title: East Germany national football team

text: The GDR took part in the draw for the qualification for the European Championship 1992 and was drawn in Group 5 together with the FRG, Belgium, Wales and Luxembourg. On October 3 in 1990 Germany was re-unified and with them their football teams. The scheduled matches of the East German team were cancelled, except two matches. The match against Belgium was converted into a friendly match on September 12, 1990, at Brussels. It was the last match played by East Germany national team and ended with a 2–0 victory for them. The match between East and West Germany remained and was scheduled to be played on November 14, 1990, to celebrate the unification of Germany. Due to riots by East German spectators it was cancelled.


title: East Germany national football team

text: Millions of East Germans had moved to the West before the Berlin Wall was erected in 1961, and some escaped in a successful "Republikflucht" attempts also afterwards. All East Germans were automatically entitled to receive a West German passport, but players who had caps for the DFV, like Norbert Nachtweih and Jürgen Pahl who fled in October 1976 at a U21-match in Turkey, were ineligible for international competition for the DFB due to FIFA rules. Lutz Eigendorf had escaped to the West in 1979 and died in 1983 in a mysterious car crash in which East German Stasi agents were involved.


title: East Germany national football team

text: Shortly after reunification, players who had played for the East German team were allowed by FIFA to be eligible for the now un-rivalled German team of the DFB. A total of eight players have been capped for both East Germany and unified Germany, among them Matthias Sammer and Ulf Kirsten.


title: East Germany national football team

text: East Germany did however achieve significantly greater success in Olympic football than the amateur teams fielded by the Western NOC of Germany due to using its elite players from the top domestic league. In 1956, 1960, and 1964 both states had sent a United Team of Germany. For 1964, the East German side had beaten their Western counterparts in order to be selected. They went on to win Bronze for Germany. As GDR, they won Bronze in 1972 in Munich, Gold in 1976, and silver medal in 1980 in Moscow.


title: East Germany national football team

text: Over the years of their separate existence, the GDR and FRG played each other only a handful of times. The only notable meeting with professionals from the West was at the 1974 World Cup, which East Germany won 1–0. Three other games were played in Olympic Football where only players with amateur status could represent West Germany, like the young Uli Hoeneß who delayed his pro career in 1972. In the inter-German qualification prior to the 1964 Olympic Games, the two played a two-legged preliminary round tie, the GDR advancing to represent Germany as they won their home leg 3–0, while the FRG won the return 2–1. In the 1972 Olympic Games, the GDR and FRG, having qualified from their First Round groups, met in the Second Round, with the GDR winning 3–2.


title: East Germany national football team

text: The draw for 1992 UEFA European Football Championship qualifying took place on 2 February 1990, with East Germany drawn in Group 5 along with Belgium, Wales, Luxembourg – and West Germany. By 23 August that year, the East German parliament confirmed reunification for 3 October. The planning for the opening fixture away to Belgium on 12 September was too far along to be cancelled, and so it was played as a friendly. It was also planned to play East Germany's home fixture against West Germany, scheduled for 21 November 1990 in Leipzig, as a friendly to celebrate the unification of the DFB and DFV, but the game was cancelled due to rioting in East German stadia.


title: East Germany national football team

text: The rules of FIFA prevented players who had caps for the DFV team from playing for the DFB team before the unification of DFB and DFV in 1990.


title: Jai Simha

text: Jai Simha () is a 2018 Indian Telugu-language action film produced by C. Kalyan on C. K. Entertainments banner and directed by K. S. Ravikumar. It stars Nandamuri Balakrishna, Nayanthara, Natasha Doshi, Hariprriya, and music was composed by Chirantan Bhatt. The film was a box office Hit.


