title: Operation Bodenplatte

text: In the event, all four "Gruppen" failed to find Volkel and its Hawker Tempests remained untouched. The only success JG 6 had was I./JG 6's erroneous attack on Eindhoven, which claimed 33 fighters and six medium bombers. Like Volkel, Helmond and Heesch had escaped damage. In the dogfights over Helmond, JG 6 claimed six victories. In fact, only two Spitfires were shot down and one badly damaged. Only one further fighter, a Hawker Typhoon, was shot down. Stab./JG 6 lost the "Geschwaderkommodore", Kogler, as a POW. Of I./JG 6's 29 Fw 190s, seven were lost and two damaged; of II./JG 6's 25 Fw 190s, eight were destroyed and two damaged; III./JG 6 lost 12 out 20 Bf 109s. In total, JG 6 lost 43% of its strength and suffered 16 pilots killed or missing and seven captured. As well as Kogler, one other commanding officer was lost—"Gruppenkommandeur" Helmut Kühle. Three "Staffelkapitäne" were lost: "Hauptmann" Ewald Trost was captured, "Hauptmann" Norbert Katz was killed and Lothar Gerlach was posted missing, presumed killed.


title: Operation Bodenplatte

text: Deurne airfield was to be destroyed by "Jagdgeschwader" 77 (JG 77). Antwerp housed the largest Allied contingent of nine Squadrons. It had been incessantly attacked by V-1 cruise missiles and V-2 SRBM ballistic missiles, and had been given a strong anti-aircraft defence.


title: Operation Bodenplatte

text: At 08:00, two formations of 18 Bf 109s of I. and III./JG 77, led by "Major" Siegfried Freytag, took off with their pathfinders. At the same time 23 Bf 109s of II./JG 77 took off. Around the Bocholt area they formed up with the other two "Gruppen". Heading south and still north of Antwerp, JG 77 passed Woensdrecht airfield. It was home to No. 132 Wing RAF and its five Spitfire squadrons; No. 331 Squadron RAF, No. 332 Squadron RAF (Norwegian), No. 66 Squadron RAF and No. 127 Squadron RAF, and No. 322 Squadron RAF (Dutch). Some pilots from II./JG 77 either mistakenly believed it to be Antwerp, or thought the opportunity was too good to pass up. Two German fighters were claimed shot down, and one pilot captured. However, none of the JG 77 casualties fit this description.


title: Operation Bodenplatte

text: The main body continued to Antwerp. Some 12–30 German fighters attacked the airfield from 09:25 to 09:40. The ground defences were alert and the German formations attacked in a disorganised manner. 145 Wing RAF was missed completely and considering the large number of targets the destruction was light; just 12 Spitfires were destroyed.


title: Operation Bodenplatte

text: In total, 14 Allied aircraft were destroyed and nine damaged. JG 77 lost 11 Bf 109s and their pilots were lost. Six were killed and five captured according to Allied sources. However, German records show the loss of only 10 pilots. Four are listed as captured.


title: Operation Bodenplatte

text: "Jagdgeschwader" 53 (JG 53) was tasked with the operation against the USAAF airfield at Metz-Frescaty Air Base. Stab., II., III., and IV./JG 53 were available. III./JG 53 was to destroy anti-aircraft installations in the Metz area, while the other "Gruppen" knocked out the airfields.


title: Operation Bodenplatte

text: The USAAF XIX Tactical Air Command had established a strong presence in northeast France and was supporting the U.S. 3rd Army. JG 53 was to knock out its airfields. Some 26 Bf 109s took off but were intercepted by 12 P-47s of the 367th Fighter Squadron, 358th Fighter Group. The P-47s claimed 13 destroyed, one probable and six damaged for no losses. On the way home at 09:20, III./JG 53 were intercepted by 366th Fighter Squadron. Altogether, III./JG 53 lost 10 Bf 109s and one damaged to the 358th Fighter Group. Of the 25 III./JG 53 Bf 109s that took part, 11 were shot down representing 40% of the attacking force. The 358th Fighter Group received the Distinguished Unit citation for preventing the attack on the 362nd Fighter Groups airfield.


title: Operation Bodenplatte

text: Although III./JG 53 failed, the main attack was a success by comparison. Stab. II. and IV./JG 53 encountered no difficulties on the outward leg. The Germans caused significant damage among the parked USAAF fighters on the field. When the attack against the Metz airfield was over, the three JG 53 "Gruppen" reported the loss of 20 Bf 109s and seven damaged. This represented more than 50 percent of the attacking 52 fighters. Some 13 pilots were missing; three were killed, six remain missing as of today, and four were captured. A further three were wounded. JG 53 claimed 27 USAAF fighters on the ground and eight damaged. Added to this total is four aerial victories. In total JG 53 lost 30 Bf 109s and eight damaged in the two operations. This was a total loss of 48%. The losses of the USAAF were 22 destroyed, 11 damaged (all P-47s).


title: Operation Bodenplatte

text: Le Culot airfield (later known as Beauvechain) was northeast of Charleroi and was the target of "Jagdgeschwader" 4 (JG 4). The main strip (A-89) was known locally as Beauvechain, and an auxiliary field known as Le Culot East (Y-10), known to the locals as Burettes, was nearby. It was known to the Luftwaffe because several of its units had operated there.


title: Operation Bodenplatte

text: "Geschwaderkommodore Major" Gerhard Michalski commanded the force. Five pilots were shot down by ground fire. Another pilot got lost during the flight and ended up near Eindhoven where he was shot down and killed. Reduced in number, 8–10 fighters of IV./JG 4 continued to their target. After 10 minutes, they located a fairly large airfield and attacked, believing it to be Le Culot. It was in fact Sint-Truiden.


title: Operation Bodenplatte

text: The mistake was easy to make, Le Culot was located nearby. Sint-Truiden housed the 48th Fighter Group and 404th Fighter Group. The 492nd Fighter Squadron was readying to take off at 09:20. JG 4 hit the airfield at 09:15. Several P-47s taxiing out were abandoned by pilots and strafed to destruction. The small-scale attack by JG 4 had achieved considerable damage. Total American losses were 10 destroyed and 31 damaged. The Germans lost eight fighters, including seven Bf 109s, and three damaged. No damage was done at Le Culot airfield.


title: Operation Bodenplatte

text: II.(Sturm)/JG 4 took off for Le Culot at 08:08. Getting lost, they stumbled upon Asch airfield and claimed one P-47 destroyed and two twin-engine aircraft damaged, as well as two trains and trucks destroyed. The unit claimed an Auster reconnaissance aircraft shot down. The machine was probably a Stinson L-1 Vigilant of the 125th Liaison Squadron, U.S. Army. However, virtually the entire "Gruppe" of 17 Fw 190s was wiped out.


title: Operation Bodenplatte

text: I. and III./JG 4 were to strike Le Culot together. Taking off at 08:20 and heading northwest, they comprised a force of 35 Bf 109s (nine from III./JG 4). Two Ju 88G-1s of II./NJG 101 lead as pathfinders. Some of I./JG 4 attacked No. 125 Wing RAF Spitfires at Ophoven airfield. Spitfire losses are unclear. Two P-47s and a B-17 were destroyed. I./JG 4 reported two Bf 109s missing, one damaged and one destroyed. Just a hangar, one P-47 and several vehicles were claimed, and the anti-aircraft battery was silenced. The attack on the Spitfires at Ophoven and the mentioned B-17 and two P-47s are not included in the total. Another source suggests two Spitfires destroyed and 10 damaged at Ophoven.


title: Operation Bodenplatte

text: According to one source, JG 4's losses were 25 fighters of the 55 that took part. With 17 pilots killed or missing and seven captured, JG 4 suffered a 42% loss rate. A more recent source claims a total of 75 aircraft of JG 4 took part, with only 12 attacking ground targets. Two Ju 88 pathfinders were lost, as well as 26 fighters with six more damaged.


title: Operation Bodenplatte

text: The Asch Airfield (Designated: Y-29) had been constructed in November 1944 and was home to the 352nd Fighter Group, 8th Air Force, and the 366th Fighter Group, Ninth Air Force. "Jagdgeschwader" 11 (JG 11) was to destroy the airfield. I./JG 11 had only 16 Fw 190s on strength and only six fit and operational pilots. Only six of I./JG 1's pilots took part, and just four of Stab./JG 1's pilots participated. III./JG 11 had more aircraft than pilots, and so other "Staffeln" made up the numbers. Just 41 Fw 190s of JG 11 took part in "Bodenplatte"; four from the Stab., six from I. "Gruppe" and 31 of III. "Gruppe". The 20 fighters from II. "Gruppe" were Bf 109s.


title: Operation Bodenplatte

text: The plan called for a low-level strike by I. and III./JG 11, while II./JG 11 flew as top cover against USAAF fighters. The pilots were shown maps and photographs of the airfield, but were not told the targets' identity until the morning of the attack. After crossing Allied lines, four fighters were lost to AAA fire. The course of JG 11 took it directly over Ophoven. Large formations of JG 11 attacked, in the mistaken belief it was Asch. The other half continued to Asch. Ophoven housed No. 125 Wing RAF, just north of Asch. About half, or some 30 Fw 190s and Bf 109s attacked the airfield.


title: Operation Bodenplatte

text: Asch was notable for a chance event. The 390th Squadron of the 366th Fighter Group had launched two fighter sweeps that morning, which played a crucial role in the failure of JG 11's attack. The leader of the 487th squadron, 352nd Fighter Group, John Charles Meyer, anticipated German activity and had a flight of 12 P-51s about to take off on a combat patrol when the attack began. They took off under fire.


title: Operation Bodenplatte

text: Several pilots made "Ace" status that day. No P-51s were lost; two were damaged and one was damaged on the ground. The 336th Fighter Group lost one P-47. The 366th was credited with eight enemy aircraft, and AAA claimed seven more. However, overclaiming is likely. Luftwaffe records indicate JG 11 lost 28 fighters. Four German pilots (two wounded) made it back to German-held territory, while four were captured and the remaining twenty were killed. Some 24 of the Bf 109s and Fw 190s lost were lost over enemy lines. German pilots Günther Specht and Horst-Günther von Fassong were among those German pilots killed.


title: Operation Bodenplatte

text: Little is known about the claims of JG 11. According to one German document, 13 fighters, two twin-engine and one four-engine aircraft were claimed destroyed. Five fighters were claimed damaged on "Glabbeek airfield"—in reality it was Ophoven. Ten aerial victories and one probable were also claimed. But U.S. Fighter Group losses indicate these claims are excessive.


title: Operation Bodenplatte

text: The Americans claimed 35 German aircraft destroyed. Only 14 can be judged with a degree of certainty to have been shot down by USAAF fighters, and possibly two more. Four are confirmed to have been shot down by AAA fire. Total JG 11 losses were 28. The air battle over Asch had lasted 45 minutes and came to be known as, "The Legend of Y-29".


