title: Summer Days (And Summer Nights!!)

text: "Summer Days (And Summer Nights!!)" includes Bruce Johnston's first appearance on a Beach Boys album. As Brian Wilson's stage replacement, he was not yet considered an "official" member, but Wilson appreciated Johnston's skills enough to have him contribute vocally and instrumentally on the album. Johnston would often accompany the group on photo shoots, but he was prohibited from having those pictures published on album covers due to a preexisting contract with Columbia Records. Along with Johnston, Al Jardine is also missing from the "Summer Days" cover photo depicting the group on a sailboat, having missed the shoot due to illness.


title: Summer Days (And Summer Nights!!)

text: "Summer Days (And Summer Nights!!)" proved to be another gold-selling success for the Beach Boys in the U.S., where it hit number 2 behind The Rolling Stones's "Out of Our Heads". Along with 1963's "Surfin' U.S.A." it remains the group's highest-charting studio album in the U.S. The following year, the album would reach number 4 in the United Kingdom. The album's lead single, "Help Me, Rhonda", topped the US "Billboard" Hot 100.


title: Summer Days (And Summer Nights!!)

text: In a 2011 reappraisal, BBC Music observed that the track listing of "Summer Days" reads "like a Greatest Hits," and felt the album is unfairly disparaged for being "simply loaded with proud pop songs." Comparing to the Beach Boys' later work: "If "Pet Sounds" is the critics’ favorite, "Summer Days" is perhaps the people's day at the beach." That same year, the online journal Rocksucker praised the album, ranking it 4th in its list of "Ten Underappreciated Beach Boys LPs," but considers it "an inconsistent collection of which the high points are truly great and the low points ranging from merely good to just-about-passing-muster."


title: Summer Days (And Summer Nights!!)

text: In the early 1970s, as part of Capitol Records' repackage series of their Beach Boys albums, "Summer Days (And Summer Nights!!)" was retitled "California Girls" and deleted two tracks: "Amusement Parks U.S.A." and "I'm Bugged at My Ol' Man". In 1990, the album was reissued paired with "The Beach Boys Today!"; this package featured extensive liner notes and bonus tracks from that period. In its 2012 reissue, the album received its first true stereo mix.


title: Summer Days (And Summer Nights!!)

text: Sourced from Musician's Union AFM contract sheets and surviving session audio, documented by Craig Slowinski.


title: Binge eating

text: Binge eating is a pattern of disordered eating which consists of episodes of uncontrollable eating. It is a common symptom of eating disorders such as binge eating disorder and bulimia nervosa. During such binges, a person rapidly consumes an excessive quantity of food. A diagnosis of binge eating is associated with feelings of loss of control. Binge eating disorder is also linked with being overweight and obesity.


title: Binge eating

text: Typical warning signs of binge eating disorder include the disappearance of large amount of foods in relatively short periods of time. A person who may be experiencing binge eating disorder may appear to be uncomfortable when eating around others or in public. A person may develop new and extreme eating patterns that they have never done before. These might include diets that cut out certain food groups completely such as a no dairy or no carb diet. They might also steal or hoard food in unusual places. A person may be experiencing fluctuations in their weight. In addition they may have feelings of disgust, depression, or guilt about over eating. Another possible warning sign of binge eating is that a person may be obsessed with their body image or weight.


title: Binge eating

text: Furthermore, patients who binge eat may also engage in other self-destructing behaviours like suicide attempts, drug use, shop-lifting, and drinking too much alcohol.


title: Binge eating

text: There are no direct causes of binge eating; however, long-term dieting, psychological issues and an obsession with body image have been linked to binge eating. There are multiple factors that increase a person's risk of developing binge eating disorder. Family history can play a role if that person had a family member who was affected by binge eating. Said person may not have a supportive or friendly home environment, and they have a hard time expressing their problems with BED. Having a history of going on extreme diets may cause an urge to binge eat. Psychological issues such as feeling negatively about oneself or the way they look may trigger a binge.


title: Binge eating

text: Weight stigma has also been found to predict binge eating, highlighting the importance of weight inclusive approaches to binge eating disorder that do not exercerbate this potential cause.


title: Binge eating

text: There are several physical, emotional, and social health risks when associated with binge eating disorder. These risks include depression, anxiety, and heart disease.


title: Binge eating

text: One study found that people with obesity who experience binge eating have a higher body mass index, and higher levels of depression and stress than those who did not have with binge eating disorder


title: Binge eating

text: Typically the eating is done rapidly and a person will feel emotionally numb and unable to stop eating. Most people who have eating binges try to hide this behavior from others, and often feel ashamed about being overweight or depressed about their overeating. Although people who do not have any eating disorder may occasionally experience episodes of overeating, frequent binge eating is often a symptom of an eating disorder.


title: Binge eating

text: BED is characterized by uncontrollable, excessive eating, followed by feelings of shame and guilt. Unlike those with bulimia, those with BED symptoms typically do not purge their food, fast, or excessively exercise to compensate for binges. Additionally, these individuals tend to diet more often, enroll in weight-control programs and have a history of family obesity. However, many who have bulimia also have binge-eating disorder.


title: Binge eating

text: Along with the social and physical health that is effected when suffering from BED, there are psychiatric disorders that are often linked to BED. Some of them being, but are not limited to:


title: Binge eating

text: Current treatments for binge eating disorder mainly consist of psychological therapies, such as Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT), Interpersonal Psychotherapy (IPT), and Dialectical Behavioural Therapy (DBT). There are currently no effective medications available to treat BED.


title: Binge eating

text: Binge Eating Disorder was first documented by psychiatrist Albert Stunkard in his paper “Eating Patterns and Obesity” in 1959. In his paper, Stunkard reports seeing people eating large amounts of food at infrequent rates. He also reported that some of these cases unhealthy eating habits were seen during a time period he called “night eating”. After this report, the terminology of “Binge Eating” caught on for diagnosing the episodes of infrequent eating of large amounts of food, whether or not the episode is connected with night eating.


title: Binge eating

text: The American Psychiatric Association mentioned and listed Binge Eating under the listed criteria and features of Bulimia in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) - 3 in 1987. By including Binge Eating in the DSM-3, even if not on its own as a separate eating disorder, they brought awareness to the disorder and gave it mental disorder legitimacy. This allowed for people to receive the appropriate treatment for binge eating and for their disorder to be legitimized.


title: Binge eating

text: In 2008 the nonprofit called the Binge Eating Disorder Associated (BEDA) forms in order to help, support, and be an advocate for the Binge Eating Disorder (BED) community. To inform the public and spread the awareness of BED, BEDA holds events throughout the year, holds an annual conference, while also hosting a Weight Stigma Awareness Week which supports BED research.


title: Binge eating

text: In 2013, when the APA released the newly revised edition of DSM-5, BED is declared as its own (eating) disorder. This official announcement helped legitimize BED. With this proclamation, significant change occurred causing for people who suffer from BED to receive the appropriate treatment they need under their insurance plan.


title: Binge eating

text: In January 2015, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the drug lisdexamfetamine dimesylate, also known as Vyvanse, for the treatment of BED, allowing for the several who are affected to receive drug related help, on top of outside help. The FDA reported that there were only a few side-effects.


title: Binge eating

text: Often research on eating disorder affiliated with binge eating has to do with slimness. However, men tend to measure themselves on masculinity and strength. More research is needed for men regarding this situation, since much research has been done on women.


title: Benevento

text: Benevento (, , ; ) is a city and "comune" of Campania, Italy, capital of the province of Benevento, northeast of Naples. It is situated on a hill above sea level at the confluence of the Calore Irpino (or Beneventano) and the Sabato. In 2020, Benevento has 58,418 inhabitants. It is also the seat of a Catholic archbishop.


title: Benevento

text: Benevento occupies the site of the ancient Beneventum, originally Maleventum or even earlier Maloenton. The meaning of the name of the town is evidenced by its former Latin name, translating as good or fair wind. In the imperial period it was supposed to have been founded by Diomedes after the Trojan War.


title: Benevento

text: Due to its artistic and cultural significance, the Santa Sofia Church in Benevento was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2011, as part of a group of seven historic buildings inscribed as Longobards in Italy, Places of Power (568–774 A.D.).


title: Benevento

text: A patron saint of Benevento is Saint Bartholomew, the Apostle, whose relics are kept there at the Cattedrale di Santa Maria Assunta.


title: Benevento

text: Benevento, as "Maleventum", was one of the chief cities of Samnium, situated on the Appian Way at a distance of east of Capua on the banks of the river Calor (now Calore). There is some discrepancy as to the tribe to which it belonged at contact: Pliny the Elder expressly assigns it to the Hirpini, while Livy's wording is somewhat obscure and Ptolemy considers the town as belonging to the Samnites proper, as distinguished from the Hirpini. All ancient writers concur in representing it as a very ancient city, with Gaius Julius Solinus and Stephanus of Byzantium ascribing its foundation to this legend appears to have been adopted by the city's inhabitants, who in the time of Procopius pretended to exhibit the tusks of the Calydonian Boar as proof of their descent. Sextus Pompeius Festus, on the contrary ("s. v." Ausoniam), related that the city was founded by Auson, a son of Ulysses and Circe, a tradition which indicates that it was an ancient Ausonian city prior to its conquest by the Samnites. It first appears in history as a Samnite city, and must have already been a place of strength as the Romans did not venture to attack it during their first two wars with the Samnites; it appears, however, to have fallen into their hands during the Third Samnite War, though the exact occasion is unknown.


title: Benevento

text: Benevento was certainly in the power of the Romans in 274 BC, when Pyrrhus of Epirus was defeated in a great battle, fought in its immediate neighborhood, by the consul Manius Curius Dentatus. Six years later (268 BC) they further sought to secure its possession by establishing there a Roman colony with Latin rights. It was at this time that it first assumed the name of Beneventum, having previously been called Maleventum, a name which the Romans regarded as of evil augury, and changed into one of a more fortunate signification. It is probable that the Oscan or Samnite name was Maloeis, or Malieis (Μαλιείς in Ancient Greek), whence the form Maleventum would derive, like Agrigentum from Acragas (now Agrigento), Selinuntium from Selinus (the ruins of which are at now Selinunte), etc.


title: Benevento

text: As a Roman colony Beneventum seems to have quickly become a flourishing place; and in the Second Punic War was repeatedly occupied by Roman generals as a post of importance, on account of its proximity to Campania, and its strength as a fortress. In its immediate neighborhood were fought two of the most decisive actions of the war: the Battle of Beneventum, (214 BC), in which the Carthaginian general Hanno was defeated by Tiberius Gracchus; the other in 212 BC, when the camp of Hanno, in which he had accumulated a vast quantity of corn and other stores, was stormed and taken by the Roman consul Quintus Fulvius Flaccus. And though its territory was more than once laid waste by the Carthaginians, it was still one of the eighteen Latin colonies which in 209 BCE were at once able and willing to furnish the required quota of men and money for continuing the war. No mention of it occurs during the Social War, although it seems to have escaped from the calamities which at that time befell so many cities of Samnium; towards the close of the Roman Republic Benevento is described as one of the most opulent and flourishing cities of Italy.