title: Jai Simha

text: The film starts with Narasimha roving various places for peace Karnataka, Kerala, and lands at Tamilnadu with his newborn baby boy. In Kumbakonam, he visits the temple on Rathasapthami where the child unintentionally touches the priest. They feel an inauspicious, argument goes on which is solved by a benevolent Murali Krishna the temple secretary. He offers Narasimha a job and shelters him. Whereat, several servants reside, and Narasimha is cordial with them. Ahead, Dhanya the spoiled-brat daughter of Murali Krishna is a drug addict. Besides, Kaniyappan the local kingpin conducts underground dealing and endears his younger Panday. ASP Ravi Shankar is a newly appointed corrupt & overbearing who waives the cases of Kaniyappan taking kickbacks. Once, Narasimha resists his abuse of power publicly when he is begrudged. In the interim, Dhanya makes an accident as a drunken in which Pandey is severely injured. Being cognizant of it, Kaniyappan inflames with vengeance and assaults Murali Krishna’s house. So, Narasimha indicts himself, gets battered when Dhanya reforms and falls for him.


title: Jai Simha

text: After a while, Central Minister Veera Raghava Reddy visits as a guest of honor from Andhra Pradesh. At that juncture, he humiliates the main priest in the temple and uppity ASP slaps him leading to Brahmins' agitation. Anyhow, Murali Krishna moves for negotiation when Narasimha forcibly makes ASP seek an apology. All of it is telecasted in media which is attended by a malicious Thota Rami Reddy at Vizag and incensed. Currently, ASP burns out of anger, ergo, he slays Pandey and creates a feud between Kaniyappan & Narasimha. Despite that, Kaniyappan gazes at the actuality and abducts ASP’s son. Amid, ASP seizes Narasimha, en route, he sights goons carrying his own. Due to this, he absconds and secures him by thrashing Kaniyappan. Then, Narasimha is stunned to see ASP remorsefully bowing his down for protecting his kid. Later he realizes this by viewing ASP’s wife Gauri. Instead of thanksgiving, she shows her hatred toward Narasimha. Here, as a flabbergast, Dhanya arrives from the backside carrying Narasimha’s child and startlingly the two are identical. Immediately, Narasimha warns Kaniyappan to stay away from ASP’s family. Dhanya onlookers all and questions Narasimha when he spins rearward.


title: Jai Simha

text: Narasimha & Gauri are childhood besties that flourish into love along with them. Gauri the daughter of a school headmaster, returns after completing her studies. Thus far, Narasimha turns into a mechanic, owns his shed, and opposes the vices & atrocities in society. He concerns every employee with equity. Especially, Manga a naughty girl who is owed to him. One day, Narasimha spots Rami Reddy's son Ravi Shankar Reddy protesting for the MP seat at crossroads which leads to the catastrophe. Accordingly, he bars him to attend his nomination as a penalty. As a result, his nuptial is called off and he commits suicide for loss of prestige. Frenzied, Rami Reddy onslaughts on the eve of Manga’s wedlock leaving several deaths including the bridegroom. Henceforth, Narasimha strikes Rami Reddy and sits in front of the judiciary which declares a death sentence.


title: Jai Simha

text: Meanwhile, Narasimha walks to Master with the proposal which he denies because of his jeopardy lifestyle. Out of respect for him, Narasimha decides to give up still Gauri quits the house for his love. Therefore, to impede her Narasimha espouses Manga. Spotting it, Gauri loathes him, turns aside from his life, and splices ASP. Narasimha & Manga lead a delightful life and she conceives. Suddenly, they become victims of an accident done by Rami Reddy in which Manga dies giving birth to twins. In parallel, Narasimha discerns Gauri has lost her baby so he bestows one of two on her. Master watches it and feels grateful for his sacrifice. Presently, Rami Reddy escapes from the prison, mingles with Kaniyappan, and catches hold of ASP’s family. However, Narasimha safeguards them by ceasing the baddies. But the ASP couple is wounded and tragically their kid dies in it. At last, Narasimha gives away the other to Gauri when Master salutes for his eminence whom he words to shield the couple for life long. Finally, the movie ends with Narasimha proceeding with the corpse of his deceased son.