title: Operation Bodenplatte

text: "Jagdgeschwader" 26 (JG 26) and the III. "Gruppe" of "Jagdgeschwader" 54 (JG 54) were to strike at Brussels-Evere. At the end of December, II./JG 26 had 39 Fw 190D-9s and III./JG 26 had 45 Bf 109s. Records of available aircraft indicate 110 aircraft of JG 26 flew that day; all but 29 were Fw 190s, the remainder were Bf 109s. 17 Fw 190s from III./JG 54 took part with JG 26.


title: Operation Bodenplatte

text: Unknown to the Luftwaffe the Grimbergen Airfield was almost completely abandoned. The Evere airfield was located to the south. It was one of the most densely populated airfields in Belgium and had plenty of targets. The main force consisted of 60 Spitfire XVIs of No. 127 Wing RAF. Also present were B-17s and B-24s of the Eighth Air Force. Overall, well over 100 aircraft were on the field.


title: Operation Bodenplatte

text: At 08:13, the first formations took off. In total, 64 Fw 190D-9s participated. Before the target was reached, some 14 Fw 190D-9s were forced to turn back due to AAA damage or mechanical difficulties. Three Fw 190s were lost to German AAA fire. At 09:10, when the front was reached, Allied heavy AAA units began to engage the formation and another five were shot down. Most of the fire was from British Naval AAA defences defending the Scheldt Estuary. As the formation crossed the Dutch and Belgian border, I./JG 26 and III./JG 54 were intercepted by Spitfires. Five of the Fw 190s were shot down. I./JG 26 destroyed or damaged the few aircraft at the airfield. AAA defences claimed five kills and I./JG 26 reported two Fw 190s lost to Spitfires. Several others were lost over the airfield. Other losses occurred against friendly fire again on the return flight.


title: Operation Bodenplatte

text: The raid was a disaster. Just six machines were destroyed at Grimbergen for the loss of 21 Fw 190s and two damaged. Another eight sustained minor damage. Seventeen pilots were missing, including eight captured.


title: Operation Bodenplatte

text: Only II. and III./JG 26 hit Evere. Between 44 and 52 Fw 190s from these units took off. II. and III./JG 26 knocked out the flak towers and destroyed anything combustible: hangars, trucks, fuel dumps and aircraft. 127 Wing RCAF lost one Spitfire in the air and 11 on the ground; 11 vehicles were damaged and one was destroyed. A total of 60–61 Allied aircraft were destroyed at Evere. A large number of transports were located there and attracted the attention of German pilots, which left many more Spitfires undamaged. Given the number of Spitfires on the field, the Canadian wing suffered "low" losses. The Canadian wing commander—Johnnie Johnson—blamed the poor marksmanship of German pilots for failing to achieve further success.


title: Operation Bodenplatte

text: Allied losses are given at Evere as 32 fighters, 22 twin-engine aircraft and 13 four-engine aircraft destroyed, plus another nine single-, six twin- and one four-engine aircraft damaged. In total, II./JG 26 losses included 13 Fw 190s destroyed and two damaged. Nine of its pilots were missing; five were killed and four captured. III./JG 26 lost six Bf 109s and four pilots. Only one of them was captured, the remainder were killed. The amount of damage the Germans inflicted made up for the losses; the Evere strike was a success.


title: Operation Bodenplatte

text: "Jagdgeschwader" 27 and IV./"Jagdgeschwader" 54 (JG 27 and JG 54) targeted Melsbroek airfield. On 31 December, JG 27 could only muster the following operational pilots and aircraft: 22 (22) from I., 19 (13) from II., 13 (15) from III., and 16 (17) from IV. "Gruppe". "Geschwaderkommadore" Wolfgang Späte had rebuilt IV./JG 54. It had only 21 pilots and 15 of its 23 Fw 190s were operational. Altogether 28 Bf 109s of JG 27 and 15 Fw 190s of JG 54 took off. Seven fighters were lost to enemy aircraft and friendly AAA fire before they reached the target.


title: Operation Bodenplatte

text: The Germans hit Melsbroek hard. According to Emil Clade (leading III./JG 27), the AAA positions were not manned, and aircraft were bunched together or in lines, which made perfect targets. The attack caused considerable damage among the units based there and was a great success. The Recce Wings had lost two entire squadrons' worth of machines. No. 69 Squadron RAF lost 11 Vickers Wellingtons and two damaged. No. 140 Squadron RAF lost four Mosquitoes, the losses being made good the same day. At least five Spitfires from No. 16 Squadron RAF were destroyed. No. 271 Squadron RAF lost at least seven Harrow transports "out of action". A further 15 other aircraft were destroyed. 139 Wing reported five B-25s destroyed and five damaged. Some 15 to 20 USAAF bombers were also destroyed. Another source states that 13 Wellingtons were destroyed, as were five Mosquitoes, four Auster and five Avro Ansons from the Tactical Air Forces 2nd Communications Squadron. Three Spitfires were also lost and two damaged. At least one RAF Transport Command Douglas Dakota was destroyed.


title: Operation Bodenplatte

text: The pilots of JG 27 and JG 54 claimed 85 victories and 40 damaged. German reconnaissance was able to confirm 49. JG 27 suffered unacceptable losses; 17 Bf 109s, 11 pilots killed, one wounded and three captured. IV./JG 54 lost two killed and one captured. Three Fw 190s were lost and one damaged.


title: Operation Bodenplatte

text: "Jagdgeschwader" 3 (JG 3) and "Kampfgeschwader" 51 (KG 51) were tasked with eliminating the Allied units at the Eindhoven base and Gilze-Rijen airfield. The field contained three RCAF reconnaissance squadrons operating a mix of Spitfires and Mustangs and eight Typhoon squadrons of the RAF and RCAF. Some 22 Bf 109s of I./JG 3 took off, along with four from Stab./JG 3, 15 from III./JG 3 and 19 Fw 190s from IV./JG 3. KG 51 contributed some 21 of their 30 Messerschmitt Me 262 jets to the action. Some histories mistakenly include "Kampfgeschwader" 76 (KG 76) on the order of battle, but KG 76 did not take part in the mission.


title: Operation Bodenplatte

text: Each "Staffel" was expected to make at least three firing passes. I./JG 3 took off and joined the lead "Gruppe", IV. (Sturm)/JG 3, with III./JG 3 following in the rear. The Bf 109s and Fw 190s of the "Geschwader" reached the area at about 09:20. "Geschwaderkommodore" Heinrich Bär led the attack. Some pilots made four passes, destroying AAA emplacements, fuel storage stations and vehicles. Nearly 300 aircraft were on the field, along with huge stores of equipment and fuel. The attack caused fires all over the airfield.


title: Operation Bodenplatte

text: JG 3 claimed 53 single-engine and 11 twin-engine aircraft destroyed. Five fighters and one four-engine bomber were also claimed damaged. Four Typhoons, three Spitfires, one Tempest and another unidentified aircraft were claimed shot down. All in all, JG 3 destroyed 43 aircraft according to British records, and damaged a further 60, some seriously. The "Geschwader" believed it had destroyed 116. JG 3 did not come away unscathed. I./JG 3 lost nine of its aircraft and pilots, a 50% loss rate. Damage to the returning "Gruppe" aircraft meant the entire unit was unserviceable. RAF AAA were credited with shooting down five. JG 3 lost, altogether, 15 of the 60 fighters sent, a 25% loss rate. Some 15 pilots were missing; nine were killed and five captured, and another pilot was posting as missing in action and his fate remains unknown. Another source says 16 pilots; ten killed or missing and six captured.


title: Operation Bodenplatte

text: The damage done to Eindhoven was significant and can be considered a victory for JG 3. It was also assisted by elements of JG 6 which had misidentified Eindhoven as one their targets. The greatest losses were amongst the Recce squadrons of the Canadian 39 Wing, which suffered 24 aircraft destroyed or damaged. The visiting 124 Wing RAF lost 30 aircraft destroyed or damaged. 143 Wing RCAF lost 29 damaged or destroyed. It is likely that I./JG 3 was responsible for about 2/3 of the damage. Another source gives 47 aircraft destroyed and 43 damaged.


title: Operation Bodenplatte

text: At least one V-2 missile on a mobile "Meillerwagen" launch trailer was observed being elevated to launch position by a USAAF 4th Fighter Group pilot over the northern German attack route near the town of Lochem on 1 January 1945. Possibly on account of the launch crew sighting the American fighter, the rocket was quickly lowered from a near launch-ready 85° elevation to 30°.


title: Operation Bodenplatte

text: The results of the raid are difficult to judge given the confusion over loss records. It is likely more aircraft were destroyed than listed. The Americans failed to keep a proper record of their losses and it appears the U.S. 8th Air Force losses were not included in loss totals. When these estimates and figures are added to the losses listed in the table below, it is likely that the correct figures are 232 destroyed (143 single-engine, 74 twin-engine and 15 four-engine) and 156 damaged (139 single-engine, 12 twin-engine and five four-engine). Researching individual squadron records confirms the destruction of even more USAAF aircraft. This suggests at least a further 16 B-17s, 14 B-24s, eight P-51s, and at least two P-47s were destroyed on top of that total. A total of 290 destroyed and 180 damaged seems a more realistic summation than the conservative figures given by the USAAF, RAF, and RCAF. Including the 15 Allied aircraft shot down and 10 damaged in aerial combat, 305 destroyed and 190 damaged is the sum total of the attack.


title: Operation Bodenplatte

text: The operation achieved tactical surprise, but it was undone by poor execution due to low pilot skill resulting from poor training. The operation failed to achieve its aim and that failure was very costly to German air power. Some of the units of the RAF, RCAF and USAAF on the receiving end of "Bodenplatte" had been badly hit, others not so badly, but most had sustained some losses. The Germans, however, launched "Bodenplatte" under a set of conditions, such as poor planning and low pilot skill, which clearly indicated any advantage gained would be outweighed by possible losses. "Bodenplatte" weakened the "Jagdwaffe" past any hope of rebuilding. "General der Jagdflieger" Adolf Galland said, "We sacrificed our last substance."


title: Operation Bodenplatte

text: The Luftwaffe lost 143 pilots killed and missing, while 70 were captured and 21 wounded including three "Geschwaderkommodore", five "Gruppenkommandeure", and 14 "Staffelkapitäne"—the largest single-day loss for the Luftwaffe. Many of the formation leaders lost were experienced veterans, which placed even more pressure on those who were left. Thus, "Bodenplatte" was a very short-term success but a long-term failure. Allied losses were soon made up, while lost Luftwaffe aircraft and especially pilots were irreplaceable. German historian Gerhard Weinberg wrote that it left the Germans "weaker than ever and incapable of mounting any major attack again."


