title: Maharashtrian cuisine

text: Other ingredients include oil seeds such as flax, karale, coconut, peanuts, almonds and cashew nuts. Peanut powder and whole nuts are used in many preparations including, chutney, koshimbir and bhaaji. More expensive nuts such as (almonds and cashew) are used mainly for sweet dishes. Flax and karale seeds are used in making dry chutneys. Traditionally, sugar cane based jaggery was used as the sweetening agent, but has been largely replaced by refined cane sugar. Fruit such as mango are used in many preparations including pickles, jams, drinks and sweet dishes. Bananas and jackfruit


title: Maharashtrian cuisine

text: Urban menus typically have wheat in the form of chapatis and plain rice as the main staples. Traditional rural households would have millet in form of "bhakri" on the Deccan plains and rice on the coast as respective staples.


title: Maharashtrian cuisine

text: Typical breakfast items include "misal", "pohe", "upma", "sheera", "sabudana khichadi" and "thalipeeth". In some households leftover rice from the previous night is fried with onions, turmeric and mustard seeds for breakfast, making "". Typical Western breakfast items such as cereals, sliced bread and eggs, as well as South Indian items such as "idli" and "dosa" are also popular. Tea or coffee is served with breakfast.


title: Maharashtrian cuisine

text: Apart from bread, rice, and chutney, other items may be substituted. Families that eat meat, fish and poultry may combine vegetarian and non-vegetarian dishes, with rice and chapatis remaining the staples. Vegetable or non-vegetable items are essentially dips for the bread or for mixing with rice.


title: Maharashtrian cuisine

text: Traditional dinner items are arranged in a circular way. With salt placed at 12 o'clock, pickles, "koshimbir" and condiments are placed anti-clockwise of the salt. Vegetable preparations are arranged in a clockwise fashion with a sequence of leafy greens curry, dry vegetables, sprouted been curry ("usal" ) and "dal". Rice is always on the periphery rather than in the center.


title: Maharashtrian cuisine

text: In the inland areas of Maharashtra such as Desh, Khandesh, Marathwada and Vidarbha, the traditional staple was "bhakri" with a combination of "dal", vegetables, or commonly the chickpea flour based pithale. The "bhakri" is increasingly replaced by wheat-based chapatis.


title: Maharashtrian cuisine

text: In the Konkan coastal area, boiled rice and "rice bhakri", "nachni bhakri" is the staple, with a combination of the vegetable and non-vegetable dishes described in the lunch and dinner menu.


title: Maharashtrian cuisine

text: Open stove cooking is the most commonly used cooking method. The traditional three-stone "chulha" has largely been replaced by kerosene or gas stoves. A stove may be used for cooking in many different ways:


title: Maharashtrian cuisine

text: A number of dishes are made for religious occasions, dinner parties or as restaurant items or street food.


title: Maharashtrian cuisine

text: Various vegetable curries or gravies are eaten with rice, usually at both lunch and dinner. Popular dishes include:


title: Maharashtrian cuisine

text: In Maharashtra, the traditional offering (for a guest) used to be water and jaggery (Gulpani). This has been replaced by tea or coffee. These beverages are served with milk and sugar. Occasionally, along with tea leaves, the brew may include spices, freshly grated ginger


title: Maharashtrian cuisine

text: Desserts are important part of festival and special occasions. Typical desserts include, flatbread called "puran poli" with stuffed lentil and jaggery mix, a preparation made from strained yogurt, sugar and spices called "shrikhand", a sweet milk preparation made with evaporated milk called "basundi", semolina and sugar based "kheer" and steamed dumplings stuffed with coconut and jaggery called "modak". In some instances, the "modak" is deep-fried instead of steamed. Traditionally, these desserts were associated with a particular festival. For example, "modak" is prepared during the Ganpati Festival.


title: Maharashtrian cuisine

text: Other sweets popular in Maharashtra and other regions of India include: Kheer, kaju katli, gulab jamun, jalebi, various kinds of barfi, and rasmalai.


title: Maharashtrian cuisine

text: In many metropolitan areas, including Mumbai and Pune, fast food is popular. The most-popular forms are "bhaji", "vada pav", "misalpav" and "pav bhaji". More-traditional dishes are "sabudana khichadi", "pohe", "upma", "sheera" and "panipuri". Most Marathi fast food and snacks are lacto-vegetarian.


title: Maharashtrian cuisine

text: Makar Sankranti usually falls on January 14 of the Gregorian calendar. Maharashtrians exchange "tilgul" or sweets made of jaggery and sesame seeds along with the customary salutation, "tilgul ghya aani god bola" (Marathi: तीळगुळ घ्या आणि गोड गोड बोला), which means "Accept the "tilgul" and be friendly." "Tilgul Poli" or "gulpoli" are the main sweet preparations. It is a wheat-based flatbread filled with sesame seeds and jaggery.


title: Maharashtrian cuisine

text: Marathi Hindu people fast on this day. Fasting food includes chutney prepared with pulp of the or "kavath" fruit ("Wood apple"). Some communities use the pulp of Bael/.


title: Maharashtrian cuisine

text: As part of Holi, a festival that is celebrated on the full moon evening in the month of Falgun (March or April), a bonfire is lit to symbolize the end of winter and the slaying of a demon in Hindu mythology. People make "puran poli" as a ritual offering to the holy fire. The day after the bonfire night is called Dhulivandan. Marathi people celebrate with colors on the fifth day after the bonfire on Rangpanchami.


title: Maharashtrian cuisine

text: On Gudi Padwa most people make Puran poli a sweet bread made by stuffing chana dal(Puran) thali with Saar,bhat, Kuradai-papad,bhaji,etc.Some people make Puri with potato (batatyachi bhaaji) and bhaji.Shrikhand is also ate during it.


title: Maharashtrian cuisine

text: "Modak" is said to be the favorite food of Ganesh. An offering of twenty-one pieces of this sweet preparation is offered on Ganesh Chaturthi and other minor Ganesh-related events. Various Maharashtrian communities prepare different dishes specially for Gauri poojan.


title: Maharashtrian cuisine

text: Diwali is one of the most popular Hindu festivals. In Maharashtrian tradition family members have a ritual bath before dawn and then sit down for a breakfast of fried sweets and savory snacks called as Diwali Faral. These sweets and snacks are offered to visitors and exchanged with neighbors. Typical sweet preparations include "ladu", "anarse", shankarpali and "karanjya". Popular savory treats include "chakli", "Shev" and "chiwda". High in fat and low in moisture, these snacks can be stored at room temperature for many weeks without spoiling.


title: Maharashtrian cuisine

text: Many Maharashtrian communities from all social levels observe the Khandoba Festival or "Champa Shashthi" in the month of Mārgashirsh. Households perform "Ghatasthapana" of "Khandoba" during this festival. The sixth day of the festival is called "Champa Sashthi". For many people, the "Chaturmas" period ends on "Champa Sashthi". It is customary for many families not to consume onions, garlic and eggplant during the Chaturmas. Following the festival, the consumption of these foods resumes with ritual preparation of "vangyache bharit" ("baingan bharta") with "rodga".


title: Maharashtrian cuisine

text: The traditional wedding menu among Maharashtrian Hindu communities used to be a lacto-vegetarian fare with mainly multiple courses of rice dishes with different vegetables and "dal"s. Some menus also included a course with "puri"s. In some communities, the first course was plain rice and the second was "dal" with masala rice. The main meal typically ended with plain rice and "mattha". Some of the most-popular curries to go with this menu and with other festivals were those prepared from taro (Marathi: अलउ) leaves. Buttermilk with spices and coriander leaves, called "mattha", is served with the meal. Popular sweets for the wedding menu were "shreekhand", "boondi ladu" and "jalebi".


title: Maharashtrian cuisine

text: Marathi Hindu people fast on days such as Ekadashi, in honour of Lord Vishnu or his Avatars, Chaturthi in honour of Ganesh, Mondays in honour of Shiva, or Saturdays in honour of Maruti or Saturn. Only certain kinds of foods are allowed to be eaten. These include milk and other dairy products (such as dahi), fruit and Western food items such as "sago", potatoes, purple-red sweet potatoes, amaranth seeds, nuts and "varyache tandul" (shama millet). Popular fasting dishes include "Sabudana Khichadi" or "danyachi amti" (peanut soup).


title: Maharashtrian cuisine

text: East Indian Catholic Community of North Konkan also have their own special recipes for Christmas. Just like Goa, this includes pork vindaloo and sorpotel. A popular sweet for Christmas includes Fogeas made out of flour, coconut milk, sugar and cottage cheese. These sweets are offered to visitors and exchanged with neighbors and friends.


title: Alfa Romeo Alfetta

text: The Alfa Romeo Alfetta (Type 116) is a front-engine, five-passenger sedan and fastback coupé manufactured and marketed by Alfa Romeo from 1972 to 1987 with a production total over 400,000.


title: Alfa Romeo Alfetta

text: The Alfetta was noted for the rear position of its transaxle (clutch and transmission) and its De Dion tube rear suspension — an arrangement designed to optimize handling by balancing front/rear weight distribution, as well as maintaining a low polar moment of inertia and low center of gravity. The interior of Coupé models featured a then unusual central tachometer placement — by itself, directly in front of the driver.


title: Alfa Romeo Alfetta

text: The "Alfetta" name, which means "little Alfa" in Italian, derived from the nickname of the Alfa Romeo Tipo 159 Alfetta, a successful Formula One car which in its last (1951) iteration paired a transaxle layout to De Dion tube rear suspension — like its modern namesake.


title: Alfa Romeo Alfetta

text: The Alfetta introduced a new drivetrain layout to the marque. Clutch and transmission were housed at the rear of the car, together with the differential for a more balanced weight distribution, as used on the Alfetta 158/159 Grand Prix cars. The suspension relied on double wishbones and torsion bars at the front and a De Dion tube at the rear. When leaving the factory all Alfettas were originally fitted with Pirelli Cinturato 165HR14 tyres (CA67).


title: Alfa Romeo Alfetta

text: The rear de Dion transaxle found on the Alfetta and derivatives- GTV, 90 and 75- provided these cars with excellent weight distribution. The handling advantages were noted in contemporary reviews. The transaxle design, in combination with a Watt's parallelogram linkage, inboard rear brakes and a well-located de Dion rear suspension, resulted in balanced traction and handling. The front suspension design was unusual in that it incorporated independent longitudinal torsion bar springs acting directly onto the lower wishbones and with separate dampers.


