between state and the federal governments would be a matter of political and ideological discussion through the Civil War as well as afterwards. In the early 1790s the debate centered on Alexander Hamilton's nationalistic financial program versus Jefferson's democratic and agrarian program, a conflict that led to the formation of two opposing national political parties. Later in the decade the Alien and Sedition Acts led to the states' rights position being articulated in the "Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions". The Kentucky Resolutions, written by Thomas Jefferson, contained the following, which has often been cited as a justification for both nullification and secession:


title: Nullification crisis

text: Historians differ over the extent to which either resolution advocated the doctrine of nullification. Historian Lance Banning wrote, "The legislators of Kentucky (or more likely, John Breckinridge, the Kentucky legislator who sponsored the resolution) deleted Jefferson's suggestion that the rightful remedy for federal usurpation was a "nullification" of such acts by each state acting on its own to prevent their operation within its respective borders. Rather than suggesting individual, although concerted, measures of this sort, Kentucky was content to ask its sisters to unite in declarations that the acts were "void and of no force", and in "requesting their appeal" at the succeeding session of the Congress." The key sentence, and the word "nullification" was used in supplementary Resolutions passed by Kentucky in 1799.


title: Nullification crisis

text: Madison's judgment is clearer. He was chairman of a committee of the Virginia Legislature, which issued a book-length "Report on the Resolutions of 1798", published in 1800 after they had been decried by several states. This asserted that the state did not claim legal force. "The declarations in such cases are expressions of opinion, unaccompanied by other effect than what they may produce upon opinion, by exciting reflection. The opinions of the judiciary, on the other hand, are carried into immediate effect by force." If the states collectively agreed in their declarations, there were several methods by which it might prevail, from persuading Congress to repeal the unconstitutional law, to calling a constitutional convention, as two-thirds of the states may. When, at the time of the nullification crisis, he was presented with the Kentucky resolutions of 1799, he argued that the resolutions themselves were not Jefferson's words, and that Jefferson meant this not as a constitutional, but as a revolutionary right.


title: Nullification crisis

text: The election of 1800 was a turning point in national politics, as the Federalists were replaced by the Democratic-Republican Party led by Jefferson, but the four presidential terms spanning the period from 1800 to 1817 "did little to advance the cause of states' rights and much to weaken it." Over Jefferson's opposition, the power of the federal judiciary, led by Federalist Chief Justice John Marshall, increased. Jefferson expanded federal powers with the acquisition of the Louisiana Territory and his use of a national embargo designed to prevent involvement in a European war. Madison in 1809 used national troops to enforce a Supreme Court decision in Pennsylvania, appointed an "extreme nationalist" in Joseph Story to the Supreme Court, signed the bill creating the Second Bank of the United States, and called for a constitutional amendment to promote internal improvements.


title: Nullification crisis

text: Opposition to the War of 1812 was centered in New England. Delegates to a convention in Hartford, Connecticut, met in December 1814 to consider a New England response to Madison's war policy. The debate allowed many radicals to argue the cause of states' rights and state sovereignty. In the end, moderate voices dominated and the final product was not secession or nullification, but a series of proposed constitutional amendments. Identifying the South's domination of the government as the cause of much of their problems, the proposed amendments included "the repeal of the three-fifths clause, a requirement that two-thirds of both houses of Congress agree before any new state could be admitted to the Union, limits on the length of embargoes, and the outlawing of the election of a president from the same state to successive terms, clearly aimed at the Virginians." The war was over before the proposals were submitted to President Madison.


title: Nullification crisis

text: This spirit of nationalism was linked to the tremendous growth and economic prosperity of this postwar era. However in 1819, the nation suffered its first financial panic and the 1820s turned out to be a decade of political turmoil that again led to fierce debates over competing views of the exact nature of American federalism. The "extreme democratic and agrarian rhetoric" that had been so effective in 1798 led to renewed attacks on the "numerous market-oriented enterprises, particularly banks, corporations, creditors, and absentee landholders".


title: Nullification crisis

text: The Tariff of 1816 had some protective features, and it received support throughout the nation, including that of John C. Calhoun and fellow South Carolinian William Lowndes. The first explicitly protective tariff linked to a specific program of internal improvements was the Tariff of 1824. Sponsored by Henry Clay, this tariff provided a general level of protection at 35% ad valorem (compared to 25% with the 1816 act) and hiked duties on iron, woolens, cotton, hemp, and wool and cotton bagging. The bill barely passed the federal House of Representatives by a vote of 107 to 102. The Middle states and Northwest supported the bill, the South and Southwest opposed it, and New England split its vote with a majority opposing it. In the Senate, the bill, with the support of Tennessee Senator Andrew Jackson, passed by four votes, and President James Monroe, the Virginia heir to the Jefferson-Madison control of the White House, signed the bill on March 25, 1824. Daniel Webster of Massachusetts led the New England opposition to this tariff.


