title: Xipe Totec

text: The annual festival of Xipe Totec was celebrated on the spring equinox before the onset of the rainy season; it was known as "Tlacaxipehualiztli" (; lit. "flaying of men"). This festival took place in March at the time of the Spanish Conquest. Forty days before the festival of Xipe Totec, a slave who was captured at war was dressed to represent the living god who was honored during this period. This occurred in every ward of the city, which resulted in multiple slaves being selected. The central ritual act of "Tlacaxipehualiztli" was the gladiatorial sacrifice of war prisoners, which both began and culminated the festival. On the next day of the festival, the game of canes was performed in the manner of two bands. The first band were those who took the part of Xipe Totec and went dressed in the skins of the war prisoners who were killed the previous day, so the fresh blood was still flowing. The opposing band was composed of daring soldiers who were brave and fearless, and who took part in the combat with the others. After the conclusion of this game, those who wore the human skins went around throughout the whole town, entering houses and demanding that those in the houses give them some alms or gifts for the love of Xipe Totec. While in the houses, they sat down on sheaves of leaves and put on necklaces which were made of ears of corn and flowers. They had them put on garlands and give them pulque to drink, which was their wine. Annually, slaves or captives were selected as sacrifices to Xipe Totec. After having the heart cut out, the body was carefully flayed to produce a nearly whole skin which was then worn by the priests for twenty days during the fertility rituals that followed the sacrifice. This act of putting on new skin was a ceremony called 'Neteotquiliztli' translating to "impersonation of a god". The skins were often adorned with bright feathers and gold jewellery when worn. During the festival, victorious warriors wearing flayed skins carried out mock skirmishes throughout Tenochtitlan, they passed through the city begging alms and blessed whoever gave them food or other offerings. When the twenty-day festival was over, the flayed skins were removed and stored in special containers with tight-fitting lids designed to stop the stench of putrefaction from escaping. These containers were then stored in a chamber beneath the temple.


title: Xipe Totec

text: The goldsmiths also participated in "Tlacaxipehualizti". They had a feast called "Yopico" every year in the temple during the month of "Tlacaxipehualizti". A satrap was adorned in the skin taken from one of the captives in order to appear like Xipe Totec. On the dress, they put a crown made of rich feathers, which was also a wig of false hair. Gold ornaments were put in the nose and nasal septum. Rattles were put in the right hand and a gold shield was put in the left hand, while red sandals were put on their feet decorated with quail-feathers. They also wore skirts made of rich feathers and a wide gold necklace. They were seated and offered Xipe Totec an uncooked tart of ground maize, many ears of corn that had been broken apart in order to get to the seeds, along with fruits and flowers. The deity was honored with a dance and ended in a war exercise.


title: Xipe Totec

text: Various methods of human sacrifice were used to honour this god. The flayed skins were often taken from sacrificial victims who had their hearts cut out, and some representations of Xipe Totec show a stitched-up wound in the chest.


title: Xipe Totec

text: "Gladiator sacrifice" is the name given to the form of sacrifice in which an especially courageous war captive was given mock weapons, tied to a large circular stone and forced to fight against a fully armed Aztec warrior. As a weapon he was given a "macuahuitl" (a wooden sword with blades formed from obsidian) with the obsidian blades replaced with feathers. A white cord was tied either around his waist or his ankle, binding him to the sacred "temalacatl" stone. At the end of the "Tlacaxipehualiztli" festival, gladiator sacrifice (known as "tlauauaniliztli") was carried out by five Aztec warriors; two jaguar warriors, two eagle warriors and a fifth, left-handed warrior.


title: Xipe Totec

text: "Arrow sacrifice" was another method used by the worshippers of Xipe Totec. The sacrificial victim was bound spread-eagled to a wooden frame, he was then shot with many arrows so that his blood spilled onto the ground. The spilling of the victim's blood to the ground was symbolic of the desired abundant rainfall, with a hopeful result of plentiful crops. After the victim was shot with the arrows, the heart was removed with a stone knife. The flayer then made a laceration from the lower head to the heels and removed the skin in one piece. These ceremonies went on for twenty days, meanwhile the votaries of the god wore the skins.


title: Xipe Totec

text: Another instance of sacrifice was done by a group of metalworkers who were located in the town of Azcapotzalco, who held Xipe Totec in special veneration. Xipe was a patron to all metalworkers ("teocuitlapizque"), but he was particularly associated with the goldsmiths. Among this group, those who stole gold or silver were sacrificed to Xipe Totec. Before this sacrifice, the victims were taken through the streets as a warning to others.


title: Xipe Totec

text: Other forms of sacrifice were sometimes used; at times the victim was cast into a firepit and burned, others had their throats cut.


title: Broadcast (band)

text: Broadcast were an English indietronica band formed in Birmingham in 1995 by Trish Keenan (vocals, keyboards, guitar) and James Cargill (bass). Their musical style blended elements of 1960s psychedelia with early electronic music and samples from esoteric sources; it earned the band a cult following.


title: Broadcast (band)

text: Broadcast released three studio albums—"The Noise Made by People" (2000), "Haha Sound" (2003), and "Tender Buttons" (2005)—on Warp Records, as well as several EPs and a collaborative album with the Focus Group titled "Broadcast and The Focus Group Investigate Witch Cults of the Radio Age" (2009). Their final release was the soundtrack album "Berberian Sound Studio" (2013).


title: Broadcast (band)

text: Aside from founding members Keenan and Cargill, Broadcast experienced regular lineup changes. The band has included Roj Stevens (keyboards), Tim Felton (guitar), and Steve Perkins (drums). Keith York, Phil Jenkins, Jeremy Barnes, Neil Bullock and Ash Sheehan have also featured in the band as touring or session drummers. From 2005 to 2011, Broadcast consisted only of the founding duo. Following the death of Keenan, Cargill oversaw all remaining Broadcast activity.


title: Broadcast (band)

text: Keenan (formerly of folk duo Hayward Winters) and Cargill met in the mid 1990s at the Sensateria psychedelic club, and formed Pan Am Flight Bag in 1995, renamed Broadcast after several concerts.


title: Broadcast (band)

text: The band's first release in 1996, was the 7" single "Accidentals" (issued on Wurlitzer Jukebox Records), which was written based around a sample from Joseph Losey’s 1967 film "Accident". The same year, they released "The Book Lovers" EP (issued in November by Duophonic Records).


title: Broadcast (band)

text: Warp released a compilation album, "Work and Non Work", in June 1997, compiling the EP and two singles. The 1999 Broadcast track "You Can Fall" was included on the soundtrack album for the film "Morvern Callar", released by Warp in 2002.


title: Broadcast (band)

text: The group's debut studio album, "The Noise Made by People", was released by Warp in March 2000. It was self-produced in the group's own recording studio after having been through three producers to get a particular sound. Regarding the expensive two year production of the album, Keenan said, "There [were] no financial benefits in getting it right." The band issued two EPs in the same year, "Extended Play" and "Extended Play Two".


title: Broadcast (band)

text: Their second album, "Haha Sound", was released in August 2003, preceded by two EPs, "Microtronics Volume 01: Stereo Recorded Music for Links and Bridges" and "Pendulum". Recording sessions for the album took place in fragments at various locations: Keenan recorded vocal tracks with her head in a cardboard box which gave it a "closeness and deadness that makes it sit in the mix a bit nicer," while drummer Bullock recorded drum tracks in a neighborhood church before overdubbing guitar tracks and additional arrangements. "Haha Sound" became their first charting album in the United States, reaching No. 8 in the Top Dance/Electronic Albums chart. While touring the United States to promote "Haha Sound", the group recruited American drummer Jeremy Barnes to perform their live shows. Felton departed after "Haha Sound" to form a new project, Seeland, with touring keyboardist Billy Bainbridge (formerly of fellow Birmingham Warp act, Plone).


title: Broadcast (band)

text: Broadcast's next album, "Tender Buttons", was issued in September 2005. It was their first album as a duo of Keenan and Cargill. On tour they were joined by Ash Sheehan on drums and James’s brother Bill on guitar and keyboards. A second compilation of B-sides and rarities, "The Future Crayon", was issued in August 2006.


title: Broadcast (band)

text: Broadcast released a collaborative album with the Focus Group (aka graphic designer and Ghost Box label co-owner Julian House) called "Broadcast and the Focus Group Investigate Witch Cults of the Radio Age" in October 2009. The band was chosen by Matt Groening to perform at the All Tomorrow's Parties festival he curated in May 2010 in Minehead, Somerset, England.


title: Broadcast (band)

text: Keenan died on 14 January 2011 at the age of 42, following complications with pneumonia, which she suffered from after earlier contracting H1N1. Cargill, the sole remaining member, said in a 2011 interview with "Under the Radar" that a new Broadcast album was in the works, featuring vocals recorded by Keenan shortly before her death. He later said: "Trish left a lot of tapes, four-tracks and stuff, and I've been going through those. It's difficult, and I'm connected to it at the same time. It's wonderful, but I'm also feeling a sense of loss. The next thing I release with Trish on it will be more like a monument and a tribute to her rather than this obsessive thing I used to have about making albums." however, the album has not been released.


title: Broadcast (band)

text: Broadcast were credited with providing the soundtrack "Berberian Sound Studio" for the 2012 film of the same name; the soundtrack was released 7 January 2013.


title: Broadcast (band)

text: Warp Records reissued the band's entire discography in March 2015, and announced further rare release reissues from the band in 2022.


title: Broadcast (band)

text: Cargill formed the project Children of Alice with House and former Broadcast member Stevens; they released their eponymous debut album in February 2017. The group's name is a tribute to Keenan, who had cited "Alice in Wonderland" as a main inspiration.


title: Broadcast (band)

text: "FACT" described Broadcast's music as blending "pop songcraft and experimentally-minded electronic music into a contemporary blend of psychedelia that resonated deeply with listeners". "The Guardian" described their work as incorporating direct pop while "mixing together influences such as the primitive electronics of the BBC Radiophonic Workshop, 1970s public information films, Czech surrealism, Moog organ, forgotten film soundtracks and kitsch ephemera." A mixture of electronic sounds and Keenan's 1960s-inspired vocals, the band is heavily influenced by the 1960s American psychedelic group the United States of America, using many of the same electronic effects. The band were also known for using samples taken from both library music compilations and real-life field recordings. The band's musical style has been variously labeled psychedelic pop, dream pop, avant-pop, and space age pop. Their preoccupation with past cultural aesthetics saw them grouped with the 2000s electronic trend known as hauntology.