title: Jai Simha

text: The film received mixed to positive reviews. "123 telugu.com" gave it 3 / 5 stars saying " Balakrishna is the biggest asset of the film. It is purely a film made to elevate Balakrishna and his character Narasimha ". The Hindu gave a more favourable review and said that the film "gives a good contemporary action spin to an emotional story".


title: Jai Simha

text: Music was composed by Chirantan Bhatt. Music released by Aditya Music Company. The audio function was held on 24 December 2017 at Vijayawada by Nara Lokesh, Cabinet Minister of A.P.


title: Amara La Negra

text: Diana Danelys De Los Santos (born October 4, 1990), known professionally as Amara La Negra, is an American singer, actress, dancer, author, and television host. De los Santos is an Afro-Latina of Dominican descent, and is most known for her role on the VH1 reality TV show "". La Negra was dubbed by "Billboard" as the show's "breakout star", landing a multi-album record deal with BMG hours after the show's premiere.


title: Amara La Negra

text: De Los Santos grew up in Miami, Florida as the only child of a single mother, Ana Maria Oleaga, who immigrated to the United States from the Dominican Republic. She is Afro-Latina.


title: Amara La Negra

text: De los Santos started her musical career at the age of 4 on the Spanish language television program Sabado Gigante as a regular cast member. According to an interview with DJ Vlad, De los Santos was the only black girl on the cast that the show has ever had in over 50 years. After her 6-year run on Sabado Gigante, De los Santos became a backup dancer for major Latin artists such as Celia Cruz and Tito Puente.


title: Amara La Negra

text: During her teenage years, De los Santos joined an all girl group named Amara. The group struggled to stay together and eventually split up. However, De los Santos wanted to keep the name Amara and added the "La Negra", meaning "black girl" in Spanish, after the question was repeatedly asked "Who's the black girl of the group?"


title: Amara La Negra

text: In 2013, she released the single "Ayy" which became a hit in the Latin market. However, she has experienced difficulties being accepted in the industry of her home country due to her dark skin and afro, and was even parodied in blackface on the Dominican variety show "Aquí Se Habla Español" by former beauty queen Geisha Montes de Oca.


title: Amara La Negra

text: By 2015 De los Santos was broke and spent three months homeless, she noted that she was washing her "ass in a freaking 24-hour McDonalds and Walgreens because I was embarrassed. I was already famous. I didn't want people to judge me or look at me in a different light because I had no money at that moment."


title: Amara La Negra

text: In 2018, De Los Santos became one of the main cast members on VH1's . Her story line explores with colorism and eurocentrism within the Latin community, which has garnered significant media attention. The series chronicles her attempts to crossover to the mainstream American market. In the first season, she comes into conflict with light skinned Latino producer Young Hollywood after he criticizes her afro during a business meeting. In the same year, De los Santos, landed a multi-album deal with BMG and then went on to release two singles, "Insecure" and "What A Bam Bam", which was the song that went on to hit the number 8 spot on Billboard's Latin Pop Digital Song Sales chart in March 2018.


title: Amara La Negra

text: With the release of her debut studio album 'Unstoppable' in 2019, De los Santos performed at numerous venues across the United States and Latin America including 2019 Hispanic Heritage Awards, 2019 Premios Juventud, Premio Lo Nuestro 2019, and co-hosted on the 2019 BET Live Experience with Safaree Samuels. In the same year, De Los Santos appeared as lead role in the BET movie Fall Girls directed by Chris Stokes in addition to acting in the Spanish language movie Bendecidas.


title: Amara La Negra

text: In 2020 De los Santos started a weekly Instagram show, where, together with her mother, she co-hosts a show called "“Grind Pretty, My Mom is the Bomb”" that highlights female entrepreneurs. In describing the show, she noted that she defines ""Grind Pretty" as a great platform where women entrepreneurs, who have both small and big businesses, can come together and exchange ideas and help motivate each other and encourage collaboration.” Also in 2020, De los Santos teamed with tennis superstar Serena Williams in an online campaign to promote women.