title: Nullification crisis

text: Protest against the prospect and the constitutionality of higher tariffs began in 1826 and 1827 with William Branch Giles, who had the Virginia legislature pass resolutions denying the power of Congress to pass protective tariffs, citing the Virginia Resolutions of 1798 and James Madison's 1800 defense of them. Madison denied both the appeal to nullification and the unconstitutionality; he had always held that the power to regulate commerce included protection. Jefferson had, at the end of his life, written against protective tariffs.


title: Nullification crisis

text: The Tariff of 1828 was largely the work of Martin Van Buren (although Silas Wright Jr. of New York prepared the main provisions) and was partly a political ploy to elect Andrew Jackson President. Van Buren calculated that the South would vote for Jackson regardless of the issues, so he ignored their interests in drafting the bill. New England, he thought, was just as likely to support the incumbent John Quincy Adams, so the bill levied heavy taxes on raw materials consumed by New England such as hemp, flax, molasses, iron, and sail duck. With an additional tariff on iron to satisfy Pennsylvania interests, Van Buren expected the tariff to help deliver Pennsylvania, New York, Missouri, Ohio, and Kentucky to Jackson. Over opposition from the South and some from New England, the tariff was passed with the full support of many Jackson supporters in Congress and signed by President Adams in early 1828.


title: Nullification crisis

text: As expected, Jackson and his running mate John Calhoun carried the entire South with overwhelming numbers in every state but Louisiana, where Adams drew 47% of the vote in a losing effort. But many Southerners became dissatisfied as Jackson, in his first two annual messages to Congress, failed to launch a strong attack on the tariff. Historian William J. Cooper Jr. writes:


title: Nullification crisis

text: South Carolina had been adversely affected by the national economic decline of the 1820s. During this decade, the population decreased by 56,000 whites and 30,000 slaves, out of a total free and slave population of 580,000. The whites left for better places; they took slaves with them or sold them to traders moving slaves to the Deep South for sale.


title: Nullification crisis

text: State leaders, led by states' rights advocates such as William Smith and Thomas Cooper, blamed most of the state's economic problems on the Tariff of 1816 and national internal improvement projects. Soil erosion and competition from the New Southwest were also very significant reasons for the state's declining fortunes. George McDuffie was a particularly effective speaker for the anti-tariff forces, and he popularized the Forty Bale theory. McDuffie argued that the 40% tariff on cotton finished goods meant that "the manufacturer actually invades your barns, and plunders you of 40 out of every 100 bales that you produce." Mathematically incorrect, this argument still struck a nerve with his constituency. Nationalists such as Calhoun were forced by the increasing power of such leaders to retreat from their previous positions and adopt, in the words of Ellis, "an even more extreme version of the states' rights doctrine" in order to maintain political significance within South Carolina.


title: Nullification crisis

text: South Carolina's first effort at nullification occurred in 1822. Its planters believed that free black sailors had assisted Denmark Vesey in his planned slave rebellion. South Carolina passed the Negro Seamen Act, which required all black foreign seamen to be imprisoned while their ships were docked in Charleston. The United Kingdom strongly objected, especially as it was recruiting more Africans as sailors. Worse, if the captains did not pay the fees to cover the cost of jailing, South Carolina would sell the sailors into slavery. Other Southern states also passed laws against free black sailors.


title: Nullification crisis

text: Supreme Court Justice William Johnson, in his capacity as a circuit judge, declared the South Carolina law as unconstitutional since it violated the United States' treaties with the United Kingdom. The South Carolina Senate announced that the judge's ruling was invalid and that the act would be enforced. The federal government did not attempt to carry out Johnson's decision.


title: Nullification crisis

text: Historian Avery Craven argues that, for the most part, the debate from 1828-1832 was a local South Carolina affair. The state's leaders were not united and the sides were roughly equal. The western part of the state and a faction in Charleston, led by Joel Poinsett, remained loyal to the Union. Only in small part was the conflict between "a National North against a States'-right South".


title: Nullification crisis

text: After the final vote on the Tariff of 1828, South Carolina's congressional delegation held two caucuses, the second at the home of Senator Robert Y. Hayne. They were rebuffed in their efforts to coordinate a united Southern response and focused on how their state representatives would react. While many agreed with McDuffie that tariff policy could lead to secession, they all agreed that, as much as possible, the issue should be kept out of the upcoming presidential election. Calhoun, while not at this meeting, served as a moderating influence. He felt that the first step in reducing the tariff was to defeat Adams and his supporters in the upcoming election. William C. Preston, on behalf of the South Carolina legislature, asked Calhoun to prepare a report on the tariff situation. Calhoun readily accepted and in a few weeks had a 35,000-word draft of what would become his "Exposition and Protest".