title: Alfa Romeo Alfetta

text: The Alfetta saloon was launched in 1972, with a 1.8-litre four-cylinder as a three-box, four-door, five-passenger notchback saloon ("Berlina" in Italian) designed in-house by Centro Stile Alfa Romeo. The front end was characterised by twin, equal-sized headlamps visually connected to a central narrow Alfa Romeo shield by three chrome bars, while the tail lights featured three square elements. At the 1975 Brussels Motor Show Alfa Romeo introduced the , 108 PS (DIN) Alfetta 1.6 base model, distinguished by its single, larger round front headlights. Meanwhile, the 1.8-litre Alfetta was rebadged Alfetta 1.8 and a few months later mildly restyled, further set apart from the 1.6 by a new grille with a wider central shield and horizontal chrome bars. Engines in both models were Alfa Romeo Twin Cams, with two overhead camshafts, 8-valves and two double-barrel carburettors. Two years later the 1.6 was upgraded to the exterior and interior features of the 1.8.


title: Alfa Romeo Alfetta

text: In 1977 a 2.0-litre model was added. Launched at the March Geneva Motor Show, the Alfetta 2000 replaced the outgoing Alfa Romeo 2000. This range-topping Alfetta was longer than the others, owing to a redesigned front end with square headlights and to larger bumpers with polyurethane inserts; the rectangular tail light clusters and C-pillar vents were revised, as were the dash, steering wheel and upholstery. Just a year later, in July 1978, the two-litre model was updated becoming the Alfetta 2000 L. Engine output rose from to ; with revised upholstery and simulated wood dash. The Alfetta 2000 was marketed as the Alfa Romeo Sport Sedan in the United States, where "Alfetta" had less recognition than Europe. The 2000 received fuel injection in 1979.


title: Alfa Romeo Alfetta

text: A turbodiesel version was introduced in late 1979, the Alfetta Turbo D, whose engine was supplied by VM Motori. Apart from a boot lid badge, the Turbo D was equipped and finished like the top-of-the-line 2000 L both outside and inside. Therefore, it received a tachometer, but no standard power steering, despite an additional carried by the front axle.


title: Alfa Romeo Alfetta

text: The turbodiesel, a first on an Alfa Romeo's passenger car, was of 2.0 litres and produced . The Alfetta Turbo D was marketed mostly in Italy and in France, as well as a few other continental European markets with a favorable tax structure.


title: Alfa Romeo Alfetta

text: In 1981 Alfa Romeo developed in collaboration with the University of Genoa a semi-experimental Alfetta version, fitted with a modular variable displacement engine and an electronic engine control unit. Called Alfetta CEM ("Controllo Elettronico del Motore", or Electronic Engine Management), it was shown at the Frankfurt Motor Show. The 2.0-litre modular engine featured fuel injection and ignition systems governed by an engine control unit, which could shut off two of four cylinders as needed in order to reduce fuel consumption. An initial batch of ten examples were assigned to taxi drivers in Milan, to verify operation and performance in real-world situations. According to Alfa Romeo during these tests cylinder deactivation was found to reduce fuel consumption by 12% in comparison to a CEM fuel-injected engine without variable displacement, and almost by 25% in comparison to the regular production carburetted 2.0-litre. After the first trial, in 1983 a small series of 1000 examples was put on sale, offered to selected clients; 991 examples were produced. Despite this second experimental phase, the project development ended.


title: Alfa Romeo Alfetta

text: Fuel injected, US-specification versions of the Alfetta were sold as limited editions in some European countries; one example was the 1981 Alfetta LI America for the Italian market, based on the North American Sport Sedan.


title: Alfa Romeo Alfetta

text: In November 1981 the updated "Alfetta '82" range was launched, comprising 1.6, 1.8, 2.0 and 2.0 Turbo Diesel models. All variants adopted the bodyshell and interior of the 2.0-litre models; standard equipment became richer. All Alfettas had black plastic rubbing strips, side sill mouldings, tail light surround and hubcaps; the 2000 sported a satin silver grille and a simulated mahogany steering wheel rim.


title: Alfa Romeo Alfetta

text: July 1982 saw the introduction of the range topping Alfetta Quadrifoglio Oro (meaning "Gold Cloverleaf", a trim designation already used on the Alfasud), which took the place of the discontinued 2000 L. The Quadrifoglio Oro was powered by a (DIN) version of the usual 1,962 cc engine, equipped with the SPICA mechanical fuel injection used on US-spec Alfettas; standard equipment included several digital and power-assisted accessories like a trip computer, check control panel and electrically adjustable seats. Visually the Quadrifoglio Oro was distinguished by twin round headlights, concave alloy wheels, and was only available in metallic grey or brown with brown interior plastics and specific beige velour upholstery.


title: Alfa Romeo Alfetta

text: In March 1983 the Alfetta received its last facelift; the exterior was modernised with newly designed bumpers (integrating a front spoiler and extending to the wheel openings), a new grille, lower body plastic cladding, silver hubcaps and, at the rear, a full width grey plastic fascia supporting rectangular tail lights with ribbed lenses and the number plate. The C-pillar ventilation outlets were moved to each side of the rear screen. Inside there were a redesigned dashboard and instrumentation, new door panels and the check control panel from the Quadrifoglio Oro on all models. Top of the range models adopted an overhead console, which extended for the full length of the roof and housed three reading spot lamps, a central ceiling light, and controls for the electric windows. Alongside the facelift two new models were introduced: the 2.4 Turbo Diesel, which in most markets gradually replaced the previous 2.0-litre which was instead installed in the marginally smaller Giulietta. There was also a renewed two-liter Quadrifoglio Oro, equipped with electronic fuel injection. Thanks to the Bosch Motronic integrated electronic fuel injection and ignition the QO had the same output of the carburetted 2.0, while developing more torque and being more fuel efficient.


title: Alfa Romeo Alfetta

text: In April 1984 the successor of the Alfetta debuted, the larger Alfa Romeo 90. At the end of the year the Alfetta Berlina went out of production, after nearly 450,000 had been made over a 12-year production period.


title: Alfa Romeo Alfetta

text: The Alfa Romeo Alfetta was used as police car by the "Carabinieri" as well as by "Polizia di Stato". It became well known throughout the world since it was Italian former Prime Minister Aldo Moro's official escort car when he was kidnapped by the Red Brigades.


title: Alfa Romeo Alfetta

text: South African models were first assembled at Automaker's Rosslyn plant, located outside Pretoria. These early, 1973 models, were manufactured alongside Datsuns. From 1974 South African Alfetta's were manufactured at Alfa Romeo's own Brits plant. The 1600 model, with single headlamps as in Europe, arrived to complement the 1800 and 2000 in mid-1976. Beginning in October 1982, the Quadrifoglio Oro model was marketed as the Alfa Romeo 159i, with the fuel injected two liter engine.


title: Alfa Romeo Alfetta

text: The four-door Alfetta was sold in the United States from 1975 through 1977 under the name "Alfetta Sedan". From 1978 to 1979 a mildly restyled version, known in Italy as "Alfetta 2.0 LI America", was sold under the name "Sport Sedan".


title: Alfa Romeo Alfetta

text: The Alfetta saloon was the base for the Alfetta GT, a 2-door, 4-seater fastback coupé designed by Giorgetto Giugiaro at Italdesign. Introduced in 1974, similarly to the saloon it was initially available only with the 1.8-litre (1,779 cc) version of the Alfa DOHC four. These engines featured a chain driven 8-valve twin overhead cam cylinder head of cross-flow design. For 1976, with the final phasing out of the earlier 105 Series (GT 1300 Junior and GT 1600 Junior and 2000 GTV), the Alfetta GT became a range; the 1.8 was discontinued in favour of the 1.6-litre (1,570 cc) Alfetta GT 1.6 and 2.0-litre (1,962 cc) Alfetta GTV 2.0. At the same time some updates were introduced, such as a new front grille with horizontal slats and two series of vents beneath it. The GTV was distinguished from the 1.6 version by twin chrome whiskers in the grille and GTV scripts carved in the ventilation vents on the C-pillar.


title: Alfa Romeo Alfetta

text: In 1979, some minor revisions, including a revised engine with new camshaft profiles and a change to mechanical-and-vacuum ignition advance, saw the 2.0-litre redesignated the Alfetta GTV 2000L. Autodelta also introduced a limited edition 2.0-litre turbocharged model, named Turbodelta, of which 400 were made for FIA Group 4 homologation. This version used a KKK turbocharger which pushed power up to . The car also received a modified suspension layout. This was the first Italian petrol production car with a turbocharger.


title: Alfa Romeo Alfetta

text: The styling of the GTV, while distinctive, can be seen to share many design features derived from the Montreal supercar, as translated down to a simpler and thus more marketable vehicle. Examples of this are the bonnet line, which while briefer, still has 'scallops' for the headlights, and the tail light clusters which resemble those of the Montreal. The door shape is similar, and in a sharing of parts, both vehicles employ the same door handles.


title: Alfa Romeo Alfetta

text: In 1980, the GT received a restyling. Outside there were new one-piece tail lights, grey plastic bumpers, C-pillar vents and side skirts; all bright stainless steel save for the Alfa Romeo triangular grille was changed to matte-black trim. The 1.6-litre version was discontinued and the Alfetta GTV became known simply as Alfa Romeo GTV 2.0; the Alfetta name was dropped, but the two-litre coupé retained its type designation of 116.36 for left-hand drive and 116.37 for right-hand drive. 15-inch disc-shaped alloy wheels and Pirelli Cinturato CN36 tyres were now standard, as opposed to the earlier cars' 14-inch pressed steel or optional 14-inch alloy units.


title: Alfa Romeo Alfetta

text: Later in the same year, the GTV 6 2.5, a version of the GTV with the SOHC V6 2.5 L engine from the Alfa Romeo Alfa 6 luxury saloon, was released. As a result, the hood received a bulge to clear the top of the intake and became its most pronounced feature. With Bosch L-Jetronic fuel injection instead of the six downdraught Dell'Orto carburettors in the early Alfa 6 installation, the V6 was much easier to start and retained its state of tune much better. The fuel injected engine was also able to meet the strict emissions standards introduced in Switzerland (shared with Sweden) for 1983. The V6 received rave reviews from the motoring press, which had previously lambasted the same engine in the Alfa 6 because of the carburettor problems. It found its true home in the GTV 6's gran turismo body where it could stretch its legs better than in the less sporting Alfa 6 saloon. The fuel injection installation eventually made it into the second series of the Alfa 6 as well. The GTV went through a number of revisions, including new gear ratios and an updated interior in 1984.