title: Operation Bodenplatte

text: In the remaining 17 weeks of war the "Jagdwaffe" struggled to recover sufficiently from the 1 January operation to remain an effective force. In strategic terms, German historian Werner Girbig wrote, "Operation Bodenplatte amounted to a total defeat". The exhausted German units were no longer able to mount an effective defence of German air space during Operation Plunder and Operation Varsity, the Allied crossing of the Rhine River, or the overall Western Allied invasion of Germany. Subsequent operations were insignificant as a whole, and could not challenge Allied air supremacy. The only service in the Luftwaffe capable of profitable sorties was the night fighter force. In the last six weeks of the war the Luftwaffe was to lose another 200 pilots killed. Girbig wrote, "it was not until the autumn of 1944 that the German fighter forces set foot down the sacrificial path; and it was the controversial Operation Bodenplatte that dealt this force a mortal blow and sealed its fate. What happened from then on was no more than a dying flicker."


title: Cantata

text: A cantata (; ; literally "sung", past participle feminine singular of the Italian verb "cantare", "to sing") is a vocal composition with an instrumental accompaniment, typically in several movements, often involving a choir.


title: Cantata

text: The meaning of the term changed over time, from the simple single-voice madrigal of the early 17th century, to the multi-voice "cantata da camera" and the "cantata da chiesa" of the later part of that century, from the more substantial dramatic forms of the 18th century to the usually sacred-texted 19th-century cantata, which was effectively a type of short oratorio. Cantatas for use in the liturgy of church services are called church cantata or sacred cantata; other cantatas can be indicated as secular cantatas. Several cantatas were, and still are, written for special occasions, such as Christmas cantatas. Christoph Graupner, Georg Philipp Telemann and Johann Sebastian Bach composed cycles of church cantatas for the occasions of the liturgical year.


title: Cantata

text: The term originated in the early 17th century, simultaneously with opera and oratorio. Prior to that, all "cultured" music was vocal. With the rise of instrumental music the term appeared, while the instrumental art became sufficiently developed to be embodied in sonatas. From the beginning of the 17th century until late in the 18th, the cantata for one or two solo voices with accompaniment of basso continuo (and perhaps a few solo instruments) was a principal form of Italian vocal chamber music.


title: Cantata

text: A cantata consisted first of a declamatory narrative or scene in recitative, held together by a primitive aria repeated at intervals. Fine examples may be found in the church music of Giacomo Carissimi; and the English vocal solos of Henry Purcell (such as "Mad Tom" and "Mad Bess") show the utmost that can be made of this archaic form. With the rise of the da capo aria, the cantata became a group of two or three arias joined by recitative. George Frideric Handel's numerous Italian duets and trios are examples on a rather large scale. His Latin motet "Silete Venti", for soprano solo, shows the use of this form in church music.


title: Cantata

text: The Italian solo cantata tended, when on a large scale, to become indistinguishable from a scene in an opera, in the same way the church cantata, solo or choral, is indistinguishable from a small oratorio or portion of an oratorio. This is equally evident whether one examines the church cantatas of Bach, of which nearly 200 are extant (see List of Bach cantatas), or the "Chandos Anthems" of Handel. In Johann Sebastian Bach's case some of the larger cantatas are actually called oratorios; and the "Christmas Oratorio" is a collection of six church cantatas actually intended for performance on six different days, though together forming as complete an artistic whole as any classical oratorio.


title: Cantata

text: During the baroque era, the term "cantata" generally retained its original Italian usage to describe a secular vocal piece of extended length, often in different sections, and usually Italianate in style. At the same time, vocal pieces of similar scope, often with several singers, and various instruments, were in great demand for the services of the Lutheran church. Such pieces were usually called "geistliche Konzerte" (singular: "geistliches Konzert", meaning sacred concerto). Many of these pieces were simply called by their opening text. Such pieces for the liturgy or other occasions were not only composed by Bach but also by Dieterich Buxtehude, Christoph Graupner, Gottfried Heinrich Stölzel and Georg Philipp Telemann, to name a few. The editors of the Bach Gesellschaft adopted "sacred cantata" as a convenient catchall for most of Bach's liturgical pieces. The term was then retroactively applied by Philipp Spitta to refer to comparable works by composers from Heinrich Schütz onwards. Many secular cantatas were composed for events in the nobility. They were so similar in form to the sacred ones that many of them were parodied (in parts or completely) to sacred cantatas, for example in Bach's "Christmas Oratorio".


title: Cantata

text: His cantatas are usually written for a baroque orchestra consisting of a string section, an oboe section, and a continuo group, timpani and brass were sometimes added on festive occasions such as Christmas or Easter. The vocal forces consisted of a four-part choir and soloists. Bach also wrote some cantatas for only one solo singer (ex. BWV 51).


title: Cantata

text: Christoph Graupner was Hofkapellmeister at the court of Hesse-Darmstadt and provided over 1,400 cantatas during his nearly 50 years of employment there, making him the most significant contributor to the genre. While only a handful of Bach's cantatas contain accompanied chorales (the vocal parts are usually doubled by the instrumental parts), nearly all of Graupner's chorales feature elaborate ritornello sections. This is possibly due to the fact that Bach's Leipzig congregation was expected to sing along with them, but the Darmstadt court was not. Also, many of Graupner's cantatas exploit elaborate orchestral effects and use exotic instrumentation, such as chalumeau, flûte d'amour, oboe d'amore, viola d'amore, trumpets, horns and timpani. See: List of cantatas by Christoph Graupner.


title: Cantata

text: The term "cantata" came to be applied almost exclusively to choral works, as distinguished from solo vocal music. In early 19th-century cantatas the chorus is the vehicle for music more lyric and songlike than in oratorio, not excluding the possibility of a brilliant climax in a fugue as in Ludwig van Beethoven's Der glorreiche Augenblick, Carl Maria von Weber's "Jubel-Kantate", and Felix Mendelssohn's "Die erste Walpurgisnacht". Anton Bruckner composed several Name-day cantatas, a Festive Cantata and two secular cantatas ("Germanenzug" and "Helgoland"). Bruckner's Psalm 146 is also in cantata form. Mendelssohn's Symphony Cantata, the "Lobgesang", is a hybrid work, partly in the oratorio style. It is preceded by three symphonic movements, a device avowedly suggested by Beethoven's Ninth Symphony; but the analogy is not accurate, as Beethoven's work is a symphony of which the fourth movement is a choral finale of essentially single design, whereas Mendelssohn's "Symphony Cantata" is a cantata with three symphonic preludes. The full lyric possibilities of a string of choral songs were realized by Johannes Brahms in his "Rinaldo", that—like the "Walpurgisnacht"—was set to a text by Goethe. Other cantatas, Beethoven's "Meeresstille", works of Brahms and many notable small English choral works, such as cantatas of John Henry Maunder and John Stanley, find various ways to set poetry to choral music. The competition for the French Prix de Rome prescribed that each candidate submit a cantata. Hector Berlioz failed in three attempts before finally winning in 1830 with "Sardanapale". While almost all of the Prix de Rome cantatas have long since been forgotten (along with their composers, for the most part), Debussy's prize-winning "L'enfant prodigue" (1884, following his unsuccessful "Le gladiateur" of 1883) is still performed occasionally today. Late in the century, Gustav Mahler wrote his early "Das klagende Lied" on his own words, between 1878 and 1880, and Samuel Coleridge-Taylor created a successful trilogy of cantatas "The Song of Hiawatha" between 1898 and 1900.


title: Cantata

text: Cantatas, both of the chamber variety and on a grand scale, were composed after 1900 as well. Indeed, it would not be an exaggeration to claim that one of the most popular pieces of classical music of the 20th century to the layman's ears, is a cantata, namely "Carmina Burana" (1935–1936) by the German composer Carl Orff.


title: Cantata

text: In the early part of the century, secular cantatas once again became prominent, while the 19th-century tradition of sacred cantatas also continued. Ralph Vaughan Williams composed both kinds: "festival" cantatas such as "Toward the Unknown Region" (1907), "Five Mystical Songs" (1911), and "Five Tudor Portraits" (1936), and sacred cantatas including "Sancta civitas" (1926), "Benedicite" (1930), "Dona nobis pacem" (1936), and "Hodie" (1954). Joseph Ryelandt also composed secular and sacred cantatas, such as "Le chant de la pauvreté" Op. 92 in 1928 and "Veni creator" Op. 123 in 1938. Béla Bartók composed the secular "Cantata Profana", subtitled "The Nine Splendid Stags" and based on a Romanian folk tale, in 1930. Although it began as a song cycle (as reflected also by its title), Arnold Schoenberg's "Gurre-Lieder" (1900–1903/1910–11) evolved into one of the century's largest secular cantatas. Paul Hindemith composed three works he designated as cantatas: "Die Serenaden", Op. 35, for soprano, oboe, viola, and cello (1924), "Mahnung an die Jugend, sich der Musik zu befleissigen" (from the "Plöner Musiktage", 1932), and "Ite angeli veloces" for alto and tenor, mixed chorus, and orchestra, with audience participation (1953–55). Of Anton Webern's last three compositions, two are secular cantatas: Cantata No. 1, Op. 29 (1938–39), and Cantata No. 2, Op. 31 (1941–43), both setting texts by Hildegard Jone. Webern had begun sketching a Third Cantata by the time he was killed in 1945. Ernst Krenek also composed two examples: a "scenic cantata", "Die Zwingburg", Op. 14 (1922), and a "Cantata for Wartime", Op. 95, for women's voices and orchestra (1943). Sergei Prokofiev composed "Semero ikh" (1917–18; rev. 1933), and in 1939 premiered a cantata drawn from the film music for "Alexander Nevsky". He wrote two festival cantatas, the "Cantata for the Twentieth Anniversary of the October Revolution", Op. 74, and "Flourish, Mighty Homeland", Op. 114, for the thirtieth anniversary of the same event


title: Cantata

text: Patriotic cantatas celebrating anniversaries of events in the Revolution or extolling state leaders were frequently commissioned in the Soviet Union between 1930 and the middle of the century, though these occasional works were seldom among their composers' best. Examples include Dmitri Shostakovich's "Poem of the Motherland", Op. 47 (1947) and "The Sun Shines over Our Motherland", Op. 90 (1952), and three works by Prokofiev, "Zdravitsa!" [Hail to Stalin] (1939). Dmitry Kabalevsky also composed four such cantatas, "The Great Homeland", Op. 35 (1941–42), "The Song of Morning, Spring and Peace", Op. 57 (1957–58), "Leninists", Op. 63 (1959), and "About Our Native Land", Op. 82 (1965).