title: Nullification crisis

text: Calhoun's "Exposition" was completed late in 1828. He argued that the tariff of 1828 was unconstitutional because it favored manufacturing over commerce and agriculture. He believed the tariff power could be used only to generate revenue, not to provide protection from foreign competition for American industries, and that the people of a state or several states, acting in a democratically elected convention, had the power to veto any act of the federal government that violated the Constitution. This veto, the core of the doctrine of nullification, was explained by Calhoun in the Exposition:


title: Nullification crisis

text: The report also detailed the specific southern grievances over the tariff that led to the current dissatisfaction. Fearful that "hotheads" such as McDuffie might force the legislature into taking drastic action against the federal government, historian John Niven describes Calhoun's political purpose in the document:


title: Nullification crisis

text: The report was submitted to the state legislature, which had 5,000 copies printed and distributed. Calhoun, who still had designs on succeeding Jackson as president, was not identified as the author, but word on this soon leaked out. The legislature took no action on the report at that time.


title: Nullification crisis

text: In the summer of 1828, Robert Barnwell Rhett, soon to be considered the most radical of the South Carolinians, entered the fray over the tariff. As a state representative, Rhett called for the governor to convene a special session of the legislature. An outstanding orator, Rhett appealed to his constituents to resist the majority in Congress. He addressed the danger of doing nothing:


title: Nullification crisis

text: Rhett's rhetoric about revolution and war was too radical in the summer of 1828 but, with the election of Jackson assured, James Hamilton Jr. on October 28 in the Colleton County Courthouse in Walterborough "launched the formal nullification campaign." Renouncing his former nationalism, Hamilton warned the people that "Your task-master must soon become a tyrant, from the very abuses and corruption of the system, without the bowels of compassion, or a jot of human sympathy." He called for implementation of Jefferson's "rightful remedy" of nullification. Hamilton sent a copy of the speech directly to President-elect Jackson. But despite a statewide campaign by Hamilton and McDuffie, a proposal to call a nullification convention in 1829 was defeated by the South Carolina legislature meeting at the end of 1828. State leaders such as Calhoun, Hayne, Smith, and William Drayton all remained publicly noncommittal or opposed to nullification for the next couple of years.


title: Nullification crisis

text: The division in the state between radicals and conservatives continued through 1829 and 1830. After the failure of a state project to arrange financing of a railroad within the state to promote internal trade, the state petitioned Congress to invest $250,000 in the company trying to build it. After Congress tabled the measure, debate in South Carolina resumed between those who wanted state investment and those who wanted to work to get Congress's support. The debate demonstrated that a significant minority of the state did have an interest in Clay's American System. The effect of the Webster–Hayne debate was to energize the radicals, and some moderates started to move in their direction.


title: Nullification crisis

text: The state election campaign of 1830 focused on the tariff issue and the need for a state convention. On the defensive, radicals underplayed the intent of the convention as pro-nullification. When voters were presented with races where an unpledged convention was the issue, the radicals generally won. When conservatives effectively characterized the race as being about nullification, the radicals lost. The October election was narrowly carried by the radicals, although the blurring of the issues left them without any specific mandate. In South Carolina, the governor was selected by the legislature, which chose James Hamilton, the leader of the radical movement, and fellow radical Henry L. Pinckney as speaker of the South Carolina House. For the open Senate seat, the legislature chose the more radical Stephen Decatur Miller over William Smith.


title: Nullification crisis

text: With radicals in leading positions, in 1831 they began to capture momentum. State politics became sharply divided along Nullifier and Unionist lines. Still, the margin in the legislature fell short of the two-thirds majority needed for a convention. Many of the radicals felt that convincing Calhoun of the futility of his plans for the presidency would lead him into their ranks. Calhoun, meanwhile, had concluded that Van Buren was establishing himself as Jackson's heir apparent. At Hamilton's prompting, McDuffie made a three-hour speech in Charleston demanding nullification of the tariff at any cost. In the state, the success of McDuffie's speech seemed to open up the possibilities of both military confrontation with the federal government and civil war within the state. With silence no longer an acceptable alternative, Calhoun looked for the opportunity to take control of the antitariff faction in the state; by June he was preparing what would be known as his Fort Hill Address.


title: Nullification crisis

text: Published on July 26, 1831, the address repeated and expanded the positions Calhoun had made in the "Exposition". While the logic of much of the speech was consistent with the states' rights position of most Jacksonians, and even Daniel Webster remarked that it "was the ablest and most plausible, and therefore the most dangerous vindication of that particular form of Revolution", the speech still placed Calhoun clearly in a nullified camp. Within South Carolina, his gestures at moderation in the speech were drowned out as planters received word of the Nat Turner insurrection in Virginia. Calhoun was not alone in finding a connection between the abolition movement and the sectional aspects of the tariff issue. It confirmed for Calhoun what he had written in a September 11, 1830, letter:


title: Nullification crisis

text: I consider the tariff act as the occasion, rather than the real cause of the present unhappy state of things. The truth can no longer be disguised, that the peculiar institution of the Southern States and the consequent direction which that and her soil have given to her industry, has placed them in regard to taxation and appropriations in opposite relation to the majority of the Union, against the danger of which, if there be no protective power in the reserved rights of the states they must in the end be forced to rebel, or, submit to have their paramount interests sacrificed, their domestic institutions subordinated by Colonization and other schemes, and themselves and children reduced to wretchedness.