title: Alfa Romeo Alfetta

text: The GTV 6 was also a fairly successful racing car; the 116 type chassis developed for racing since its first outing in the 1974 San Martino di Castrozza rallye. The racing successes included winning the European Touring Car Championship an unprecedented four years in succession (1982–85), the British Touring Car Championship in 1983 driven by Andy Rouse, as well as many other racing and rallying competitions in national championships as France and Italy. A Group A GTV 6 driven by French driver Yves Loubet won French Supertouring Championship in succession from 1983 to 1984, and Yves Loubet won the third position in the Tour de Corse of 1986 round of the World Rally Championship.


title: Alfa Romeo Alfetta

text: The GTV 6 Grand-Prix was introduced in 1985 in some European markets (most notably Switzerland and Germany). It featured a body kit designed by Rayton Fissore.


title: Alfa Romeo Alfetta

text: A GTV 6 was driven to victory by Greg Carr and Fred Gocentas in the 1987 Australian Rally Championship.


title: Alfa Romeo Alfetta

text: South African models were first assembled at Automaker's Rosslyn plant, located outside Pretoria. These early, 1973 models, were manufactured alongside Datsuns. From 1974 South African Alfetta's were manufactured at Alfa Romeo's own Brits plant. The GTV6 2.5 arrived in 1982; while Brits was gearing up to assemble them 100 fully built-up cars were brought in from Italy. These received a numbered plaque on the front fender, just ahead of the door. South Africa was one of two markets to have a turbocharged GTV 6, with a Garrett turbocharger and a NACA intake. An estimated 750 were assembled before all production ceased in 1986. The South African market also introduced the 3.0 L GTV-6, predating the international debut of the factory's 3.0 L engine in 1987. 212 were built in South Africa for racing homologation. The last six GTV-6 3.0's were fuel injected.


title: Alfa Romeo Alfetta

text: The GTV 6 3.0 was billed as the most powerful production sports car ever built by Alfa Romeo, the car was a co-operative effort by Alfa Romeo South Africa and Autodelta. The car was developed mainly for racing, to race, it had to build 200 examples for homologation purpose. To compete with BMW 535i, with 3.5 litre engine the new 3 litre engine should be enough to beat it. It won its debut race in Lodge Group One International two-hour race in Kyalami 1983 and after that it took 1st and 2nd place in Group One class of the Castrol three hour race in Killarney and Index victory at the World Endurance Championship 1000 km Race at Kyalami in December 1983. The engine displacement is 2934 cc, with bore and stroke both increased to . The fuel injection was replaced by six Dell'Orto carburettors (as used on the Alfa 6) as the aim was low-end torque rather than peak power. Power increased to at 6700 rpm. The gearing was lowered but the 3.0 still manageed a higher top speed of and the acceleration time from 0–100 km/h is 8.36 seconds. The imperial acceleration figure for 0-60 mph is 7.2 seconds. On the outside, the different induction system of the GTV6 3.0 required a new GRP hood with a prominent bonnet bulge.


title: Alfa Romeo Alfetta

text: The four-cylinder coupé was available from 1975 to 1977 under the moniker Alfetta GT, renamed the Sprint Veloce for the final two years of availability in 1978 and 1979. The Sprint Veloce received an engine upgrade as Alfa Romeo were coming to grips with the American emissions regulations, with power increased marginally to at 5,000 rpm from at 5,500 rpm. The engine was catalyzed and had a new intake manifold, based on alterations originally developed for California-market cars. It was one of Road & Track's "10 Best Cars For a Changed World". Finally, the V6 version was marketed from 1981 to 1986 as the GTV-6.


title: Alfa Romeo Alfetta

text: For the US market, two limited production GTV-6 models stand out. The GTV6 Balocco (named after the famous Alfa Romeo's Balocco test track in Italy) appeared in 1982 with a production run of only 350 cars. The Balocco was available only in red with sunroof and black interior, leather-wrapped steering wheel and red piping on the seats. There were also two green Quadrifoglio badges fixed on the rear quarter trim pieces above a badge with the "Balocco SE" designation. A plaque inset in the glove box door designated the number of the car out of the series of 350 (XXX of 350). Later there was the GTV 6 2.5 Maratona, of which only 150 were built. The Maratona model included a more aggressive aerodynamic trim package, lightweight Speedline wheels, clear engine view port, sunroof, wood steering wheel and shift knob, rear louvers and Carello fog lamps. All 150 cars were available only painted silver and with a black leather interior; and came with "Maratona" badging on the rear decklid, front fenders and glove box door. (The most notable feature of the Maratona, its aerodynamic kit, was also available as a dealer-installed option on other GTV-6 models.)


title: Alfa Romeo Alfetta

text: Callaway Cars, famous for their later Camaro, Impala SS and Corvette offerings modified between thirty and thirty-six (depending on whether one "counts" those cars with Callaway components which were not assembled by Callaway but, instead, had those components fitted by Alfa Romeo dealers) twin-turbocharged GTV-6s between 1983 and 1986. These are called the Callaway C3, as it was the company's third project. of which the first five (the cars produced between 1983 and 1985; these were sold and titled as 1985 model year cars, save for the first prototype which was sold and titled as a 1984) were prototypes. Callaway "production models" were otherwise listed as from the 1986 model year. In addition to numerous small component upgrades, the Callaway GTV 6's included a somewhat revised suspension (most notably eschewing the metric Michelin TRX wheel/tire combination—then standard on the GTV-6, in favor of Pirelli or Goodyear tires on conventionally sized BBS, Speedline or OZ lightweight alloys), improved brakes and, most importantly, a twin-turbocharger system, boosting performance to exotic levels. Power is at 5500 rpm; up by fifty per cent over the factory car. A different twin-turbo GTV was also built briefly for the Australian market.


title: Alfa Romeo Alfetta

text: Racing versions of the Alfetta GT and GTV were built by Autodelta, initially with the naturally aspirated engines from the earlier GTAm racer based on the 105 series coupé, for homologation under FIA Group 2. There were some variations ranging from the Alfetta GT 1800 cc engines with twin-plug or even 16-valve heads up to the powerful 2-litre GTAm engine. In this form they were rallied with moderate success in 1975, winning the Elba and Costa Brava rallies overall, as well as winning the Group 2 category in the World Rally Championship's Corsican event.


title: Alfa Romeo Alfetta

text: The next year Autodelta shifted its focus to circuit racing the Alfettas, which won the under 2.5-liter Group 2 division of the European Touring Car Championship, scoring a remarkable second place overall at the 24 Hours Spa, as well as an overall win in the ETC race at Vallelunga, in the 500 Kilometres of Vallelunga. Despite such results, Autodelta's efforts with the Group 2 Alfetta were desultory and ended prematurely, due to Alfa's budgetary constraints and heavy commitments to Formula One and the World Championship for Sports Cars.


title: Alfa Romeo Alfetta

text: At the end of the 1975 season, Autodelta also rallied an Alfetta GTV with a 3.0-litre V8 engine, derived from the 2.6-litre V8 of the Alfa Romeo Montreal coupé and sharing the same mechanical fuel injection by SPICA. This version was driven by Ballestrieri in the relatively minor Valli Piacentine Rally, but development of the V8 Alfetta as a competition machine was not pursued when the plan to produce 400 roadgoing units of this model for homologation was abandoned. Around twenty 2.6-litre V8-engined Alfetta GTVs were built by Autodelta at the request of the German Alfa importer in 1977, where they were sold for DM50,000, considerably more than the DM20,990 charged for an Alfetta GTV2000.


title: Alfa Romeo Alfetta

text: In 1980 the Alfetta GTV Turbodelta was already homologated in FIA Group 4, since the required number of production engines had been built and fitted to Alfetta Turbodelta Stradale and Nuova Giulietta Turbodelta models. A racing version was campaigned in rallies and developed during 1979 and 1980 seasons: entries backed by Jolly Club were driven by Pregliasco, Ormezzano and Verini. The last development of the Gp.4 Turbodelta featured wide arches, 15x11 Campagnolo rims shod with massive tyres, big brakes, light body and huge engine bonnet covering induction to intercooler and turbo system.


title: Alfa Romeo Alfetta

text: Despite scoring a win at the Danube Rally, development of the Gp.4 Alfetta Turbodelta was not pursued as Carlo Chitti, Autodelta chief engineer, had more interest in SportsCars and F1. Other consideration were the introduction of the Giulietta Turbo and the GTV 6 being imminent and the competition department being engaged in preparing to adapt to the 1981/82 change in FIA homologation categories for production-based cars from Group 2 and 4 to Group N and Group A. In the cases of the Group N and A GTV 6, events would prove that Alfa was very well prepared.


title: Alfa Romeo Alfetta

text: In 1986 Alfa Romeo GTV 6 was one of the fastest Group A rally cars. In 1986 production of the GTV 6 ceased and Alfa Romeo turned its Group A racing and rallying efforts to the 75/Milano saloons, which were based on the same rear transaxle chassis. However, 1986 also saw the GTV 6 post one of its finest rallying victories when Yves Loubet's example won the Group A in the tragic 1986 Tour de Corse and placed 3rd overall among the monstrously powerful four-wheel-drive Group B cars, while in 1987 Greg Carr, win the Australian rally Championship with the Alfa Romeo Alfetta GTV V6.


title: Retribution (professional wrestling)

text: Retribution (stylized in all caps) was a group of professional wrestling characters who performed in the WWE for the Raw brand. The group, led by Mustafa Ali, featured Mace, Slapjack, T-Bar, Reckoning, and Retaliation. The heel team were first portrayed on television in August 2020, disbanding in March the following year.


title: Retribution (professional wrestling)

text: In the group's early months, masked henchman appeared on Raw, being presented as a group of spurned performers whose goal was to destroy the company. They made their debut on August 3, 2020, then fully masked; the identities of most members would be revealed on September 21, with Ali revealed as the group's previously unseen leader on October 5. The team disbanded at Fastlane in March 2021 after Mace and T-Bar rebelled against Ali.


title: Retribution (professional wrestling)

text: From its debut to its dissolution, Retribution was consistently met with negative reaction from critics, fans and industry figures. Although the performers were considered talented, their booking, attires, ring names and personas were all critically panned, being referred to as "hideous" and "hastily thrown together". Some critics considered the group irrevocably doomed from the beginning, being damaging to the careers of its members. The group also won the Gooker Award for the worst wrestling event of 2020 according to "WrestleCrap".