title: Amara La Negra

text: In October 2020, De los Santos became the backstage correspondent on the Spanish-language competition show Tu cara me suena, airing on Univision.


title: Amara La Negra

text: In April 2019, De los Santos announced via Instagram that she is in a relationship with Bachata singer EmJay, who is the brother of co-star, Shay Johnson. She broke up with him in March 2020. In 2021 she announced she is pregnant with twin girls.


title: Zanzibar leopard

text: The Zanzibar leopard is an African leopard ("Panthera pardus pardus") population on Unguja Island in the Zanzibar archipelago, Tanzania, that is considered extirpated due to persecution by local hunters and loss of habitat. It was the island's largest terrestrial carnivore and apex predator. Increasing conflict between people and leopards in the 20th century led to the demonization of the Zanzibar leopard and determined attempts to exterminate it. Efforts to develop a leopard conservation program in the mid-1990s were shelved when wildlife researchers concluded that there was little prospect for the population's long-term survival.


title: Zanzibar leopard

text: In 2018, a leopard was recorded by a camera trap, thus renewing hopes for the population's survival, although some experts remain skeptical.


title: Zanzibar leopard

text: The Zanzibar leopard was described as a leopard subspecies by Reginald Innes Pocock, who proposed the scientific name "Panthera pardus adersi" in 1932. Following molecular genetic analysis of leopard samples, it was subsumed to the African leopard ("P. p. pardus") in 1996. However, some authors continue to use "P. p. adersi".


title: Zanzibar leopard

text: The Zanzibar leopard population is thought to have evolved in isolation from mainland African leopards since at least the end of the Last Ice Age, when the island was separated from mainland Tanzania by rising sea levels. The founder effect and adaptation to local conditions produced a smaller leopard than its continental relatives, and one whose rosettes have partially disintegrated into spots. However, despite these visible differences from the mainland populations, the genetic differentiation of this population is much less than is seen for the populations presently treated as genuine subspecies, all of which occur outside of Africa; as such, all of the African populations of leopards are considered to belong to a single subspecies, including the population on Zanzibar.


title: Zanzibar leopard

text: Only six skins were deposited at museums, including the type specimen of "P. p. adersi" in the Natural History Museum, London, and a much-faded mounted specimen in the Zanzibar Museum.


title: Zanzibar leopard

text: However, Zanzibar government statistics indicate that leopards were still being killed by hunters in the mid-1990s, and islanders continue to report sightings and livestock predation.


title: Zanzibar leopard

text: Descriptions of the leopard and its habits by rural Zanzibaris are characterized by the widespread belief that witches keep leopards and send them to harm or harass villagers. This belief includes elaborate ideas about how witches breed and train leopards to do their evil bidding. With these ideas, local farmers explain predation by leopards, and more generally also their appearance "out of place" in the vicinity of farms and villages.


title: Zanzibar leopard

text: The growth of human population and agriculture in the 20th century was largely responsible for this state of affairs, as people encroached on leopard habitat and prey base. Increasing conflict between humans and leopards led to a series of campaigns to exterminate the latter. These campaigns were localized at first, but became island-wide after the Zanzibar Revolution of 1964, when a combined anti-witchcraft and leopard-killing campaign was launched under the leadership of a witchfinder. The long-term result of this campaign and the subsequent classification of the leopard as "vermin" brought the leopard population to the brink of extinction. However, alleged leopard sightings are still being reported, and islanders believe that the Zanzibar leopard is still alive.


title: Zanzibar leopard

text: By the mid-1990s, the Zanzibar leopard population was considered extinct. In 1997 and 2001, rumors circulated about the discovery of leopard scat, but both samples were lost before they could be analyzed.


title: Zanzibar leopard

text: A leopard conservation program was drafted by the CARE-funded Jozani-Chwaka Bay Conservation Project, but abandoned in 1997 when wildlife researchers failed to find evidence for the leopard. Local wildlife officials, however, remained more optimistic about the leopard's survival, and some Zanzibaris have proposed approaching alleged leopard keepers in order to ask them to display their leopards to paying visitors. Villagers sometimes offer to take tourists or researchers to see "domesticated" leopards in return for cash, but so far none of these "kept leopard chases" has been known to end in a successful sighting.