title: Nullification crisis

text: From this point, the nullifiers accelerated their organization and rhetoric. In July 1831, the States Rights and Free Trade Association was formed in Charleston and expanded throughout the state. Unlike state political organizations in the past, which were led by the South Carolina planter aristocracy, this group appealed to all segments of the population, including non-slaveholder farmers, small slaveholders, and the Charleston non-agricultural class. Governor Hamilton was instrumental in seeing that the association, which was both a political and a social organization, expanded throughout the state. In the winter of 1831 and spring of 1832, Hamilton held conventions and rallies throughout the state to mobilize the nullification movement. The conservatives were unable to match the radicals in organization or leadership.


title: Nullification crisis

text: The state elections of 1832 were "charged with tension and bespattered with violence," and "polite debates often degenerated into frontier brawls." Unlike the previous year's election, the choice was clear between nullifiers and unionists. The nullifiers won and on October 20, 1832, Hamilton called the legislature into a special session to consider a convention. The legislative vote was 96-25 in the House and 31-13 in the Senate.


title: Nullification crisis

text: In November 1832, the Nullification Convention met. The convention declared the tariffs of 1828 and 1832 unconstitutional and unenforceable within the state of South Carolina after February 1, 1833. It was asserted that attempts to use force to collect the taxes would lead to the state's secession. Robert Hayne, who succeeded Hamilton as governor in 1833, established a 2,000-man group of mounted minutemen and 25,000 infantry who would march to Charleston in the event of a military conflict. These troops were to be armed with $100,000 in arms purchased in the North.


title: Nullification crisis

text: The enabling legislation passed by the legislature was carefully constructed to avoid clashes if at all possible and create an aura of legality in the process. To avoid conflicts with Unionists, it allowed importers to pay the tariff if they desired. Other merchants could pay the tariff by obtaining a paper tariff bond from the customs officer. They would then refuse to pay the bond when due, and if the customs official seized the goods, the merchant would file for a writ of replevin to recover the goods in state court. Customs officials who refused to return the goods (by placing them under the protection of federal troops) would be civilly liable for twice the value of the goods. To ensure that state officials and judges supported the law, a "test oath" would be required for all new state officials, binding them to support the ordinance of nullification.


title: Nullification crisis

text: When President Jackson took office in March 1829, he was well aware of the turmoil created by the "Tariff of Abominations". While he may have abandoned some of his earlier beliefs that had allowed him to vote for the Tariff of 1824, he still felt protectionism was justified for products essential to military preparedness and did not believe that the current tariff should be reduced until the national debt was fully paid off. He addressed the issue in his inaugural address and his first three messages to Congress, but offered no specific relief. In December 1831, with the proponents of nullification in South Carolina gaining momentum, Jackson recommended "the exercise of that spirit of concession and conciliation which has distinguished the friends of our Union in all great emergencies." But on the constitutional issue of nullification, despite his strong beliefs in states' rights, Jackson did not waver.


title: Nullification crisis

text: Calhoun's "Exposition and Protest" started a national debate on the doctrine of nullification. The leading proponents of the nationalistic view included Daniel Webster, Supreme Court Justice Joseph Story, Judge William Alexander Duer, John Quincy Adams, Nathaniel Chipman, and Nathan Dane. They rejected the compact theory advanced by Calhoun, claiming that the Constitution was the product of the people, not the states. According to the nationalist position, the Supreme Court had the final say on legislation's constitutionality, and the national union was perpetual and had supreme authority over individual states. The nullifiers, on the other hand, asserted that the central government was not the ultimate arbiter of its own power, and that the states, as the contracting entities, could judge for themselves what was constitutional. While Calhoun's "Exposition" claimed that nullification was based on the reasoning behind the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions, an aging James Madison in an August 28, 1830, letter to Edward Everett, intended for publication, disagreed. Madison wrote, denying that any individual state could alter the compact:


title: Nullification crisis

text: Part of the South's strategy to force repeal of the tariff was to arrange an alliance with the West. Under the plan, the South would support the West's demand for free lands in the public domain if the West supported repeal of the tariff. With this purpose, Robert Hayne took the floor on the Senate in early 1830, beginning "the most celebrated debate in the Senate's history." Daniel Webster's response shifted the debate, subsequently styled the Webster-Hayne debates, from the specific issue of western lands to a general debate on the very nature of the United States. Webster's position differed from Madison's: Webster asserted that the people of the United States acted as one aggregate body, while Madison held that the people of the several states acted collectively. John Rowan spoke against Webster on that issue, and Madison wrote, congratulating Webster, but explaining his own position. The debate presented the fullest articulation of the differences over nullification, and 40,000 copies of Webster's response, which concluded with "liberty and Union, now and forever, one and inseparable", were distributed nationwide.