title: Retribution (professional wrestling)

text: On the August 3, 2020, episode of "Raw", lights in the WWE Performance Center began flickering on and off and a masked group of vigilantes set fire to a generator. Four days later, on the August 7 episode of "SmackDown", members attacked the announcers and the audience. The group would end their attack by using a chainsaw to cut the ring ropes down. As the weeks progressed, the group began to explain their actions, referring to perceived unfair treatment as they came up through the WWE system, and the desire to upend said system.


title: Retribution (professional wrestling)

text: On the September 21 episode of "Raw", it was revealed that NXT wrestlers Dominik Dijakovic, Dio Maddin, Shane Thorne, Mercedes Martinez, and Mia Yim were the primary members of the stable, being subsequently revealed as going under the new ring names of T-Bar, Mace, Slapjack, Retaliation, and Reckoning respectively. That same night, T-Bar, Mace, and Slapjack made their in-ring debut against The Hurt Business (Bobby Lashley, Shelton Benjamin, and Cedric Alexander) in the main event, losing by disqualification. On the October 5 episode of "Raw", Mustafa Ali was revealed as the leader of the stable as he ordered them to attack The Hurt Business during his match with MVP. Shortly thereafter, Martinez requested her removal from the group, and was quietly returned to NXT. On the October 19 episode of "Raw", Retribution lost a 4 vs 4 tag team match to the Hurt Business after T-Bar submitted to Lashley's Full Nelson. Afterwards, they all would be attacked by "The Fiend" Bray Wyatt.


title: Retribution (professional wrestling)

text: At the Hell in a Cell Kickoff Show, Mustafa Ali challenged any member of The Hurt Business to face one member of Retribution. On the main show, MVP confirmed that Bobby Lashley would face off against Slapjack. All members of each faction were not allowed to be present at ringside and it was a WWE United States Championship match. Bobby Lashley then defeated Slapjack to retain the United States Championship. Retribution then attacked Lashley, but retreated when the rest of The Hurt Business came. On the October 26 episode of "Raw", Ali, T-Bar, Mace and Slapjack competed in a 4 on 4 elimination tag team match against The Hurt Business, losing by disqualification after Ali hit Alexander with a chair.


title: Retribution (professional wrestling)

text: Retribution picked up their first win in WWE, defeating Keith Lee, Braun Strowman, Sheamus and Riddle of Raw's Survivor Series team on the November 16, 2020 edition of "Raw", with Ali pinning Riddle. On November 17, Retribution (kayfabe) hacked the WWE Twitter account and released a set of Twitter fleets of members T-Bar, Mace, Slapjack and Reckoning explaining their motives for being in the group. On the November 26th edition of Main Event, Retribution appeared as a guest on Miz TV explaining their motives and attacked The Gobbledy Gooker. They then began feuding with Ricochet with every member defeating him in singles matches in order to try to convince him to join their group. However, Ricochet would reject their offer. Following this, Retribution began feuding with The New Day with Ali targeting Kofi Kingston for taking his spot in the Elimination Chamber which led to KofiMania. On the February 22, 2021 episode of "Raw", after T-Bar and Mace lost a tag team match to New Day, the first signs of a potential split occurred when Ali began to show frustration, criticizing the whole group for having lost the majority of their matches. The team disbanded at the Fastlane Kickoff Show, where Reckoning and Slapjack walked out on Ali, then T-Bar and Mace double chokeslammed him after he lost a match for the United States Championship to Riddle.


title: Retribution (professional wrestling)

text: After the group dissolved, Ali formed a tag team with Mansoor, while Mace & T-Bar continued on as a tag team, still using the Retribution aesthetic. Reckoning and Slapjack would not return to WWE television, however as part of the 2021 Draft the former was referred to by her previous ring name, Mia Yim, effectively dropping her Retribution persona. In the 2021 WWE Draft, Mace and T-Bar were split up, as T-Bar stayed on Raw as Mace was Drafted to SmackDown, disbanding the team. Martinez, Yim, and Thorne were subsequently released from their WWE contracts in 2021 but Yim returned a year later aligning with AJ Styles and The O.C.


title: Retribution (professional wrestling)

text: Retribution met with immediate mockery upon their debut in August 2020. "Pro Wrestling Torch" journalist Zack Heydorn felt the group did not deliver on WWE's preceding hype, saying "Nothing about Retribution's current presentation screams danger, fear, or evil. They are like gnats that presumably could get swatted away with a flick of the wrist." Adam Silverstein of "CBSSports.com" wrote of the group's second appearance "Mostly, they just jumped around and yelled, 'Yeah!' like a bunch of teenagers making trouble after school. It is clear this faction was rushed and not thought out well. Perhaps next week with a new set of tapings there will be a clearer direction, but right now, it's terrible."


title: Retribution (professional wrestling)

text: Negative critical response would continue over the next few months. Kevin Berge of "Bleacher Report" commented on the group's "awful" identity reveal: "Retribution took charge of the September 21 edition of "Monday Night Raw". While this had potential to change many people's perception of the group, instead the entire night fell woefully flat. Retribution came out in goofy masks... Talented stars are lost in an angle that may never recover." "PWTorch" reporter Frank Peteani called Retribution a "hideous angle on many levels", and suggested that the stable's fan interaction on social media may be an effort to mitigate the negative audience response. Dave LaGreca, host of Sirius XM's "Busted Open", found WWE's awarding contracts to the outlaw group to be nonsensical.


title: Retribution (professional wrestling)

text: In October, Sean Ross Sapp of "Fightful" noted that the group had faced unfavorable comparisons to The Dark Order of All Elite Wrestling (AEW), and called it "a hastily thrown together project after Vince McMahon was repeatedly questioned about declining viewership, lack of creative direction and an absence of new stars." He lambasted the storyline, writing, "The rollout of Retribution sucked... It didn't make any sense, and really still doesn't. Why were they allowed in the venue? Why weren't they arrested?" During a November Q&A, "PWInsider"s Dave Scherer was asked if Retribution can recover, to which he said, "They have been booked sooooo badly I don't think they can ever be more than just there." Scherer lamented that Ali, being the only member not to have his "[identity] mostly hidden", will "have permanent stink on him". On another Q&A in December, Scherer said that the faction was "a bunch of losers [...] They have totally blown that whole faction. It's epically bad." In 2021, Retribution was voted by "Wrestling Observer Newsletter"s readers as the second Worst Character, behind Bray Wyatt.


title: Retribution (professional wrestling)

text: Retribution's presentation has also received negative reactions from past and present industry figures. Former World Championship Wrestling (WCW) announcer Mark Madden and AEW wrestler Chris Jericho expressed confusion as to why WWE would hire the faction, with the former saying that "wrestling can be so stupid sometimes". Retired wrestler CM Punk joked that the mask worn by Slapjack was a consequence of his being "bored in catering" near "an abundance of paper plates". Former WCW and WWE executive Eric Bischoff also commented "Could you possibly screw up an invasion storyline any more in such a short period of time?"


title: Retribution (professional wrestling)

text: "Fightful" reported that they had discussed the stable with several WWE talents: the members' ring names were unanimously criticised, with one wrestler likening them to "something out of a bad movie or [video] game". A female talent lamented the casting of Martinez and Yim as Retribution members, saying that those women were "facing a battle to not make this look as dumb as it is". Following Martinez (Retaliation)'s sudden removal from the group, retired wrestler Lance Storm called her a "survivor", and suggested she would be "breathing a sigh of relief". Former WWE creative writer Vince Russo was critical of Retribution "for looking like a bunch of kids running around the neighborhood causing hi-jinks like Dennis The Menace". Former WWE writer Andrew Goldstein commented that the idea of the gimmick was floored. "If you're going to name an infiltrating group 'RETRIBUTION', you need to have a thesis in your promos. There needs to be some sort of grievance that you're fighting against, and they've yet to name a grievance." He also commented that if it was written to contain recently released performers there would be a reason to support the group."


title: Right of revolution

text: In political philosophy, the right of revolution (or right of rebellion) is the right or duty of a people to "alter or abolish" a government that acts against their common interests or threatens the safety of the people without cause. Stated throughout history in one form or another, the belief in this right has been used to justify various revolutions, including the American Revolution, French Revolution, the Russian Revolution, and the Iranian Revolution.


title: Right of revolution

text: To justify their overthrowing of the earlier Shang Dynasty, the kings of the Zhou Dynasty (1122–256 BCE) of China promulgated the concept known as the Mandate of Heaven, that Heaven would bless the authority of a just ruler, but would be displeased and withdraw its mandate from a despotic ruler. The Mandate of Heaven would then transfer to those who would rule best. Chinese historians interpreted a successful revolt as evidence that the Mandate of Heaven had passed on. Throughout Chinese history, rebels who opposed the ruling dynasty made the claim that the Mandate of Heaven had passed, giving them the right to revolt. Ruling dynasties were often uncomfortable with this, and the writings of the Confucian philosopher Mencius (372–289 BCE) were often suppressed for declaring that the people have the right to overthrow a ruler that did not provide for their needs.


title: Right of revolution

text: The populist leader Tiberius Gracchus tried to justify depriving power from tribune Marcus Octavius by arguing that a tribune "stands deprived by his own act of honours and immunities, by the neglect of the duty for which the honour was bestowed upon him". For Gracchus, he "who assails the power of the people is no longer a tribune at all".


title: Right of revolution

text: He strengthened his argument by highlighting the precedent of the overthrow of Tarquin the Proud "when he acted wrongfully; and for the crime of one single man, the ancient government under which Rome was built was abolished forever." As historian Edward Gibbon observes, after Tarquin's overthrow, "the ambitious Roman who should dare to assume their title or imitate [Tarquin's] tyranny was devoted to the infernal gods: each of his fellow-citizens was armed with the sword of justice; and the act of Brutus, however repugnant to gratitude or prudence, had been already sanctified by the judgement of his country."


title: Right of revolution

text: After the death of Augustus, the soldier Percennius fomented mutiny in the legions of Pannonia. Believing they had the right to violently rebel to get better treatment and greater appreciation from the state, he rhetorically asked the common soldiery why they submitted to the centurions while military life entailed such low pay and so many years in service. Many soldiers shared his feelings. According to the historian Tacitus, "The throng applauded from various motives, some pointing to the marks of the lash, others to their grey locks, and most of them to their threadbare garments and naked limbs."