title: Cantata

text: In 1940, the Brazilian composer Heitor Villa-Lobos created a secular cantata titled "Mandu çarará", based on an Indian legend collected by Barbosa Rodrigues. Francis Poulenc composed in 1943 "Figure humaine", FP 120, a cantata for double mixed choir of 12 voices on poems by Paul Éluard. Igor Stravinsky composed a work titled simply "Cantata" in 1951–52, which used stanzas from the 15th-century "Lyke-wake Dirge" as a narrative frame for other anonymous English lyrics, and later designated "A Sermon, a Narrative and a Prayer" (1961) as "a cantata for alto and tenor soli, speaker, chorus, and orchestra". Luigi Nono wrote "Il canto sospeso" in 1955–56. Hans Werner Henze composed a "Cantata della fiaba estrema" and "Novae de infinito laudes" (both in 1963), as well as a number of other works that might be regarded as cantatas, such as "Kammermusik" (1958, rev. 1963), "Muzen Siziliens" (1966), and "El Cimarrón" (1969–70). "Momente" (1962–64/1969), one of the most important works of Karlheinz Stockhausen, is often described as a cantata. Benjamin Britten composed at least six works he designated as cantatas: "The Company of Heaven" (1937), "Rejoice in the Lamb", Op. 30 (1943), "Saint Nicolas", Op. 42 (1949), the "Cantata academica", Op. 62 (1959), the "Cantata Misericordium", Op. 69 (1963), and "Phaedra", Op. 93 (1975). Alberto Ginastera also composed three works in this form: the "Cantata para América Mágica", Op. 27 (1960), "Bomarzo", Op. 32 (1964), and "Milena", Op. 37 (1971), and Gottfried von Einem composed in 1973 "An die Nachgeborenen" based on diverse texts, the title taken from a poem of Bertolt Brecht. Mikis Theodorakis composed the cantatas "According to the Sadducees" and "Canto Olympico". Herbert Blendinger's "Media in vita" was premiered in 1980, his "Mich ruft zuweilen eine Stille" (Sometimes a silence calls me) in (1992), and "Allein den Betern kann es noch gelingen" (It can only be achieved by those who pray) in 1995. Iván Erőd wrote in 1988/89) "Vox Lucis" (Voice of the Light), Op. 56. Ivan Moody wrote in 1995 "Revelation". Cantatas were also composed by Mark Alburger, Erik Bergman, Carlos Chávez, Osvald Chlubna, Peter Maxwell Davies, Norman Dello Joio, Lukas Foss, Roy Harris, Arthur Honegger, Alan Hovhaness, Dmitry Kabalevsky, Libby Larsen, Jón Leifs, Peter Mennin, Dimitri Nicolau, Krzysztof Penderecki, Daniel Pinkham, Earl Robinson, Ned Rorem, William Schuman ("A Free Song"), Roger Sessions, Siegfried Strohbach, Dave Brubeck, Michael Tippett, and Kurt Weill.


title: George Wyner

text: George Wyner (born October 20, 1945) is an American film and television actor. Wyner graduated from Syracuse University in 1968 as a drama major and was an in-demand character actor by the early 1970s. Wyner has made guest appearances in over 100 television series and co-starred in nine. His roles include Assistant District Attorney Bernstein on the series "Hill Street Blues", Colonel Sandurz in the film "Spaceballs", and Rabbi Nachtner in "A Serious Man".


title: George Wyner

text: Wyner was born in Boston, Massachusetts. His father, Edward, founded and managed Boston's Ritz Carlton Hotel, which was the premier society hotel in Boston through the 1950s. Wyner's father died while his son was in high school. Wyner's family is Jewish.


title: George Wyner

text: Wyner was introduced to producer Steven Bochco while appearing in Bochco's short-lived 1976 series, "Delvecchio". This led to the role as Irwin Bernstein in "Hill Street Blues", and to roles in four subsequent Bochco productions: "Doogie Howser, M.D.", "Brooklyn South", "NYPD Blue" and "L.A. Law". Additionally, Wyner has appeared on the following programs for "Hill Street"s production company, "MTM": "Rhoda", "The Bob Newhart Show", "The White Shadow", "WKRP in Cincinnati" and "Newhart".


title: Florence Faivre

text: Florence Vanida Faivre (; born 8 June 1983) is a French and Thai actress and model. She began her career as a teen television hostess in Thailand, and later branched into modelling and acting, making her film debut starring in the 2004 film "The Siam Renaissance". She later moved to the United States, and has appeared in several films and television series.


title: Florence Faivre

text: Faivre was born in Bangkok to a French father and a Thai mother. She grew up in Aix-en-Provence in France, and moved to Thailand with her family when she was eight years old. At thirteen years of age, she started working as a television host for "Teen Talk" and "E for Teen". A year later, she started modelling work.


title: Florence Faivre

text: After graduating from high school in Thailand, she was cast as Maneechan, the main character in "The Siam Renaissance", a 2004 film adaptation of the novel "Thawiphop". The film was at that time "the second largest Thai production ever." Faivre was nominated for the Suphannahong Award for best actress, but did not win.


title: Florence Faivre

text: Faivre subsequently moved to New York, where she initially concentrated on modelling. She has since appeared in several television series and films. John Anderson of "Variety" praised her performance in the otherwise poorly received "The Elephant King", anticipating "a promising career, not just for her statuesque beauty but for her ability to navigate a role and character fraught with contradictions and moral shoals".


title: Florence Faivre

text: Faivre guest-starred in several TV series, including "How to Make It in America" and "The Following", before landing a major role in "The Expanse", a science fiction thriller. The show's first episode opened with a shot of Faivre floating weightlessly through a spaceship. Faivre's character Julie Mao, "a smart and rebellious woman from a wealthy family who chooses a principled life of hardship and becomes involved in politically subversive activities," was a regular in seasons 1 and 2, returning for a guest appearance in season 3.


title: Florence Faivre

text: In the fifth season of "Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D." (2017-2018), Faivre had a recurring role as "the kick-ass Kree warrior Sinara taking down folks with a duo of metal balls."


title: Florence Faivre

text: The 2018 film "American Mirror" features Faivre as well as Susan Sarandon in major roles as muses to the protagonist.


title: Sinus bradycardia

text: Sinus bradycardia is a sinus node dysfunction giving a heart rate that is lower than the normal 60–100 beats per minute (bpm) in humans. Bradycardia is generally defined to be a heart rate of under 60 bpm.


title: Sinus bradycardia

text: The decreased heart rate can cause a decreased cardiac output resulting in symptoms such as lightheadedness, dizziness, hypotension, vertigo, and syncope. The slow heart rate may also lead to atrial, junctional, or ventricular ectopic rhythms.


title: Sinus bradycardia

text: Bradycardia is not necessarily problematic. People who practice sports may have sinus bradycardia, because their trained hearts can pump enough blood in each contraction to allow a low resting heart rate. Sinus bradycardia can also be an adaptive advantage; for example, diving seals may have a heart rate as low as 12 beats per minute, helping them to conserve oxygen during long dives.


title: Sinus bradycardia

text: Sinus bradycardia is a common condition found in both healthy individuals and those who are considered well-conditioned athletes.


title: Sinus bradycardia

text: Heart rates considered bradycardic vary by species; for example, in the house cat, a rate of under 120 beats per minute is abnormal. Generally, smaller species have higher and larger species lower rates.


title: Sinus bradycardia

text: Diagnosis of sinus bradycardia can be confirmed by an electrocardiogram that shows the following characteristics:


title: Sinus bradycardia

text: Taking a thorough medical history and physical exam by healthcare providers can also help with narrowing differential diagnosis. Any recent changes to patient's medication history, new symptoms such as chest pain, shortness of breath and palpitations, family history of sinus bradycardia, physical exam that reveals cyanosis, peripheral edema, altered mental status, dyspnea, rales and crackles are all relevant information to consider for differential diagnosis.


American Traitor: The Trial of Axis Sally is a 2021 American historical drama film directed by Michael Polish, from a screenplay by Vance Owen and Darryl Hicks, based upon the book "Axis Sally Confidential", by William E. Owen. It is based on the life of Mildred Gillars, an American singer and actor who during World War II broadcast Nazi propaganda to US troops and their families back home. The film stars Al Pacino, Meadow Williams, Swen Temmel, Thomas Kretschmann and Mitch Pileggi.


title: American Traitor: The Trial of Axis Sally

text: An American woman named Mildred Gillars broadcast Nazi propaganda during World War II. She was dubbed Axis Sally by the American GIs who simultaneously loved and hated her. The story plunges the viewer into the dark underbelly of the Third Reich's hate-filled propaganda machine, Sally's eventual capture, and subsequent trial for treason in Washington D.C. after the war.


text: In May 2017, it was announced EFO Films had acquired the screenplay by Vance Owen and Darryl Hicks based upon the book by Willem E. Owen. In November 2018, Al Pacino, Meadow Williams and Swen Temmel joined the cast of the film, with Michael Polish directing. In February 2019, Thomas Kretschmann, Mitch Pileggi and Lala Kent joined the cast of the film. In April 2019, Carsten Norgaard joined the cast of the film. Kubilay Uner will compose the film's score.


text: In April 2021, Vertical Entertainment and Redbox Entertainment acquired North American distribution rights to the film, and set it for release on May 28, 2021.


text: The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes surveyed and, categorizing the reviews as positive or negative, assessed three as positive and 18 as negative for a 14% rating. Among the reviews, it determined an average rating of 3.7 out of 10.


title: Digimon Data Squad

text: Digimon Data Squad, known in Japan as , is the fifth anime television series in the "Digimon" franchise, produced by Toei Animation. The series aired in Japan on Fuji TV from April 2, 2006 to March 25, 2007. A standalone film based on the series was released on December 9, 2006.


title: Digimon Data Squad

text: An English-language version was produced by Studiopolis, in conjunction with Toei Animation USA and Disney Enterprises, Inc., and aired in North America on Toon Disney's Jetix block from October 1, 2007 to November 1, 2008.


title: Digimon Data Squad

text: The Digital Accident Tactics Squad (DATS) is a government organization established to maintain the peace between the Real World and the Digital World, transporting any Digimon back to the Digital World. Marcus, a junior high school student, becomes one of the members for the organization. He learns that the Digimon Merukimon is opposing mankind. However, the past is revealed that the scientist Akihiro Kurata was responsible for invading the Digital World. He gained the support of the government to oppose all Digimon species, claiming they were a threat to mankind. When Kurata uses Belphemon, Marcus defeats them. Before dying, Kurata uses a bomb to make the Digital World merge with the human world. While the Digimon BanchoLeomon prevents the collision, Marcus meets King Drasil (Yggdrasil), the supreme ruler who attempts to protect the Digital World by destroying mankind, since they cannot exist in both dimensions. Marcus learns that his father, Spencer, was trapped in the Digital World for ten years, because Drasil possessed Spencer's body and BanchoLeomon kept the latter's soul. After Marcus defeats Drasil, Spencer's soul returns to his body. With both worlds restored, all Digimon partners return to their own world. Five years later, Marcus and his friends embrace their future.


title: Digimon Data Squad

text: The series was announced during the December 2005 Jump Festa convention in Japan with advertisements showing a remolded Agumon as the lead Digimon. The name of the series was later revealed in January 2006 with the character designs coming a month later. The characters were designed by Sayo Aoi. It is the final Digimon series to be produced in 4:3.