title: Benevento

text: Under the Second Triumvirate its territory was portioned out by the Triumvirs to their veterans, and subsequently a fresh colony was established there by Augustus, who greatly enlarged its domain by the addition of the territory of Caudium (now Montesarchio). A third colony was settled there by Nero, at which time it assumed the title of "Concordia"; hence we find it bearing, in inscriptions of the reign of Septimius Severus, the titles Colonia Julia Augusta Concordia Felix Beneventum. Its importance and flourishing condition under the Roman Empire is sufficiently attested by existing remains and inscriptions; it was at that period unquestionably the chief city of the Hirpini, and probably, next to Capua, the most populous and considerable city of southern Italy. For this prosperity it was doubtless indebted in part to its position on the Via Appia, just at the junction of the two principal arms or branches of that great road, the one called afterwards the Via Traiana, leading thence by Aequum Tuticum (now Ariano Irpino) into Apulia; the other by Aeclanum to Venusia (now Venosa) and Tarentum (now Taranto). Its wealth is also evidenced by the quantity of coins minted by Beneventum. Horace famously notes Beneventum on his journey from Rome to Brundusium (now Brindisi). It was indebted to the same circumstance for the honor of repeated visits from the emperors of Rome, among which those of Nero, Trajan, and Septimus Severus, are particularly recorded.


title: Benevento

text: It was probably for the same reason that the triumphal arch, the Arch of Trajan, was erected there by the senate and people of Rome and constructed by the architect Apollodorus of Damascus in 114. The Arch of Trajan is one of the best-preserved Roman structures in the Campania. It repeats the formula of the Arch of Titus in the Roman Forum, with reliefs of Trajan's life and exploits of his reign. Some of the sculptures are in the British Museum. Successive emperors seem to have bestowed on the city accessions of territory, and erected, or at least given name to, various public buildings. For administrative purposes it was first included, together with the rest of the Hirpini, in the second region of Augustus, but was afterwards annexed to Campania and placed under the control of the consular of that province. Its inhabitants were included in the Stellatine tribe. Beneventum retained its importance down to the close of the Empire, and though during the Gothic wars it was taken by Totila, and its walls razed to the ground, they were restored, as well as its public buildings, shortly after; and P. Diaconus speaks of it as a very wealthy city, and the capital of all the surrounding provinces.


title: Benevento

text: Beneventum indeed seems to have been a place of much literary cultivation; it was the birthplace of Lucius Orbilius Pupillus, who long continued to teach in his native city before he removed to Rome, and was honored with a statue by his fellow-townsmen; while existing inscriptions record similar honors paid to another grammarian, Rutilius Aelianus, as well as to orators and poets, apparently only of local celebrity.


title: Benevento

text: The territory of Beneventum under the Roman Empire was of very considerable extent. Towards the west it included that of "Caudium", with the exception of the town itself; to the north it extended as far as the river Tamarus (now Tammaro), including the village of Pago Veiano, which, as we learn from an inscription, was anciently called "Pagus Veianus"; on the northeast it comprised the town of Aequum Tuticum (now "Saint Eleutherio hamlet", between Ariano Irpino and Castelfranco in Miscano), and on the east and south bordered on the territories of Aeclanum (now Mirabella Eclano) and Abellinum (now Avellino). An inscription has preserved to us the names of several of the pagi or villages dependent upon Beneventum, but their sites cannot be identified.


title: Benevento

text: The city's most ancient coins bear the legend "Malies" or "Maliesa", which have been supposed to belong to the Samnite, or pre-Samnite, Maleventum. Coins with the legend "BENVENTOD" (an old Latin – or Samnite – form for Beneventor-um), must have been struck after it became a Latin colony.


title: Benevento

text: Not long after it had been sacked by Totila and its walls razed (545), Benevento became the seat of a powerful Lombard duchy. The circumstances of the creation of duchy of Benevento are disputed. Lombards were present in southern Italy well before the complete conquest of the Po Valley: the duchy would have been founded in 576 by some soldiers led by Zotto, autonomously from the Lombard king.


title: Benevento

text: Zotto's successor was Arechis I (died in 640), from the Duchy of Friuli, who captured Capua and Crotone, sacked the Byzantine Amalfi but was unable to capture Naples. After his reign the Eastern Roman Empire had only Naples, Amalfi, Gaeta, Sorrento, the tip of Calabria and the maritime cities of Apulia left in southern Italy.


title: Benevento

text: In the following decades, Benevento added some territories to the Roman-Byzantine duchy by conquest, but the main enemy was now the northern Lombard Kingdom itself. King Liutprand intervened several times, imposing a candidate of his own to the realm's succession; his successor Ratchis declared the duchies of Spoleto and Benevento to be foreign countries where it was forbidden to travel without royal permission.


title: Benevento

text: With the collapse of the Lombard Kingdom in 773, Duke Arechis II was elevated to Prince under the new Frankish Empire, in compensation for having some of his territory transferred back to the Papal States.


title: Benevento

text: In November 774, the Duke of Benevento Duke Arechis II, immediately after being crowned prince, decided to send members of the Benevento Cortisani and Baccari families to occupy the central area of the Biferno river in the neighboring region of Molise, seeking to expand their political dominance.


title: Benevento

text: Benevento was acclaimed by a chronicler as a "second Pavia"— "Ticinum geminum"— after the Lombard capital was lost. This principality was short-lived: in 851, Salerno broke off under Siconulf and, by the end of that century, Capua was independent as well. Benevento was ruled again by the Byzantines between 891 and 895.


title: Benevento

text: The so-called "Langobardia minor" was unified for the last time by Duke Pandolfo Testa di Ferro, who expanded his extensive control in the Mezzogiorno from his base in Benevento and Capua. Before his death (March 981), he had also gained the title of Duke of Spoleto from Emperor Otto I. However, both Benevento and Salerno rebelled to his son and heir, Pandulf II.


title: Benevento

text: The first decades of the 11th century saw two more German-descended rulers in southern Italy: Henry II, conquered in 1022 both Capua and Benevento, but returned after the failed siege of Troia. Conrad II obtained similar results in 1038. In these years the three states (Benevento, Capua, and Salerno) were often engaged in local wars and disputes that favoured the rise of the Normans from mercenaries to ruler of the whole of Southern Italy. The greatest of them was Robert Guiscard, who captured Benevento in 1053 after the Emperor Henry III had first authorised its conquest in 1047 when Pandulf III and Landulf VI shut the gates to him. These princes were later expelled from the city and then recalled after the pope failed to defend it from Guiscard. The city fell to Normans in 1077. It was a papal city until after 1081.


title: Benevento

text: Benevento passed to the papacy peacefully when the emperor Henry III ceded it to Leo IX, in exchange for the pope's consent to the establishment of the Diocese of Bamberg (1053). Landulf II, Archbishop of Benevento, promoted reform, but also allied with the Normans. He was deposed for two years. Benevento was the cornerstone of the papacy's temporal powers in southern Italy. The papacy ruled it by appointed rectors, seated in a palace, and the principality continued to be a papal possession until 1806, when Napoleon granted it to his minister Talleyrand with the title of sovereign prince. Talleyrand was never to settle down and actually rule his new principality; in 1815 Benevento was returned to the papacy. It was united with Italy in 1860.


title: Benevento

text: Several popes personally visited Benevento. In 1128 Honorius II tried inviting Roger II of Sicily into the city in order to discuss peace terms, however, Roger refused to enter the city, for he felt unsafe within the city. Thus the two instead met on a bridge near Benevento. Only a year later, the city revolted against the Papal rule and Honorius had to beg Roger for assistance.


title: Benevento

text: In 1130, Anacletus II fled from Rome to the safety of Benevento after hearing that his rival, Innocent II was gaining recognition in the north. When Anacletus created Roger the king of Sicily, he granted Roger the right to conscript the citizens of the city into military service, despite city itself remaining under Papal rule. The declaration was not well received, as the citizens became afraid that the city was about to be annexed into the newly found kingdom. Therefore, when Roger made his move against Robert of Capua and began the civil war, Benevento sided with Robert and ousted Anacletus's supporters from the city.


title: Benevento

text: Manfred of Sicily lost his life in 1266 in battle with Charles of Anjou not far from the town, in the course of the Battle of Benevento.


title: Benevento

text: After the unification of Italy, Benevento was made provincial capital of the new Province of Benevento, comprising territories formerly belonging to the dissolved Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (, Molise, Terra di Lavoro, Capitanata). In the following decades, the town saw considerable expansion and modernization; the local economy became increasingly diversified, with the traditional agricultural sector (especially the cultivation of tobacco and cereals) being joined by growing confectionery, mechanical, liquor, lumber and brickmaking industries.


title: Benevento

text: During the 1950s Benevento was mainly ruled by Monarchist or MSI mayors, and then for three decades (until the 1990s) by the Christian Democracy. Public sector grew considerably during this period, becoming a prime source of employment for many inhabitants of the province; the town also saw increasing demographic expansion, resulting in a somewhat incontrolled building boom. In recent years, several urban renewal projects have been carried out in the old city centre, and Benevento has become the seat of the University of Sannio and several research institutes.


title: Benevento

text: Epigraphical evidence show that a Jewish community had existed in Benevento since the fifth century at least. At the 10th century, Jewish traveller Ahimaaz ben Paltiel describes in his chronicle the Jewish community of Benevento, among other southern Italy towns. One of his relatives established a Yeshiva in town and a large part of his family ended residing in Benevento. In 1065, prince Landulf IV of Benevento forced a number of Jews to convert to Christianity. He was reproved for doing that by Pope Alexander II. When Jewish traveller Benjamin of Tudela visited Benevento in 1159 or 1165, he described 200 Jewish families living in it. Being under Papal rule (unlike the rest of southern Italy), the Jewish community of Benevento was not expelled, as most other southern Italy Jewish communities in 1541. Nevertheless, they were expelled from town later on 1569, under Pope Paul IV. In 1617 the Jewish community was given permission to settle back in town, though 13 years later they were expelled once again after being accused of Well poisoning. Since then, there was no organized Jewish community in Benevento. Nevertheless, Jews had lived in Benevento in an unorganized manner during the past centuries, in addition to a few Israeli Jews living in town in recent years, occasionally suffering of Anti-Semitic incidents.