title: Right of revolution

text: The Praetorian Subrius Flavus justified his right of revolution against Emperor Nero on the grounds that Nero's crimes meant he no longer deserved the love of the people: "I began to hate you when you became the murderer of your mother and your wife, a charioteer, an actor, and an incendiary."


title: Right of revolution

text: In 285 C.E., Maximian suppressed a rebellion of Gallic peasants violently resisting exploitation by their masters. These fought for their natural rights against the miserable conditions they were placed under. Gibbon says that they "asserted the natural rights of men, but they asserted those rights with the most savage cruelty".


title: Right of revolution

text: One example of the emergence of a right of revolution can be traced back to Þorgnýr the Lawspeaker, who in 1018 had a dramatic confrontation with the King of Sweden. The lawspeaker claimed the King of Sweden was accountable to the people and would be overthrown by them if he continued with his unpopular war with Norway.


title: Right of revolution

text: Another example is "Magna Carta", an English charter issued in 1215, which required the King to renounce certain rights and accept that his will could be bound by the law. It included a "security clause" that gave the right to a committee of barons to overrule the will of the King through force if needed. "Magna Carta" directly influenced the development of parliamentary democracy and many constitutional documents, such as the United States Constitution. The Golden Bull of 1222 was a golden bull, or edict, issued by King Andrew II of Hungary. The law established the rights of Hungary's noblemen, including the right to disobey the King when he acted contrary to law (). The Golden Bull is often compared to "Magna Carta"; the Bull was the first constitutional document of the nation of Hungary, while "Magna Carta" was the first constitutional charter of the nation of England.


title: Right of revolution

text: Thomas Aquinas also writes about the right to resist tyranny in the "Summa Theologica". He considers a law not to be a law at all, but an act of violence, if it contradicts either human or Divine good, overextends the power of the lawgiver, or hampers different parts of society unequally. For Aquinas, overthrowing a tyrant does not make a population seditious. Rather, the tyranny of tyrants means they commit "sedition", by which Aquinas means disturbance of those who work together lawfully for the good of the multitude:


title: Right of revolution

text: Nicole Oresme, in his "Livre de Politiques", categorically denied any right of resistance. John of Salisbury advocated direct revolutionary assassination of unethical tyrannical rulers in his "Policraticus".


title: Right of revolution

text: Theological notions of the right of revolution were elaborated in the early modern period. The Jesuits, especially Robert Bellarmine and Juan de Mariana, were widely known and often feared for advocating resistance to tyranny and often tyrannicide—one of the implications of the natural law focus of the School of Salamanca.


title: Right of revolution

text: John Calvin believed something similar. In a commentary on the Book of Daniel, he observed that contemporary monarchs pretend to reign "by the grace of God", but the pretense was "a mere cheat" so that they could "reign without control". He believed that "Earthly princes depose themselves while they rise up against God", so "it behooves us to spit upon their heads than to obey them". When ordinary citizens are confronted with tyranny, he wrote, ordinary citizens have to suffer it. But magistrates have the duty to "curb the tyranny of kings", as had the Tribunes of the Plebs in ancient Rome, the Ephors in Sparta, and the Demarchs in ancient Athens. That Calvin could support a right of resistance in theory did not mean that he thought such resistance prudent in all circumstances. At least publicly, he disagreed with the Scottish Calvinist John Knox's call for revolution against the Catholic Queen Mary I Tudor of England.


title: Right of revolution

text: The Catholic Church shared Calvin's prudential concerns – the Pope condemned Guy Fawkes' Gunpowder Plot, and "Regnans in Excelsis" was widely considered to be a mistake. Instead, the safest course of action for the people was to endure tyranny for as long as it could be borne, rather than run the larger risks of armed revolution.


title: Right of revolution

text: The right of revolution was expounded by the Monarchomachs in the context of the French Wars of Religion, and by Huguenots thinkers who legitimized tyrannicides.


title: Right of revolution

text: In the last chapter of "The Prince", Niccolò Machiavelli exhorts the Medici family to take up violent insurrection "to liberate Italy from the barbarians". He explains why contemporary circumstances justify the Medici's right of revolution:


title: Right of revolution

text: Perhaps no other major philosopher wrote as much about the right of revolution as Enlightenment thinker John Locke. He developed the concept in his "Two Treatises of Government", especially the last two chapters, "Of Tyranny" and "Of the Dissolution of Government". The right formed an important part of his social contract theory, in which he defined the basis of social relationships. Locke said that under natural law, all people have the right to life, liberty, and private property; under the social contract, the people could instigate a revolution against the government when it acted against the interests of citizens, to replace the government with one that served the interests of citizens. In some cases, Locke saw revolution as an obligation. For him, the right of revolution acted as a safeguard against tyranny.


title: Right of revolution

text: For Locke, these governments undid themselves by standing in the way of a citizen's right to property. He believed that "governments are dissolved" when "they endeavour to invade the property of the subject", since it is the right of the people to "choose and authorise a legislative" and accompanying institutions that act "as guards and fences to the properties of all society". In other writings, he used the analogy of a robber to explain why tyrannical infringement on property makes for unjust law: "Should a robber break into my house, and, with a dagger at my throat, make me seal deeds to convey my estate to him, would this give him any title? Just such a title by his sword has an unjust conqueror who forces me into submission. The injury and the crime is equal, whether committed by the wearer of a crown or some petty villain." Thus, according to Locke, if a government acts against a citizen's right of property, that citizen may exercise his right of revolution against that government.


title: Right of revolution

text: Locke drew on the Old Testament story of Hezekiah's rebellion against the King of Assyria to make the case that God supported any people rebelling against unrighteous rule, saying that "it is plain that shaking off a power which force, and not right, hath set over any one, though it hath the name of rebellion, yet it is no offence before God, but that which He allows and countenances".


title: Right of revolution

text: Like Aquinas, Locke believed that the truly seditious or rebellious individuals are not those who change the legislative to ensure public wellbeing, but the despots who violated public wellbeing in the first place with their illegitimate laws: "For when men, by entering into society and civil government, have excluded force, and introduced laws for the preservation of property, peace, and unity among themselves, those who set up force again in opposition to the law, do "rebellare" – that is, bring back again the state of war, and are properly rebels". Also like Aquinas, Locke considered it just for a subject to disobey any ruler overextending his political power. In "A Letter Concerning Toleration", he argued that "if the law, indeed, be concerning things that lie not within the verge of the magistrates authority, ... men are not in these cases obliged by that law, against their consciences."


title: Right of revolution

text: However, Locke was not only a proponent of fighting tyranny through civil disobedience of unjust laws. He also suggested using violent insurrection in situations where an illegitimate centre of power, such as a rogue executive, has used force to subdue the supreme power in the land, that is, the legislature:


title: Right of revolution

text: Later, Jean-Jacques Rousseau would be in agreement on Locke's point about force, stating in his work "On the Origin of Inequality" that:


title: Right of revolution

text: Not all Enlightenment thinkers supported the rebellion principle. Immanuel Kant would have strongly disagreed with Locke and Rousseau as regards the notion of there being any general principle of a right to revolution. He believed that "if the ruler or regent, as the organ of the supreme power, proceeds in violation of the laws, as in imposing taxes, recruiting soldiers, and so on, contrary to the law of equality in the distribution of the political burdens, the subject may oppose "complaints" and "objections" ("gravamina") to this injustice, but not active resistance." He reaffirms this repeatedly in "The Metaphysics of Morals", stating that "there is no right of sedition, and still less of revolution", the reason being that "it is only by submission to the universal legislative will, that a condition of law and order is possible." Moreover, Kant believed that any "forcible compulsion of [the dethronement of a monarch], on the part of the people, cannot be justified under the pretext of a "right of necessity" ("casus necessitatis")".


title: Right of revolution

text: John Stuart Mill believed in a morally justifiable form of right to revolution against tyranny, placing him firmly in the tradition of Aquinas, Locke, and Rousseau. In his introduction to "On Liberty", he gave an account of the historical limitation of kingly power by the multitude, a conflict he termed "liberty". This progress was sought "by obtaining a recognition of certain immunities, called political liberties or rights, which it was to be regarded as a breach of duty in the ruler to infringe, and which if he did infringe, specific resistance, or general rebellion, was held to be justifiable". On the question of tyrannicide, Mill came down firmly in favour of the virtue of "the act of a private citizen in striking down a criminal, who, by raising himself above the law, has placed himself beyond the reach of legal punishment or control, [since it] has been accounted by whole nations, and by some of the best and wisest of men, not a crime, but an act of exalted virtue".


title: Right of revolution

text: Scottish biographer James Boswell noted the literary critic Samuel Johnson's attack on the widespread assumption that "the King can do no wrong":


title: Right of revolution

text: Boswell emphasised this sentence "with peculiar pleasure, as a noble instance of that truly dignified spirit of freedom which ever glowed in his heart". Johnson seemed to believe that some form of a right to revolution inhered in natural law. He considered "that in no government power can be abused long. Mankind will not bear it. If a sovereign oppresses his people to a great degree, they will rise and cut off his head. There is a remedy in human nature against tyranny, that will keep us safe under every form of government. Had not the people of France thought themselves honoured as sharing in the brilliant actions of Louis XIV, they would not have endured him; and we may say the same of the King of Prussia's people."


title: Right of revolution

text: Revolutionary movements subsequent to this, all drew on Locke's theory as a justification for the exercise of the right of revolution.


title: Right of revolution

text: During the Glorious Revolution of 1688, the Parliament of England effectively deposed James II of England and replaced him with William III of Orange-Nassau, due to the former's unacceptable leanings towards absolutism and Catholicism. Although Locke's treatise was published the year after, his ideas were already widely current in the English political system at the time.


title: Right of revolution

text: Although Locke claimed that his book's purpose was to justify William III's ascension to the throne, it has been argued that the bulk of the writing was instead completed between 1679 and 1680 during the Exclusion Crisis, which attempted to prevent James II from ever taking the throne in the first place. Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury, Locke's mentor, patron and friend, introduced the bill, but it was ultimately unsuccessful. Alternatively, the work is better associated with the revolutionary conspiracies that swirled around what would come to be known as the Rye House Plot.