title: Zanzibar leopard

text: These conflicting perceptions of the Zanzibar leopard's status and the possibility of its conservation have yet to be reconciled, presenting a dilemma that has been highlighted by researchers.


title: Zanzibar leopard

text: In 2018, a leopard was recorded on Unguja Island by a camera trap set during filming of the Animal Planet series "Extinct or Alive". Some authorities do not consider this video to be reliable evidence due to the exact locality of the video being unknown, and few reliable sources have picked up on it. However, its author (Forrest Galante) has defended its authenticity. Although the footage definitely shows a leopard, the exact pattern of rosettes remains unclear, and it could be a feral African leopard introduced to Zanzibar. DNA evidence may be the only way to verify this video.


title: Tasman Sea

text: The Tasman Sea (Māori: "Te Tai-o-Rēhua", ) is a marginal sea of the South Pacific Ocean, situated between Australia and New Zealand. It measures about across and about from north to south. The sea was named after the Dutch explorer Abel Janszoon Tasman, who in 1642 was the first known person to cross it. British explorer Lieutenant James Cook later extensively navigated the Tasman Sea in the 1770s during his three voyages of exploration.


title: Tasman Sea

text: The Tasman Sea is informally referred to in both Australian and New Zealand English as the Ditch; for example, "crossing the Ditch" means travelling to Australia from New Zealand, or vice versa. The diminutive term "the Ditch" used for the Tasman Sea is comparable to referring to the North Atlantic Ocean as "the Pond".


title: Tasman Sea

text: The south of the sea is passed over by depressions going from west to east. The northern limit of these westerly winds is near to 40°S. During the southern winter, from April to October, the northern branch of these winds from the west changes its direction toward the north and goes up against trade winds. Hence, the sea receives frequent winds from the southwest during this period. In the Australian summer (from November to March), the southern branch of the trade winds goes up against west winds and produces further wind activity in the area.


title: Tasman Sea

text: The base of the sea is made up of globigerina ooze. A small zone of pteropod ooze is found to the south of New Caledonia and to the southern extent of 30°S, siliceous ooze can be found.


title: Tasman Sea

text: The Tasman Sea's midocean ridge developed between 85 and 55 million years ago as Australia and Zealandia broke apart during the breakup of supercontinent Gondwana. It lies roughly midway between the continental margins of Australia and Zealandia. Much of Zealandia is submerged, so the ridge runs much closer to the Australian coast than New Zealand's.


title: Tasman Sea

text: The Tasman Sea features a number of midsea island groups, quite apart from coastal islands located near the Australian and New Zealand mainlands:


title: Tasman Sea

text: A deep-sea research ship, the RV "Tangaroa", explored the sea and found 500 species of fish and 1300 species of invertebrates. The tooth of a megalodon, an extinct shark, was also found by researchers.


title: Tasman Sea

text: In 1876, the first telegraph cable connecting Australia and New Zealand was lain in the Tasman Sea. Moncrieff and Hood were the first to attempt a trans-Tasman crossing by plane in 1928. The first successful flight over the sea was accomplished by Charles Kingsford Smith and Charles Ulm later that year. The first person to row solo across the sea was Colin Quincey in 1977. The next successful solo crossing was completed by his son, Shaun Quincey, in 2010.


title: John M. Allegro

text: John Marco Allegro (17 February 1923 – 17 February 1988) was an English archaeologist and Dead Sea Scrolls scholar. He was a populariser of the Dead Sea Scrolls through his books and radio broadcasts. He was the editor of some of the most famous and controversial scrolls published, the "pesharim". A number of Allegro's later books, including "The Sacred Mushroom and the Cross", brought him both popular fame and notoriety, and also complicated his career.