title: Nullification crisis

text: Many people expected Jackson to side with Hayne, but once the debate shifted to secession and nullification, he sided with Webster. On April 13, 1830, at the traditional Democratic Party celebration honoring Jefferson's birthday, Jackson chose to make his position clear. In a battle of toasts, Hayne proposed, "The Union of the States, and the Sovereignty of the States." Jackson's response, when his turn came, was, "Our Federal Union: It must be preserved." To those attending, the effect was dramatic. Calhoun responded with his own toast, in a play on Webster's closing remarks in the earlier debate, "The Union. Next to our liberty, the most dear." Finally, Van Buren offered, "Mutual forbearance and reciprocal concession. Through their agency the Union was established. The patriotic spirit from which they emanated will forever sustain it."


title: Nullification crisis

text: Van Buren wrote in his autobiography of Jackson's toast, "The veil was rent—the incantations of the night were exposed to the light of day." Senator Thomas Hart Benton, in his memoirs, wrote that the toast "electrified the country." Jackson had the final word a few days later, when a visitor from South Carolina asked if Jackson had any message he wanted relayed to his friends back in the state. Jackson's reply was:


title: Nullification crisis

text: Other issues than the tariff were still being decided. In May 1830, Jackson vetoed the Maysville Road Bill, an important internal-improvements program (especially to Kentucky and Henry Clay), and then followed this with additional vetoes of other such projects shortly before Congress adjourned at the end of May. Clay used these vetoes to launch his presidential campaign. In 1831, the rechartering of the Bank of the United States, with Clay and Jackson on opposite sides, reopened a long-simmering problem. This issue was featured at the December 1831 National Republican convention in Baltimore, which nominated Clay for president, and the proposal to recharter was formally introduced into Congress on January 6, 1832. The Calhoun-Jackson split entered the center stage when Calhoun, as vice president presiding over the Senate, cast the tie-breaking vote to deny Van Buren the post of minister to England. Van Buren was subsequently selected as Jackson's running mate at the 1832 Democratic National Convention held in May.


title: Nullification crisis

text: In February 1832, Clay, back in the Senate after a two-decade absence, made a three-day speech calling for a new tariff schedule and an expansion of his American System. In an effort to reach out to Calhoun and other Southerners, Clay's proposal provided for a $10 million revenue reduction based on the budget surplus he anticipated for the coming year. Significant protection was still part of the plan, as the reduction primarily came on imports not in competition with domestic producers. Jackson proposed an alternative that reduced overall tariffs to 28%. John Quincy Adams, now in the House of Representatives, used his Committee of Manufacturers to produce a compromise bill that, in its final form, reduced revenues by $5 million, lowered duties on noncompetitive products, and retained high tariffs on woolens, iron, and cotton products. During the political maneuvering, McDuffie's Ways and Means Committee, the normal originator of such bills, prepared a bill with drastic reduction across the board, but it went nowhere. Jackson signed the Tariff of 1832 on July 14, 1832, a few days after vetoing the Bank of the United States recharter bill. Congress adjourned after failing to override Jackson's veto.


title: Nullification crisis

text: With Congress adjourned, Jackson anxiously watched events in South Carolina. The nullifiers found no significant compromise in the Tariff of 1832 and acted accordingly. Jackson heard rumors of efforts to subvert members of the army and navy in Charleston and ordered the secretaries of the army and navy to begin rotating troops and officers based on their loyalty. He ordered General Winfield Scott to prepare for military operations and ordered a naval squadron in Norfolk to prepare to go to Charleston. Jackson kept lines of communication open with unionists such as Joel Poinsett, William Drayton, and James L. Petigru and sent George Breathitt, brother of the Kentucky governor, to independently obtain political and military intelligence. After their defeat at the polls in October, Petigru advised Jackson to "Be prepared to hear very shortly of a State Convention and an act of Nullification."