title: Benevento

text: The importance of Benevento in classical times is vouched for by the many remains of antiquity which it possesses, of which the most famous is the triumphal arch erected in honour of Trajan by the senate and people of Rome in 114, with important reliefs relating to its history. Enclosed in the walls, this construction marked the entrance in Benevento of the Via Traiana, the road built by the Spanish emperor to shorten the path from Rome to Brindisi. The reliefs show the civil and military deeds of Trajan. A great part of the arch is decorated with scenes in bas relief: particularly the pillars directed to the town represent scenes of peace and military scenes. The two faces of the Arch are identical in the arrangement of the reliefs. That the reliefs are for the most part not merely fanciful, nor chiefly conventional and decorative in theme and treatment, is also clear at first sight. They plainly refer to actual events and actions in the life of Trajan, whose effigy, sometimes decapitated, appears in all but two of them, one of which is the only one on all the Arch that is substantially defective. The height of the monument is of 15,60 meter, with an arch of 8 meter, a structure composed of limestone rocks and a marble covering. The arch was put during the Middle Age in the fenced area of the town, in order to represent the "Porta Aurea," on account of its fair proportions and the wealth and excellence of its sculptural adornments.


title: Benevento

text: Many inscriptions and ancient fragments may be seen built into the old houses. In 1903 the foundations of the Temple of Isis were discovered close to the Arch of Trajan, and many fragments of fine sculptures in both the Egyptian and the Greco-Roman style belonging to it were found. They had apparently been used as the foundation of a portion of the city wall, reconstructed in 663 under the fear of an attack by the Byzantine emperor Constans II, the temple having been destroyed by order of the bishop, St Barbatus, to provide the necessary material (A. Meomartini, 0. Marucchi and L. Savignoni in "Notizie degli Scavi", 1904, 107 sqq.).


title: Benevento

text: The church of "Santa Sofia" is a circular Lombard edifice dating to c. 760, now modernized, of small proportions, and is one of the main examples of religious Lombard architecture. The plan consists of a central hexagon with, at each vertex, columns taken from the temple of Isis; these are connected by arches which support the cupola. The inner hexagon is in turn enclosed in a decagonal ring with eight white limestone pillars and two columns next to the entrance. The church has a fine cloister of the 12th century, constructed in part of fragments of earlier buildings. This cloister today is the location of the Museo del Sannio. The church interior was once totally frescoed by Byzantine artists: fragments of these paintings, portraying the "Histories of Christ", can be still seen in the two side apses.


title: Benevento

text: Santa Sofia was almost destroyed by the earthquake of 1688, and rebuilt in Baroque forms by commission of the then cardinal Orsini of Benevento (later Pope Benedict XIII). The original forms were hidden, and were recovered only after the discussed restoration of 1951.


title: Benevento

text: In 2011, it became a UNESCO World Heritage Site as part of a group of seven inscribed as Longobards in Italy, Places of Power (568-774 A.D.).


title: Benevento

text: The Cathedral of Santa Maria Assunta, with its arcaded façade and incomplete square campanile (begun in 1279 by the archbishop Romano Capodiferro) dates from the 9th century. It was rebuilt in 1114, the façade inspired by the Pisan Gothic style. Its bronze doors, adorned with bas-reliefs, are notable example of Romanesque art which may belong to the beginning of the 13th century. The interior is in the form of a basilica, the double aisles carried on ancient columns. There are ambones resting on columns supported by lions, and decorated with reliefs and coloured marble mosaic, and a candelabrum of 1311. A marble statue of the apostle San Bartolomeo, by Nicola da Monteforte, is also from the 14th century. The cathedral also contains a statue of St. Giuseppe Moscati, a native of the area. The cathedral was completely destroyed in 1943 because of bombardments: what remained of the cathedral were just the bell tower, the façade and the crypt. Another testimony of the cathedral is the XII century bronze door, the Janua Major, composed of 72 tiles with bas relief, whose fragments were rebuilt after the Second World War.


title: Benevento

text: The current monument, with its modern aspect, was completed in 1965 and restored between 2005 and 2012.


title: Benevento

text: The castle of Benevento, best known as "Rocca dei Rettori" or "Rocca di Manfredi", stands at the highest point of the town, commanding the valley of the rivers Sabato and Calore, and the two main ancient roads Via Appia and Via Traiana. The site had been already used by the Samnites, who had constructed here a set of defensive terraces, and the Romans, with a thermal plant ("Castellum aquae"), whose remains can be still seen in the castle garden. The Benedictines had a monastery there. It received the current name in the Middle Ages, when it became the seat of the Papal governors, the "Rettori".


title: Benevento

text: The castle is in fact made by two distinct edifices: the Torrione ("Big Tower"), which was built by the Lombards starting from 871, and the Palazzo dei Governatori, built by the Popes from 1320.


title: Benevento

text: Frazioni, or wards, include: Acquafredda, Cancelleria, Capodimonte, Caprarella, Cardoncielli, Cardoni, Cellarulo, Chiumiento, Ciancelle, Ciofani, Cretazzo, Epitaffio, Francavilla, Gran Potenza, Imperatore, Lammia, Madonna della Salute, Masseria del Ponte, Masseria La Vipera, Mascambruni, Montecalvo, Olivola, Pacevecchia, Pamparuottolo, Pantano, Perrottiello, Piano Cappelle, Pino, Ponte Corvo, Rosetiello, Ripa Zecca, Roseto, Santa Clementina, San Chirico, San Cumano (anc. "Nuceriola"), San Domenico, San Giovanni a Caprara, Sant'Angelo a Piesco, San Vitale, Scafa, Serretelle, Sponsilli, Torre Alfieri, and Vallereccia.


title: Benevento

text: The economy of Benevento area is traditionally agricultural. Main products include vine, olives and tobacco. The main industry is that of food processing (sweets and pasta), although textile, mechanics, and construction companies are present.


title: Benevento

text: The Stadio Ciro Vigorito is a multi-use stadium in Benevento, which is mostly used as the home venue of Serie B side Benevento Calcio.


title: Benevento

text: Benevento is connected to Naples through the modern SS7 Appia state road, and then local roads starting from Arienzo. It is from the Naples-Bari A16 motorway. The SS372 Telesina state road allows reaching the A1 Naples-Rome, leading to the latter in less than three hours.


title: Benevento

text: Benevento railway station, on the Caserta-Foggia railway, has fast connections from Rome to Avellino, Bari and Lecce. Trains to Campobasso have been mostly replaced by bus services. The connection to Naples is ensured by three stations on the MetroCampania NordEst inter-urban metro line.


title: Benevento

text: Recently, in May 2021, the company Italo also inaugurated its new route that passes by Benevento and connects the city with Milan (in 5 hours and a half) and Rome (2 hours).


title: Demographics of Ethiopia

text: The demographics of Ethiopia encompass the demographic features of inhabitants in Ethiopia, including ethnicity, languages, population density, education level, health, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population.


title: Demographics of Ethiopia

text: The country's population is highly diverse, comprising over 90 different ethnic groups. Most people in Ethiopia speak Afroasiatic languages, mainly of the Semitic or Cushitic branches. Among these are the Oromo, Amhara, Somali and Tigrayans, who together constitute around three-quarters of the population.


title: Demographics of Ethiopia

text: Nilo-Saharan-speaking Nilotic ethnic minorities also inhabit the southern regions of the country, particularly in areas bordering South Sudan. Among these are the Mursi and Anuak.


title: Demographics of Ethiopia

text: Ethiopia, like most countries in Africa, is a multi-ethnic state. Although the original physical differences between the major ethnic groups have been blurred by centuries, if not millennia, of intermarriage, there remain many who are distinct and unique.


title: Demographics of Ethiopia

text: Ethnic differences may also be observed from the great variety of languages spoken in the country, of which there are eighty-three, with 200 dialects. These can be broken into four main groups: Semitic, Cushitic, Omotic, and Nilo-Saharan.


title: Demographics of Ethiopia

text: The Semitic languages of Ethiopia are related to both Hebrew and Arabic. The Ethiopian languages of this family are derived from Ethio-Semitic the ancestor of Ge'ez, the language of the ancient Axumite kingdom, which was also the language of the country's literature prior to the mid-nineteenth century, as well as parts of most present-day church services.


title: Demographics of Ethiopia

text: Ethiopia's Semitic languages are today spoken mainly in the north and centre of the country. The most important of them in the north is Tigrinya, which is used throughout Tigray.


title: Demographics of Ethiopia

text: The principal Semitic language of the north-west and centre of the country is Amharic, which is the language of the Amhara Region. Moreover, Amharic is also one of the official working languages of Ethiopia. Moreover, Amharic is also the language of much modern Ethiopian literature.


title: Demographics of Ethiopia

text: Two other Semitic languages are spoken to the south and east of Addis Ababa: the Gurage languages, a cluster of languages used by the Gurage in an area to the south of the capital, and Adare, a tongue spoken only within the old walled city of Harar and used by the Adare people, also known as Harrari.


title: Demographics of Ethiopia

text: The Cushitic languages, which are less closely related than the Semitic, are found mainly in the south of the country. The most important tongue in this group is Oromo. It is used in a wide stretch of the country, including Oromia, Dire Dawa, Harari Region, Oromia Zone and Addis Ababa and the surrounding Special Zone.


title: Demographics of Ethiopia

text: Oromo serves as one of the official working languages of Ethiopia and is also the working language of several of the states within the Ethiopian federal system including Oromia, Harar and Dire Dawa regional states and of the Oromia Zone in the Amhara Region.


title: Demographics of Ethiopia

text: Other Cushitic languages in the area comprise Somali, which is spoken by the Somali in the Somali Region to the east, as well as in the neighboring Somali Republic and parts of Djibouti, and the Sidamo language, used in the Sidama Region. Cushitic languages, however, are also used in the north of the country, namely Afar, spoken in the Afar Region and the northern half of the Djibouti Republic; Saho, in parts of Tigray; and Agaw, a group of languages in various pockets in western and northern Ethiopia.


title: Demographics of Ethiopia

text: The Omotic group of languages, which comprise considerably fewer speakers than either the Semitic or the Cushitic languages, are spoken in the south-west of the country. They have been given that name because they are spoken in the general area of the Omo River.


title: Demographics of Ethiopia

text: The Nilo-Saharan languages are spoken in a wide arc of the country towards the Sudan and South-Sudan frontier. They include, from north to south, Gumuz and Berta in the Benishangul-Gumuz Region, and Anuak in Gambela Region.


title: Demographics of Ethiopia

text: Various religions are adhered to in Ethiopia. Most Christians live in the highlands, whereas Muslims mainly inhabit the lowlands. Adherents of traditional faiths are primarily concentrated in the southern regions.