title: Digimon Data Squad

text: The series aired 48 episodes on Fuji TV in Japan from April 2, 2006 to March 25, 2007. On April 25, 2007, Disney's ABC Network announced that it had signed an agreement with Toei Animation to license the show. Much of the staff that worked on "Digimon: Digital Monsters", including director Jeff Nimoy, returned to work on "Data Squad". The series finished airing in the US on Jetix on November 1, 2008, thirteen months after it premiered on October 1, 2007. Since March 15, the series began airing in the United Kingdom on Kix!


title: Digimon Data Squad

text: It was announced on February 12, 2009 that Toei Animation has signed Well Go USA with the DVD rights to Digimon Data Squad, and the first thirteen US edited English dub episodes has been made available on May 26, 2009. The release of the third DVD set was canceled. Madman Entertainment have released all episodes across four sets on Region 4 DVD in Australia and New Zealand with only the US English Edited TV dub by Studiopolis. Brazil had released several DVDs of the show. In 2014, Cinedigm Entertainment obtained the rights to the release of the season. A Complete Collection was released on March 11, 2014, in the US.


title: Jim Cooper

text: James Hayes Shofner Cooper (born June 19, 1954) is an American lawyer, businessman, professor, and politician who has served since 2003 as the U.S. representative for (based in Nashville and containing parts of Davidson, Cheatham, and Dickson Counties). He is a member of the Democratic Party and the Blue Dog Coalition, and represented from 1983 to 1995. His district includes all of Nashville. He chairs the United States House Armed Services Subcommittee on Strategic Forces of the House Armed Services Committee, and sits on the Committee on Oversight and Reform, United States House Committee on the Budget, and the House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence, more committees than any other member of Congress. He is also the dean of Tennessee's congressional delegation. He is the third-longest serving member of Congress ever from Tennessee, after Jimmy Quillen and B. Carroll Reece.


title: Jim Cooper

text: Due to Cooper's rare split tenure in Congress in two entirely different districts, his career was divided in two fields: regulatory and health care legislation in the rural 4th district and military affairs in the urban 5th.


title: Jim Cooper

text: Cooper built seniority and respect on two different sets of committees, becoming what "The New York Times" op-ed writer Joe Nocera called "the conscience of the House, a lonely voice for civility in this ugly era."


title: Jim Cooper

text: Cooper announced that he would not seek reelection in 2022 after accusing Tennessee's post-2020 Census redistricting cycle of partisan gerrymandering in which he said would effectively eliminate his Democratic-leaning district to create another Republican seat.


title: Jim Cooper

text: Cooper was born in Nashville and raised in Shelbyville, Tennessee. He is the son of former governor Prentice Cooper and his wife Hortense (Powell). His paternal grandfather, William Prentice Cooper, served as mayor of Shelbyville and speaker of the Tennessee House of Representatives. The Cooper family owns the River Side Farmhouse, built for his great-great-grandfather, Jacob Morton Shofner, in 1890; the Gov. Prentice Cooper House, built for his grandfather in 1904; and the 1866 Absalom Lowe Landis House in Normandy, Tennessee, all of which are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.


title: Jim Cooper

text: Cooper attended the Episcopal boys' boarding school Groton School in Groton, Massachusetts, and the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, where he was a member of the Alpha Sigma Chapter of the Chi Psi fraternity, received the Morehead-Cain Scholarship, and earned a B.A. in history with highest honors and honors in economics in three years. He was awarded a Rhodes Scholarship to study at Oxford, where he was a member of Oriel College and earned a B.A./M.A. in philosophy, politics and economics in 1977. In 1980, he received a J.D. from Harvard Law School.


title: Jim Cooper

text: Cooper spent two years working for the law firm Waller Lansden Dortch & Davis, LLP in Nashville, and then ran for Congress in 1982.


title: Jim Cooper

text: In 1982, Cooper won the Democratic primary for the 4th district, which had been created when Tennessee gained a district after the 1980 census. The new 4th ran diagonally across the state, from heavily Republican areas near the Tri-Cities, Knoxville and Chattanooga to the fringes of the Nashville suburbs. The district stretched across five media markets – the Tri-Cities (Kingsport, Johnson City, and Bristol), Knoxville, Chattanooga, Nashville and Huntsville, Alabama. The district touched four states – Virginia, Kentucky, Alabama, and Mississippi – and nearly touched North Carolina and Georgia.


title: Jim Cooper

text: Cooper defeated Cissy Baker, an editor in Washington for CNN and the daughter of U.S. Senate Majority Leader Howard Baker, with 66% of the vote, becoming the youngest member of Congress at age 28.


title: Jim Cooper

text: Cooper was reelected five more times with little substantive opposition, running unopposed in 1986 and 1988. Before Cooper's election, much of the eastern portion of the 4th had not been represented by a Democrat since the Civil War.


title: Jim Cooper

text: In 1992, Cooper co-authored a bipartisan health-care reform plan that did not include employer mandates compelling universal coverage. Called "Clinton-Lite", this initiative was strongly opposed by Hillary Clinton despite its strong backing from both parties.


title: Jim Cooper

text: In 1990, Cooper was one of only three House Democrats to vote against the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990.


title: Jim Cooper

text: During Cooper's first period in Congress, he served first on the Financial Services Committee and then on the Committee on Energy and Commerce.


title: Jim Cooper

text: With Representative Fred Grandy and Senator John Breaux, Cooper coauthored the Cooper-Breaux bipartisan health reform plan, which dramatically increased health insurance coverage with the support of the business community.


title: Jim Cooper

text: Cooper became the leading expert on rural electrical cooperatives, later authoring "Electric Co-operatives: From New Deal to Bad Deal?" in the "Harvard Journal on Legislation".


title: Jim Cooper

text: In 1994, Cooper ran for the Senate seat vacated by Al Gore's election to the Vice Presidency in 1992, but lost to Republican attorney and actor Fred Thompson. Cooper received just under 40% of the vote. It was a bad year overall for Democrats in Tennessee, as Republican Bill Frist won Tennessee's other Senate seat held by Jim Sasser and Don Sundquist was elected governor. The 4th district seat was also won by a Republican, Van Hilleary, as the GOP gained a majority of the state's congressional delegation for only the second time since Reconstruction.


title: Jim Cooper

text: After losing his Senate bid, Cooper moved to Nashville and became an investment banker at Equitable Securities. Later, he co-founded Brentwood Capital Advisors, a boutique investment bank based in Nashville. He also served as an adjunct professor at Vanderbilt University's Owen Graduate School of Management until 2015.


title: Jim Cooper

text: When Thompson opted not to run for reelection to the Senate in 2002, 5th district Congressman Bob Clement (with whom Cooper had served from 1988 to 1995) ran for Thompson's seat. Cooper entered the 5th district Democratic primary along with several other candidates, including Davidson County Sheriff Gayle Ray, Tennessee's first female sheriff, and state legislator John Arriola. Cooper won the primary with 47% of the vote. He won the general election against Republican nominee Robert Duvall (not the actor Robert Duvall), 64%-33%.


title: Jim Cooper

text: The 5th, based in heavily Democratic Nashville, has long been one of the South's most Democratic districts. It and its predecessors have been in Democratic hands without interruption since 1875, and no Republican had made a serious bid for it since 1972. Upon his return to Congress, the Democrats gave him back his seniority.


title: Jim Cooper

text: Cooper defeated Republican nominee David Hall, 57%–42%. This is his smallest margin of victory during his time representing the 5th district.


title: Jim Cooper

text: Republicans gained complete control of state government for the first time since Reconstruction. This led to speculation that the legislature might try to draw the 5th out from under Cooper in an effort to gain another Republican district. In the summer of 2011, Cooper and Nashville Mayor Karl Dean told "The Tennessean" that they had heard rumors that Nashville would be split among three Republican districts. Despite its size, Nashville has been entirely or mostly in a single district since Reconstruction. Cooper said he had seen a map that would have put his Nashville home in the heavily Republican 6th district. The 5th would have been reconfigured into a strongly Republican district stretching from Murfreesboro to the Alabama border, while the rest of Nashville would have been placed in the heavily Republican 7th district. Had it been implemented, the map would have left Cooper with only two realistic places to run—an incumbent-versus-incumbent challenge in the 6th against freshman Republican Diane Black, or the reconfigured 5th, which had reportedly been drawn for State Senator and Murfreesboro resident Bill Ketron, chairman of the redistricting committee. But the final map was far less ambitious, and made the 5th slightly more Democratic than its predecessor. Notably, Cooper picked up all of Nashville; previously, a sliver of southwestern Nashville had been in the 7th.


title: Jim Cooper

text: Cooper was challenged in the Democratic primary by public defender Keeda Haynes, Justin Jones, and former Republican Joshua Rawlings, though Jones withdrew before the primary. Haynes was endorsed by state senator Brenda Gilmore and 2020 Democratic presidential candidate Marianne Williamson, among others. Cooper defeated Haynes and Rawlings with 57% of the vote to Haynes's 40% and Rawlings's 3%.


title: Jim Cooper

text: In the general election, Cooper did not face a Republican nominee. He received 99.99% of the vote, with 14 votes going to write-in candidates.


title: Jim Cooper

text: In 2012, Cooper created the Golden Goose Award to recognize the human and economic benefits of federally funded research. Each year, the award is given to scientists to highlight examples of seemingly obscure studies that have led to major breakthroughs and resulted in significant societal impact. Cooper's inspiration for the award came from his desire to reverse the legacy of former Senator William Proxmire's "Golden Fleece Award", which attacked federal spending he saw as wasteful, often federally funded scientific research. Cooper, known as "Father Goose", was honored at the 2022 Golden Goose Award Ceremony.


title: Jim Cooper

text: On January 25, 2022, Cooper announced he would not run for reelection and would retire from Congress. Cooper made the decision due to the state legislature's controversial move to split Davidson County into three congressional districts in an attempt to gerrymander another Republican district.


title: Jim Cooper

text: Cooper is a member of the Blue Dog Coalition and the New Democrat Coalition, and he has a generally moderate voting record. He also serves on the Oversight and Government Reform Committee. Despite the different policy affiliation, he became one of Barack Obama's earliest Congressional endorsers. Cooper opposed an $819 billion economic stimulus plan that passed the House in 2009, but ended up voting for the revised $787 billion final package. He is one of only a few Blue Dog members not to seek earmarks. Cooper voted for the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act in March 2010.


title: Jim Cooper

text: In 2006, Cooper persuaded Nelson Current publishers to issue "The Financial Report of the United States: The Official Report the White House Does Not Want You to Read", for which he wrote the introduction.


title: Jim Cooper

text: In 2009 the "Wall Street Journal" wrote of Cooper's concerns about the national deficit, "It's even worse than most people think, he says, because of dodgy accounting used by the federal government. ... 'The U.S. government uses cash accounting,' he says. 'That is illegal for any enterprise of any size in America except for the U.S. government.'" He made similar remarks on PBS, saying, "The real deficit in America is at least twice as large as any politician will tell you. And it may be ten times larger."