title: Broadcast (band)

text: Keenan said that the group "[listens] to a lot of soundtracks", and in a 2007 interview, she stated that the group aspired with each album to "make a soundtrack for a film that doesn't exist." In their early years, the band was frequently compared to acts such as Portishead and Stereolab. The group's musical output, according to journalist Mikey Jones, "fused the worlds of pop songcraft and experimentally-minded electronic music into a contemporary blend of psychedelia that resonated deeply with listeners, effectively expanding the conventions of what could be considered psychedelic." Keenan's first love had been primarily folk music, but this influence was downplayed in the early years of Broadcast due to Cargill's initial dislike of the genre. However, it became prominent as the band's sound became more open towards experimentation.


title: Broadcast (band)

text: Other recurrent elements in the band's music (particularly their first two albums) were "science fiction" atmospheres and "skewed variants" of swing and jazz music, which "offered a Eurocentric counterpoint to the mostly American psych innovators they’d imbibed." In a review published in "Spin" in 2001, the band were unfavourably likened to being "stuck in a time warp–the sound of '70s wife-swapping parties with beanbags and unhappy children serving sausages on sticks."


title: Broadcast (band)

text: The band's recording gear and methods were profiled in a 2003 article in "Electronic Musician", in which it was noted that they recorded many of their guitar arrangements (played at that time on a 1960s Italian Eko Edsel) through microphones, rather than through a DI unit.


title: Broadcast (band)

text: Additional instruments, including the vibraphone, timpani, clarinets and organ were recorded and subsequently fed through a speaker again in order to be re-recorded with microphones. Their private studio setup included an AKG BX-15, a Fostex rackmount coil reverb amplifier and an Acutronics tray (originally sourced from a Fender amplifier.) Their recording setup also included a MOTU 2408 hard-disk recording system, an Apple Mac G4, a Fender Rhodes, a Vox Continental and a Korg MS-20.


title: Broadcast (band)

text: For digital production, the band sometimes used an reFX QuadraSid emulator and Native Instruments Reaktor. Commenting on the production of their third album, "Haha Sound", Keenan said: "You know when it feels overworked. We used more of a minimalist approach on this album: There has been less emphasis on decoration and more on repetitive parts that go through the tracks. They are not the focus for your ear, but they are the foundation."


title: Broadcast (band)

text: Keenan suffered from stage fright in Broadcast's early days, and earned a reputation for a "shoegazing onstage introversion." "I used to get nervous like the whole of that day of the show, and now it only happens the moment I walk onstage," she later said in a 1998 interview. "When you listen to me sing my first line, you can always tell my heart is in my throat. Headlining gigs is a confidence booster."


title: Rajendra Chola III

text: Rajendra Chola III was a brother and rival of Rajaraja Chola III, and came to the Chola throne in 1246 CE. Rajendra began to take effective control over the administration, and epigraphs of Rajendra Chola III indicate there was civil war ending with the death of Rajaraja Chola III. Rajendra's inscriptions laud him as the "cunning hero, who killed Rajaraja after making him wear the double crown for three years".


title: Rajendra Chola III

text: Rajendra Chola III took bold steps to revive the Chola fortunes. He led successful expeditions to the north as attested by his epigraphs found as far as Cuddappah.


title: Rajendra Chola III

text: The king also defeated two Pandya princes, one of whom was Maravarman Sundara Pandya II, and briefly made the Pandyas submit to the Chola overlordship. The Hoysalas, under Vira Someswara, sided with the Pandyas and repulsed the Cholas.


title: Rajendra Chola III

text: The Hoysalas played a divisive role in the politics of the Tamil country during this period. Exploiting the lack of unity among the Tamil kingdoms, they supported one Tamil kingdom against the other to prevent both the Cholas and Pandyas from rising to their full potential. During the period of Rajaraja III, the Hoysalas sided with the Cholas and defeated the Kadava chieftain Kopperunjinga and the Pandyas and established a presence in the Tamil country.


title: Rajendra Chola III

text: Jatavarman Sundara Pandya I ascended the Pandya throne in 1251. In the ensuing wars for supremacy, he emerged as the most victorious ruler and the Pandya kingdom reached its zenith in the 13th century during his reign. Jatavarman Sundara Pandya first put an end to Hoysala interference by expelling them from the Kaveri delta and subsequently killed their king Vira Someswara in 1262 AD near Srirangam. He then defeated Kopperunjinga, the Kadava chieftain, and turned him into a vassal. He then defeated Rajendra III and made him acknowledge the Pandya suzerainty. The Pandya then turned his attention to the north and annexed Kanchi by killing the Telugu chief Vijaya Gandagopala. He then marched up to Nellore and celebrated his victories there by doing the "virabisheka"(anointment of heroes) after defeating the Kakatiya ruler, Ganapati. Meanwhile, his lieutenant Vira Pandya defeated the king of Lanka and obtained the submission of the island nation.


title: Rajendra Chola III

text: There are no confirmed reports of Rajendra Chola III having been killed in the battle so he lived in obscurity in Pazhayarai up to 1279, after which there are no inscriptions found of the Cholas. This war marks the end of Cholas reign in Tamil Nadu and the Chola territories were completely absorbed by the Pandyan empire.


title: Rajendra Chola III

text: After the war, the remaining Chola royal bloods were reduced to the state of being chieftains by the Pandyan forces as a retribution for the enslaving the Pandyans for three centuries in their capital city Madurai. Many Chola royal bloodlines who were officials and chieftains still ruled a small part of land till the British rule in India whereby they participated in their fight for independence against the British rule. There is mention of a Chola chief called Veerasekhara Chola in the early 16th century (1520 AD) who defeated the Pandyas and occupied Madurai. The Pandyas who were vassals of the Vijayanagar Empire wasted no time and appealed to Krishnadevaraya. The latter then sent his general Nagama Nayak who defeated the Chola but then usurped the throne of Madurai instead of restoring the Pandyas.


title: Duduk

text: The duduk ( ; ) or tsiranapogh (, meaning “apricot-made wind instrument”), is an ancient Armenian double reed woodwind instrument made of apricot wood. It is indigenous to Armenia. Variations of the Armenian duduk appear throughout the Caucasus and the Middle East, including Azerbaijan, Georgia, Russia, Turkey, and Iran. Duduk, Balaban, and Mey are almost identical, except for historical and geographical differences.


title: Duduk

text: It is commonly played in pairs: while the first player plays the melody, the second plays a steady drone called "dum", and the sound of the two instruments together creates a richer, more haunting sound. The unflattened reed and cylindrical body produce a sound closer to the English horn than the oboe or bassoon. Unlike other double reed instruments like the oboe or shawm, the duduk has a very large reed proportional to its size.


title: Duduk

text: UNESCO proclaimed the Armenian duduk and its music as a Masterpiece of the Intangible Heritage of Humanity in 2005 and inscribed it in 2008. Duduk music has been used in a number of films, most notably in "The Russia House" and "Gladiator".


title: Duduk

text: The word "düdük" is of Turkish origin (Ottoman Turkish: دودوك "düdük"), itself derived from Persian "tutak". In Armenia, the instrument is also known as "tsiranapogh" (ծիրանափող).


title: Duduk

text: This instrument is not to be confused with the northwestern Bulgarian folk instrument of the same name (see below, Balkan duduk). Similar instruments used in other parts of Western Asia are the "mey" and "balaban".


title: Duduk

text: The duduk is a double reed instrument with ancient origins, having existed since at least the fifth century, while there are Armenian scholars who believe it existed more than 1,500 years before that. The earliest instruments similar to the duduk's present form are made of bone or entirely of cane. Today, the duduk is exclusively made of wood with a large double reed, with the body made from aged apricot wood.


title: Duduk

text: The particular tuning depends heavily on the region in which it is played. In the twentieth century, the Armenian duduk began to be standardized diatonic in scale and single-octave in range. Accidentals, or chromatics are achieved using fingering techniques. The instrument's body also has different lengths depending upon the range of the instrument and region. The reed (Armenian: եղեգն, "eġegn"), is made from one or two pieces of cane in a duck-bill type assembly. Unlike other double-reed instruments, the reed is quite wide, helping to give the duduk both its unique, mournful sound, as well as its remarkable breathing requirements. The duduk player is called "dudukahar" (դուդուկահար) in Armenian.


title: Duduk

text: The performer uses air stored in their cheeks to keep playing the instrument while they inhale air into their lungs. This "circular" breathing technique is commonly used with all the double-reed instruments in the Middle East.


title: Duduk

text: Duduk "is invariably played with the accompaniment of a second "dum duduk", which gives the music an energy and tonic atmosphere, changing the scale harmoniously with the principal duduk."


title: Duduk

text: Armenian musicologists cite evidence of the duduk's use as early as 1200 BC, though Western scholars suggest it is 1,500 years old. Variants of the duduk can be found in Armenia and the Caucasus. The history of the Armenian duduk music is dated to the reign of the Armenian king Tigran the Great, who reigned from 95 to 55 B.C. According to ethnomusicologist Dr. Jonathan McCollum, the instrument is depicted in numerous Armenian manuscripts of the Middle Ages, and is "actually the only truly Armenian instrument that's survived through history, and as such is a symbol of Armenian national identity ... The most important quality of the duduk is its ability to express the language dialectic and mood of the Armenian language, which is often the most challenging quality to a duduk player."


title: Duduk

text: While "duduk" most commonly refers to the double reed instrument described on this page, by coincidence there is a different instrument of the same name played in northwestern Bulgaria. This is a blocked-end flute resembling the Serbian frula, known also as kaval or kavalče in a part of Macedonia, and as duduk (дудук) in northwest Bulgaria. Made of maple or other wood, it comes in two sizes: and (duduce). The blocked end is flat.