title: Right of revolution

text: The right to revolution played a large part in the writings of the American revolutionaries in the run up to the American Revolution. Thomas Paine's political tract "Common Sense" used the concept as an argument for rejection of the British monarchy and separation from the British Empire, as opposed to merely self-government within it. The right was also cited in the Declaration of Independence of the United States, written by Thomas Jefferson, two thirds of which consists of a list of the wrongs committed by King George III which violated the colonist's natural right to life, liberty, and property. According to the declaration:


title: Right of revolution

text: However, the Revolution did change course to set certain limits on the right of rebellion. In Federalist No. 28, Alexander Hamilton successfully made the case for a federal standing army, in opposition to Locke's principle that a republican government rules not by violence, but by law. Hamilton thought:


title: Right of revolution

text: Simply put, "An insurrection, whatever may be its immediate cause, eventually endangers all government." However, Hamilton did point out that the wide geography of the United States meant that a federal army could not provide absolute limitation on the right of revolution, since, "If the federal army should be able to quell the resistance of one State, the distant States would have it in their power to make head with fresh forces."


title: Right of revolution

text: The right of revolution was also included in the 1793 preface to the French Constitution of 1793 during the French Revolution. This preface from 24 June 1793 contained a declaration of the rights of man and citizen including right to rebellion in §35: "When the government violates the rights of the people, insurrection is for the people, and for every portion thereof, the most sacred of rights and the most indispensable of duties."


title: Right of revolution

text: The inherent (rather than constitutional) right to revolt was cited in the year prior the civil war's start as justifying the secession of the Confederate States of America.


title: Right of revolution

text: Although some explanations of the right of revolution leave open the possibility of its exercise as an individual right, it was clearly understood to be a collective right under English constitutional and political theory.


title: Right of revolution

text: As Pauline Maier has noted in her study "From Resistance to Revolution", "private individuals were forbidden to take force against their rulers either for malice or because of private injuries". Instead, "not just a few individuals, but the 'Body of the People' had to feel concerned" before the right of revolution was justified and with most writers speaking of a whole people who are the Public', or the body of the people acting in their 'public Authority', indicating a broad consensus involving all ranks of society".


title: Right of revolution

text: In the second of his "Two Treatises of Government", John Locke quotes the jurist William Barclay as stating "That particular men are allowed ... to have no other remedy but patience; but the body of the people may with, with respect, resist intolerable tyranny, for when it is moderate they ought to endure it."


title: Right of revolution

text: Some philosophers argue that it is not only the right of a people to overthrow an oppressive government but also their "duty" to do so. Howard Evans Kiefer opines, "It seems to me that the "duty" to rebel is much more understandable than that "right" to rebel, because the right to rebellion ruins the order of power, whereas the duty to rebel goes beyond and breaks it."


title: Right of revolution

text: Morton White writes of the American revolutionaries, "The notion that they had a "duty" to rebel is extremely important to stress, for it shows that they thought they were complying with the "commands" of natural law and of nature's God when they threw off absolute despotism." The U.S. Declaration of Independence states that "when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their "duty", to throw off such Government" (emphasis added). The phrase "long train of abuses" is a reference to John Locke's similar statement in the "Second Treatise of Government", where he explicitly established overthrow of a tyrant as an obligation. Martin Luther King Jr. likewise held that it is the duty of the people to resist unjust laws.


title: Right of revolution

text: Certain theories of the right of revolution impose significant preconditions on its exercise, sometimes limiting its invocation to the most dire circumstances. Aristotle insisted that "men of rank" who "excel in virtue have the best right of all to rebel". Although Plato argued that a dissident should openly criticise his nation's policies, "provided that his words are not likely either to fall on deaf ears or to lead to the loss of his own life", he also stipulated against seemingly necessary violent insurrection: "force against his native land he should not use in order to bring about a change of constitution, when it is not possible for the best constitution to be introduced without driving men into exile or putting them to death".


title: Right of revolution

text: Thinkers often emphasise the great responsibility in taking hold of the right to revolution. Aquinas believed that would-be revolutionaries held no right to rebel against a tyrant if "the tyrant's rule be disturbed so inordinantly that his subjects suffer greater harm from the consequent disturbance than from the tyrant's government". Michel de Montaigne was equally cautious, warning that "to establish a better regimen in the stead of that which a man has overthrown, many who have attempted it have foundered". Even the American Declaration of Independence admits that "Prudence, indeed, will dictate that governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes".


title: Right of revolution

text: In "Leviathan", Thomas Hobbes argued that, since they have consented to invest their sovereign with the right of rulership, monarchical subjects can only change rulers with the original sovereign's permission. He states that "they that are subjects to a monarch cannot without his leave cast off monarchy and return to the confusion of a disunited multitude; nor transfer their person from him that beareth it to another man, or other assembly of men". Elsewhere he emphasises this point by saying that "the commands of them that have the right to command are not by their subjects to be censured nor disputed".


title: Right of revolution

text: John Locke believed in the precondition that the right of violent insurrection could only be retained by those challenging tyranny, stipulating "that force is to be opposed to nothing but to unjust and unlawful force". The right of revolution only gave a people the right to rebel against unjust rule, not any rule: "whoever, either ruler or subject, by force goes about to invade the rights of either prince or people, and lays the foundation for overturning the constitution and frame of any just government, he is guilty of the greatest crime I think a man is capable of".


title: Right of revolution

text: In "Two Treatises of Government", Locke discusses the pro-monarchy philosopher William Barclay's notions about the preconditions for the right of revolution against a monarch: "First. He says it must be with reverence. Secondly. It must be without retribution or punishment; and the reason he gives is, 'because an inferior cannot punish a superior'." Locke disagreed with both these preconditions, explaining that it is impossible to strike against any opposition 'with reverence' and that an oppressor loses his superiority by being an oppressor. Elsewhere Barclay insists that a king must be dethroned as a precondition for the right of revolution against a monarchy: "The people, therefore, can never come by a power over him unless he does something that makes him cease to be a king", which may only happen if the king tries to overturn his kingdom or make his rule dependent on force provided by another country.


title: Right of revolution

text: In his treatise "Politics", Aristotle disapproves of the Cretan constitution's provision for the aristocratic right of revolution against the Cosmi, the ten most important magistrates in the country: "Worst of all is the suspension of the office of Cosmi, a device to which the nobles often have recourse when they will not submit to justice." For Aristotle, this is evidence of oligarchical interference codified into supposedly constitutional, republican government. In contrary to this view, the French Enlightenment thinker Montesquieu believed that this institution successfully hindered the abuse of power, thanks to the existing precondition of a powerful patriotism felt by the Cretans towards their island.


title: Right of revolution

text: In the American Revolutionary context, one finds expressions of the right of revolution both as subject to precondition and as unrestrained by conditions. On the eve of the American Revolution, for example, Americans considered their plight to justify exercise of the right of revolution. Alexander Hamilton justified American resistance as an expression of "the law of nature" redressing violations of "the first principles of civil society" and invasions of "the rights of a whole people". For Thomas Jefferson, the Declaration was the last-ditch effort of an oppressed people—the position in which many Americans saw themselves in 1776. Jefferson's litany of colonial grievances was an effort to establish that Americans met their burden to exercise the natural law right of revolution.


title: Right of revolution

text: Certain scholars, such as legal historian Christian Fritz, have written that with the end of the Revolution, Americans did not renounce the right of revolution. In fact they codified it in their new constitutions and even today 35 constitutions of American states have the same or similar provisions on the right of revolution as in the preamble of the American Declaration of Independence. For instance, constitutions considered to be "conservative", such as those of post-revolutionary Massachusetts in 1780, preserved the people's right "to reform, alter, or totally change" government not only for their protection or safety but also whenever their "prosperity and happiness require[d] it". This expression was not unusual in the early American constitutions. Connecticut's 1818 constitution articulated the people's right "at all times" to alter government "in such a manner as they may think expedient".


title: Right of revolution

text: Fritz, in "American Sovereigns: The People and America's Constitutional Tradition Before the Civil War", describes a duality in American views on preconditions to the right of revolution: "Some of the first state constitutions included 'alter or abolish' provisions that mirrored the traditional right of revolution" in that they required dire preconditions to its exercise. Maryland's 1776 constitution and New Hampshire's 1784 constitution required the perversion of the ends of government and the endangering of public liberty and that all other means of redress were to no avail. But in contrast, other states dispensed with the onerous preconditions on the exercise of the right. In the 1776 Virginia constitution the right would arise simply if government was "inadequate" and Pennsylvania's 1776 constitution required only that the people considered a change to be "most conducive" to the public welfare.


title: Right of revolution

text: Descriptions of the Right of Revolution also differ in whether that right is considered to be a natural law (a law whose content is set by nature and that therefore has validity everywhere) or positive law (law enacted or adopted by proper authority for governing of the state).


title: Right of revolution

text: An example of the dual nature of the right of revolution as both a natural law and as positive law is found in the American revolutionary context. Although the American Declaration of Independence invoked the natural law right of revolution, natural law was not the sole justification for American independence. English constitutional doctrine also supported the colonists' actions, at least up to a point. By the 1760s, English law recognized what William Blackstone's "Commentaries on the Laws of England" called "the law of redress against public oppression". Like the natural law's right of revolution, this constitutional law of redress justified the people resisting the sovereign. This law of redress arose from a contract between the people and the king to preserve the public welfare. This original contract was "a central dogma in English and British constitutional law" since "time immemorial". The Declaration's long list of grievances declared that this bargain had been breached.


title: Right of revolution

text: This well-accepted law of redress justified a people resisting unconstitutional acts of government. Liberty depended upon the people's "ultimate" right to resist. Unconstitutional commands breaching the "voluntary compact between the rulers and the ruled" could be "ignored" and arbitrary commands opposed with force. This right implied a duty on the part of the people to resist unconstitutional acts. As Alexander Hamilton noted in 1775, government exercised powers to protect "the absolute rights" of the people and government forfeited those powers and the people could reclaim them if government breached this constitutional contract.


title: Right of revolution

text: The law of redress had limits like the right of revolution under natural law. The law of redress, like the right of revolution, was not an individual right. It belonged to the community as a whole, as one of the parties to the original constitutional contract. It was not a means of first resort, or response to trivial or casual errors of government. Blackstone's "Commentaries" suggested that using the law of redress would be "extraordinary", for example applying if the king broke the original contract, violated "the fundamental laws", or abandoned the kingdom. During the Stamp Act crisis of the 1760s the Massachusetts Provincial Congress considered resistance to the king justified if freedom came under attack from "the hand of oppression" and "the merciless feet of tyranny". A decade later the "indictment" of George III in the Declaration of Independence sought to end his sovereign reign over the colonies because he violated the original constitutional contract.