title: Jim Cooper

text: In 2011, Cooper was one of five Democrats to vote for the Cut, Cap, and Balance Act, and co-sponsored the Stop Online Piracy Act.


title: Jim Cooper

text: In 2012, Cooper authored the No Budget, No Pay Act, which specified that members of Congress would not be paid unless they passed a budget by October 1, 2012. It became law in modified form in 2015. Also in 2012, Cooper and Representative Steve LaTourette forced the only congressional vote on the Simpson-Bowles deficit reduction package.


title: Jim Cooper

text: Cooper created the Golden Goose Award to honor the benefits of government-funded scientific research with an annual award ceremony at the Library of Congress. The award is intended to boost the morale of researchers who are often ridiculed by politicians for their work.


title: Jim Cooper

text: In January 2013, Cooper was the only Democrat in the House to vote against an emergency bill to provide additional disaster and recovery funds in the wake of Hurricane Sandy after supporting the initial $30 billion in relief.


title: Jim Cooper

text: In recent cycles, Cooper has consistently voted for someone other than Nancy Pelosi for speaker. He cast his vote for Heath Shuler in 2011, Colin Powell in 2013, January 2015 and October 2015, and for Tim Ryan in 2017. He voted present in 2019. In 2021, Cooper broke his streak and voted for Pelosi.


title: Jim Cooper

text: In 2017, Cooper worked with Republican Representative Mike Rogers of Alabama on a proposal to establish a Space Corps under the Department of the Air Force. This proposal passed in the House and then failed in the Senate. Two years later, a bill with very similar language was signed into law, creating the United States Space Force.


title: Jim Cooper

text: On December 18, 2019, Cooper voted for both articles of impeachment against President Donald J. Trump.


title: Jim Cooper

text: In January 2022, when the board of trustees of McMinn County Schools in Tennessee, in a 10-0 decision, removed the Pulitzer Prize-winning Holocaust graphic novel "Maus" from its curriculum for 8th grade English classes, overriding a State curriculum decision, Cooper was critical of the decision. He called the ban "outrageous" and "really shameful".


title: Jim Cooper

text: Currently the chair of the Strategic Forces Subcommittee, Cooper has been the top Democrat in charge of both nuclear weapons and military satellites for many years. Although most of the work is classified, Cooper wrote an article for "War on the Rocks" titled "Updating Space Doctrine: How to Avoid World War III." He and his Republican counterpart, Doug Lamborn, also wrote "Let's Correct a Misperception about Nuclear Modernization" for "Defense One".


title: Jim Cooper

text: In 2009, Cooper and his aide Russell Rumbaugh authored an article titled "Real Acquisition Reform", which was printed in "Joint Forces Quarterly".


title: Jim Cooper

text: Cooper spoke with Harvard Law School professor Lawrence Lessig about reforming Congress. According to Lessig, Cooper said that members of Congress are so preoccupied with the question of what they will do after leaving Congress–the most obvious career path being lobbying–that they fall into the habit of thinking about how to serve special interests rather than how to serve the public. According to Lessig, Cooper called Congress a "Farm League for K Street". "The Boston Review" reprinted Cooper's Harvard lecture on "Fixing Congress."


title: Jim Cooper

text: In 2011, Cooper said, "Working in this Congress is deeply frustrating; in fact, it's enraging. My colleagues are misbehaving. They're posturing for voters back home. They're taking the cheap political hit instead of studying the problem that's before us." The same year, he "called the partisan posturing over the debt ceiling 'an extremely dangerous game of chicken,' and said he'd 'never seen politicians act more irresponsibly than they have been recently,' over the nation's debt."


title: Jim Cooper

text: Cooper was ranked the 20th most bipartisan member of the House during the 114th United States Congress (and the most bipartisan member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Tennessee) in the Lugar Center and McCourt School of Public Policy's Bipartisan Index, which ranks members of Congress by bipartisanship (by measuring how often each member's bills attract co-sponsors from the opposite party and each member's co-sponsorship of bills by members of the opposite party).


title: Jim Cooper

text: In 2022, Cooper was one of 16 Democrats to vote against the Merger Filing Fee Modernization Act of 2022, an antitrust package that would crack down on corporations for anti-competitive behavior.


title: Jim Cooper

text: Cooper was married to Martha Bryan Hays, an ornithologist, from 1985 until her death from Alzheimer's disease in 2021 at age 66. They had three children. His daughter Mary was the student body president at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Cooper's son Jamie graduated from the University of Georgia, and his son Hayes graduated from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and is completing his M.F.A. in poetry at Vanderbilt University.


title: Jim Cooper

text: Cooper's brother John is the mayor of Nashville and formerly served on the Metropolitan Council of Nashville and Davidson County.


title: Tahitian language

text: Tahitian (Tahitian: , part of , languages of French Polynesia) is a Polynesian language, spoken mainly on the Society Islands in French Polynesia. It belongs to the Eastern Polynesian group.


title: Tahitian language

text: As Tahitian had no written tradition before the arrival of the Western colonists, the spoken language was first transcribed by missionaries of the London Missionary Society in the early 19th century.


title: Tahitian language

text: Tahitian is the most prominent of the indigenous Polynesian languages spoken in French Polynesia (). The latter also include:


title: Tahitian language

text: When Europeans first arrived in Tahiti at the end of the 18th century, there was no writing system and Tahitian was only a spoken language. Reports by some early European explorers including Quirós include attempts to transcribe notable Tahitian words heard during initial interactions with the indigenous people of Marquesa. Aboard the Endeavour, Lt. James Cook and the ship's master, Robert Molyneux, transcribed the names of 72 and 55 islands respectively as recited by the Tahitian arioi, Tupaia. Many of these were "non-geographic" or "ghost islands" of Polynesian mythology and all were transcribed using phonetic English spelling. In 1797, Protestant missionaries arrived in Tahiti on a British ship called "Duff", captained by James Wilson. Among the missionaries was Henry Nott (1774–1844) who learned the Tahitian language and worked with Pōmare II, a Tahitian king, and the Welsh missionary, John Davies (1772–1855), to translate the Bible into Tahitian. A system of five vowels and nine consonants was adopted for the Tahitian Bible, which would become the key text by which many Polynesians would learn to read and write. John Davies's spelling book (1810) was the first book to be printed in the Tahitian language. He also published a grammar and a dictionary of that language.


title: Tahitian language

text: Tahitian features a very small number of phonemes: five vowels and nine consonants, not counting the lengthened vowels and diphthongs. Notably, the consonant inventory lacks any sort of phonemic dorsal consonants.


title: Tahitian language

text: When two vowels follow each other in a VV sequence, they form a diphthong when V is more open, and as a consequence more sonorant, than V. An exception to this rule is the sequence , which never becomes the diphthong . Two vowels with the same sonority are generally pronounced in hiatus, as in 'November', but there is some variability. The word 'June' may be pronounced , with hiatus, or , with a diphthong.


title: Tahitian language

text: The glottal stop or is a genuine consonant. This is typical of Polynesian languages (compare to the Hawaiian okina and others). See Typography below.


title: Tahitian language

text: Tahitian makes a phonemic distinction between long and short vowels; long vowels are marked with macron or . For example, , meaning 'to pick, to pluck' and , 'to break out', are distinguished solely by their vowel length. However, macrons are seldom written among older people because Tahitian writing was not taught at school until 1981.


title: Tahitian language

text: Also in rapid speech, sequences are dissimilated to , so 'man, male' is pronounced , 'president' becomes . Intervening syllables prevent this dissimilation, so 'eye' is never pronounced with a .


title: Tahitian language

text: While standard Tahitian only has as a result of dissimilation, the dialects of the Leeward Islands have many cases of corresponding to standard Tahitian . For example, inhabitants of Maupiti pronounce their island's name .


title: Tahitian language

text: Finally there is a , a trema put on the i, but only used in when used as a reflexive pronoun. It does not indicate a different pronunciation. Usage of this diacritic was promoted by academics but has now virtually disappeared, mostly because there is no difference in the quality of the vowel when the trema is used and when the macron is used.


title: Tahitian language

text: Tahitian syllables are entirely open, as is usual in Polynesian languages. If a content word is composed of a single syllable with a single vowel, its vowel must be long. Thus, every Tahitian content word is at least two moras long.


title: Tahitian language

text: Stress is predictable in Tahitian. It always falls on one of the final three syllables of a word, and relies on the distinction between heavy and light syllables. Syllables with diphthongs or with long vowels are both considered to be heavy. Other syllables are considered to be light. Heavy syllables always bear secondary stress. In general main stress falls on the penultimate syllable in a word. However, if there is a long vowel or diphthong in the last syllable, that syllable receives main stress. If there is a long vowel in the antepenultimate syllable, and the penultimate syllable is light, the antepenultimate syllable receives main stress.


title: Tahitian language

text: There is another type of words whose stress pattern requires another rule to explain. These include 'first', 'shoe', 'king', all of which are stressed on the antepenultimate syllable. In all these words, the last two vowels are identical, and are separated by a glottal stop. One can posit that in such words, the last syllable is extrametrical, and does not count towards stress assignment.


title: Tahitian language

text: This extrametricality does not apply in the case of words with only two syllables, which remain stressed on the penultimate syllable.


title: Tahitian language

text: In compound words, each morpheme's stressed syllable carries secondary stress, and the stressed syllable of the last morpheme carries primary stress. Thus, for example, 'airplane', from 'bird' and 'leave', is pronounced .


title: Tahitian language

text: Tahitian has reduplication as well. The endings of some verbs can be duplicated in order to add a repetitive sense to the verb. For example, becomes , 'do quickly' becomes , and 'to tear' becomes . In reduplicated verbs, the final verb ending bears main stress while the earlier ones bears secondary stress.


title: Tahitian language

text: When suffixes are added to a word, primary and secondary stresses in the root word are maintained as secondary and tertiary stresses, and a new primary stress is calculated for the word. Tertiary and secondary stress are often merged. The suffix does not always carry main stress. For example, when the nominalizing suffix is applied to verbs, regular stress assignment results in the last syllable of the root verb being stressed. This is due to the destressing of the V in . To give an example, the word 'life', from 'to live' and , is pronounced with antepenultimate stress.


title: Tahitian language

text: Prefixes added to a root word do not carry primary stress. For example, 'vision', related to 'vision', is stressed on the second syllable, and not the first, even though it has a long vowel. This can also be seen with the verb 'to be understood'. When combined with the causative prefix , it becomes , which is stressed on the penultimate syllable.


title: Tahitian language

text: In former practice, the glottal stop used to be seldom written, but today it is commonly spelled out, although often as a straight apostrophe (, see below) instead of the turned curly apostrophe used in Hawaiian. Alphabetical word ordering in dictionaries used to ignore the existence of glottal stops. However, academics and scholars now publish text content with due use of glottal stops.