title: Duduk

text: The sound of the duduk has become known to wider audiences through its use in popular film soundtracks. Starting with Peter Gabriel's score for Martin Scorsese's "The Last Temptation of Christ", the duduk's archaic and mournful sound has been employed in a variety of genres to depict such moods. Djivan Gasparyan played the duduk in "Gladiator", "Syriana", and "Blood Diamond", among others. It was also used extensively in "Battlestar Galactica". In the TV series "", its computer-altered sound was given to the fictitious "Tsungi horn", most notably played by Iroh and often being featured in the show's soundtrack. With many of the members who worked on now working on "The Dragon Prince", the duduk regularly appears in its soundtrack as well. The sound of the duduk was also used in "" for a lullaby which Mr. Tumnus plays on a fictitious double flute and in the theme song of the Dothraki clan during the TV adaptation "Game of Thrones".


title: Duduk

text: Armenia's entry in the 2010 Eurovision Song Contest, "Apricot Stone," featured Armenian musician Djivan Gasparyan playing the duduk.


title: Duduk

text: The duduk has been used in a number of films, especially "to denote otherworldliness, loneliness, and mourning or to supply a Middle Eastern/Central Asian atmosphere".


title: Kenneth O'Donnell

text: Kenneth Patrick O'Donnell (March 4, 1924 – September 9, 1977) was an American political consultant and the special assistant and appointments secretary to President John F. Kennedy from 1961 until Kennedy's assassination in November 1963. O'Donnell was a close friend of President Kennedy and his younger brother Robert F. Kennedy, and was part of the group of Kennedy's close advisers dubbed the “Irish Mafia.”


title: Kenneth O'Donnell

text: O'Donnell also served as an aide to President Lyndon B. Johnson from 1963 to 1965. He later served as an adviser to Robert Kennedy's 1968 presidential campaign.


title: Kenneth O'Donnell

text: O'Donnell was born in Worcester, Massachusetts, and raised in Boston. Both of his parents were Catholics of Irish descent. He was the son of Alice M. (Guerin) and Cleo Albert O'Donnell, who was the football coach at the College of the Holy Cross Crusaders for two decades, and later athletics director for all sports activities. O'Donnell's older brother, also named Cleo, was a football star at Harvard during the 1940s.


title: Kenneth O'Donnell

text: O'Donnell graduated from high school during World War II and then served in the U.S. Army Air Forces (1942–1945), where he flew 30 missions as a bombardier in a B-17 squadron before being shot down over Belgium. "He was imprisoned, escaped, and emerged with the Distinguished Flying Cross and Air Medal with Four Oak Leaf Clusters." Following the war, he studied at Harvard College (1946–1949) and met Robert F. Kennedy, where they were roommates as well as teammates on the Harvard football team; O'Donnell became team captain in 1948. The two remained close friends until Kennedy's assassination in 1968.


title: Kenneth O'Donnell

text: Following graduation from Harvard, O'Donnell attended law school at Boston College from 1950–51. He later worked as a salesman for the Hollingsworth & Vose Paper Company and then the Whitney Corporation, both in Boston, from 1951 to 1952. O'Donnell later worked in public relations from 1952 to 1957.


title: Kenneth O'Donnell

text: O'Donnell's friendship with Robert Kennedy led to his involvement with the Kennedy family's political careers. In 1946, Robert Kennedy enlisted him to work on the first congressional campaign of his elder brother, John F. Kennedy. In 1952, O'Donnell and Robert Kennedy campaigned together to get John elected to the U.S. Senate. O'Donnell then went on to serve as John Kennedy's unpaid political observer in Massachusetts, until 1957, when he became assistant counsel to Senate Labor Rackets Committee, where he worked for Robert Kennedy, who had been appointed chief counsel of the Committee.


title: Kenneth O'Donnell

text: In 1958, O'Donnell became a member of Senator John Kennedy's staff, where he was later a key organizer and adviser during Kennedy's presidential campaign in 1960. The following year, he became President Kennedy's special assistant and Appointments Secretary. He later advised the President during the lead up to the Bay of Pigs invasion and during the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis.


title: Kenneth O'Donnell

text: O'Donnell arranged President Kennedy's trip to Dallas in November 1963 and was in a car just behind the president's limousine when Kennedy was assassinated. Kennedy's death was an enormous blow to O'Donnell, who long blamed himself for the assassination.


title: Kenneth O'Donnell

text: On May 18, 1964, O'Donnell provided testimony to Norman Redlich and Arlen Specter, assistant counsel for the Warren Commission. O'Donnell stated that it was his impression that the shots fired at Kennedy came from the right rear. In their memoir of Kennedy, "Johnny, We Hardly Knew Ye", both O'Donnell and David Powers reported hearing only three shots and did not offer any speculation as to their origin. According to a June 15, 1975 report in the "Chicago Tribune", an unnamed "Central Intelligence Agency liaison man" told Congressman that O'Donnell and David Powers had initially told assassination investigators that the shots that struck Kennedy came from a location other than the Texas School Book Depository, but that the two men were convinced, reportedly by FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover or his top aides, to alter their accounts to the Warren Commission to avoid the possibility of revealing the CIA's plots to kill Fidel Castro which might lead to an international incident. Responding in a telephone interview, O'Donnell said he testified truthfully and called the allegations "an absolute, outright lie." In his 1987 autobiography "Man of the House", former House Speaker Tip O'Neill wrote that he had dinner with O'Donnell and Powers in 1968, and that both men indicated that two shots were fired from behind the fence on the grassy knoll at Dealey Plaza. According to O'Neill, he pointed out to O'Donnell that he gave different information to the Warren Commission, and O'Donnell replied: "I told the FBI what I had heard, but they said it couldn't have happened that way and that I must have been imagining things. So I testified the way they wanted me to. I just didn't want to stir up any more pain and trouble for the family." O'Donnell's son, Kenneth Jr., stated that his father privately called the Warren Commission “the most pointless investigation I’ve ever seen", and that he claimed shots came from two different directions.


title: Kenneth O'Donnell

text: After serving as a presidential aide to Lyndon Johnson until early 1965, O'Donnell resigned in order to try to win the Democratic nomination for Governor of Massachusetts in 1966. However, he lost by 64,000 votes to Edward McCormack in a race that was much closer than the polls had predicted. In 1968, he served as campaign manager for Robert Kennedy in his bid for the presidency.


title: Kenneth O'Donnell

text: Robert Kennedy's assassination in Los Angeles on June 5, 1968, was a more devastating blow to O'Donnell than the assassination of President Kennedy five years earlier. He soon joined, as did many others in Kennedy's campaign, Hubert Humphrey's presidential campaign, serving as campaign manager. In 1970, he made another attempt to win the Democratic nomination for governor, but finished fourth in a field of four Democrats, with just nine percent of the vote.


title: Kenneth O'Donnell

text: In 1972, O'Donnell and David Powers co-authored a book about President Kennedy,""Johnny We Hardly Knew Ye": Memories of John Fitzgerald Kennedy".


title: Kenneth O'Donnell

text: While at Harvard, O'Donnell married Helen Sullivan in 1947. They had five children: Kenneth Jr., twins Kathleen and Kevin, Mark and Helen. In January 1977, his wife Helen died of the effects of alcoholism. He remarried shortly after that to Asta Hanna Helga Steinfatt, a native of Germany. O'Donnell died a few months later.


title: Kenneth O'Donnell

text: In the years following the assassinations of President Kennedy and Robert Kennedy, O'Donnell grew increasingly depressed and began drinking heavily.


title: Kenneth O'Donnell

text: for a gastrointestinal ailment brought on from the effects of alcoholism. His condition grew progressively worse. He died on September 9 at the age of 53. At the request of O'Donnell's family, no cause of death was publicly announced. O'Donnell's younger daughter, Helen, later attributed her father's death to alcoholism.


title: Kenneth O'Donnell

text: On September 12, 1977, a funeral Mass was held at the Blessed Sacrament Roman Catholic Church in Jamaica Plain. Among the attendees were former mayor of Boston John F. Collins, former Speaker of the House John William McCormack, and several members of the Kennedy family, including President Kennedy's widow, Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis.


title: Kenneth O'Donnell

text: In his autobiography "Counselor", Ted Sorensen, who served as special counsel to President Kennedy, claimed that O'Donnell polarized the JFK staff until it became two factions: the professional "politicians" and the academics (such as Sorensen and Arthur Schlesinger). Sorensen also wrote that O'Donnell's antipathy towards him was so deep that in 1976/77 he worked to derail Sorensen's nomination as Director of Central Intelligence for Jimmy Carter.


title: Kenneth O'Donnell

text: In 1998, William Morrow & Co. published "A Common Good: The Friendship of Robert F. Kennedy and Kenneth P. O'Donnell". The memoir was written by O'Donnell's daughter, freelance writer Helen O'Donnell, and chronicles her father's close friendship with Robert Kennedy.


title: Us (Peter Gabriel album)

text: Us is the sixth studio album by the English singer-songwriter and musician Peter Gabriel, released on 28 September 1992 by Real World Records. Following the release of his soundtrack album "Passion" in 1989, Gabriel started work on new material for a new album, his first since "So", which became his biggest selling release. Gabriel focused on personal themes on "Us", including his divorce in the late 1980s, his subsequent relationship with actress Rosanna Arquette, and the growing distance between him and his first daughter.


title: Us (Peter Gabriel album)

text: "Us" was promoted with an early form of interactive multimedia software for Macintosh computers entitled "", which featured several music videos from the album. The album was a worldwide chart success, reaching No. 2 in the UK and the US and the top-ten in twelve other countries. Four singles were released: "Digging in the Dirt", "Steam", "Blood of Eden", and "Kiss That Frog", with "Steam" reaching No. 10 in the UK. Gabriel supported the album with his Secret World Tour in 1993 and 1994 which was documented on the "Secret World Live" album and same-titled concert film, both released in 1994. "Us" was reissued in 2002 and 2010.


title: Us (Peter Gabriel album)

text: In October 1989, Gabriel first worked on prototypes of songs which would end up on the "Us" album, but he was also preparing new versions of songs for the 1990 compilation album "", and he was supervising the editing of 1987 concert footage shot in Greece, which was released in 1990 as the live video album "POV". Finally, through 1991 and into June 1992 he focused on composing and recording the "Us" album, mainly at his own Real World Studios in Wiltshire, England, with specialised recording sessions held at Kingsway Studios in New Orleans, and Studio 2000 in Dakar.