title: Nullification crisis

text: By mid-November, Jackson's reelection was assured. On December 3, 1832, Jackson sent his fourth annual message to Congress. The message "was stridently states' rights and agrarian in its tone and thrust" and disavowed protection as anything other than a temporary expedient. His intent regarding nullification, as communicated to Van Buren, was "to pass it barely in review, as a mere buble , view the existing laws as competent to check and put it down." He hoped to create a "moral force" that would transcend political parties and sections. The paragraph in the message that addressed nullification was:


title: Nullification crisis

text: On December 10, Jackson issued the Proclamation to the People of South Carolina, in which he characterized the positions of the nullifiers as "impractical absurdity" and "a metaphysical subtlety, in pursuit of an impractical theory." He provided this concise statement of his belief:


title: Nullification crisis

text: The language Jackson used, combined with the reports out of South Carolina, raised the spectre of military confrontation for many on both sides of the issue. A group of Democrats, led by Van Buren and Thomas Hart Benton, among others, saw the only solution to the crisis in a substantial reduction of the tariff.


title: Nullification crisis

text: In apparent contradiction of his previous claim that the tariff could be enforced with existing laws, on January 16 Jackson sent his Force Bill Message to Congress. Custom houses in Beaufort and Georgetown would be closed and replaced by ships at each port. In Charleston, the custom house would be moved to either Castle Pinckney or Fort Moultrie in Charleston Harbor. Direct payment rather than bonds would be required, and federal jails would be established for violators the state refused to arrest and all cases arising under the state's nullification act could be removed to the United States Circuit Court. In the most controversial part, the militia acts of 1795 and 1807 would be revised to permit the enforcement of the customs laws by both the militia and the regular United States military. Attempts were made in South Carolina to shift the debate away from nullification by focusing instead on the proposed enforcement.


title: Nullification crisis

text: The Force bill went to the Senate Judiciary Committee, chaired by Pennsylvania protectionist William Wilkins and supported by members Daniel Webster and Theodore Frelinghuysen of New Jersey; it gave Jackson everything he asked. On January 28, the Senate defeated a motion by a vote of 30 to 15 to postpone debate on the bill. All but two of the votes to delay were from the lower South and only three from this section voted against the motion. This did not signal any increased support for nullification, but did signify doubts about enforcement. To draw more votes, proposals were made to limit the duration of the coercive powers and restrict the use of force to suppressing, rather than preventing, civil disorder. In the House, the Judiciary Committee voted 4-3 to reject Jackson's request to use force. By the time Calhoun made a major speech on February 15 strongly opposing it, the Force Bill was temporarily stalled.


title: Nullification crisis

text: On the tariff issue, the drafting of a compromise tariff was assigned in December to the House Ways and Means Committee, now headed by Gulian C. Verplanck. Debate on the committee's product on the House floor began in January 1833. The Verplanck tariff proposed reductions back to 1816 levels over the next two years while maintaining the basic principle of protectionism. The anti-Jackson protectionists saw this as an economic disaster that did not even allow the Tariff of 1832 to be tested and "an undignified truckling to the menaces and blustering of South Carolina." Northern Democrats did not oppose it in principle, but still demanded protection for the varying interests of their own constituents. Those sympathetic to the nullifiers wanted a specific abandonment of the principle of protectionism and were willing to offer a longer transition period as a bargaining point. The Verplanck tariff was clearly not going to be implemented.


title: Nullification crisis

text: In South Carolina, efforts were being made to avoid an unnecessary confrontation. Governor Hayne ordered the 25,000 troops he had created to train at home rather than gather in Charleston. At a mass meeting in Charleston on January 21, they decided to postpone the February 1 deadline for implementing nullification, while Congress worked on a compromise tariff. At the same time, a commissioner from Virginia, Benjamin W. Leigh, arrived in Charleston bearing resolutions that criticized both Jackson and the nullifiers and offering his state as a mediator.


title: Nullification crisis

text: Clay had not taken his defeat in the presidential election well and was unsure what position he could take in the tariff negotiations. His long-term concern was that Jackson was determined to kill protectionism along with the American Plan. In February, after consulting with manufacturers and sugar interests in Louisiana, who favored protection for the sugar industry, Clay started to work on a specific compromise plan. As a starting point, he accepted the nullifiers' offer of a transition period, but extended it from seven and a half years to nine years with a final target of a 20% "ad valorem" rate. After first securing the support of his protectionist base, Clay, through an intermediary, broached the subject with Calhoun. Calhoun was receptive, and after a private meeting with Clay at Clay's boardinghouse, negotiations proceeded.


title: Nullification crisis

text: Clay introduced the negotiated tariff bill on February 12, and it was immediately referred to a select committee consisting of Clay as chairman, Felix Grundy of Tennessee, George M. Dallas of Pennsylvania, William Cabell Rives of Virginia, Webster, John M. Clayton of Delaware, and Calhoun. On February 21, the committee reported a bill to the floor of the Senate that was largely Clay's original bill. The Tariff of 1832 would continue except that reduction of all rates above 20% would be reduced by one tenth every two years, with the final reductions back to 20% coming in 1842. Protectionism as a principle was not abandoned and provisions were made for raising the tariff if national interests demanded it.