title: Demographics of Ethiopia

text: According to the Ethiopian Central Statistical Agency (2007 census), the national religious composition is Ethiopian Orthodox 43.5%, Protestantism 18.6%, Roman Catholicism 0.7%, Islam 33.9%, traditional 2.6%, and others 0.6%.


title: Demographics of Ethiopia

text: According to , the total population was in , compared to 18,434,000 in 1950. The proportion of children below the age of 15 in 2010 was 41.5%, 55.8% was between 15 and 65 years of age, while 3.3% was 65 years or older. The average age was 25.1.


title: Demographics of Ethiopia

text: Registration of vital events in Ethiopia is incomplete. The Population Department of the United Nations prepared the following estimates:


title: Demographics of Ethiopia

text: CBR = crude birth rate (per 1,000); CDR = crude death rate (per 1,000); NC = natural change (per 1,000); IMR = infant mortality rate per 1,000 births; TFR = total fertility rate (number of children per woman); IMR = infant mortality rate per 1,000 births


title: Demographics of Ethiopia

text: Ethiopian Orthodox 43.8%, Muslim 31.3%, Protestant 22.8%, Catholic 0.7%, traditional 0.6%, other 0.8% (2016 est.)


title: Demographics of Ethiopia

text: note: on 21 March 2022, the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) issued a Travel Alert for polio in Africa; Ethiopia is currently considered a high risk to travelers for circulating vaccine-derived polioviruses (cVDPV); vaccine-derived poliovirus (VDPV) is a strain of the weakened poliovirus that was initially included in oral polio vaccine (OPV) and that has changed over time and behaves more like the wild or naturally occurring virus; this means it can be spread more easily to people who are unvaccinated against polio and who come in contact with the stool or respiratory secretions, such as from a sneeze, of an “infected” person who received oral polio vaccine; the CDC recommends that before any international travel, anyone unvaccinated, incompletely vaccinated, or with an unknown polio vaccination status should complete the routine polio vaccine series; before travel to any high-risk destination, CDC recommends that adults who previously completed the full, routine polio vaccine series receive a single, lifetime booster dose of polio vaccine


title: Michele Ferrero

text: Michele Ferrero (; 26 April 1925 – 14 February 2015) was an Italian billionaire businessman. He owned the chocolate manufacturer Ferrero SpA, Europe's second largest confectionery company (at the time of his death), which he developed from the small bakery and café of his father in Alba, Piedmont. His first big success was adding vegetable oil to the traditional "gianduja" paste to make the popular spread Nutella.


title: Michele Ferrero

text: Michele Ferrero was born on 26 April 1925 in Dogliani, the son of Pietro Ferrero, who founded the Ferrero company, and his wife Piera Cillario.


title: Michele Ferrero

text: He was the richest person in Italy, with a personal wealth of $26bn surpassing Silvio Berlusconi in March 2008. In May 2014, the Bloomberg Billionaires Index listed Ferrero as the 20th richest person in the world.


title: Michele Ferrero

text: Ferrero's brands include Nutella, Mon Chéri, Kinder Chocolate, Ferrero Rocher, Tic Tacs and Kinder Eggs.


title: Michele Ferrero

text: From 1997, his sons, Giovanni Ferrero and Pietro Ferrero, co-led the company. After Pietro died on 18 April 2011, in an accident in South Africa, Giovanni became the sole CEO.


title: Michele Ferrero

text: Ferrero married Maria Franca Fissolo in 1962, and they had two sons together, Giovanni Ferrero and Pietro Ferrero Jr.


title: Michele Ferrero

text: He was a fervent Catholic. Ferrero visited the Lourdes shrine annually, and had a Madonna placed in every factory and office.


title: SummerSlam (2004)

text: The 2004 SummerSlam was the 17th annual SummerSlam professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE). It was held for wrestlers from the promotion's Raw and SmackDown! brand divisions. The event took place on August 15, 2004, at the Air Canada Centre in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Nine matches were contested at the event, including one on the "Sunday Night Heat" pre-show.


title: SummerSlam (2004)

text: The main match on the Raw brand was Chris Benoit versus Randy Orton for the World Heavyweight Championship, which Orton won by pinfall after performing an RKO. The predominant match on the SmackDown! brand was John "Bradshaw" Layfield (JBL) versus The Undertaker for the WWE Championship, which JBL won after Undertaker was disqualified. The featured matches on the undercard included Kurt Angle versus Eddie Guerrero and Triple H versus Eugene.


title: SummerSlam (2004)

text: SummerSlam is an annual pay-per-view (PPV), produced every summer by World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) since 1988. Dubbed "The Biggest Party of the Summer," it is one of the promotion's original four pay-per-views, along with WrestleMania, SummerSlam, and Survivor Series, referred to as the "Big Four". It has since become considered WWE's second biggest event of the year behind WrestleMania. The 2004 event was the 17th event in the SummerSlam chronology and featured wrestlers from the Raw and SmackDown! brands. It was scheduled to be held on August 15, 2004, at the Air Canada Centre in Toronto, Ontario, Canada.


title: SummerSlam (2004)

text: The main feud heading into SummerSlam on the Raw brand was between Chris Benoit and Randy Orton, with the two feuding over the World Heavyweight Championship. At Vengeance, Benoit defeated Triple H to retain the title. On the July 26 episode of "Raw", Orton won a 20-man battle royal, last eliminating Chris Jericho, to become the number one contender to the title at SummerSlam. Also that night, Benoit defeated Triple H in a 60-minute Iron Man match to retain the title with the help of Eugene. On the August 2 episode of "Raw", Evolution (Orton, Batista, and Ric Flair) defeated Benoit, Edge, and Jericho in a six man tag team match when Orton pinned Benoit following an RKO. On the August 9 episode of "Raw", Benoit defeated Orton and Triple H in a Handicap match by disqualification.


title: SummerSlam (2004)

text: The primary feud on the SmackDown! brand was between John "Bradshaw" Layfield (JBL) and The Undertaker, over the WWE Championship. JBL had won the title two months prior at The Great American Bash by defeating then-champion Eddie Guerrero in a Texas Bullrope match. On the July 22 episode of "SmackDown!", JBL defeated a jobber to retain the title. After the match, Undertaker came out and challenged JBL to a match at SummerSlam. On the August 5 episode of "SmackDown!", as JBL called out Undertaker, a midget wrestler came out and began to imitate the real Undertaker. The real Undertaker came out shortly afterwards and attacked JBL, until Orlando Jordan came out to help him. On the August 12 episode of "SmackDown!", Undertaker defeated Jordan by disqualification after JBL interfered and executed a Clothesline from Hell on Undertaker.


title: SummerSlam (2004)

text: The secondary feud on the SmackDown! brand was between Kurt Angle and Eddie Guerrero. The feud first started at WrestleMania XX, when Guerrero defeated Angle to successfully retain the WWE Championship. Guerrero lost the title to John "Bradshaw" Layfield (JBL) at The Great American Bash, when Angle, then-SmackDown! General Manager, screwed Guerrero and declared JBL the winner. On the July 15 episode of "SmackDown!", JBL defeated Guerrero in a Steel Cage match to retain the title. Towards the end of the match, El Gran Luchadore (portrayed by Angle) interfered, giving JBL enough time to escape the cage and win the match. After the match ended, Guerrero attacked El Gran Luchadore and pulled off his mask, revealing him to be Angle. On the July 22 episode of "SmackDown!", Vince McMahon fired Angle as SmackDown! General Manager and scheduled a match between Angle and Guerrero for SummerSlam.


title: SummerSlam (2004)

text: The secondary feud on the Raw brand was between Triple H and Eugene. The feud first started on the May 17 episode of "Raw", during an in-ring segment with The Rock, Eugene revealed that his favorite wrestler was in fact Triple H due to Eugene's adoration of "playing games". Capitalizing on this opportunity, Triple H began to befriend the star-struck and naive Eugene even making the young wrestler an honorary member of Triple H's stable Evolution. However, Triple H soon revealed that this was all a calculated ploy and that he planned to utilize Eugene to help him win back the World Heavyweight Championship from Chris Benoit. Yet, Triple H's plan failed miserably when during his title match with Benoit at Vengeance, Eugene inadvertently hit him with a steel chair costing him the match and the championship. On the July 12 episode of "Raw", Triple H attacked Eugene in the ring after falsely implying that he had forgiven him for what happened at Vengeance. On the July 26 episode of "Raw", Eugene would return to exact a degree of revenge by costing Triple H his re-match with Benoit. On the August 2 episode of "Raw", Triple H demanded a match between the two at SummerSlam, to which Raw General Manager Eric Bischoff agreed.


title: SummerSlam (2004)

text: Before the event went live on pay-per-view, Rob Van Dam defeated René Duprée in a match taped for "Sunday Night Heat". The first match was a six-man tag team match between The Dudleys (Bubba Ray Dudley, D-Von Dudley, and Spike Dudley) and the team of Rey Mysterio, Billy Kidman, and Paul London. Spike pinned Kidman after a 3D from Bubba Ray and D-Von to win the match for his team.


title: SummerSlam (2004)

text: The next match was between Kane and Matt Hardy in a "Till Death To Us Part" match. Hardy gained control over Kane after performing a Twist of Fate on Kane outside of the ring and attacking him with the ring bell. Kane then countered a suplex attempt by Hardy into a chokeslam from the top rope to win the match. As a result of the pre-match stipulation, Lita was forced to marry Kane, as part of their on-going storyline.


title: SummerSlam (2004)

text: The third match was between John Cena and Booker T in the first match of a "Best of 5 series" for the WWE United States Championship. Early in the match, Cena gained the advantage over Booker. In the end, Booker performed a scissors kick on Cena, who retaliated by performing an FU to win the match and go up 1-0 in the series.


title: SummerSlam (2004)

text: The following match was a Triple Threat match for the WWE Intercontinental Championship involving Edge, Batista and Chris Jericho. During the match, Edge and Jericho performed double-team maneuvers onto Batista. Edge performed a spear on Jericho to retain the title.


title: SummerSlam (2004)

text: The fifth match was between Kurt Angle and Eddie Guerrero. Angle gained control over Guerrero early on in the match. Mid-match, the referee was knocked out, and as a result, Guerrero took his boot off and used it to hit both Angle and Luther Reigns, who was at ringside with Angle and tried to get involved in the match. The match concluded when Angle was able to counter a frog splash and forced Guerrero to submit to the Ankle Lock.


title: SummerSlam (2004)

text: The next match was between Triple H and Eugene. At the start of the match, Triple H pretended to attack the ring announcer, Lilian Garcia, as a distraction to attack Eugene. Eugene countered Triple H's attacks by executing a Rock Bottom. During the match, Ric Flair attempted to interfere but he was ejected by the referee. As Flair was leaving from ringside, William Regal hit Flair with a pair of brass knuckles. Triple H performed a Pedigree on Eugene to win the match.