title: Us (Peter Gabriel album)

text: Gabriel had met Sinéad O'Connor in October 1990 at the Amnesty International human rights benefit concert held in Santiago, Chile. Gabriel tapped O'Connor to sing on his album, and she came to Real World Studios to perform her vocal parts on "Blood of Eden" and "Come Talk to Me", the latter written by Gabriel to his younger daughter, Melanie – a teenager. Daniel Lanois co-produced the album with Gabriel, with support from David Bottrill in programming and engineering. Lanois and Bottrill were given the task of organising and mixing tracks from approximately one thousand Digital Audio Tapes (DAT) containing various studio performances. The final album ended up being almost 58 minutes long, substantially longer than his earlier releases which held to the 46-minute limit of the analog 12-inch vinyl LP.


title: By-law

text: A by-law (bye-law, by(e)law, by(e) law), or as it is most commonly known in the United States bylaws, is a set of rules or law established by an organization or community so as to regulate itself, as allowed or provided for by some higher authority. The higher authority, generally a legislature or some other government body, establishes the degree of control that the by-laws may exercise. By-laws may be established by entities such as a business corporation, a neighborhood association, or depending on the jurisdiction, a municipality.


title: By-law

text: In the United Kingdom and some Commonwealth countries, the local laws established by municipalities are referred to as "by(e)-laws" because their scope is regulated by the central governments of those nations. Accordingly, a bylaw enforcement officer is the Canadian equivalent of the American Code Enforcement Officer or Municipal Regulations Enforcement Officer. In the United States, the federal government and most state governments have no direct ability to regulate the single provisions of municipal law. As a result, terms such as "code", "ordinance", or "regulation", if not simply "law", are more common.


title: By-law

text: The Merriam-Webster Dictionary indicates that the origin of the word by-law is from the English word "bilawe", probably from Old Norse "*bȳlǫg", from Old Norse "bȳr" town + "lag-, lǫg" law. The earliest use of the term, which originates from the Viking town law in the Danelaw, wherein "by" is the Old Norse word for a larger settlement as in Whitby and Derby (compare with the modern Danish-Norwegian word "by" meaning town, or the modern Swedish word "by", meaning village). However, it is also possible that this usage was forgotten and the word was "reinvented" in modern times through the use of the adverbial prefix "by-" giving the meaning of subsidiary law or side-law (as in "byway"). In either case, it is incorrect to claim that the origin of the word is simply the prepositional phrase "by law."


title: By-law

text: Municipal by-laws are public regulatory laws which apply in a certain area. The main difference between a by-law and a law passed by a national/federal or regional/state body is that a by-law is made by a non-sovereign body, which derives its authority from another governing body, and can only be made on a limited range of matters. A local council or municipal government derives its power to pass laws through a law of the national or regional government which specifies what things the town or city may regulate through by-laws. It is therefore a form of delegated legislation.


title: By-law

text: Within its jurisdiction and specific to those areas mandated by the higher body, a municipal by-law is no different from any other law of the land, and can be enforced with penalties, challenged in court and must comply with other laws of the land, such as the country's constitution. Municipal by-laws are often enforcable through the public justice system, and offenders can be charged with a criminal offence for breach of a by-law. Common by-laws include vehicle parking and stopping regulations, animal control, building and construction, licensing, noise, zoning and business regulation, and management of public recreation areas.


title: By-law

text: Under Article 94 of the Constitution of Japan, regional governments have limited autonomy and legislative powers to create by-laws. In practice, such powers are exercised in accordance with the Local Autonomy Law.


title: By-law

text: By-laws therefore constitute part of the legal system subordinate to the Japanese constitution. In terms of its mandatory powers and effective, it is considered the lowest of all legislation possible.


title: By-law

text: In the United Kingdom, by-laws are laws of local or limited application made by local councils or other bodies, using powers granted by an Act of Parliament, and so are a form of delegated legislation.


title: By-law

text: Corporate and organizational by-laws regulate only the organization to which they apply and are generally concerned with the operation of the organization, setting out the form, manner or procedure in which a company or organisation should be run. Corporate by-laws are drafted by a corporation's founders or directors under the authority of its charter or articles of incorporation.


title: By-law

text: By-laws widely vary from organization to organization, but generally cover topics such as the purpose of the organization, who are its members, how directors are elected, how meetings are conducted, and what officers the organization will have and a description of their duties. A common mnemonic device for remembering the typical articles in by-laws is NOMOMECPA, pronounced "No mommy, see pa!" It stands for name, object, members, officers, meetings, executive board, committees, parliamentary authority, amendment. Organizations may use a book such as "Robert's Rules of Order" "Newly Revised" for guidelines on the content of their by-laws. This book has a sample set of by-laws of the type that a small, independent society might adopt.


title: By-law

text: The wording of the by-laws has to be precise. Otherwise, the meaning may be open to interpretation. In such cases, the organization decides how to interpret its by-laws and may use guidelines for interpretation.


title: By-law

text: Usually one of the last sections in the by-laws describes the procedures for amending them. It describes who can amend them (usually the membership, but it could be the organization's board of directors), how much notice is needed, and how much of a vote is needed. A typical requirement is a two-thirds vote provided that previous notice was given or a majority of all the members.


title: By-law

text: In parliamentary procedure, including "Robert's Rules of Order", the by-laws are generally the supreme governing document of an organization, superseded only by the charter of an incorporated society. The by-laws contain the most fundamental principles and rules regarding the nature of the organization.


title: By-law

text: It was once common practice for organizations to have two separate governing documents, a constitution and by-laws, but this has fallen out of favor because of the ease of use, increased clarity, and reduced chance of conflict inherent in a single, unified document. This single document, while properly referred to as the by-laws, is often referred to as a "constitution" or a "constitution and by-laws". Unless otherwise provided by law, the organization does not formally exist until by-laws have been adopted.


title: By-law

text: In some countries, trade unions generally have constitutions, which govern activities of the international office of the union as well as how it interfaces with its locals. The locals themselves can set up their own by-laws to set out internal rules for how to conduct activities.


title: By-law

text: In other countries, such as the United Kingdom, union by-laws are sometimes a subset of the union's constitution or implement the union's rules in more detail.


title: By-law

text: Nonprofit organizations in the United States applying for Federal Tax-Exemption Status are required to adopt bylaws for their organizations. Bylaws for nonprofit organizations by themselves are more of an internal organizing document than required by most states but are necessary for filing for nonprofit 501(c)(3) tax-exemption application using the Form 1023.


title: Jackscrew

text: A jackscrew, or screw jack, is a type of jack that is operated by turning a leadscrew. It is commonly used to lift moderately and heavy weights, such as vehicles; to raise and lower the horizontal stabilizers of aircraft; and as adjustable supports for heavy loads, such as the foundations of houses.


title: Jackscrew

text: A screw jack consists of a heavy-duty vertical screw with a load table mounted on its top, which screws into a threaded hole in a stationary support frame with a wide base resting on the ground. A rotating collar on the head of the screw has holes into which the handle, a metal bar, fits. When the handle is turned clockwise, the screw moves further out of the base, lifting the load resting on the load table. In order to support large load forces, the screw is usually formed with Acme threads.


title: Jackscrew

text: An advantage of jackscrews over some other types of jack is that they are "self-locking", which means when the rotational force on the screw is removed, it will remain motionless where it was left and will not rotate backwards, regardless of how much load it is supporting. This makes them inherently safer than hydraulic jacks, for example, which will move backwards under load if the force on the hydraulic actuator is accidentally released.


title: Jackscrew

text: The ideal mechanical advantage of a screw jack, the ratio of the force the jack exerts on the load to the input force on the lever ignoring friction is


title: Jackscrew

text: The screw jack consists of two simple machines in series; the long operating handle serves as a lever whose output force turns the screw. So the mechanical advantage is increased by a longer handle as well as a finer screw thread. However, most screw jacks have large amounts of friction which increase the input force necessary, so the actual mechanical advantage is often only 30% to 50% of this figure.


title: Jackscrew

text: Screw jacks are limited in their lifting capacity. Increasing load increases friction within the screw threads. A fine pitch thread, which would increase the advantage of the screw, also reduces the speed of which the jack can operate. Using a longer operating lever soon reaches the point where the lever will simply bend at its inner end.


title: Jackscrew

text: Screw jacks have now largely been replaced by hydraulic jacks. This was encouraged in 1858 when jacks by the Tangye company to Bramah's hydraulic press concept were applied to the successful launching of Brunel's , after two failed attempts by other means. The maximum mechanical advantage possible for a hydraulic jack is not limited by the limitations on screw jacks and can be far greater. After World War II, improvements to the grinding of hydraulic rams and the use of O ring seals reduced the price of low-cost hydraulic jacks and they became widespread for use with domestic cars. Screw jacks still remain for minimal-cost applications, such as the little-used tyre-changing jacks supplied with cars, or where their self-locking property is important, such as for horizontal stabilizers on aircraft.


title: Jackscrew

text: The large area of sliding contact between the screw threads means jackscrews have high friction and low efficiency as power transmission linkages, around 30%–50%. So they are not often used for continuous transmission of high power, but more often in intermittent positioning applications.


title: Jackscrew

text: In heavy-duty applications, such as screw jacks, a square thread or buttress thread is used, because it has the lowest friction and wear.


title: Jackscrew

text: In technical applications, such as actuators, an Acme thread is used, although it has higher friction, because it is easy to manufacture, wear can be compensated for, it is stronger than a comparably sized square thread and it makes for smoother engagement.


title: Jackscrew

text: The ball screw is a more advanced type of leadscrew that uses a recirculating-ball nut to minimize friction and prolong the life of the screw threads. The thread profile of such screws is approximately semicircular (commonly a "gothic arch" profile) to properly mate with the bearing balls. The disadvantage to this type of screw is that it is not self-locking. Ball screws are prevalent in powered leadscrew actuators.


title: Jackscrew

text: The failure of a jackscrew on a Yakovlev Yak-42 airliner due to design flaws resulted in the crash of Aeroflot Flight 8641 in 1982.


title: Jackscrew

text: The failure of a jackscrew on a McDonnell Douglas MD-80, resulting from a lack of grease, brought down Alaska Airlines Flight 261 in 2000.


title: Jackscrew

text: The destruction of a jackscrew on a Boeing 747-400BCF brought down National Airlines Flight 102 in 2013. This flight had just departed Bagram Airfield when a MRAP armoured vehicle broke loose and slid through the rear bulkhead, severing hydraulics lines and most importantly, destroying the jackscrew, rendering the aircraft uncontrollable.