title: Tahitian language

text: Although the use of and is equal to the usage of such symbols in other Polynesian languages, it is promoted by the "Académie tahitienne" and adopted by the territorial government. There are at least a dozen other ways of applying accents. Some methods are historical and no longer used. At this moment, the Académie tahitienne seems to have not made a final decision yet whether the should appear as a normal letter apostrophe () or a turned letter apostrophe (, called ʻokina in Hawaiian).


title: Tahitian language

text: As the ASCII apostrophe () is the character output when hitting the apostrophe key on a usual French AZERTY keyboard, it has become natural for writers to use the punctuation mark for glottal stops, although to avoid the complications caused by substituting punctuation characters for letters in digital documents, the saltillo () may be used instead.


title: Tahitian language

text: Today, macronized vowels and are also available on mobile devices, either by default or after installing an application to input vowels with macron as well as the .


title: Tahitian language

text: In its morphology, Tahitian relies on the use of "helper words" (such as prepositions, articles, and particles) to encode grammatical relationships, rather than on inflection, as would be typical of European languages. It is a very analytic language, except when it comes to the personal pronouns, which have separate forms for singular, plural and dual numbers.


title: Tahitian language

text: Like many Austronesian languages, Tahitian has separate words for inclusive and exclusive we, and distinguishes singular, dual, and plural.


title: Tahitian language

text: Typologically, Tahitian word order is VSO (verb–subject–object), which is typical of Polynesian languages. Some examples of word order are:


title: Tahitian language

text: The article is the definite article and means 'the'. In conversation it is also used as an indefinite article for 'a' or 'an' – for example:


title: Tahitian language

text: Verbal aspect and modality are important parts of Tahitian grammar, and are indicated with markers preceding and/or following the invariant verb. Important examples are:


title: Tahitian language

text: In many parts of Polynesia the name of an important leader was (and sometimes still is) considered sacred ("tapu") and was therefore accorded appropriate respect ("mana"). In order to avoid offense, all words resembling such a name were suppressed and replaced by another term of related meaning until the personage died. If, however, the leader should happen to live to a very great age this temporary substitution could become permanent.


title: Tahitian language

text: In the rest of Polynesia "tū" means 'to stand', but in Tahitian it became because the word was included in the name of king Tū-nui-ēa-i-te-atua. Likewise "fetū" ('star') has become in Tahiti and "aratū" ('pillar') became . Although ('big') still occurs in some compounds, like , the usual word is (which is a common word in Polynesian languages for 'large'). The term fell into disuse, replaced by or . Currently means 'path' while means 'road'.


title: Tahitian language

text: Tū also had a nickname, Pō-mare (literally means 'night coughing'), under which his dynasty has become best known. By consequence ('night') became (currently only used in the Bible, "" having become the word commonly in use once again), but (literally 'cough') has irreversibly been replaced by .


title: Bathyscaphe

text: A bathyscaphe ( or ) is a free-diving self-propelled deep-sea submersible, consisting of a crew cabin similar to a bathysphere, but suspended below a float rather than from a surface cable, as in the classic bathysphere design.


title: Bathyscaphe

text: The float is filled with gasoline because it is readily available, buoyant, and, for all practical purposes, incompressible. The incompressibility of the gasoline means the tanks can be very lightly constructed, since the pressure inside and outside the tanks equalises, eliminating any differential. By contrast, the crew cabin must withstand a huge pressure differential and is massively built. Buoyancy at the surface can be trimmed easily by replacing gasoline with water, which is denser.


title: Bathyscaphe

text: Auguste Piccard, inventor of the first bathyscaphe, composed the name "bathyscaphe" using the Ancient Greek words "bathys" ("deep") and "skaphos" ("vessel"/"ship").


title: Bathyscaphe

text: To descend, a bathyscaphe floods air tanks with sea water, but unlike a submarine the water in the flooded tanks cannot be displaced with compressed air to ascend, because the water pressures at the depths for which the craft was designed to operate are too great. For example, the pressure at the bottom of the Challenger Deep is more than seven times that in a standard "H-type" compressed gas cylinder. Instead, ballast in the form of iron shot is released to ascend, the shot being lost to the ocean floor. The iron shot containers are in the form of one or more hoppers which are open at the bottom throughout the dive, the iron shot being held in place by an electromagnet at the neck. This is a fail-safe device as it requires no power to ascend; in fact, in the event of a power failure, shot runs out by gravity and ascent is automatic.


title: Bathyscaphe

text: The first bathyscaphe was dubbed "FNRS-2", named after the Fonds National de la Recherche Scientifique, and built in Belgium from 1946 to 1948 by Auguste Piccard. ("FNRS-1" had been the balloon used for Piccard's ascent into the stratosphere in 1938). Propulsion was provided by battery-driven electric motors. The float held of aviation gasoline. There was no access tunnel; the sphere had to be loaded and unloaded while on deck. The first journeys were detailed in the Jacques Cousteau book "The Silent World". As described in the book, "the vessel had serenely endured the pressure of the depths, but had been destroyed in a minor squall". "FNRS-3" was a new submersible, using the crew sphere from the damaged "FNRS-2", and a new larger float.


title: Bathyscaphe

text: Piccard's second bathyscaphe was actually a third vessel "Trieste", which was purchased by the United States Navy from Italy in 1957. It had two water ballast tanks and eleven buoyancy tanks holding of gasoline.


title: Bathyscaphe

text: In 1960 "Trieste", carrying Piccard's son Jacques Piccard and Don Walsh, reached the deepest known point on the Earth's surface, the Challenger Deep, in the Mariana Trench in the Pacific Ocean.


title: Bathyscaphe

text: The onboard systems indicated a depth of 37,800 ft (11,521 m) but this was later corrected to 35,813 ft (10,916 m) by taking into account variations arising from salinity and temperature. Later and more accurate measurements made in 1995 have found the Challenger Deep to be slightly shallower at 35,798 ft (10,911 m).


title: Bathyscaphe

text: The crew of the "Trieste", which was equipped with a powerful light, noted that the seafloor consisted of diatomaceous ooze and reported observing "some type of flatfish, resembling a sole, about 1 foot long and 6 inches across" lying on the seabed. This put to rest the question of whether or not there was life at such a depth in the complete absence of light.


title: Chicago Union Station

text: Chicago Union Station is an intercity and commuter rail terminal located in the Near West Side neighborhood of Chicago, Illinois. The station is Amtrak's flagship station in the Midwest. While serving long-distance passenger trains, it is also the downtown terminus for six Metra commuter lines. The station is just west of the Chicago River between West Adams Street and West Jackson Boulevard, adjacent to the Chicago Loop. Including approach and storage tracks, it covers about nine and a half city blocks (mostly underground, buried beneath streets and skyscrapers).


title: Chicago Union Station

text: The present Chicago Union Station opened in 1925, replacing an earlier station on this site built in 1881. The station is the fourth-busiest rail station in the United States, after Pennsylvania Station, Grand Central Terminal, and Jamaica station in New York City. It is Amtrak's overall fourth-busiest station, and the busiest outside of its Northeast Corridor. It handles about 140,000 passengers on an average weekday (including 10,000 Amtrak passengers) and is one of Chicago's most iconic structures, reflecting the city's strong architectural heritage and historic achievements. It has Bedford limestone Beaux-Arts facades, massive Corinthian columns, marble floors, and a Great Hall, all highlighted by brass lamps.


title: Chicago Union Station

text: Chicago Union Station provides direct connections to multiple transit authorities including the Chicago Transit Authority bus and Chicago L lines, Metra, Pace, Greyhound, and more within the station or within walking distance.


title: Chicago Union Station

text: Chicago Union Station is named a union station, like many train stations across the United States that were shared by several railroad companies. The station is the third union station to occupy the site between West Adams Street and West Jackson Boulevard. The station is known by the acronym CUS, as well as by its Amtrak station code CHI.


title: Chicago Union Station

text: Chicago Union Station is situated in the West Loop Gate neighborhood of the Near West Side of Chicago, just west of Chicago's Loop. The station's underground concourse and train sheds abut the Chicago River; passageways extend west beneath Canal Street to the main station building, one block over.


title: Chicago Union Station

text: Unlike many major American intercity and commuter rail hubs, Union Station does not have any direct connection to local rapid transit service. However, two Chicago "L" stations are within walking distance of Union Station.


title: Chicago Union Station

text: Metra's other three downtown terminals – the Ogilvie Transportation Center, LaSalle Street Station and Millennium Station – are all within walking distance of Union Station. Passengers connecting from Ogilvie can access Union Station's north platforms on the opposite side of Madison Street.


title: Chicago Union Station

text: Union Station Transit Center is located adjacent to Union Station's parking garage. The bus station opened in 2016, on land formerly used for a surface parking lot. It features an elevator and stairway to the Amtrak underground pedestrian tunnel, allowing commuters to pass between Union Station and the bus staging area without crossing at street level.


title: Chicago Union Station

text: Union Station has a counter operated by the Greyhound intercity bus company. Tickets are available for purchase, and some Greyhound and Megabus buses pick up passengers on South Canal Street, on the east side of the station building. The full-service Greyhound station is four blocks southwest of Union Station.


title: Chicago Union Station

text: Union Station was served by lines in all directions even before Penn Central and Amtrak consolidated the downtown terminals. The station served as a terminal for the following railroads:


title: Chicago Union Station

text: Some of these trains and their names have survived to present Amtrak services, such as the "Empire Builder", the "California Zephyr", and the "Hiawatha".


title: Chicago Union Station

text: The name "Ann Rutledge" was used by Amtrak as a Chicago-St. Louis-Kansas City route until a name and service consolidation in 2009. There is also a "Lincoln Service" that operates in Illinois.


title: Chicago Union Station

text: Located west of Canal Street, Union Station's station building occupies an entire city block. At its center is the Great Hall, the main waiting room. Arrayed around the Great Hall are numerous smaller spaces containing restaurants and services, and a wide passageway leading to the concourse. Above the main floor are several floors of office space, currently used by Amtrak. Original plans called for many more floors of offices, forming a skyscraper above the Great Hall. This was never completed, although the plan has been revived in recent years.


title: Chicago Union Station

text: The Burlington Room is an event space at the northwest of the Great Hall. The room features large columns, chandeliers, four French block murals of landscape scenery, and an original mirror. The space, initially a women's lounge, was restored in November 2016, after years of damage and neglect. For event uses, the space has color-changing lights and an audiovisual system.


title: Chicago Union Station

text: The headhouse includes a space formerly used as a Fred Harvey restaurant. After a large fire in 1980, the space was damaged, windows on Clinton Street were destroyed, and the space was left vacant since then. In 2018, Amtrak announced plans to redevelop the space into a multi-level food hall, using funds from the sale of its parking garage. A new entrance and canopy would be installed on Clinton Street, and new windows would replace the bricked-up windows. The food hall is planned to open in the summer of 2020.