title: SummerSlam (2004)

text: The following match was for the WWE Championship between John "Bradshaw" Layfield (JBL) and The Undertaker. Immediately, JBL and Undertaker started the match outside of the ring. Mid-match, the referee was knocked out. Orlando Jordan passed JBL the title belt, which JBL used to hit Undertaker with. Undertaker was disqualified after the referee saw him hit JBL with the title belt, meaning JBL retained the title. Undertaker executed a chokeslam to JBL through the roof of JBL's limousine, leading to JBL being taken out of the arena on a stretcher.


title: SummerSlam (2004)

text: The main event was between Chris Benoit and Randy Orton for the World Heavyweight Championship. Orton attempted to apply a Sharpshooter on Benoit but Benoit applied a Sharpshooter on Orton. Later in the match, Benoit performed seven German suplexes on Orton but Orton blocked a diving headbutt. In the end, Benoit attempted to apply the Crippler Crossface but Orton countered into an RKO to win the title. Following the match whilst Orton was celebrating his victory, Benoit returned to the ring and offered Orton a handshake, telling him to "be a man", which Orton accepted.


title: SummerSlam (2004)

text: On the August 16 episode of "Raw", Randy Orton defeated Chris Benoit in a rematch to retain the World Heavyweight Championship. After the match, Evolution (Batista, Ric Flair, and Triple H), threw Orton a mock celebration, only to reveal that they were not pleased with his new victory. While Batista had Orton propped on his shoulders, Triple H gave him a pleased thumbs up, but abruptly changed it to a thumbs-down. He then told Batista to drop Orton to the mat, and Flair and Batista attacked Orton as Triple H told him that he was nothing without Evolution, and decided that Orton was on his own. On the August 23 episode of "Raw", Triple H told Orton to give him the title or "pay the price". Orton refused, and then he spat in Triple H's face and hit him with the title belt turning Orton into a face. Raw General Manager Eric Bischoff then scheduled a match between Orton and Triple H for the title at Unforgiven. At Unforgiven, Orton lost the title when he was pinned by Triple H.


title: SummerSlam (2004)

text: The feud between John "Bradshaw" Layfield (JBL) and The Undertaker continued. The next few weeks on "SmackDown!", JBL wore a neck brace, to signify that he was recuperating from Undertaker's chokeslam. On the August 26 episode of "SmackDown!", Orlando Jordan defended the WWE Championship for JBL against The Undertaker. Undertaker won the match via disqualification following interference from JBL; as a result, JBL retained the title. The following week on "SmackDown!", General Manager Theodore Long scheduled a Last Ride match at No Mercy between JBL and Undertaker. At No Mercy, JBL retained the title after interference by Heidenreich.


title: Strongly connected component

text: In the mathematical theory of directed graphs, a graph is said to be strongly connected if every vertex is reachable from every other vertex. The strongly connected components of an arbitrary directed graph form a partition into subgraphs that are themselves strongly connected. It is possible to test the strong connectivity of a graph, or to find its strongly connected components, in linear time (that is, Θ("V" + "E")).


title: Strongly connected component

text: A directed graph is called strongly connected if there is a path in each direction between each pair of vertices of the graph. That is, a path exists from the first vertex in the pair to the second, and another path exists from the second vertex to the first.


title: Strongly connected component

text: In a directed graph "G" that may not itself be strongly connected, a pair of vertices "u" and "v" are said to be strongly connected to each other if there is a path in each direction between them.


title: Strongly connected component

text: The binary relation of being strongly connected is an equivalence relation, and the induced subgraphs of its equivalence classes are called strongly connected components.


title: Strongly connected component

text: Equivalently, a strongly connected component of a directed graph "G" is a subgraph that is strongly connected, and is maximal with this property: no additional edges or vertices from "G" can be included in the subgraph without breaking its property of being strongly connected. The collection of strongly connected components forms a partition of the set of vertices of "G". A strongly connected component formula_1 is called "trivial" when formula_1 consists of a single vertex which is not connected to itself with an edge and "non-trivial" otherwise.


title: Strongly connected component

text: If each strongly connected component is contracted to a single vertex, the resulting graph is a directed acyclic graph, the condensation of "G". A directed graph is acyclic if and only if it has no strongly connected subgraphs with more than one vertex, because a directed cycle is strongly connected and every non-trivial strongly connected component contains at least one directed cycle.


title: Strongly connected component

text: Although Kosaraju's algorithm is conceptually simple, Tarjan's and the path-based algorithm require only one depth-first search rather than two.


title: Strongly connected component

text: Previous linear-time algorithms are based on depth-first search which is generally considered hard to parallelize. Fleischer et al. in 2000 proposed a divide-and-conquer approach based on reachability queries, and such algorithms are usually called reachability-based SCC algorithms. The idea of this approach is to pick a random pivot vertex and apply forward and backward reachability queries from this vertex. The two queries partition the vertex set into 4 subsets: vertices reached by both, either one, or none of the searches. One can show that a strongly connected component has to be contained in one of the subsets. The vertex subset reached by both searches forms a strongly connected component, and the algorithm then recurses on the other 3 subsets.


title: Strongly connected component

text: The expected sequential running time of this algorithm is shown to be O("n" log "n"), a factor of O(log "n") more than the classic algorithms. The parallelism comes from: (1) the reachability queries can be parallelized more easily (e.g. by a breadth-first search (BFS), and it can be fast if the diameter of the graph is small); and (2) the independence between the subtasks in the divide-and-conquer process.


title: Strongly connected component

text: This algorithm performs well on real-world graphs, but does not have theoretical guarantee on the parallelism (consider if a graph has no edges, the algorithm requires O("n") levels of recursions).


title: Strongly connected component

text: Blelloch et al. in 2016 shows that if the reachability queries are applied in a random order, the cost bound of O("n" log "n") still holds. Furthermore, the queries then can be batched in a prefix-doubling manner (i.e. 1, 2, 4, 8 queries) and run simultaneously in one round. The overall span of this algorithm is log "n" reachability queries, which is probably the optimal parallelism that can be achieved using the reachability-based approach.


title: Strongly connected component

text: Peter M. Maurer describes an algorithm for generating random strongly connected graphs, based on a modification of an algorithm for strong connectivity augmentation, the problem of adding as few edges as possible to make a graph strongly connected. When used in conjunction with the Gilbert or Erdős-Rényi models with node relabelling, the algorithm is capable of generating any strongly connected graph on "n" nodes, without restriction on the kinds of structures that can be generated.


title: Strongly connected component

text: Algorithms for finding strongly connected components may be used to solve 2-satisfiability problems (systems of Boolean variables with constraints on the values of pairs of variables): as showed, a 2-satisfiability instance is unsatisfiable if and only if there is a variable "v" such that "v" and its complement are both contained in the same strongly connected component of the implication graph of the instance.


title: Strongly connected component

text: Strongly connected components are also used to compute the Dulmage–Mendelsohn decomposition, a classification of the edges of a bipartite graph, according to whether or not they can be part of a perfect matching in the graph.


title: Strongly connected component

text: A directed graph is strongly connected if and only if it has an ear decomposition, a partition of the edges into a sequence of directed paths and cycles such that the first subgraph in the sequence is a cycle, and each subsequent subgraph is either a cycle sharing one vertex with previous subgraphs, or a path sharing its two endpoints with previous subgraphs.


title: Strongly connected component

text: According to Robbins' theorem, an undirected graph may be oriented in such a way that it becomes strongly connected, if and only if it is 2-edge-connected. One way to prove this result is to find an ear decomposition of the underlying undirected graph and then orient each ear consistently.


title: Kabhi Kabhie

text: Kabhi Kabhie (English: "Sometimes") is a 1976 Indian musical romantic drama film produced and directed by Yash Chopra and written by Pamela Chopra starring an ensemble cast of Amitabh Bachchan, Raakhee, Shashi Kapoor, Waheeda Rehman, Rishi Kapoor and Neetu Singh. This was Yash Chopra's second directorial film with Amitabh Bachchan and Shashi Kapoor in the lead roles after "Deewaar" (1975) and was particularly noted for its soundtrack compositions by Khayyam, who won Best Music Director, while Sahir Ludhianvi won Best Lyricist for "Kabhi Kabhie Mere Dil Mein" at the 24th Filmfare Awards. The song also earned Mukesh the Best Male Playback Singer. "Kabhi Kabhie" received highly positive reviews from critics upon release and earned an estimated 40 million at the box office.


title: Kabhi Kabhie

text: Amit Malhotra (Amitabh Bachchan), an upcoming poet, recites one of his poems at his college, where he meets fellow student Pooja (Raakhee), and they fall in love. After Pooja's parents arrange for her to marry an architect, Vijay Khanna (Shashi Kapoor), without her consent, Amit and Pooja agree to end their relationship, however Pooja's final request of Amit is that he continue his poetry, to which he refuses. A heartbroken Amit returns home and takes over his father's quarry company, and marries Anjali (Waheeda Rehman). Amit and Anjali have a daughter, Sweety (Naseem), while Pooja and Vijay have a son, Vikram (Rishi Kapoor), also known as "Vicky".


title: Kabhi Kabhie

text: Pooja becomes the host of a TV interview program, and one of her guests happens to be Amit, who has since become famous for the same anthology he gifted Pooja on her wedding night. When asked why he stopped writing poetry, Amit responds by talking about how his sorrow drove him away. Vijay sees Amit and Pooja afterwards, and he reveals he is a big fan of Amit's poetry. He correctly deduces that Amit's refusal to continue his writing was caused by heartbreak, and Amit angrily storms out.


title: Kabhi Kabhie

text: Pooja and Vijay's son, Vicky falls in love with Pinky (Neetu Singh), the daughter of Vijay's friend and doctor, and the two plan to get married. Pinky learns of her adoption and it is revealed the identity of her real mother is none other than Anjali, Amit's wife. Pinky travels to Amit's household and tries to get close to Anjali. While Anjali eventually acknowledges her existence and secretly showers her love on her reunited daughter, she does not reveal the relationship to her husband, fearing for her marriage, instead posing Pinky as her niece from Delhi.


title: Kabhi Kabhie

text: The situation is further complicated by Vicky's unexpected arrival in a bid to remain close to Pinky. The situation backfires when Sweety falls in love with Vicky. Seeing Sweety happy alongside Vicky, Anjali and Amit bring forward the idea of marriage between the two, causing Pinky to storm off angrily to the guest house in which Vicky is staying. Anjali watches as Pinky leaves Vicky's house and questions her, to which Pinky admits that Vicky is her fiancé.