title: Jackscrew

text: A machinist's jack is a miniature screw jack used to support protruding parts of a workpiece or to balance clamping forces on that workpiece during machining operations. Aside from their size, these frequently look no different from the screw jacks used to lift buildings off their foundations. Machinist's jacks can be as simple as a threaded spacer with a bolt in it to serve as a jackscrew.


title: Jackscrew

text: The term "jackscrew" is also used for the captive screws that draw the two parts of some electrical connectors together and hold them mated. These are commonly encountered on D-subminiature connectors, where they serve primarily to prevent accidental disconnection. On larger connectors such as the one illustrated, the jack screws also help align the connectors and overcome the large frictional forces involved in inserting or removing the connector. When unscrewed, they allow the connector halves to be taken apart. Jackscrews in electrical connectors may have ordinary screw heads or extended heads designed as thumbscrews.


title: Jackscrew

text: The idea of incorporating jack screws into electrical connectors was not considered novel in the late 1950s and early 1960s. Some patents from that era show pairs of jackscrews on opposite sides of a multi-pin connector. Another shows a single central jackscrew. These patents mention the phrase "jack screw" incidentally, without asserting a claim to the idea.


title: Jackscrew

text: Jack screws may have either male or female threads, and on some connectors, the genders of the screws as well as various alignment pins may be mixed in order to prevent the wrong connector from being connected to the wrong socket.


title: Six degrees of freedom

text: Six degrees of freedom (6DOF) refers to the six mechanical degrees of freedom of movement of a rigid body in three-dimensional space. Specifically, the body is free to change position as forward/backward (surge), up/down (heave), left/right (sway) translation in three perpendicular axes, combined with changes in orientation through rotation about three perpendicular axes, often termed yaw (normal axis), pitch (transverse axis), and roll (longitudinal axis).


title: Six degrees of freedom

text: Three degrees of freedom (3DOF), a term often used in the context of virtual reality, typically refers to tracking of rotational motion only: pitch, yaw, and roll.


title: Six degrees of freedom

text: Serial and parallel manipulator systems are generally designed to position an end-effector with six degrees of freedom, consisting of three in translation and three in orientation. This provides a direct relationship between actuator positions and the configuration of the manipulator defined by its forward and inverse kinematics.


title: Six degrees of freedom

text: Robot arms are described by their degrees of freedom. This is a practical metric, in contrast to the abstract definition of degrees of freedom which measures the aggregate positioning capability of a system.


title: Six degrees of freedom

text: In 2007, Dean Kamen, inventor of the Segway, unveiled a prototype robotic arm with 14 degrees of freedom for DARPA. Humanoid robots typically have 30 or more degrees of freedom, with six degrees of freedom per arm, five or six in each leg, and several more in torso and neck.


title: Six degrees of freedom

text: The term is important in mechanical systems, especially biomechanical systems, for analyzing and measuring properties of these types of systems that need to account for all six degrees of freedom. Measurement of the six degrees of freedom is accomplished today through both AC and DC magnetic or electromagnetic fields in sensors that transmit positional and angular data to a processing unit. The data is made relevant through software that integrates the data based on the needs and programming of the users.


title: Six degrees of freedom

text: In terms of a headset, such as the kind used for virtual reality, rotational envelopes can also be thought of in the following terms:


title: Six degrees of freedom

text: There are three types of operational envelope in the Six degrees of freedom. These types are "Direct", "Semi-direct" (conditional) and "Non-direct," all regardless of the time remaining for the execution of the maneuver, the energy remaining to execute the maneuver and finally, if the motion is commanded via a biological entity (e.g. human), a robotical entity (e.g. computer) or both.


title: Six degrees of freedom

text: Transitional type also exists in some vehicles. For example, when the Space Shuttle operates in space, the craft is described as fully-direct-six because its six degrees can be commanded. However, when the Space Shuttle is in the earth's atmosphere for its return, the fully-direct-six degrees are no longer applicable for many technical reasons.


title: Six degrees of freedom

text: First-person shooter (FPS) games generally provide five degrees of freedom: forwards/backwards, slide left/right, up/down (jump/crouch/lie), yaw (turn left/right), and pitch (look up/down). If the game allows leaning control, then some consider it a sixth DOF; however, this may not be completely accurate, as a lean is a limited partial rotation.


title: Six degrees of freedom

text: The term "6DOF" has sometimes been used to describe games which allow freedom of movement, but do not necessarily meet the full 6DOF criteria. For example, "Dead Space 2", and to a lesser extent, "Homeworld" and "Zone Of The Enders" allow freedom of movement.


title: Six degrees of freedom

text: Some examples of true 6DOF games, which allow independent control of all three movement axes and all three rotational axes, include "Elite Dangerous", "Shattered Horizon", the "Descent" franchise, "Retrovirus", "Miner Wars", "Space Engineers", "Forsaken" and "Overload" (from the same creators of "Descent"). The space MMO "Vendetta Online" also features 6 degrees of freedom.


title: Six degrees of freedom

text: Motion tracking hardware devices such as TrackIR and software-based apps like Eyeware Beam are used for 6DOF head tracking. This device often finds its places in flight simulators and other vehicle simulators that require looking around the cockpit to locate enemies or simply avoiding accidents in-game.


title: Six degrees of freedom

text: The acronym 3DOF, meaning movement in the three dimensions but not rotation, is sometimes encountered.


title: Six degrees of freedom

text: The Razer Hydra, a motion controller for PC, tracks position and rotation of two wired nunchucks, providing six degrees of freedom on each hand.


title: Six degrees of freedom

text: The SpaceOrb 360 is a 6DOF computer input device released in 1996 originally manufactured and sold by the SpaceTec IMC company (first bought by Labtec, which itself was later bought by Logitech).


title: Six degrees of freedom

text: The controllers sold with HTC VIVE provide 6DOF information by the lighthouse, which adopts Time of Flight (TOF) technology to determine the position of controllers.


title: Grand strategy wargame

text: A grand strategy wargame or simply grand strategy game (GSG) is a wargame that places focus on grand strategy: military strategy at the level of movement and use of a nation state or empire's resources. It is a genre that has considerable overlap with 4X games, but differs in being "asymmetrical", meaning that players are more bound to a specific setup and not among equally free factions in exploring and progressing the game and an open world.


title: Grand strategy wargame

text: Grand strategy games can be played on a computer or as a board game. They often include a map of the game world, which can range from a single continent to the entire globe. Players typically control a nation or empire and make decisions that affect its development, such as building infrastructure, recruiting and training military units, and negotiating with other players. Combat is often a major part of the game, but it is typically abstracted or simplified compared to more tactical wargames.


title: Grand strategy wargame

text: Examples of grand strategy games include Risk, Diplomacy, and Axis & Allies. These games focus on warfare and conquest, but do not include detailed representations of military units or tactics. More realistic grand strategy games, such as Rise and Decline of the Third Reich and Empires in Arms, include specific military units and combat rules. Computer-based grand strategy games, such as Hearts of Iron, Europa Universalis, and Total War, often have more detailed and sophisticated mechanics and can be played in real-time or with turns.


title: Grand strategy wargame

text: Grand strategy games can be useful in education and the study of international affairs because they allow players to simulate real-world scenarios and make strategic decisions that affect the outcome of the game. They can also provide insight into historical events and the complex interactions between various political, economic, and military factors. Some grand strategy games are based on real historical events and can be used to explore alternative scenarios and counterfactuals.


title: Peace of Augsburg

text: The Peace of Augsburg, also called the Augsburg Settlement, was a treaty between Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, and the Schmalkaldic League, signed in September 1555 at the imperial city of Augsburg. It officially ended the religious struggle between the two groups and made the legal division of Christianity permanent within the Holy Roman Empire, allowing rulers to choose either Lutheranism or Roman Catholicism as the official confession of their state. However, the Peace of Augsburg arrangement is also credited with ending much Christian unity around Europe. Calvinism was not allowed until the Peace of Westphalia.


title: Peace of Augsburg

text: The Peace of Augsburg has been described as "the first step on the road toward a European system of sovereign states." The system, created on the basis of the Augsburg Peace, collapsed at the beginning of the 17th century, which was one of the reasons for the Thirty Years' War.


title: Peace of Augsburg

text: The Peace ran over the principle "Cuius regio, eius religio" ("whose realm, his religion"), which allowed the princes of states within the Holy Roman Empire to adopt either Lutheranism or Catholicism within the domains they controlled, ultimately reaffirming their sovereignty over those domains. Subjects, citizens, or residents who did not wish to conform to the prince's choice were given a grace period in which they were free to emigrate to different regions in which their desired religion had been accepted.


title: Peace of Augsburg

text: Article 24 stated: "In case our subjects, whether belonging to the old religion or the Augsburg Confession, should intend leaving their homes with their wives and children to settle in another, they shall be hindered neither in the sale of their estates after due payment of the local taxes nor injured in their honor."


title: Peace of Augsburg

text: Charles V had made an interim ruling, the Augsburg Interim of 1548, on the legitimacy of two religious creeds in the empire, and this was codified in law on 30 June 1548 upon the insistence of Charles V, who wanted to work out religious differences under the auspices of a general council of the Catholic Church. The Interim largely reflected principles of religious behavior in its 26 articles, although it allowed for marriage of the clergy, and the giving of both bread and wine to the laity. This led to resistance by the Protestant territories, who proclaimed their own Interim at Leipzig the following year.


title: Peace of Augsburg

text: The Interim was overthrown in 1552 by the revolt of the Protestant elector Maurice of Saxony and his allies. In the negotiations at Passau in the summer of 1552, even the Catholic princes had called for a lasting peace, fearing the religious controversy would never be settled. The emperor, however, was unwilling to recognize the religious division in Western Christendom as permanent. This document was foreshadowed by the Peace of Passau, which in 1552 gave Lutherans religious freedom after a victory by Protestant armies. Under the Passau document, Charles granted a peace only until the next imperial Diet, whose meeting was called in early 1555.


title: Peace of Augsburg

text: The treaty, negotiated on Charles' behalf by his brother, Ferdinand, effectively gave Lutheranism official status within the domains of the Holy Roman Empire, according to the policy of "cuius regio, eius religio". Knights and towns who had practiced Lutheranism for some time were exempted under the "Declaratio Ferdinandei", but the "Ecclesiastical reservation" supposedly prevented the principle of "cuius regio, eius religio" from being applied if an ecclesiastical ruler converted to Lutheranism.