title: Nullification crisis

text: Although not specifically linked by any negotiated agreement, it became clear that the Force Bill and Compromise Tariff of 1833 were inexorably linked. In his February 25 speech ending the debate on the tariff, Clay captured the spirit of the voices for compromise by condemning Jackson's Proclamation to South Carolina as inflammatory, admitting the same problem with the Force Bill, but indicating its necessity, and praising the Compromise Tariff as the final measure to restore balance, promote the rule of law, and avoid the "sacked cities", "desolated fields", and "smoking ruins" he said the failure to reach a final accord would produce. The House passed the Compromise Tariff, 119-85, and the Force Bill, 149-48. In the Senate, the tariff passed 29-16 and the Force bill 32-1, with many opponents of it walking out rather than voting.


title: Nullification crisis

text: Calhoun rushed to Charleston with the news of the final compromises. The Nullification Convention met again on March 11. It repealed the November Nullification Ordinance and also, "in a purely symbolic gesture", nullified the Force Bill. While the nullifiers claimed victory on the tariff issue, even though they had made concessions, the verdict was very different on nullification. The majority had in the end ruled and this boded ill for the South and its minority's hold on slavery. Rhett summed this up at the convention on March 13. Warning that "A people, owning slaves, are mad, or worse than mad, who do not hold their destinies in their own hands," he continued:


title: Nullification crisis

text: People reflected on the meaning of the nullification crisis and its outcome for the country. On May 1, 1833, Jackson predicted, "the tariff was only a pretext, and disunion and Southern confederacy the real object. The next pretext will be the negro, or slavery question."


title: Nullification crisis

text: The final resolution of the crisis and Jackson's leadership had appeal throughout the North and South. Robert V. Remini, the historian and Jackson biographer, described the opposition that nullification drew from traditionally states' rights Southern states:


title: Nullification crisis

text: The historian Forrest McDonald, describing the split over nullification among proponents of states' rights, wrote, "The doctrine of states' rights, as embraced by most Americans, was not concerned exclusively, or even primarily, with state resistance to federal authority." But by the end of the nullification crisis, many Southerners questioned whether Jacksonian Democrats still represented Southern interests. The historian William J. Cooper Jr. notes, "Numerous Southerners had begun to perceive it [the Jacksonian Democratic Party] as a spear aimed at the South rather than a shield defending the South."


title: Nullification crisis

text: In the political vacuum created by this alienation, the Southern wing of the Whig Party was formed. The party was a coalition of interests united by the common thread of opposition to Jackson, and more specifically to his "definition of federal and executive power." The party included former National Republicans with an "urban, commercial, and nationalist outlook", as well as former nullifiers. Emphasizing that "they were more southern than the Democrats," the party grew within the South by going "after the abolition issue with unabashed vigor and glee." With both parties arguing who could best defend Southern institutions, the nuances of the differences between free soil and abolitionism, which became an issue in the late 1840s with the Mexican War and territorial expansion, never became part of the political dialogue. This failure increased the slavery issue's volatility.


title: Nullification crisis

text: Richard Ellis argues that the end of the crisis signified the beginning of a new era. Within the states' rights movement, the traditional desire for "a weak, inactive, and frugal government" was challenged. Ellis writes, "in the years leading up to the Civil War the nullifiers and their proslavery allies used the doctrine of states' rights and state sovereignty in such a way as to try to expand the powers of the federal government so that it could more effectively protect the peculiar institution." By the 1850s, states' rights had become a call for state equality under the Constitution.


title: Nullification crisis

text: Madison reacted to this incipient tendency by writing two paragraphs of "Advice to My Country," found among his papers. It said that the Union "should be cherished and perpetuated. Let the open enemy to it be regarded as a Pandora with her box opened; and the disguised one, as the Serpent creeping with his deadly wiles into paradise." Richard Rush published this "Advice" in 1850, by which time Southern spirit was so high that it was denounced as a forgery.


title: Nullification crisis

text: The first test for the South over slavery began during the final congressional session of 1835. In what became known as the Gag Rule Debates, abolitionists flooded Congress with petitions to end slavery in the District of Columbia, where states' rights was not an issue. The debate was reopened each session as Southerners, led by South Carolinians Henry Pinckney and John Hammond, prevented the petitions from even being officially received by Congress. Led by John Quincy Adams, the slavery debate remained on the national stage until late 1844, when Congress lifted all restrictions on processing the petitions.


title: Nullification crisis

text: For South Carolina, the legacy of the crisis involved both the divisions within the state during the crisis and the apparent isolation of the state as the crisis was resolved. By 1860, when it became the first state to secede, it was more internally united than any other Southern state. Historian Charles Edward Cauthen writes:


title: Miriam Leone

text: Miriam Leone (born 14 April 1985) is an Italian actress and beauty pageant titleholder who won the 2008 Miss Italia beauty contest.