title: Kabhi Kabhie

text: Knowing that Vicky and Pinky are in love and already due to be married, Anjali goes to Amit in an attempt to dissuade him from marrying Vicky and Sweety. Amit responds by accusing Anjali of favoring Pinky over Sweety. Realizing that Pinky is not just her "niece", Amit demands to know who Pinky really is, forcing Anjali to reveal that Pinky is her illegitimate daughter. A shocked Amit becomes furious with both Anjali and Pinky.


title: Kabhi Kabhie

text: Amit meets with an architect, who happens to be Vijay, Pooja's husband. As Amit stops by to pick Vijay and Pooja up for dinner, Pooja and Amit reflect on their past love for one another, which Vijay overhears, and realizes that Amit's mysterious aforementioned heartbreak was none other than his own wife, Pooja. An angry Vijay has a heart to heart conversation with Amit, and both come to terms with the past, which is witnessed by both Anjali and Pooja.


title: Kabhi Kabhie

text: Anjali apologizes to Amit for hiding the truth for so long, but Amit angrily rebuffs her, and a hurt Anjali decides to leave Amit. Sweety overlooks an intimate moment between Pinky and Vicky, and still in love with Vicky and not realizing his engagement, she cries and has a fit, causing Amit to slap her and call her a spoiled brat.


title: Kabhi Kabhie

text: Feeling abandoned by everyone, Sweety decides to commit suicide by riding her horse into one of the dynamite explosions in the quarry. Vicky chases after her on horseback, while Amit, Pinky, and Vijay follow close behind on vehicle. A spark from the explosion catches a pile of dry twigs, igniting a forest fire. Sweety dismounts and runs into the fire, followed by Vicky who attempts to dissuade her, revealing that him and Pinky are engaged, causing her to drop her anger.


title: Kabhi Kabhie

text: Amit rescues Vicky and Sweety, while Vijay rescues Pinky, and they all embrace. After the near death experience, Amit realizes his mistake and that he was wrong, and races home to stop Anjali from leaving. He arrives just in time, and they both tearfully reconcile, admitting they do love each other. Amit and Pooja put the past behind them and become friends anew, while Pinky and Vicky get married.


title: Kabhi Kabhie

text: The film's concept came to Yash Chopra while he was reading a poem by his longtime friend (and also the film's lyricist) Sahir Ludhianvi. The movie was shot in Kashmir, and Yash Chopra has claimed this to be one of his happiest experiences and he described the production as a "honeymoon", since the entire cast worked together as a family. The film also led to the reinvention of Amitabh Bachchan as a romantic poet who loses his love, which was a major departure from his earlier "angry-young-man" roles such as "Zanjeer" (1973), "Sholay" (1975) and "Deewaar" (1975). The film had been written with Raakhee in mind, and she had agreed to do it during the making of "Daag: A Poem of Love" (1973) but before production started she married lyricist Gulzar, who wanted her to retire from acting. However, after some persuasion from Yash Chopra, Gulzar let her do the film.


title: Kabhi Kabhie

text: The soundtrack was composed by Khayyam with lyrics by Sahir Ludhianvi, both of whom won Best Music and Best Lyricist at the 24th Filmfare Awards. The song "Kabhi Kabhie Mere Dil Mein" (Duet Version) sung by Mukesh and Lata Mangeshkar, topped the year end Annual list 1976 of Radio Ceylon radio show, "Binaca Geetmala". The soundtrack was listed at #7 on "Planet Bollywood"'s list of 100 Greatest Bollywood Soundtracks. Rakesh Budhu of "Planet Bollywood" gave 9.5 stars out of 10 stating, ""Kabhi Kabhie" will remain an ode to brilliant melody".


title: Cardiff City Stadium

text: The Cardiff City Stadium () is a stadium in the Leckwith area of Cardiff, Wales. It is the home of Cardiff City Football Club and the Wales national football team.


title: Cardiff City Stadium

text: Following expansion of the Ninian Stand in July 2014, the stadium officially holds 33,280 supporters. The stadium replaced Ninian Park as Cardiff City's home ground in 2009, and is managed by Cardiff City Stadium Ltd., which is owned by Cardiff City Football Club Holdings Ltd. It also hosted the home matches of the Cardiff Blues rugby union team until the 2011–12 season, although originally the Blues had a lease until 2029.


title: Cardiff City Stadium

text: After the Millennium Stadium, it is the second largest stadium in Cardiff and in Wales. The stadium is part of the Leckwith development, which also includes the Cardiff International Sports Stadium. A branded sponsor name will be assigned as and when the naming rights are sold. The stadium was officially opened on 22 July 2009, with Cardiff City playing a friendly match against Celtic.


title: Cardiff City Stadium

text: The stadium was built on the site of the former Cardiff Athletics Stadium and forms part of the larger Leckwith development. The development was estimated to cost £100m and include construction of the following:


title: Cardiff City Stadium

text: First mooted as a long term target by former owner Sam Hammam, the new stadium first gained public approval after a meeting between Hammam and then Cardiff Lord Mayor Russell Goodway in January 2002, giving the club 12 months to agree a planning and business plan. In November 2002 the club and Cardiff Council signed an outline agreement for the development, subject to later agreement for outline planning permission.


title: Cardiff City Stadium

text: In March 2003, stories began to emerge that the Chief Executive of the Millennium Stadium wanted Cardiff City to use their stadium instead, and saw no viable plan for two 50,000+ seat capacity stadia in the Welsh capital. This was increased in light of Cardiff City's promotion to the Championship in May 2003 with local fears over traffic and access problems.


title: Cardiff City Stadium

text: However, on 20 August 2003 Cardiff councillors gave unanimous approval to the stadium plans, although expressed concerns over the need and scale of the retail development but understood its need to fund the stadium. On 9 September 2003 the Welsh Assembly gave approval to the plan.


title: Cardiff City Stadium

text: In April 2004, Cardiff Council gave the first phase covering the stadium with a capacity of 30,000 seats and new athletics track approval. The next phase was held up by various legal and technical delays from November 2004 to January 2005, when the council gave approval to three detailed plans for the retail development, subject to agreement of suitable underlying business plans.


title: Cardiff City Stadium

text: Although development could have then started in May 2005, the underlying need for seed financing revealed the financial status of Cardiff City football club as poor, with over £30 million of debt and the need to sell star player and club captain Graham Kavanagh to Wigan Athletic F.C. in March 2005. It was also revealed that players and staff had not been paid for a month as the club struggled to honour a wage bill believed to be £750,000 a month, while auditors were looking at possible cutbacks. On 1 March 2005 the club delayed the development until at least July 2005.


title: Cardiff City Stadium

text: After a 1–0 home loss to Sheffield United and a mobbing by fans, on 6 March 2005 Hammam apologised to fans, and released club accounts which showed club debt at March 2004 at £29.6 million.


title: Cardiff City Stadium

text: After a summer sale of players, the entry of former Leeds United chairman Peter Ridsdale and numerous rumours, the development was given a period of 90 days from 31 December 2005 by Cardiff Council to finalise the underlying business plan. On 31 January 2006 the developers secured Asda as the lead retailer of the new development, which enabled the final funding of the stadium to start. This allowed the council timetable to extend by four months to September 2006.


title: Cardiff City Stadium

text: On 24 October 2006, Laing O'Rourke won the contract to develop the 30,000-seat stadium, which Ridsdale stated would be ready for December 2008. On 27 November 2006 Cardiff Council approved the business plan for the stadium, and granted a 125-year lease for the land on which the stadium was to sit upon, allowing the final planning approval to be gained from the council authority and the office of the Deputy Prime Minister.


title: Cardiff City Stadium

text: In March 2007, the stadium plans were altered to allow construction to begin as soon as possible. To minimise construction costs, the 30,000 capacity was reduced to 25,000 by removing three-quarters of the second tier of seating, however the plans allow the option of completing the second tier to reach the 30,000 capacity if required. The former chairman of Cardiff City, Steve Borley, said in March 2008 that "We are working to raise the capacity and right now it stands at 26,830. The task is to raise that even further, and we believe it could be almost 28,000 when the stadium opens."


title: Cardiff City Stadium

text: When work finally commenced Peter Ridsdale stated that he expected the stadium to be ready by Christmas 2008 but it was finally completed in May 2009. Although some believe this slight delay was caused by Cardiff City's ongoing legal action with Langston, it was actually caused by unexpectedly poor weather during the summer of 2007.


title: Cardiff City Stadium

text: Land clearance started on 21 February 2007, while on 9 May, final finances were put in place for Laing O'Rourke to bring equipment on site and start construction.


title: Cardiff City Stadium

text: The lead developer was PMG Developments, a Cardiff-based property developer led by Cardiff City director Paul Guy and former Wales rugby captain Mike Hall. Laing O'Rourke were contracted to build all the highway improvements necessary to cope with the increased capacity, as well as the demolition of the Cardiff Athletics Stadium and the construction of the retail park. Cowlin was picked as the preferred contractor for the new athletic stadium. Required analysis of soil and water for the site was performed by TES Bretby, part of the Environmental Services Group Ltd.


title: Cardiff City Stadium

text: Leckwith Road was widened to a dual carriageway over 18 months, with the scheme allowing for an extra access lane to become available on matchdays.


title: Cardiff City Stadium

text: The plan required the demolition of the previous Cardiff Athletics Stadium, of which the council insisted the replacement is built before the start of construction on the new football stadium. This was to avoid the city being without a major athletics facility for any length of time.


title: Cardiff City Stadium

text: Work was scheduled to begin on the new athletics stadium in January 2007 with the track and throwing areas expected to be open for use by the end of July 2007. The new athletics stadium was expected to be completed by October 2007 and it was hoped that Cardiff City F.C.'s stadium would be able to open in December 2008, however the stadium finally completed in May 2009.


title: Cardiff City Stadium

text: In August 2007, chairman Peter Ridsdale revealed that the club had reduced a £24 million debt to Swiss-based financiers Langston agreed under the chairmanship of Sam Hammam to £15 million, by agreeing to sell the stadium's naming rights to Langston for £9 million. The stadium name was unveiled in March 2009 as Cardiff City Stadium and on 1 May, the official logo of the Cardiff City Stadium and the management company Cardiff City Stadium Ltd was unveiled.


title: Cardiff City Stadium

text: The stadium was completed several weeks ahead of schedule and was officially opened with a pre-season friendly against Celtic on 22 July 2009, which ended in a 0–0 draw. There were two games played in the stadium prior to this: a Cardiff City Legends game on 4 July, and a friendly against Chasetown on 10 July. The first league game was played on 8 August 2009, a 4–0 win for Cardiff against Scunthorpe United.