title: Peace of Augsburg

text: The third principle exempted knights and some of the cities under the jurisdiction of an ecclesiastical prince if they had practiced Lutheranism for some time (Lutheranism was the only branch of Protestantism recognized under the Peace). The provision was not publicized as part of the treaty, and was kept secret for almost two decades.


title: Peace of Augsburg

text: The document itself had critical problems. While it gave legal basis for the practice of the Lutheran confession, it did not accept any of the Reformed traditions, such as Calvinism, nor did it recognize Anabaptism. Although the Peace of Augsburg was moderately successful in relieving tension in the empire and increasing tolerance, it left important things undone. Neither the Anabaptists nor the Calvinists were protected under the peace, so many Protestant groups living under the rule of a Lutheran prince still found themselves in danger of the charge of heresy. (Article 17: "However, all such as do not belong to the two above named religions shall not be included in the present peace but be totally excluded from it.") These minorities did not achieve any legal recognition until the Peace of Westphalia in 1648.


title: Peace of Augsburg

text: The intolerance towards Calvinists caused them to take desperate measures that led to the Thirty Years' War. One of the more notable measures was the Third Defenestration of Prague (1618) in which two representatives of the fiercely Catholic King of Bohemia Archduke Ferdinand (Matthias was Emperor until 20 March 1619) were thrown out of a castle window in Prague.


title: Peace of Augsburg

text: The principle of ecclesiastical reservation was tested in the Cologne War (1583–1588), which grew out of the scenario envisioned by Ferdinand when he wrote the proviso: the reigning prince-archbishop, Hermann of Wied, converted to Protestantism; although he did not insist that the population convert, he placed "Calvinism" on a parity with Catholicism throughout the Electorate of Cologne. This in itself came forth as a two-fold legal problem: first, Calvinism was considered a heresy; second, the elector did not resign his see, which made him eligible, at least in theory, to cast a ballot for emperor. Finally, his marriage posed a very real potential to convert the electorate into a dynastic principality, shifting the balance of religious power in the empire.


title: Peace of Augsburg

text: A side effect of the religious turmoil was Charles' decision to abdicate and divide Habsburg territory into two sections. His brother Ferdinand ruled the Austrian lands, and Charles' fervently Catholic son, Philip II, became administrator of Spain, the Spanish Netherlands, parts of Italy, and other overseas holdings.


title: Pork chop

text: A pork chop, like other meat chops, is a loin cut taken perpendicular to the spine of the pig and is usually a rib or part of a vertebra. Pork chops are unprocessed and leaner than other cuts. Chops are commonly served as an individual portion, and can be accompanied with applesauce, vegetables, and other sides. Pork is one of the most commonly consumed meats in the world. In the United States, pork chops are the most commonly consumed meat cut from the pork loin and account for 10% of total pork consumption.


title: Pork chop

text: The center cut or pork loin chop includes a large T-shaped bone and is structurally similar to the beef T-bone steak. Rib chops come from the rib portion of the loin, and are similar to rib eye steaks. Blade or shoulder chops come from the spine and tend to contain much connective tissue. The sirloin chop is taken from the (rear) leg end and also contains much connective tissue. The shoulder end produces chops that are considerably fattier than the chops taken from the loin end.


title: Pork chop

text: The "Iowa Chop" is a large thick center cut with its name coined in 1976 by the Iowa Pork Producers Association due to the state producing more pork than any other in the nation. The center-cut loin is often over thick, and likened to a quality cut of beef due to its size and tenderness.


title: Pork chop

text: A "Bacon Chop" is cut from the shoulder end and leaves the pork belly meat attached. Pork chops are sometimes sold marinated, or they can be prepared at home to add flavor; marinades such as a chili sauce or a barbecue sauce are common. As pork is often cooked more thoroughly than beef, thus running the risk of drying out, pork chops can be brined to maintain moistness. One could also wrap pork chops in bacon to add further moistness during the cooking process.


title: Pork chop

text: Pork chops are suitable for roasting, grilling, or frying, but there are also stuffed recipes. They can be used boneless or bone-in. Pork chops are usually cut between thick. Improved breeding techniques have made it possible to cook pork to a lower temperature, helping it to remain juicy, while still being safe to eat. United States government guidelines recommend a minimum cooking temperature of .


title: Edward Elric

text: Numerous publications in various media have been written on the subject of Edward's character. Reviewers praised Edward as a balance between the typical clever kid and the stubborn kid persona. Additionally, his comedic moments have been celebrated as some of the best moments in the series. His Japanese and English voice actors, Romi Park and Vic Mignogna, have both been praised for their performances as Edward and have won several awards for their work. Numerous pieces of merchandise have been released bearing Edward's likeness, including key chains and action figures.


title: Edward Elric

text: Author Hiromu Arakawa integrated several social problems into the plot, such as the way Edward and Alphonse live as brothers after the death of their mother, Trisha. She also looks at how the brothers help people all over the country to gain an understanding of the meaning of family. When describing the character's personality, Arakawa comments that after his father's departure from home and his mother's death, Edward tried to replace the role of the man for the Elric family. As a result, Van Hohenheim's reappearance caused a shocking and terrified reaction in the character. Arakawa has noted that Edward is one of her favorite characters from the series, although she denied having the same personality as him when one of her assistants mentioned it.


title: Edward Elric

text: When comparing the two brothers during the time Alphonse obtained the ability to use alchemy without a circle like Edward, Arakawa stated nobody was better at alchemy as the two had different preferences in the same way as other alchemist appearing in the series. Although she claims she has not thought of the characters' birthdates, Arakawa noted that she decided Edward's birthdate during the series' serialization. During a chapter in which it was mentioned that Edward was about to be 16, winter was about to begin in Hokkaido, Arakawa's birthplace, so it was decided Edward's birthdate would be in winter. In a common slapstick gag from the series, Edward is often struck by Winry Rockbell's wrench. While commenting that Edward has the ability to easily dodge her, Arakawa comments that he gets hit on purpose as a result of his personality. The director of the first anime series, Seiji Mizushima, says that in the development of the story Edward "evolves and devolves"; Mizushima comments that Edward is continuously overcoming inner struggles in order to determine how to grow up. The appearance of his automail in the anime is used to symbolize the intangibles of his character, making viewers note that Edward lost something important.


title: Edward Elric

text: In a prototype from the series, Edward was an eighteen-year-old teenager travelling alongside his father whose soul sealed in a flying squirrel. Edward's prototype had an average height, but retained his automail. In order to fit with the readers from the manga magazine "Monthly Shonen Gangan", Edward's traits were further modified, leaving his current one. His height was reduced in order to contrast with Alphonse's huge armor. In the design of the character, Arakawa is often worried about not making his automail too bulky to avoid balancing it by increasing Edward's muscles, making his appearance unsuitable for his age. She has also often drawn the character in full body length, but at one point noticed she made it too tall. As the manga continued serialization, Arakawa found that she drew Edward half naked several times even more than Alex Louis Armstrong who tends to show his torso. While stating that this was because she wanted to draw Edward's automail, she commented that it was common for men to walk in underwear at their homes.


title: Edward Elric

text: In the Japanese version of "Fullmetal Alchemist"s anime adaptations, Edward has been voiced by Romi Park. In the English version, the role has been played by Vic Mignogna. Mignogna has stated that performing Edward may be his biggest voice acting achievement since fans do not compare him with Park, noting that their voices are not similar and that he did not plan to sound like her.


title: Edward Elric

text: Additionally, in the 2017 live-action film based on the series, Edward is portrayed by Ryosuke Yamada. Yamada thinks his short stature might be work as an advantage due to one of Edward's most common characteristics is his low height. Studying Arakawa's manga, Yamada tried imitating Edward's other signature actions such the way he runs. A fan of the series, the actor expressed happiness with the role he was given. Nevertheless, he asked at Anime Expo 2017 if anything from him looked "weird" which resulted in praise from the audience. During questions, Yamada said that one of the most difficult scenes about his acting is interacting with Alphonse as a result of the latter being CGI. As a result, in the shooting of some scenes the staff had a person in Alphonse's place so that Yamada had a better way to act.


title: Edward Elric

text: Edward was born in a small town named Resembool in the nation of Amestris, living with his younger brother Alphonse and their parents Trisha Elric and Van Hohenheim. After Hohenheim left the family on a journey early in their lives, Edward developed a loathing for their father as he and Alphonse learned to use alchemy before Trisha died of an illness years later. The two brothers concentrated on studying alchemy in the hopes of bringing their mother back to life, and trained with a skilled alchemist named Izumi Curtis. When they make the attempt to revive their mother, it failed and the brothers paid a bigger price via the Law of Equivalent Exchange: which states that every outcome requires an equal payment.


title: Edward Elric

text: Edward lost his left leg while meeting the metaphysical being known as , gaining great knowledge as well as the prodigious ability to perform transmutations just by clapping his hands together without the need of a Transmutation Circle. As Alphonse's entire being was taken by Truth, Edward uses his newly gained knowledge in sacrificing his own right arm to retrieve Alphonse's soul and bind it to a nearby suit of armor. Later meeting Colonel Roy Mustang while being outfitted prosthetic "automail" limbs by the grandmother of his childhood friend, Winry Rockbell, he became motivated to restore Alphonse, Edward joins the State Military. He becomes the youngest State Alchemist, receiving the title of "Fullmetal Alchemist" shortly thereafter from the military head, Führer King Bradley. For the next few years, the Elric Brothers begin an extensive search for the legendary Philosopher's Stone in order to restore their bodies.


title: Edward Elric

text: Edward strongly believes in the alchemical concept of "Equivalent Exchange," though he also behaves in a childish manner and can violently lash out when confronted about his short height. Besides his abilities as an alchemist, Edward is a formidable fighter as a result of his training with Izumi, who had extensively trained both brothers in martial arts.


title: Edward Elric

text: During their search for the Stone, from liberating the town of Liore from the cult leader Father Cornello to their tragic meeting with Nina Tucker and her desperate father Shou Tucker, Edward and Alphonse had a near-death experience when attacked by Scar, a vengeful Ishvalan targeting State Alchemists for the mass murder of his people during the Ishvalan Civil War. This led to the Elrics making a brief return to Resembool with Winry becoming Edward's automail mechanic, the brothers encountering a former State Alchemist named Tim Marcoh who gives them the method of creating a Philosopher's Stone. The brothers, deciding to find another means upon learning human souls are required to create a Philosopher's Stone, get later revelations in the form of immortal beings known as the homunculi.