title: Right of revolution

text: As explained in legal historian Christian Fritz's description of the role of the right of revolution in American Revolution, American independence was justified by conventional theories under Anglo-American constitutional thought at the time about the people's collective right to cast off an arbitrary king. "Both natural law and English constitutional doctrine gave the colonists a right to revolt against the sovereign's oppression." But these understandings about the right of revolution on the eve of the American Revolution rested on a traditional model of government. That model posited the existence of a hypothetical bargain struck in the mists of antiquity between a king and a people. "In this bargain, the people were protected by the monarch in exchange for the people giving the king allegiance. This was a contractual relationship. American revolutionaries accused George III of breaching his implied duty of protection under that contract, thereby releasing the people in the colonies from their allegiance. The sovereign's breach of the hypothetical contract gave rise to the subjects' right of revolutiongrounded on both natural law and English constitutional doctrine."


title: Right of revolution

text: Although many declarations of independence seek legitimacy by appealing to the right of revolution, far fewer constitutions mention this right or guarantee this right to citizens because of the destabilizing effect such a guarantee would likely produce. Among the examples of an articulation of a right of revolution as positive law include:


title: Right of revolution

text: Some have argued that because in modern times democratic governments can be overthrown by popular vote, the right of the people to remove the government has become embedded into the political system. In a study of the idea of rule by the people in the American Revolution and in early post-revolutionary America, legal historian Christian G. Fritz writes:


title: Right of revolution

text: However, events such as the Arab Spring provide evidence that the revolutionary period of history has not necessarily ended. This raises the question of the importance of right of revolution in the 21st century. As terrorism is gaining recognition as a crime under international law, the concept of right to revolution is seen as a legal mechanism to distinguish terrorists from freedom fighters.


title: Benik Afobe

text: Benik Tunani Afobe (born 12 February 1993) is a professional footballer who plays as a striker for EFL Championship club Millwall. He represented the DR Congo national team on six occasions between 2017 and 2018.


title: Benik Afobe

text: Afobe signed a professional contract with Arsenal in February 2010, and was loaned to various clubs including Huddersfield Town, Reading, Bolton Wanderers, Millwall, Sheffield Wednesday and Milton Keynes Dons before signing for Wolverhampton Wanderers in January 2015. A year later, he signed for Bournemouth for £10 million. After a season there, he returned on loan to former club Wolves the following season where he secured a £10 million transfer back to Molineux. However soon after, he joined Stoke City initially on loan before a permanent switch in January 2019.


title: Benik Afobe

text: Afobe was part of the England squad that won the 2010 UEFA European Under-17 Championship in May 2010.


title: Benik Afobe

text: Afobe was born in Leyton, London and grew up in Dagenham where he attended Monteagle Primary School and the Jo Richardson Community School. He joined the Arsenal Academy when he was six; he was playing for Sunday league team Eclipse FC in Dagenham when he was spotted by an Arsenal scout – Gary Nott. He joined Arsenal on 1 May 2001. He scored 40 goals for the U-16s in 2007–08, 11 goals in 13 appearances in 2008–09, and 21 goals in 24 appearances for Arsenal U-18 in 2009–10. He was voted Arsenal's U-18 player of the season.


title: Benik Afobe

text: Afobe signed a professional contract with Arsenal in February 2010, after reportedly being targeted by Barcelona. "The Guardian" called him "powerful and pacy" and commented that he "is already being furtively whispered up as the next big thing."


title: Benik Afobe

text: On 2 November 2010, he agreed on terms to join League One club Huddersfield Town on loan until December 2010. He made his debut as a substitute the same night, coming on in the 64th minute for Joe Garner in the 2–0 win over Sheffield Wednesday at Hillsborough Stadium. After the game, Huddersfield manager Lee Clark praised Afobe, calling him "another fantastic young player from the Arsenal production line." Afobe scored his first goals in professional football as Huddersfield beat Rotherham United 5–2 away from home in the Football League Trophy. He made it 3–1 with a clinical header inside the box, before finishing off the scoring with a well-taken finish in the second half.


title: Benik Afobe

text: Following a broken leg to Anthony Pilkington, Afobe got an extended run in the Huddersfield starting line-up in the second half of the season which saw him pick up four Man of the Match awards in a row, which also included 5 goals and a number of important assists, taking Huddersfield's unbeaten record from December to 24 league games. Despite his and Huddersfield's great form, they narrowly missed out on automatic promotion and lost in the final of the play-offs. In total he made 32 appearances with 8 goals and 10 assists for the Terriers.


title: Benik Afobe

text: Afobe impressed on his first-team debut for Arsenal in the 2011 Emirates Cup against American side New York Red Bulls. He came on for the injured Jack Wilshere on 7 minutes, however he was then substituted on 74 minutes for Andrey Arshavin as he had a groin injury. Afobe made his return from injury in August for the Reserves in a 2–1 win against Man Utd Reserves, however went off after just 22 minutes, ruling the striker out for over six months. Afobe made a goalscoring return for the Reserves in a 5–0 win against Norwich Reserves on 21 February, entering the field as a first-half substitute. Afobe also missed a penalty in the match.


title: Benik Afobe

text: On 22 March 2012, Afobe agreed to join Championship club Reading on loan until the end of the season, and made three appearances in the side that secured the Championship title and promotion to the Premier League.


title: Benik Afobe

text: On 3 August 2012, Football League Championship club Bolton Wanderers confirmed that Afobe had joined on a season-long loan. Afobe made his debut the following day, coming on as a substitute in Bolton's 3–0 friendly defeat at Portsmouth. On 7 August, he scored a hat trick in Bolton's penultimate pre-season friendly as they beat Tranmere Rovers 3–1. He made his competitive debut on 18 August, coming on as a second-half substitute for Kevin Davies, in Bolton's 2–0 defeat at Burnley. After making two more substitute appearances, he made his starting debut in the League Cup defeat at Crawley Town on 28 August, scoring in the process. His first league goal for Bolton came on 23 October as he scored the first in a 2–2 draw against Wolverhampton Wanderers. On 31 January 2013, Bolton cut short his deal and he returned to Arsenal.


title: Benik Afobe

text: On 8 February 2013, Afobe joined Millwall on loan until the end of the season, but that deal was cancelled one month later due to a knee injury and he returned to Arsenal and underwent surgery.


title: Benik Afobe

text: Afobe returned from injury in late October 2013, after an eight-month period on the sidelines. He scored the only goal on his return to action in a win for an Arsenal XI against the Nike Academy.


title: Benik Afobe

text: On 30 January 2014, Afobe joined Sheffield Wednesday for the rest of the 2013–14 campaign. Afobe made his debut, in a 1–0 win over Barnsley on 1 February 2014. He then scored his first goal and set up a goal in the next game, in a 2–0 win over Reading. He then scored his second goal of the season on 29 March 2014, in a 4–1 loss against Watford. After making twelve appearances and scoring twice, it announced that Afobe returned to Arsenal as a result of his conclusion on his loan spell at Sheffield Wednesday.


title: Benik Afobe

text: Afobe joined MK Dons on loan until the end of the season. Afobe made his debut for the club, at 2–2 in an eventual 4–2 win over Gillingham on the opening day of the 2014–15 season. Afobe then scored his first league goal for the club, in a 1–0 win over Chesterfield on 19 August 2014.


title: Benik Afobe

text: Afobe then scored two goals in a 4–0 win over Manchester United in the League Cup second round after coming on as a substitute. In third round, he scored two more goals to help his team to pass Bradford City and reach the fourth round. On 29 November, Afobe scored a hat trick in a 6–0 win over Colchester United.


title: Benik Afobe

text: On 14 January 2015, Afobe signed a three-and-a-half-year deal with Championship side Wolverhampton Wanderers for a reported £2 million, and was assigned the number 12 shirt, which was previously used by loanees Yannick Sagbo and Danny Graham. He scored in his debut for the club three days after signing, entering as a substitute for James Henry and walking the ball into the net in added time to confirm a 2–0 home win against Blackpool. He ended the season having scored 13 goals during 21 appearances for Wolves, but the team was denied a play-off place by goal difference.


title: Benik Afobe

text: Afobe scored the opening goal of the season for his club in a 2–1 win away to Blackburn Rovers. As the summer 2015 transfer window drew to a close, he was the subject of interest from newly promoted Premier League club Norwich City, who reportedly entered a series of bids. In response, Wolves issued a statement to say that "neither Benik nor any of Wolves' first team forward players, will be sold this season". Afobe remained a Wolves player at the close of the summer transfer window and went on to score 10 goals before the turn of the year. During the January transfer window, Afobe again attracted interest from the Premier League with Bournemouth's bid of a reported £10 million ultimately being accepted.


title: Benik Afobe

text: In the aftermath of Afobe's departure, Wolves' head of football development and recruitment Kevin Thelwell told fans: "Benik was no longer trying to play for us. That was undermining everything we were trying to achieve"; chief executive Jez Moxey added that "[Afobe] insisted on moving. We were forced into doing a deal that we didn't want to do". Afobe himself responded via social media: "I did my best. It was hard for us all. I asked to leave but only because I wanted to play in the Premier League, but I never told my team-mates or disrupted the changing room".


title: Benik Afobe

text: On 10 January 2016, after numerous attempts to sign him, Afobe joined Bournemouth on a four-and-a-half-year deal for an undisclosed fee reported to be a club record £10 million.


title: Benik Afobe

text: He made his debut two days later, starting in a 3–1 loss to West Ham United at Dean Court. Despite missing good opportunities to score, manager Eddie Howe said of his new signing: "The pleasing thing was that he was at the end of those chances and we know with his quality he'll put them away." In his next game on 16 January, Afobe scored his first Bournemouth and Premier League goal, putting in Charlie Daniels' cross to open a 3–0 home win over Norwich City.


title: Benik Afobe

text: On 1 February 2018, Afobe rejoined Wolverhampton Wanderers on loan until the end of the 2017–18 season. On 7 March 2018, Afobe scored his first goal back in the Wolves shirt, in a 3–0 victory against Leeds United at Elland Road, with Afobe lobbing the ball over on-rushing Leeds goalkeeper Bailey Peacock-Farrell to score Wolves' third of the night. He scored six goals in 16 appearances as Wolves won the Championship title, gaining promotion to the Premier League. On 1 June, Afobe would sign with Wolves on a permanent deal, for a fee of £10 million. However it was reported that Wolves would be willing to let Afobe leave to make a quick profit of £2 million.