title: Cardiff City Stadium

text: Wales played at the Cardiff City Stadium for the first time on 14 November 2009 against Scotland, which they won 3–0. On 10 August 2010, the Football Association of Wales announced that it would also play at the Stadium in Wales' opening game of the UEFA Euro 2012 qualifiers against Bulgaria on 8 October 2010.


title: Cardiff City Stadium

text: On 8 May 2012, Cardiff Blues confirmed they would leave the Stadium to return to Cardiff Arms Park for the 2012–13 season and onwards.


title: Cardiff City Stadium

text: On 14 June 2012 Vincent Tan, Malaysian co-owner of Cardiff City FC, set out plans for an additional £35m investment in the Championship football club. This investment was to pay off debts, upgrade the training facilities to Premier League standards and spend £12m upgrading the stadium's capacity by 8,000 seats from 26,828 to around 35,000. On 1 August, Peter's Pie became the official sponsor of the Family Stand on a two-year deal.


title: Cardiff City Stadium

text: In April 2013 it was announced by a Cardiff City director that the capacity at the stadium could be expanded to 35,000 before the beginning of the 2014/15 season. Extra seats were added around the stadium during the first few months of the 2013–14 season, increasing the capacity to around 28,000.


title: Cardiff City Stadium

text: In August 2013 the club announced it had submitted a planning application to the local authority for the first phase of a stadium expansion. Phase 1 will entail adding a second tier to the Ninian Stand increasing the capacity to approximately 33,280. 5,150 extra seats are to be provided, including extra commercial and hospitality facilities catering for around 1500.


title: Cardiff City Stadium

text: On 9 October 2013 the local authority granted planning permission for this first phase. The stadium expansion was completed at the beginning of August, a few weeks before the stadium was due to host the UEFA Super Cup. At a later stage, phases 2 and 3 of the development will see up to 3,000 seats added to both the Canton and Grange ends of the ground, bringing the overall capacity up to around 38,000.


title: Cardiff City Stadium

text: However, in March 2015, it was announced that the Ninian Stand extension was to be shut for the 2015–16 season due to poor ticket sales, dropping the capacity to 27,978.


title: Cardiff City Stadium

text: On 19 September 2007, it was announced that Cardiff City F.C. and Cardiff Blues had signed a Heads of Terms agreement for Cardiff Blues to become tenants of Cardiff City. On 24 May 2008, the two clubs signed a contract officially finalising the deal. The licence agreement was set at 20 years, meaning Cardiff Blues would leave Cardiff Arms Park and play their home games at the stadium until 2029.


title: Cardiff City Stadium

text: As well as being the new home for Cardiff City, the stadium has since become the home of the Wales national football team except for the international friendly against Luxembourg which was at Parc y Scarlets in Llanelli, two UEFA Euro 2012 qualifying Group G home matches with the first against England which was at the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff and the second against Switzerland which was at the Liberty Stadium in Swansea, an international friendly against Bosnia and Herzegovina which was at Parc y Scarlets in Llanelli, another international friendly, which was against Austria and a 2014 FIFA World Cup qualification – UEFA Group A match against Croatia, both of which were at the Liberty Stadium in Swansea.


title: Cardiff City Stadium

text: On 12 August 2014, the stadium hosted the 2014 UEFA Super Cup between the 2013–14 UEFA Champions League winners Real Madrid and the 2013–14 UEFA Europa League winners Sevilla. Real Madrid won 2–0.


title: Cardiff City Stadium

text: In March 2021, it was announced that Newport County would play two games at the Cardiff City Stadium due to the poor pitch conditions at Rodney Parade.


title: Cardiff City Stadium

text: Between the 2009–10 season and the 2011–12 season, it was the home of the Cardiff Blues. The Blues left after the 2011–12 season, after a mutual agreement to return to the Arms Park was agreed.The Cardiff City stadium also hosted the 2010–11 Amlin Challenge Cup final between English club Harlequins and French club Stade Français on 20 May 2011 with Harlequins pipping Stade Français 19–18.


title: Cardiff City Stadium

text: Stereophonics headlined the first gig at the stadium on 5 June 2010, having already played a record-breaking 13 previous sell-out shows at the Cardiff International Arena, as well as at the Millennium Stadium and Cardiff Castle. The concert, known as "Summer in the City", was supported by Kids In Glass Houses and Doves. Elton John performed at the stadium in June 2019.


title: Cardiff City Stadium

text: The stadium and surrounding area is served by Ninian Park railway station (on the Cardiff City Line) on one side of Sloper Road, by and Grangetown railway station (on the Vale of Glamorgan Line) on the other side. Trains operate frequently to Central and Queen Street stations in the city centre.


title: Cardiff City Stadium

text: The stadium is next to Leckwith Interchange on the A4232 dual carriageway, linking it northbound to the A48 and M4 (J33 Cardiff West) and southbound to Cardiff Bay and the city centre.


title: Cardiff City Stadium

text: There is limited parking at the stadium itself. Some spaces are available on a first-come, first-served basis, but most are pre-allocated to season ticket holders.


title: Cardiff City Stadium

text: On 17 December 2009, Cardiff City confirmed a statue of 1927 FA Cup-winning captain Fred Keenor would be built. In May 2012, the £85,000 needed to build the statue was raised by the Cardiff City Supporters Trust and was revealed on 10 November 2012.


title: Cardiff City Stadium

text: The "Cardiff City Total" games column contains all competitive games, including all league games, including play-offs; as well as cup competitions such as The F.A. Cup and The Football League Cup.


title: Cardiff City Stadium

text: There is a separate column recording all competitive home league games which have taken place at the Cardiff City Stadium.


title: Rodrigues solitaire

text: The Rodrigues solitaire (Pezophaps solitaria) is an extinct flightless bird that was endemic to the island of Rodrigues, east of Madagascar in the Indian Ocean. Genetically within the family of pigeons and doves, it was most closely related to the also extinct dodo of the nearby island Mauritius, the two forming the subfamily Raphinae. The Nicobar pigeon is their closest living genetic relative.


title: Rodrigues solitaire

text: Rodrigues solitaires grew to the size of swans, and demonstrated pronounced sexual dimorphism. Males were much larger than females and measured up to in length and in weight, contrasting with and for females. Its plumage was grey and brown; the female was paler than the male. It had a black band at the base of its slightly hooked beak, and its neck and legs were long. Both sexes were highly territorial, with large bony knobs on their wings that were used in combat. The Rodrigues solitaire laid a single egg that was incubated in turn by both sexes. Gizzard stones helped digest its food, which included fruit and seeds.


title: Rodrigues solitaire

text: First mentioned during the 17th century, the Rodrigues solitaire was described in detail by François Leguat, the leader of a group of French Huguenot refugees who were marooned on Rodrigues in 1691–1693. It was hunted by humans and introduced animals, and was extinct by the late 18th century. Apart from Leguat's account and drawing, and a few other contemporary descriptions, nothing was known about the bird until a few subfossil bones were found in a cave in 1786. Thousands of bones have subsequently been excavated. It is the only extinct bird with a former constellation named after it, Turdus Solitarius.


title: Rodrigues solitaire

text: The French explorer François Leguat was the first to refer to the bird as the "solitaire" (referring to its solitary habits), but it has been suggested that he borrowed the name from a 1689 tract by his sponsor Marquis Henri Duquesne, which used the name "solitaire" in reference to the Réunion ibis. The bird was first scientifically named in 1789 as a species of dodo ("Didus solitarius", based on Leguat's description) by the German naturalist Johann Friedrich Gmelin in the thirteenth edition of "Systema Naturae". In 1786, subfossil Rodrigues solitaire bones encrusted in stalagmite were discovered in a cave and sent to the French naturalist Georges Cuvier in about 1830. For unknown reasons, he stated they had recently been found on Mauritius, which caused confusion, until they were compared with other bones from Rodrigues that were found to belong to the same species.


title: Rodrigues solitaire

text: The English naturalists Hugh Edwin Strickland and Alexander Gordon Melville suggested the common descent of the Rodrigues solitaire and the dodo in 1848. They dissected the only known dodo specimen with soft tissue, comparing it with the few Rodrigues solitaire remains then available. Strickland stated that, although not identical, these birds shared many distinguishing features in the leg bones otherwise only known in pigeons. The fact that the Rodrigues solitaire laid only one egg, fed on fruits, was monogamous and cared for its nestlings also supported this relationship. Strickland recognised its generic distinction and named the new genus "Pezophaps", from ancient Greek ' ( 'pedestrian') and ' ( 'pigeon'). The differences between the sexes of the bird were so large that Strickland thought they belonged to two species, naming the smaller female bird "Pezophaps minor".


title: Rodrigues solitaire

text: Additional subfossils were recovered during the 1860s, but more complete remains were found during the 1874 transit of Venus, since an observation station was located on the island. Many of these excavations were requested by the English ornithologists (and brothers) Alfred and Edward Newton, who used them to describe the osteology of the bird in detail. Thousands of bones were excavated, and mounted skeletons were composed from the remains of several specimens. Study of skeletal features by the Newtons indicated that the solitaire was morphologically intermediate between the dodo and ordinary pigeons, but differed from them in its unique carpal knob.


title: Rodrigues solitaire

text: Some scientists believed that Réunion was home not only to a white dodo, but also to a white bird similar to the Rodrigues solitaire, both of which are now believed to be misinterpretations of old reports of the Réunion ibis. An atypical 17th-century description of a dodo and bones found on Rodrigues, now known to have belonged to the Rodrigues solitaire, led the British taxidermist Abraham Dee Bartlett to name a new species, "Didus nazarenus"; it is now a junior synonym of this species.


title: Rodrigues solitaire

text: At one point it was suggested that the skeleton of this species is the best described after that of humans. In spite of the evidence, some later scholars doubted Leguat's story, and the existence of the Rodrigues solitaire. In 1921, the American linguist Geoffroy Atkinson claimed Leguat's memoir was merely a novel, and that the man had never even existed, and in 1955, the British ecologist George Evelyn Hutchinson doubted aspects of the bird's biology mentioned by Leguat. Today, it is widely accepted that Leguat's memoirs are credible observations of the bird in life.


title: Rodrigues solitaire

text: For many years the dodo and the Rodrigues solitaire were placed in a family of their own, the Raphidae (formerly Dididae), because their exact relationships with other pigeons were unresolved. Each was also placed in a monotypic family (Raphidae and Pezophapidae, respectively), as it was thought that they had evolved their similarities independently. Osteological and DNA analysis has since led to the dissolution of the family Raphidae, and the dodo and solitaire are now placed in their own subfamily, Raphinae, within the family Columbidae.