title: Edward Elric

text: When Edward and Alphonse discover that the homunculi and the Philosopher's Stone are related, they work together with Mustang and the Xingese prince Lin Yao to find them. But the Elric brothers meet the homunculus whom the homunculi call "Father," who is the true leader of Amestris with Bradley being a human-homunculus. The brothers are forced to keep working with the military as Bradley uses Winry as a hostage.


title: Edward Elric

text: Forced to comply, the Elrics travel to the northern area of the country in order where they eventually reveal what they know to General Olivier Mira Armstrong while dealing with the homunculus Sloth. Shortly after their arrival, the State Alchemist Solf J. Kimblee bring Winry to the north as a hostage, unbeknownst to Winry, to force Edward's help in hunting Scar. But the brothers and Scar made their peace as they end up using his help so Alphonse can take Winry to safety. Upon their success, joined by Lin after he willingly became a host for Greed, Edward learns the Father's full plan of making a massive human transmutation circle out of the country of Amestris to create a Philosopher's Stone. Edward later reunites with Alphonse and their father as they and their allies formulate an attack on Central City from all sides.


title: Edward Elric

text: The group make their way into the underground complex while dispatching many of the homunculi, but the Elric Brothers, Izumi, Honenhiem, and Mustang are captured by Father who uses them to absorb the souls of Amestrians to absorb the being beyond the Gate of Truth. But Honenheim and Scar act out their backup plans to return the recently stolen souls to their bodies and enable every alchemist to fighting the severely weakened Father. Joining the fray after defeating Pride, Edward loses his automail while battling Father. Alphonse transmutes his soul in order to restore Edward's original flesh-and-blood arm. After defeating Father, Edward manages to bring Alphonse back by sacrificing his own ability to use alchemy. The brothers return to their hometown to live normal lives, but are motivated by the memories of Nina and others they failed to save to learn new methods of alchemy to prevent such tragedies from being repeated. Two years later, Edward decides to head westward for their research with Winry accompanying him as they progressively developed a romantic relationship over the course of their adventure and eventually confessed their feelings to each other. In the epilogue, Edward and Winry are revealed to have married and have a son and daughter together.


title: Edward Elric

text: Although following the series storyline to an extent, the first anime's storyline diverts with Edward learning the secret to destroying a homunculus during his encounter with Greed, whom he kills in an effort to save Alphonse. When he learns of Scar's creation of a Philosopher's Stone within Alphonse, Edward saves the people of Lior from being sacrificed for its creation. During his battle against the homunculi, Edward is killed by Envy, who is revealed to be Edward and Alphose's half-brother, but Alphonse trades himself for his brother's revival. In doing so, however, Alphonse's armor with the philosopher's stone within it is used up and he disappears. After being revived, Edward sacrifices his own life to bring back his brother in exchange. As a result, Edward finds himself on the other side of the Gate, a parallel world which greatly resembles the real world during World War II, while Alphonse recovers his original body. Determined to return to Alphonse, Edward becomes involved in rocketry research in Germany, with the intention of using that technology to return to his home world. In the feature film, "", set two years after the end of the anime, Edward has been living in Germany and looks for a way to return to his world. At the film's end, he decides to stay in the parallel world along with Alphonse so that they may try to protect both worlds.


title: Edward Elric

text: Edward also appears in almost all the "Fullmetal Alchemist" original video animations (OVAs). In the first OVA he appears as a super deformed version of himself at the movie's wrap-up party; in the second, he appears shortly as an old man living in modern-day Tokyo; and in the third OVA, he plays a part in the battle against the first anime's homunculi. As the series' titular character, Edward is playable in all "Fullmetal Alchemist" video games. The three games for the PlayStation 2 – "Fullmetal Alchemist and the Broken Angel", "" and "" – feature exclusive stories in which the Elrics keep searching for the Philosopher's Stone. In the Nintendo DS game, "Fullmetal Alchemist Dual Sympathy", he and Alphonse replay the first anime series. He is also featured in the "Fullmetal Alchemist Trading Card Game". There are two character CDs featuring tracks based on Edward's character. The first is named and the second "Theme of Edward Elric". Both albums were performed by Ed's Japanese voice actress, Romi Park. He also appears in each light novel written by Makoto Inoue which continue Edward and Alphonse's search for the Philosopher's Stone and at the same time feature different stories from the ones appearing the manga and the anime.


title: Edward Elric

text: Edward's character has been well received by manga readers; in each of the popularity polls made by "Monthly Shōnen Gangan" he has ranked first. Edward also won the Twenty-sixth Annual "Animage" Readers' Poll, Anime Grand Prix, in the "Favorite Male Character"; Romi Park, who voices Edward in Japanese, won in the "Favorite Seiyu" category. Edward maintained a high place in the next year's poll in the same category. In the July 2009 issue of "Newtype", Edward ranked at the top of the survey Male Character Rankings. In the August 2009 issue his rank changed to fourth. In a "Newtype" poll from March 2010, Edward was voted as the fourth most popular male anime character from the 2000s. In the Anime Awards 2006 from About.com, Edward won in the category "Best Lead Character – Male". He was also seventh in IGN's 2009 Top 25 Anime Characters of All Time with writer Chris Mackenzie saying, "[Edward] and his kid brother Al make one of the best action-comedy teams in recent memory". In 2014, IGN ranked him as the eighth greatest anime character of all time, saying that "In Edward we had a character who was truly multidimensional. He could be comedic and pull off wild takes and sight gags. He could be placed in the most tragic circumstances and portray the deepest kind of sadness. He could be a complete badass, but he could also be the nicest guy on the planet." Several pieces of merchandise have been released in Edward's likeness, including plush toys, action figures, and key-chains. Vic Mignogna, who performs the voice of Edward in the English dub, was the winner in American Anime Awards in the category "Best Actor" for voicing Edward. In a poll by Anime News Network, he was voted as the 5th best "guy".


title: Edward Elric

text: Several publications for manga, anime, and other pop culture media have provided both praise and criticism on Edward's character. IGN writer Hilary Goldstein praises Edward as the perfect balance between the typical clever kid and the stubborn kid persona, explaining that this allows the character to "float between comical moments and underlying drama without seeming false." Additionally, Melissa Harper from Anime News Network praises Edward's facial expressions as some of the most humorous highlights of the series, including also the moments in which he reacts quite violently to comments about his small stature. They also praise him for not being a stereotypical "shōnen" character as it is noted that he has "very real skills, relationships, and personality". Samuel Arbogast from T.H.E.M. Anime Reviews also comments that the interaction between the Elric brothers as they travel is interesting, and praises their humor scenes as they help to balance the dark parts of the series. Similarly, Mania Entertainment's Jarred Pine liked the dynamic between the Elrics brothers as while Edward is often faced with following "dark paths" in the same way as villains with the series, he is always supported by Alphonse who makes sure he is okay. Judge Joel Pearce from DVD Verdict commented on Edward's journey, considering it very complex morally because he is trying to do good within a morally questionable organization. Lydia Hojnacki listed Edward as one of the reasons she likes "Fullmetal Alchemist", noting the progression of the character's personality throughout the series, from simple maturity to a deeper sensitivity. The character was noted to go through a notable development in the manga after meeting his father by Holly Ellingwood from Active Anime as it made him decide to see the investigate from the human he and Alphonse created as children which led him to find a clue about how to recover his brother's body. On the other hand, Maria Lin from Animefringe criticized Edward's development in the first animated adaptation of "Fullmetal Alchemist", as in the series' finale he once again attempted to resurrect a human. When reviewing the video game "Fullmetal Alchemist and the Broken Angel", RPGFan's Neal Chandran enjoyed the dynamic between the main characters both in fights as well as dialogues.


title: Edward Elric

text: In "(Fullmetal) alchemy: the monstrosity of reading words and pictures in shonen manga", Lesley-Anne Gallacher addressed how the backstory of Edward and Alphonse's failed attempt to revive their mother relate to Shou Tucker's plan to combine his daughter Nina and dog into a monster named chimera. During the discovery of this, Edward and Alphonse are given their own contrast in terms of characterization with the former showing early shock due to understanding what happened to Nina. Nevertheless, Alphonse later reacts violently too once understanding the identity of the chimera. As a result, the writer believes the story "weaken the boundaries between different realms of representation is to compromise the integrity of them all". Julie Sadlier from York University notes how complex is Edward's case of disability despite being a supercrip through his automail; despite acquiring these metallic limbs, Edward still feels at traumatized from his past and searches for a way to recover his lost arm and leg. Sadlier further commented on Edward's past, comparing it with Ishvalian's civil war who also suffered a tragic loss, most notably the antagonistic Scar who also lost his arm. Other foils noticed by the writer are Lan Fan who amputated herself to aid Ling Yao while noting that through his automail, Arakawa managed to link Edward with Alphonse and Winry.


title: Edward Elric

text: Tien-yi Chao from Intellect commented on Edward's characterization in the film "Conqueror of Shamballa". Across the movie, Edward meets parallel version of people he met including Maes Hughes (a Nazi soldier with the same name) and King Bradley, (a Jewish film director named Fritz Lang), who behave differently from their Amestris counterparts. Chao addresses that through this exchanges the film also parallels itself from Arakawa's original work that takes a different path in terms of story. Nevertheless, Edward also faces the idea of going back to Amestris and comes in terms with Earth during the climax: in confrontation to Exckhart from the Thule Society, Edward notes that both worlds share similar issues, most notably wars which might become easier to occur if the worlds are connected. As a result, Edward and Alphonse decide to live in the real world in order to protect it from nuclear weapons mentioned across the story.


title: Freezing

text: Freezing is a phase transition where a liquid turns into a solid when its temperature is lowered below its freezing point. In accordance with the internationally established definition, freezing means the solidification phase change of a liquid or the liquid content of a substance, usually due to cooling.


title: Freezing

text: For most substances, the melting and freezing points are the same temperature; however, certain substances possess differing solid-liquid transition temperatures. For example, agar displays a hysteresis in its melting point and freezing point. It melts at 85 °C (185 °F) and solidifies from 32 °C to 40 °C (89.6 °F to 104 °F).