title: Miriam Leone

text: Miriam Leone was born in Catania, Sicily, on April 14, 1985. She lived her youth in Acireale, the daughter of a literature teacher, Ignazio Leone, and Gabriella Leotta, employed in the municipality of Aci Catena. She has a younger brother named Sergio. She attended the "Gulli e Pennisi" classical high school in Acireale and at the end of her high school studies enrolled in the Faculty of Letters and Philosophy at the University of Catania, but did not finish her studies.


title: Miriam Leone

text: The young Sicilian participated in the Miss Italy contest in 2008 with the title of "Miss Prima dell'anno". After being initially eliminated during the program, she was subsequently reinstated in the competition and won the "Miss Italia 2008" sash in the final, as well as the title of "Miss Cinema" awarded by Anna Strasberg of the Actors Studio, who also awarded a scholarship.


title: Miriam Leone

text: Leone co-presented "Unomattina Estate" from 1 June to 11 September on "Rai Uno". In 2010 Leone was a judge on "Ciak! Si Canta". Since 2010, she has been co-hosting "Mattina in famiglia" on Rai Uno. She also hosted the "Nastro d'Argento" award ceremony in 2011.


title: Miriam Leone

text: Leone began her acting career with small roles before obtaining the lead role in television series "Distretto di polizia" (2011-12), "La dama velata" (2015) and "Non uccidere" (2015-18). She played the main role of Veronica Castello in the Sky Atlantic trilogy "1992", "1993" and "1994". In 2018 she starred as the lead in the black comedy film "Put Grandma in the Freezer".


title: Wives of Genghis Khan

text: There were many wives and concubines of Genghis Khan, as was common for powerful Mongol men of the time. Wives and concubines were frequently acquired from conquered territory, and, in the case of Genghis Khan, sometimes whole empires, and the women enrolled as either his wives or concubines were often princesses or queens that were either taken captive or gifted to him.


title: Wives of Genghis Khan

text: Genghis Khan gave several of his high-status wives their own "ordos" or camps to live in and manage. Each camp also contained junior wives, concubines, and even children. It was the job of the Kheshig (Mongol imperial guard) to protect the yurts of Genghis Khan's wives. The guards had to pay particular attention to the individual yurt and camp in which Genghis Khan slept, which could change every night as he visited different wives. When Genghis Khan set out on his military conquests, he usually took one wife with him and left the rest of his wives (and concubines) to manage the empire in his absence.


title: Wives of Genghis Khan

text: The marriage between Börte and Genghis Khan (then known as Temüjin) was arranged by her father and Yesügei, Temüjin's father, when she was 10 and he was 9 years old. Temüjin stayed with her and her family until he was called back to take care of his mother and younger siblings, due to the poisoning of Yesügei by Tatar nomads. In 1178, about 7 years later, Temüjin traveled downstream along the Kelüren River to find Börte. When Börte's father saw that Temüjin had returned to marry Börte, he had the pair "united as man and wife". With the permission of her father, Temüjin took Börte and her mother to live in his family yurt. Börte's dowry was a fine black sable jacket.


title: Wives of Genghis Khan

text: Soon after the marriage between them took place, the Three Merkits attacked their family camp at dawn and kidnapped Börte. She was given to one of their warriors as a spoil of war. Temüjin was deeply distressed by the abduction of his wife and remarked that his "bed was made empty" and his "breast was torn apart". Temüjin rescued her several months later with the aid of his allies Wang Khan and Jamukha. Many scholars describe this event as one of the key crossroads in Temüjin's life, which moved him along the path towards becoming a conqueror.


title: Wives of Genghis Khan

text: “As the pillaging and plundering went on, Temüjin moved among the people that were hurriedly escaping, calling, ‘Börte, Börte!’ And so he came upon her, for Lady Börte was among those fleeing people. She heard the voice of Temüjin and, recognizing it, she got off the cart and came running towards him. Although it was still night, Lady Börte and Qo’aqčin both recognized Temüjin's reins and tether and grabbed them. It was moonlight; he looked at them, recognized Lady Börte, and they fell into each other's arms.” -"The Secret History of the Mongols"


title: Wives of Genghis Khan

text: Börte was held captive for eight months, and gave birth to Jochi soon after she was rescued. This left doubt as to who the father of the child was, because her captor took her as a "wife" and could have possibly impregnated her. Despite this, Temüjin let Jochi remain in the family and claimed him as his own son. Börte had three more sons, Chagatai (1183–1242), Ögedei (1186–1241), and Tolui (1191–1232). Temüjin had many other children with other wives, but they were excluded from the succession, only Börte's sons could be considered to be his heirs. Börte was also the mother to several daughters, Kua Ujin Bekhi, Alakhai Bekhi, Alaltun, Checheikhen, Tümelün, and Tolai. However, the poor survival of Mongol records means it is unclear whether she gave birth to all of them.