title: Benik Afobe

text: On 12 June 2018, Afobe joined Stoke City on a six-month loan but with an obligation to purchase him for a reported fee of £12 million in January 2019. He made his Stoke debut on 5 August 2018 against Leeds United, scoring a penalty in a 3–1 defeat. Afobe and Stoke struggled in the 2018–19 season with the team failing to mount a promotion challenge ending up in 16th position. Afobe ended as top goalscorer with only nine goals from 49 appearances. After returning to pre-season training in June 2019, Afobe said that he has lost weight and improved his training methods. However, after a poor performance in the opening day of the season against Queens Park Rangers, manager Nathan Jones decided to bring in Scott Hogan on loan.


title: Benik Afobe

text: On 8 August 2019, Afobe joined Bristol City on loan for the 2019–20 season. After scoring three goals in five games for the Robins, Afobe suffered an Anterior cruciate ligament injury in training, initially ruling him out for the remainder of the 2019–20 season. However, due to the season being interrupted by the COVID-19 pandemic, which saw the season suspended from March to June 2020, Afobe recovered and returned to the first team. He made his first start for the club in 9 months against Sheffield Wednesday on 28 June 2020. The Robins were unable to maintain a challenge for the play-offs and they ended the campaign in 12th position.


title: Benik Afobe

text: On his return to Stoke, Afobe featured heavily in pre-season under Michael O'Neill and played against Blackpool in the first round of the EFL Cup. But he was left out of the squad for the first league match and was linked with another move away from the club. He joined Turkish side Trabzonspor on loan for the 2020–21 season. Afobe played 29 times for Trabzonspor, scoring five goals.


title: Benik Afobe

text: On 2 July 2021, Afobe rejoined fellow Championship side Millwall on a season-long loan deal eight years after his previous loan spell at the club. He scored his first goal for Millwall in a 2–1 defeat to Fulham on 17 August 2021. Afobe scored 13 goals in 41 appearances for the Lions as they missed out on a play-off spot on the final day of the season, finishing in 9th.


title: Benik Afobe

text: Following the success of his loan spell with the club in the 2021–22 season, Afobe joined the club on a permanent one-year deal for an undisclosed fee on 28 June 2022.


title: Benik Afobe

text: In 2008, Afobe was part of the England under-16 team that won the Victory Shield, scoring four goals in three games. He was also part of the England under-17 squad that won the 2010 UEFA European Under-17 Championship. "The Guardian"'s sports blog called him "among the best of the crop" and "a prolific striker". He joined the England under-19 squad in August 2010.


title: Benik Afobe

text: In June 2011, Afobe was called up to the England under-20 team for the FIFA U-20 World Cup in Colombia. However, he was withdrawn from the squad by Arsenal to join the first team pre-season camp in Germany. Afobe was also called up to replace Manchester United's Danny Welbeck from England U21s in August, however he pulled out due to a groin injury.


title: Benik Afobe

text: On 18 June 2015, he was called up to replace injured Saido Berahino at the 2015 UEFA European Under-21 Championship.


title: Benik Afobe

text: Afobe also qualified to represent DR Congo through his parents. He was called up to the DR Congo national team, for 2017 Africa Cup of Nations qualification matches against Angola in March 2016. In November 2016, Afobe revealed that he had not yet been able to make an appearance for DR Congo due to a hold up with the paperwork. In January 2017, Afobe pulled out of the 2017 Africa Cup of Nations to focus on breaking into the starting XI at Bournemouth.


title: Benik Afobe

text: Afobe is of DR Congolese descent and has two daughters with his partner Lois. He had a daughter named Amora, who died in November 2019 at the young age of two. Amora died in hospital due to her unexpectedly having sepsis.


title: Benik Afobe

text: He has another daughter, who is named Alba who at the time of her older sister's death was only one year old.


title: 1986 California Proposition 65

text: Proposition 65 (formally titled The Safe Drinking Water and Toxic Enforcement Act of 1986, and also referred to as Prop 65) is a California law passed by direct voter initiative in 1986 by a 63%–37% vote. Its goals are to protect drinking water sources from toxic substances that cause cancer and birth defects and to reduce or eliminate exposures to those chemicals generally, such as consumer products, by requiring warnings in advance of those exposures.


title: 1986 California Proposition 65

text: In 1986, political strategists including Tom Hayden and his then wife, environmental activist Jane Fonda, thought that an initiative addressing toxic pollutants would bring more left leaning voters to the polls to help Democrat Tom Bradley in his gubernatorial race against incumbent Republican George Deukmejian, who had vetoed several pollution cleanup bills. Hayden and others funded the initiative, and found three environmental attorneys to write it, including David Roe who did not expect it to pass. Voters passed it 2–1, but did not elect Bradley.


title: 1986 California Proposition 65

text: The act states: "no person in the course of doing business shall knowingly discharge or release a chemical known to the state to cause cancer or reproductive toxicity into water" or into anywhere that feeds a drinking water source. It also says that "no person in the course of doing business shall knowingly and intentionally expose" anyone to those chemicals "without first giving clear and reasonable warning."


title: 1986 California Proposition 65

text: Proposition 65 is administered by CalEPA's California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment (OEHHA). Proposition 65 regulates substances officially listed by California as causing cancer or birth defects or other reproductive harm, in two ways. The first statutory requirement of Proposition 65 prohibits businesses from knowingly discharging listed substances into drinking water sources, or onto land where the substances can pass into drinking water sources. The second prohibits businesses from knowingly exposing individuals to listed substances without providing a clear and reasonable warning. The requirements apply to amounts above what would present a 1-in-100,000 risk of cancer assuming lifetime exposure (for carcinogens), or above one thousandth (1/1000) of the no observable effect level (for reproductive toxins).


title: 1986 California Proposition 65

text: An official list of substances covered by Proposition 65 is maintained and made publicly available. Chemicals are added to or removed from the official list based on California's analysis of current scientific information. All substances listed show their known risk factors, a unique CAS chemical classification number, the date they were listed, and, if so, whether they have been delisted. As a result of lawsuits, the list now also contains substances known only to cause cancer in animals, and as of 2020, contains over 900 substances.


title: 1986 California Proposition 65

text: Proposition 65 has been highly successful in reducing exposures to known toxic chemicals, especially in consumer products, and its successes illustrate gaps in the effectiveness of federal toxics laws (see Accomplishments below). It remains politically controversial even after more than 30 years (see Controversy and claimed abuse below), in large part because business objects to Proposition 65's burden of proof, which in effect requires businesses to know the scientific safety level for specific cancer- and birth defect-causing chemicals that those businesses are intentionally exposing members of the public to, unless government has already set those levels. According to the California Environmental Protection Agency, "Proposition 65 has... increased public awareness about the adverse effects of exposures to listed chemicals... [and] provided an incentive for manufacturers to remove listed chemicals from their products... Although Proposition 65 has benefited Californians, it has come at a cost for companies doing business in the state."


title: 1986 California Proposition 65

text: Enforcement is carried out through civil lawsuits against Proposition 65 violators. These lawsuits may be brought by the California Attorney General, any district attorney, or certain city attorneys (those in cities with a population exceeding 750,000). Lawsuits may also be brought by private parties "acting in the public interest," but only after providing notice of the alleged violation to the Attorney General, the appropriate district attorney and city attorney, and the business accused of the violation.


title: 1986 California Proposition 65

text: A Proposition 65 Notice of Violation must provide adequate information to allow the recipient to assess the nature of the alleged violation. A notice must comply with the information and procedural requirements specified in regulations. A private party may not pursue an enforcement action directly under Proposition 65 if one of the government officials noted above initiates an action within sixty days of the notice. After 2003, private enforcers must also serve a certificate of merit (statement of expert consultation(s) supporting belief of reasonable and meritorious private action) as a means of preventing frivolous enforcement actions.


title: 1986 California Proposition 65

text: A business found to be in violation of Proposition 65 is subject to civil penalties of up to $2,500 per day for each violation. In addition, the business may be ordered by a court of law to stop committing the violation. Other penalties may apply, including unfair business practices violations as limited under California Proposition 64 (2004).


title: 1986 California Proposition 65

text: Businesses can become compliant by learning upfront whether or not their products contain chemicals that match the current Proposition 65 list of 910 chemicals. Users can do this by searching in a Microsoft Excel chemical list or a website offering the search by chemical name or CAS Number. Product manufacturers may also learn if a chemical in their products has been removed from the Proposition 65 list, such as saccharin, removed December 2010.


title: 1986 California Proposition 65

text: From 1988 (when the initiative went into effect) until 2020, there have been more than 30,000 violation claims, targeting over 100,000 products, filed by citizen prosecutors. From 2000 to 2020, businesses paid more than $370 million in settlements, with almost three quarters of that amount going to attorneys, and the majority of that going to a small group of perpetual litigants. One example cited by the Los Angeles Times is that of the for-profit company "Safe Products for Californians", run by Kenneth Moore and his lawyer ex-wife Tanya Moore, who received almost $700,000 in legal fees from over 100 lawsuits (half against Amazon sellers) in which Kenneth was her only client.


title: 1986 California Proposition 65

text: Proposition 65 has caused large numbers of consumer products to be reformulated to remove toxic ingredients, as documented in settlements of enforcement actions.


title: 1986 California Proposition 65

text: Proposition 65 has also caused government and industry to cooperate on scientific issues of chemical risk, resulting in risk-based standards for 282 toxic chemicals in the law's first few years of operation, an accomplishment described by a Governor's Task Force as "100 years of progress [by federal standards] in the areas of hazard identification, risk assessment, and exposure assessment." The existence of clear numerical standards has significantly assisted efforts to comply with the law, and to enforce it in situations of non-compliance.


title: 1986 California Proposition 65

text: The following warning language is standard on products sold in California if they contain chemicals on the Proposition 65 list and the amount of exposure caused by the product is not within defined safety limits:


title: 1986 California Proposition 65

text: WARNING: This product contains chemicals known to the State of California to cause cancer and birth defects or other reproductive harm.


title: 1986 California Proposition 65

text: The wording can be changed as necessary, as long as it communicates that the chemical in question is known to the state to cause cancer, or birth defects or other reproductive harm. For exposures from other sources, such as car exhaust in a parking garage, a standard sign might read: "This area contains chemicals known to the State of California to cause cancer, or birth defects or other reproductive harm".