title: Chicago Union Station

text: The headhouse also includes a Metropolitan Lounge, one of seven Amtrak offers in its stations. The lounge operates like an airport lounge, accessible to business- and first-class passengers, as well as other high-price ticketed passengers. The lounge reopened in June 2016, moving from the concourse to the headhouse. It has two stories and , double the space of the previous lounge. It features different seating areas intended for businesspeople, families and children, and people using phones or tablets. The space has bathrooms with showers, and an elevator.


title: Chicago Union Station

text: Union Station is laid out with a double stub-end configuration, with 10 tracks coming into the station from the north and 14 from the south. Unlike most of Amtrak's major stations, every train calling at Union Station either originates or terminates there; all passengers traveling through Chicago must change trains to reach their final destination. There are two through tracks to allow out-of-service equipment moves between the north and south side, including one with a platform to allow extra long trains to board. Between the north and south sides of the station is a passenger concourse. Passengers can walk through the concourse to get from any platform to any other without stairs or elevators. Odd-numbered platforms (1–19) are on the north half of the station, and even-numbered platforms (2–30) on the south half. The north tracks are used by Amtrak for the "Hiawatha Service" and the "Empire Builder", and by Metra for the Milwaukee District West, Milwaukee District North, and North Central Service routes. The south tracks are used for all other Amtrak services, as well as by Metra for the BNSF, Heritage Corridor and SouthWest Services. Two station management structures (known as glasshouses), one on each side of the terminal, monitor train-to-track assignments and the flow of traffic in and out of the station. Actual oversight and control of switching and signalling is accomplished by two "train director" positions, one for each side of the station, located in the Amtrak control center in the station's headhouse.


title: Chicago Union Station

text: Numerous entrances provide access to Union Station's underground platform level. The main entrance is on Canal Street opposite the headhouse, but passengers can also reach the platforms directly from the headhouse via an underground passageway. Two secondary entrances are located in Riverside Plaza near the Jackson Boulevard and Adams Street bridges. On Madison Street, across the street, and one block east from Ogilvie Transportation Center, are a set of entrances to the north platforms.


title: Chicago Union Station

text: Union Station was designed by D. H. Burnham & Company (known for its lead architect Daniel Burnham, who died before construction began). The successor firm of Graham, Anderson, Probst and White completed the work. The terminal was among the first to anticipate automobile traffic; it was first designed in 1909, one year after the Model T entered production. It was designed with ticket offices, concourses, platforms, waiting and baggage rooms, and shops, all on a single level, meant to be easy to navigate. At opening, the terminal also housed a hospital, chapel, and jail cell.


title: Chicago Union Station

text: The main building, a square Neoclassical structure, takes up one city block. Its architectural style contrasts with modern glass-faced buildings around it. The station has wide porticos and large colonnades on its exterior. The street-level entrances utilize Indiana limestone.


title: Chicago Union Station

text: The station featured a large concourse along the river, made with marble, glass, and iron. Massive steel arches held up the roof, and several stairways led passengers down to the platforms.


title: Chicago Union Station

text: At the building's center is the Great Hall, a -high atrium capped by a large barrel-vaulted skylight. The room has connecting lobbies, staircases, and balconies. Enormous wooden benches are arranged in the room for travelers to wait for connections, and two specially-designed underground taxicab drives were built to protect travelers from the weather. The room's columns are of textured Roman travertine marble, with leafy golden Corinthian capitals. The ceilings and insets are coffered, with decorative rosettes.


title: Chicago Union Station

text: Two statues by Henry Hering —"Night" and "Day" — look down on passengers, symbolizing the 24-hour operation of the railroads. The statue "Night" holds an owl, while "Day" holds a rooster.


title: Chicago Union Station

text: The Chicago Union Station Power House is a decommissioned coal-fire power plant that provided power to Union Station and its surrounding infrastructure. Located on the Chicago River, north of Roosevelt Road, it was designed in the Art Moderne style by Graham, Anderson, Probst and White in 1931. The power plant was decommissioned in 2011. It was included in Preservation Chicago's 7 Most Endangered list in 2017 and 2020, as Amtrak has plans to demolish the building.


title: Chicago Union Station

text: The same architecture firm that designed Union Station also designed the Old Chicago Main Post Office, a post office atop the station's southern tracks. The post office, opened four years before Union Station, utilized the rail system, funneling mail to and from the trains below. An expansion in 1932 made the structure the world's largest post office.


title: Chicago Union Station

text: The large amount of land above the tracks and platforms has tempted property owners and developers. Possibly inspired by Terminal City, a development built atop New York's Grand Central Terminal's train shed, Chicago moved to develop the air rights above Union Station's tracks. The first building to be built was that of the "Chicago Daily News" in 1929. Designed in the Art Deco style, it was the first structure to add a public promenade along the river, which would be named Riverside Plaza. Soon after, in 1932, the new Chicago Main Post Office opened. Also in the Art Deco style, it is a gigantic structure that occupies two full city blocks. The Great Depression and subsequent World War II halted development, but in the 1960s, work began on Gateway Center, a Modernist complex of five buildings. Only the first four were built, and construction lasted into the 1980s through several economic cycles.


title: Chicago Union Station

text: In 1990 the Morton International Building opened. Now named for Boeing, it is the tallest building yet to be constructed over the tracks. With the construction of River Point beginning in 2013 and 150 North Riverside beginning in 2014, the entire length of the train shed and tracks from Union Station north to Fulton Street and south to Polk Street is enclosed by overhead development.


title: Chicago Union Station

text: Chicago Union Station's train shed, covered by buildings built above the tracks, helped lead locomotives to funnel significant soot and smoke in and around the station. This was unlike Grand Central Terminal, which has only allowed electric trains into its trainshed since opening.


title: Chicago Union Station

text: The current Union Station is the second by that name built in Chicago, and possibly the third rail station to occupy the site. The need for a single, centralized station was an important political topic in 19th and 20th-century Chicago, as various competing railroads had built a series of terminal stations. The numerous stations and associated railyards and tracks surrounded the city's central business district, the Loop, and threatened its expansion. The various stations also made travel difficult for through-travelers, many of whom had to make inconvenient transfers often slowed by street traffic from one station to another through the Loop. Union Station was part of architect Daniel Burnham's city-wide Plan of Chicago in 1909.


title: Chicago Union Station

text: On December 25, 1858, the Pittsburgh, Fort Wayne and Chicago Railroad opened as far as Van Buren Street in Chicago. It built the first station at what would eventually become today's Union Station on the west bank of the Chicago River.


title: Chicago Union Station

text: On April 7, 1874 five railroads agreed to build and share a union station just north of the original Pittsburgh, Fort Wayne, and Chicago Railroad station site at Van Buren Street. These railroads were:


title: Chicago Union Station

text: The Michigan Central, which had previously been using the Illinois Central Railroad's Great Central Station, soon decided to back out of the agreement, and continued to use the Illinois Central Depot. The Chicago and North Western Railway, not part of the original agreement, considered switching to the new station from its Wells Street Station but deferred instead. In 1911 it built the Chicago and North Western Passenger Terminal for its operations.


title: Chicago Union Station

text: The remaining four original companies used the station when it opened in 1881. The headhouse of the Union Depot, a narrow building, fronted onto Canal Street and stretched from Madison Street to Adams Street. Tracks led into the station from the south, and platforms occupied a strip of land between the back of the headhouse and the bank of the Chicago River. South of the station, Adams, Jackson, and Van Buren Streets rose over the tracks and the river on bridges. The station, along with its successor, was effectively two back-to-back stub-end terminals. Virtually all trains arriving would terminate there, and passengers traveling further would need to change trains.


title: Chicago Union Station

text: Growth in passenger traffic, as well as a civic push to consolidate numerous railroad terminals, led to a proposal for an enlarged Union Station on the same site. The second Union Station would be built by the Chicago Union Station Company. This was a new company formed by all the railroads that had used the first station, save for the Chicago and Alton, which became a tenant in the new station. The Pennsylvania Railroad, then the U.S.'s largest railroad company, planned and directed the project.


title: Chicago Union Station

text: The architectural firm was D. H. Burnham & Company (known for its lead architect Daniel Burnham, who died before construction began). The successor firm of Graham, Anderson, Probst and White completed the work. Work began on the massive project in 1913, and required purchasing adjacent properties and moving freight facilities. Construction stalled during World War I, and resumed in 1919. The station finally opened on May 16, 1925, twelve years after construction began; some viaduct work continued into 1927. The construction cost, funded by the railroad companies involved, was projected to be $65 million, but ended up costing $75 million. Construction was delayed several times by World War I, labor shortages and strikes. The construction of the station also involved the demolition and relocation of some previously existing buildings such as the Butler Brothers Warehouse along the Chicago River. It is one of about a dozen monumental Beaux-Arts railroad stations that were among the most complicated architectural programs of the era called the "American Renaissance", combining traditional architecture with engineering technology, circulation patterning and urban planning. Union Station was hailed as an outstanding achievement in railroad facility planning at the time.


title: Chicago Union Station

text: During World War II, Union Station was at its busiest, handling as many as 300 trains and 100,000 passengers daily, many of them soldiers. Illustrator Norman Rockwell captured this era with his cover painting for a December 1944 issue of "The Saturday Evening Post", depicting the station jammed with Christmas travelers. After the war, the growth of highway construction and private ownership of automobiles caused a severe decline in American passenger-rail ridership, including at Union Station.


title: Chicago Union Station

text: In 1969, the station's owner demolished the concourse building, making way for a modern office tower. A new and modernized, though less grand, concourse was constructed beneath the tower. In May 1971, the national railroad Amtrak was formed to take over long-distance passenger train service, while commuter trains remained privately operated. In 1980, the station's Fred Harvey restaurant experienced a large fire. The space was damaged, windows on Clinton Street were destroyed, and the space was left vacant since then.


title: Chicago Union Station

text: In 1984, Amtrak bought out the shares of Chicago Union Station Company held by Burlington Northern (successor to the Burlington Route) and the Milwaukee Road, becoming sole owner of the station.


title: Chicago Union Station

text: In the 1990s, Lucien Lagrange Associates made some patchwork renovations, including to the Great Hall and its skylight, which had been blacked-out since World War II. Restoration of Union Station continued. Numerous spaces within the station had yet to be renovated, and many sat unused, especially within the station building.


title: Chicago Union Station

text: After the September 11, 2001 attacks, Amtrak closed the pair of taxicab drives in the name of security. Passenger traffic has increased and is exceeding the design capacity of the 1991 renovation. On May 1, 2002, the station was designated a Chicago Landmark, protecting its exterior, rooflines, and public interior spaces from alterations. The status protects all exteriors, rooflines, the central lightwell, vehicular drives, the Great Hall, skylight, and select interior features – balconies, porticos, corridors, lobbies, and stairs.