title: Rodrigues solitaire

text: In 2002, American geneticist Beth Shapiro and colleagues analysed the DNA of the dodo and the Rodrigues solitaire for the first time. Comparison of mitochondrial cytochrome "b" and 12S rRNA sequences isolated from the femur of a Rodrigues solitaire and the tarsal of a dodo confirmed their close relationship and their placement within the Columbidae. The genetic evidence was interpreted as showing the Southeast Asian Nicobar pigeon ("Caloenas nicobarica") to be their closest living relative, followed by the crowned pigeons ("Goura") of New Guinea, and the superficially dodo-like tooth-billed pigeon ("Didunculus strigirostris") from Samoa. This clade consists of generally ground-dwelling island endemic pigeons. The following cladogram shows the closest relationships of the dodo and the Rodrigues solitaire within Columbidae, based on Shapiro et al., 2002:


title: Rodrigues solitaire

text: A similar cladogram was published in 2007, inverting the placement of "Goura" and "Didunculus" and including the pheasant pigeon ("Otidiphaps nobilis") and the thick-billed ground pigeon ("Trugon terrestris") at the base of the clade. Based on behavioural and morphological evidence, Jolyon C. Parish proposed that the dodo and Rodrigues solitaire should be placed in the Gourinae subfamily along with the "Goura" pigeons and others, in agreement with the genetic evidence. In 2014, DNA of the only known specimen of the recently extinct spotted green pigeon ("Caloenas maculata") was analysed, and it was found to be a close relative of the Nicobar pigeon, and thus also the dodo and Rodrigues solitaire.


title: Rodrigues solitaire

text: The 2002 study indicated that the ancestors of the Rodrigues solitaire and the dodo diverged around the Paleogene–Neogene boundary. The Mascarene Islands (Mauritius, Réunion, and Rodrigues), are of volcanic origin and are less than 10 million years old. Therefore, the ancestors of both birds probably remained capable of flight for a considerable time after the separation of their lineage. The Nicobar and spotted green pigeon were placed at the base of a lineage leading to the Raphinae, which indicates the flightless raphines had ancestors that were able to fly, were semi-terrestrial, and inhabited islands. This in turn supports the hypothesis that the ancestors of those birds reached the Mascarene islands by island hopping from South Asia. The lack of mammalian herbivores competing for resources on these islands allowed the solitaire and the dodo to attain very large sizes. The dodo lost the ability to fly owing to the lack of mammalian predators on Mauritius. Another large, flightless pigeon, the Viti Levu giant pigeon ("Natunaornis gigoura"), was described in 2001 from subfossil material from Fiji. It was only slightly smaller than the Rodrigues solitaire and the dodo, and it too is thought to have been related to the crowned pigeons.


title: Rodrigues solitaire

text: The beak of the Rodrigues solitaire was slightly hooked, and its neck and legs were long. One observer described it as the size of a swan. The skull was long, flattened at the top with the fore and hind parts elevated into two bony ridges structured with cancellous bone. A black band (a contemporary description described it as a "frontlet") appeared on its head just behind the base of the beak. The plumage of the Rodrigues solitaire was described as grey and brown. Females were paler than males and had elevations on the lower neck.


title: Rodrigues solitaire

text: Sexual size dimorphism in this species is perhaps the greatest in any neognath bird. Males were considerably larger than females, measuring 90 cm (35 in) in length and weighing up to 28 kg (62 lb), whereas females were 70 cm (28 in) and weighed 17 kg (37 lb). This is only 60% of the weight of a mature male. Their weight may have varied substantially due to fat cycles, meaning that individuals were fat during cool seasons, but slim during hot seasons, and may have been as low as 21 kg in males and 13 kg in females. Though male pigeons are usually larger than females, there is no direct evidence for the largest specimens actually being the males of the species, and this has only been assumed based on early works. Though the male was probably largest, this can only be confirmed by molecular sexing techniques, and not skeletal morphology alone.


title: Rodrigues solitaire

text: Members of both sexes possessed a large tuberous knob of bone exostosis situated at the base of the carpometacarpus of each wrist. Other wing bones also sometimes show similar structures. The knob was cauliflower-like in appearance, and consisted of up to two or three lobes. The knobs were about half the length of the metacarpus, were larger in males than females, and described as the size of a musket ball. One study measured the largest knob to be in diameter. The knobs vary in size across individuals, and were entirely absent from 58% of specimens examined for the study. These are thought to be immature birds, or birds without territory. The carpometacarpi of males without the knobs were smaller on average than those with it, but there was little difference between the females. In life, the knobs would have been covered by tough cartilaginous or keratinous integument, which would have made them appear even larger. Carpal spurs and knobs are also known from other extant as well as extinct birds. Within Columbidae, the crowned pigeons and the Viti Levu giant pigeon have outgrowths on the carpometacarpus which are similar to those of the female Rodrigues solitaire. Other well known examples are the steamer ducks, the torrent duck, sheathbills, screamers, the spur-winged goose, and the extinct Jamaican ibis, "Xenicibis xympithecus".


title: Rodrigues solitaire

text: The Rodrigues solitaire shared traits with the dodo, its closest relative, such as size and features in the skull, pelvis, and sternum. It differed in other aspects; it was taller and more slender than the dodo and had a smaller skull and beak, a flatter skull roof, and larger orbits. Its neck and legs were proportionally longer, and the dodo did not possess an equivalent to the carpal knob of the Rodrigues solitaire. Many skeletal features of the Rodrigues solitaire and dodo that are unique among pigeons have evolved to adapt to flightlessness. Their pelvic elements were thicker than those of flighted birds (to support their greater weight), and their pectoral region and wings were paedomorphic (underdeveloped, retaining juvenile features). However, the skull, trunk, and pelvic limbs were peramorphic, which means they changed considerably with maturity.


title: Rodrigues solitaire

text: Apart from Leguat's rather simple depiction, the life appearance of the Rodrigues solitaire is only known from a handful of descriptions; no soft-tissue remains survive. Leguat devoted three pages of his memoirs to the Rodrigues solitaire, and was clearly impressed by the bird. He described its appearance as follows:


title: Rodrigues solitaire

text: Several of Leguat's observations were later confirmed through study of subfossil Rodrigues solitaire remains. The curved contour lines of the pelvis also support the roundness of its hind parts, which he compared to that of a horse. Also, a ridged surface appears at the base of the beak, indicating the position of the caruncular ridge, which Leguat described as a "widow's peak". Before fossils of the carpal knob were found, Strickland noted that the keel of the sternum of the Rodrigues solitaire was so well-developed as to almost indicate it had possessed the power of flight; however, since the humerus was very short he inferred that this was instead related to Leguat's claim that they used their wings for defence.


title: Rodrigues solitaire

text: Leguat continued with an elaborate description of the female Rodrigues solitaire, which also appears to be the sex depicted in his illustration of the bird:


title: Rodrigues solitaire

text: It has been proposed that Leguat's comparison between the crop of the female Rodrigues solitaire and the "beautiful bosom of a woman" (changed to "fine neck" in some editions of his memoirs) was out of longing for female companionship.


title: Rodrigues solitaire

text: Observations of the Rodrigues solitaire in life indicate that they were highly territorial. They presumably settled disputes by striking each other with their wings; to aid this purpose, they used the knobs on their wrists. Fractures in their wing bones also indicate that they were used in combat. It has also been suggested that these fractures may have been the result of a hereditary bone disease rather than battle-injuries. But in all extant birds where carpal spurs and knobs are present, these are used as weapons without exceptions. Though some dodo bones have been found with healed fractures, it had weak pectoral muscles and more reduced wings in comparison with the Rodrigues solitaire. Since Rodrigues receives less rainfall and has more seasonal variation than Mauritius, which would have affected the availability of resources on the island, the Rodrigues solitaire would have more reason to evolve aggressive territorial behaviour. Several accounts state that they also defended themselves with a powerful bite.


title: Rodrigues solitaire

text: In addition to their use as weapons, both sexes of the Rodrigues solitaire also used their wings for communication. The wings could create low-frequency sounds for communicating with mates, or to warn rivals, but it is unknown exactly how this sound was created. The sound could be heard 200 yards (182 m) away, and this may therefore be the size of the territory of an individual. Other species of birds (e.g., club-winged manakin) are also known to use their wings to create sounds that attract mates or mark their territory.


title: Rodrigues solitaire

text: In 1869, the Newton brothers suggested that the carpal knobs may have been formed through continuous injuries, as they resemble diseased bone. It has also been claimed that the carpal knobs were instead formed due to a hereditary disease caused by inbreeding. This was dismissed in a 2013 study, since such lesions would likely not occur only in a specific part of the skeleton, but would appear in any growing bone tissue. If such a disease was due to inbreeding, it would also be present in other isolated island bird populations, but it is not. The authors instead suggested that the wing bones contained metaplastic tissue able to form the knob. This development was either in response to continuous impacts during combat, or to hormones released when individuals paired up and acquired territories. It appears a male which had long held a territory would possess especially large carpal knobs, and that their mates would have such developments as well, only smaller.


title: Rodrigues solitaire

text: Some evidence, including their large size and the fact that tropical and frugivorous birds have slower growth rates, indicates that the Rodrigues solitaire may have had a protracted development period. Based on mass estimates, it has been suggested the male could reach the age of 28, and the female 17. The French economist Pierre-André d'Héguerty, writing about his time on the island around 1735, stated that a captive Rodrigues solitaire (which he described as having a melancholic appearance) would always walk in the same line until running out of space, and then return. The species may have lived primarily in the island's woodlands, rather than on the shores.


title: Rodrigues solitaire

text: Many other of the endemic species of Rodrigues became extinct after the arrival of humans, so the ecosystem of the island is heavily damaged. Before humans arrived, forests covered the island entirely, but very little remains today due to deforestation. The Rodrigues solitaire lived alongside other recently extinct birds such as the Rodrigues rail, the Rodrigues parrot, Newton's parakeet, the Rodrigues starling, the Rodrigues scops owl, the Rodrigues night heron, and the Rodrigues pigeon. Extinct reptiles include the domed Rodrigues giant tortoise, the saddle-backed Rodrigues giant tortoise, and the Rodrigues day gecko.


title: Rodrigues solitaire

text: Leguat stated that the Rodrigues solitaire fed on dates, whereas Tafforet mentioned seeds and leaves. No other accounts mention diet. It has been suggested it ate latan palm fruits, for which it competed with the now extinct "Cylindraspis" tortoises. It is not known how the young were fed, but related pigeons provide crop milk. The risings on the crop of the female may have covered glands that produced the crop milk. If the theory is correct, the birds may have practiced a division of labour, where the female stayed and fed the young crop milk, while the male collected food in the crop and delivered it to the female. It has been suggested that the maximum size attained by the solitaire and the dodo was limited by the amount of crop milk they were able to produce for their young during early growth.