title: Freezing

text: Most liquids freeze by crystallization, formation of crystalline solid from the uniform liquid. This is a first-order thermodynamic phase transition, which means that as long as solid and liquid coexist, the temperature of the whole system remains very nearly equal to the melting point due to the slow removal of heat when in contact with air, which is a poor heat conductor. Because of the latent heat of fusion, the freezing is greatly slowed and the temperature will not drop anymore once the freezing starts but will continue dropping once it finishes.


title: Freezing

text: Crystallization consists of two major events, nucleation and crystal growth. "Nucleation" is the step wherein the molecules start to gather into clusters, on the nanometer scale, arranging in a defined and periodic manner that defines the crystal structure. "Crystal growth" is the subsequent growth of the nuclei that succeed in achieving the critical cluster size. The thermodynamics of freezing and melting is a classical discipline within physical chemistry, which nowadays develops in conjunction with computer simulations.


title: Freezing

text: In spite of the second law of thermodynamics, crystallization of pure liquids usually begins at a lower temperature than the melting point, due to high activation energy of homogeneous nucleation. The creation of a nucleus implies the formation of an interface at the boundaries of the new phase. Some energy is expended to form this interface, based on the surface energy of each phase. If a hypothetical nucleus is too small, the energy that would be released by forming its volume is not enough to create its surface, and nucleation does not proceed. Freezing does not start until the temperature is low enough to provide enough energy to form stable nuclei. In presence of irregularities on the surface of the containing vessel, solid or gaseous impurities, pre-formed solid crystals, or other nucleators, heterogeneous nucleation may occur, where some energy is released by the partial destruction of the previous interface, raising the supercooling point to be near or equal to the melting point. The melting point of water at 1 atmosphere of pressure is very close to 0 °C (32 °F, 273.15 K), and in the presence of nucleating substances the freezing point of water is close to the melting point, but in the absence of nucleators water can supercool to before freezing. Under high pressure (2,000 atmospheres) water will supercool to as low as before freezing.


title: Freezing

text: Freezing is almost always an exothermic process, meaning that as liquid changes into solid, heat and pressure are released. This is often seen as counter-intuitive, since the temperature of the material does not rise during freezing, except if the liquid were supercooled. But this can be understood since heat must be continually removed from the freezing liquid or the freezing process will stop. The energy released upon freezing is a latent heat, and is known as the enthalpy of fusion and is exactly the same as the energy required to melt the same amount of the solid.


title: Freezing

text: Low-temperature helium is the only known exception to the general rule. Helium-3 has a negative enthalpy of fusion at temperatures below 0.3 K. Helium-4 also has a very slightly negative enthalpy of fusion below 0.8 K. This means that, at appropriate constant pressures, heat must be "added" to these substances in order to freeze them.


title: Freezing

text: Certain materials, such as glass and glycerol, may harden without crystallizing; these are called amorphous solids. Amorphous materials, as well as some polymers, do not have a freezing point, as there is no abrupt phase change at any specific temperature. Instead, there is a gradual change in their viscoelastic properties over a range of temperatures. Such materials are characterized by a glass transition that occurs at a glass transition temperature, which may be roughly defined as the "knee" point of the material's density vs. temperature graph. Because vitrification is a non-equilibrium process, it does not qualify as freezing, which requires an equilibrium between the crystalline and liquid state.


title: Freezing

text: "The size of substances increases or expands on being heated. This increase in the size of a body due to heating is called thermal expansion .. Thermal expansion takes place in all objects and in all states of matter. However different substances have different rates of expansion for the same rise in temperature."


title: Freezing

text: Many living organisms are able to tolerate prolonged periods of time at temperatures below the freezing point of water. Most living organisms accumulate cryoprotectants such as anti-nucleating proteins, polyols, and glucose to protect themselves against frost damage by sharp ice crystals. Most plants, in particular, can safely reach temperatures of −4 °C to −12 °C. Certain bacteria, notably "Pseudomonas syringae", produce specialized proteins that serve as potent ice nucleators, which they use to force ice formation on the surface of various fruits and plants at about −2 °C. The freezing causes injuries in the epithelia and makes the nutrients in the underlying plant tissues available to the bacteria.


title: Freezing

text: Three species of bacteria, "Carnobacterium pleistocenium", as well as "Chryseobacterium greenlandensis" and "Herminiimonas glaciei", have reportedly been revived after surviving for thousands of years frozen in ice.


title: Freezing

text: Many plants undergo a process called hardening, which allows them to survive temperatures below 0 °C for weeks to months.


title: Freezing

text: The nematode "Haemonchus contortus" can survive 44 weeks frozen at liquid nitrogen temperatures. Other nematodes that survive at temperatures below 0 °C include "Trichostrongylus colubriformis" and "Panagrolaimus davidi". Many species of reptiles and amphibians survive freezing. See cryobiology for a full discussion.


title: Freezing

text: Human gametes and 2-, 4- and 8-cell embryos can survive freezing and are viable for up to 10 years, a process known as cryopreservation.


title: Freezing

text: Freezing is a common method of food preservation that slows both food decay and the growth of micro-organisms. Besides the effect of lower temperatures on reaction rates, freezing makes water less available for bacteria growth. freezing is one of the oldest and most widely used method of food preservation as far back as 1842, freezing has been immensely used in an ice and salt brine. In freezing, flavours, smell and nutritional content most generally remain unchanged. Freezing became commercially applicable after the advent (introduction) of mechanical refrigeration. Freezing has been successfully employed for long term preservation of many foods providing a significantly extended shelf-life. Freezing preservation is generally regarded as superior to canning and dehydration with respect to retention in sensory attributes and nutritive attributes.


title: 16 (number)

text: 16 (sixteen) is the natural number following 15 and preceding 17. 16 is a composite number, and a square number, being 4 = 4 × 4. It is the smallest number with exactly five divisors, its proper divisors being , , and .


title: 16 (number)

text: Sixteen is the fourth power of two. For this reason, 16 was used in weighing light objects in several cultures. The British have 16 ounces in one pound; the Chinese used to have 16 "liangs" in one "jin". In old days, weighing was done with a beam balance to make equal splits. It would be easier to split a heap of grains into sixteen equal parts through successive divisions than to split into ten parts. Chinese Taoists did finger computation on the trigrams and hexagrams by counting the finger tips and joints of the fingers with the tip of the thumb. Each hand can count up to 16 in such manner. The Chinese abacus uses two upper beads to represent the 5s and 5 lower beads to represent the 1s, the 7 beads can represent a hexadecimal digit from 0 to 15 in each column.


title: 16 (number)

text: Sixteen is the only integer that equals "m" and "n", for some unequal integers "m" and "n" ("m" = 4, "n" = 2, or vice versa). It has this property because 2 = 2 × 2. It is also equal to 2 (see tetration).


title: 16 (number)

text: In Spanish and Portuguese, 16 is the first compound number (, European Portuguese: , Brazilian Portuguese: ""); the numbers 11 (Spanish: , ) through 15 (Spanish: "quince", Portuguese: "quinze") have their own names.


title: 16 (number)

text: In both the NBA and NHL, 16 teams qualify for the respective league playoffs; it is also the number of wins needed to win the title (both leagues have four playoff rounds, with four wins in seven games needed to win each round).


title: 16 (number)

text: In AFL Women's, the top-level league of women's Australian rules football, each team has 16 players on the field at any given time (as opposed to the 18 of almost all other competitions in the sport, most notably the parent Australian Football League for men).


title: Imran Khan (film actor)

text: Imran Khan (; born Imran Pal; 13 January 1983) is an American actor of Indian origin who worked in Hindi films. He is the nephew of actor Aamir Khan and director-producer Mansoor Khan, and the grandson of director-producer Nasir Hussain. He appeared as a child artist in the films "Qayamat Se Qayamat Tak" (1988) and "Jo Jeeta Wohi Sikandar" (1992).


title: Imran Khan (film actor)

text: Khan made his adult acting debut in 2008 with the romantic comedy "Jaane Tu... Ya Jaane Na", which was a critical and commercial success. His performance in the film won him the Filmfare Award for Best Male Debut. After the failure of his next two films, Khan was written off by the media, calling him a "one film wonder". He then starred in a number of commercially successful films like "I Hate Luv Storys" (2010), "Delhi Belly" (2011), "Mere Brother Ki Dulhan" (2011) and "Ek Main Aur Ekk Tu" (2012), which is his last commercially successful film. It was followed by a series of box-office flops.


title: Imran Khan (film actor)

text: Apart from acting in films, Khan is a social activist, and has written columns for the "Hindustan Times". He is a supporter of PETA, having appeared in events organised for the group. He married Avantika Malik in January 2011, after a ten-year relationship.


title: Imran Khan (film actor)

text: Imran Khan was born as Imran Pal on 13 January 1983 in Madison, Wisconsin, United States to Anil Pal, a software engineer, and Nuzhat Khan, a psychologist. Imran's grandfather was a Bengali who married a British woman. Imran's father is a Bengali Hindu who studied with Mansoor Khan at IIT Bombay and now works as a senior manager at Yahoo in California. Imran's mother is a Muslim from a film family, daughter of the director-producer Nasir Hussain, sister of director-producer Mansoor Khan and cousin of actor Aamir Khan. Imran Khan is an American citizen by birth.


title: Imran Khan (film actor)

text: Khan's parents divorced when he was still a toddler, after which his mother moved to Mumbai. In an interview, Khan called his step-father, Raj Zutshi, as the father figure during his growing years. He was enrolled at Bombay Scottish School, where he was subjected to corporal punishments such as caning. According to Khan, he developed a stammer, his grades fell and his academic career went into a "strong decline" due to his inability to cope with his new environment and radically changed family situation; he became nervous and developed facial tics. Meanwhile, his mother married again and found it convenient to send him to a boarding school, choosing Blue Mountain School in distant Coonoor, Tamil Nadu. After a period of depression in Coonoor, Khan adjusted and grew into the environment; he later described his experience there as "phenomenal," although his grades remained poor. When the principal of that school left to start his own school, Khan and several other students followed him to a Gurukul in the jungles of Ooty. The new school had no electricity, the students were required to wash their clothes in a creek and they even grew some of the food they ate. Khan later admitted that frequently changing schools made him independent but also a loner.