title: John M. Allegro

text: Allegro was born in 1923, son of John Allegro and Mabel ("nee" Perry). Allegro went through Wallington County Grammar School in 1939. He joined the Royal Navy, serving during World War Two. After the war he began training for the Methodist ministry, but found that he was more interested in Hebrew and Greek, so he went to study at Manchester University with fees paid by government grant due to his military service. Allegro received his Honours degree in Oriental Studies at the University of Manchester in 1951. This was followed in 1952 by a master's degree under supervision of H. H. Rowley. While engaged in further research in Hebrew dialects at Oxford under Godfrey Driver in 1953, Allegro was invited by Gerald Lankester Harding to join the team of scholars working on the Dead Sea Scrolls in Jerusalem, where he spent one year working on the scrolls. He became a lecturer in Comparative Semitic Philology in Manchester in 1954.


title: John M. Allegro

text: It was on Allegro's recommendation in 1955 that the Copper Scroll was sent by the Jordanian government to Manchester University in order for it to be cut into sections, allowing the text to be read. He was present during the cutting process in 1956 and later made a preliminary transcription of the text, which he soon translated, sending copies of his work back to Gerald Lankester Harding in Jordan. Although Allegro had been first to translate the Copper Scroll, the text was assigned for editing to J.T. Milik by Roland de Vaux, the editor in chief of the scrolls. While he was in England he made a series of radio broadcasts on BBC Radio aimed at popularising the scrolls, in which he announced that the leader discussed in the scrolls may have been crucified. He posited that the Teacher of Righteousness had been martyred and crucified by Alexander Jannaeus, and that his followers believed he would reappear at the End time as Messiah, based on Qumran document Commentary on Nahum 1.4–9 (a position that he re-iterated in 1986). His colleagues in Jerusalem immediately responded with a letter to the Times on 16 March 1956 refuting his claim. The letter concluded,


title: John M. Allegro

text: One result of this letter seemed to be that his appointment at Manchester was not to be renewed. However, in July after several uneasy months the appointment was renewed.


title: John M. Allegro

text: Allegro was asked a number of times by the Jordanian Director of Antiquities if he would publish the text of the Copper Scroll. After a few years of waiting for Milik's publication of the scroll, Allegro succumbed and set about publishing the text. His book, "The Treasure of the Copper Scroll", was released in 1960, while the official publication had to wait another two years. Although several of his readings in the text are acknowledged, Allegro's book was disparaged by his colleagues. He believed that the treasure in the scroll was real—a view now held by most scholars—and led an expedition to attempt to find items mentioned in the scroll, though without success.


title: John M. Allegro

text: During this period Allegro also published two popular books on the Dead Sea scrolls, "The Dead Sea Scrolls" (1956) and "The People of the Dead Sea Scrolls" (1958). He was keen to photograph the site of Qumran and various texts, providing an important source of information for posterity.


title: John M. Allegro

text: Allegro was entrusted with the publication of 4Q158–4Q186, a collection of fragments which mainly contained exemplars of a unique kind of commentary on biblical works known as "pesharim". He believed that it was necessary to get these works out as quickly as possible and published several preliminary editions in learned journals during the late 1950s. He told de Vaux that he could have his share of the texts ready in 1960, but due to hold ups had to wait until 1968 for his volume, "Discoveries in the Judaean Desert of Jordan V: 4Q158–4Q186", to be published. He reworked his material in 1966 with the assistance of a Manchester colleague, Arnold Anderson, before publication. He stated in the volume that


title: John M. Allegro

text: John Strugnell published a severe critique of the volume, "Notes en Marge du volume V des 'Discoveries in the Judean Desert of Jordan'" in "Revue de Qumran". Allegro's minimalist approach has received widespread scorn in the scholarly world, which nevertheless had the opportunity to analyse the Allegro texts for decades while waiting for other editors to publish their allotments. The first part of Strugnell's allotment was published in 1994.


title: John M. Allegro

text: As early as 1956 Allegro held controversial views regarding the content of the scrolls, stating in a letter to de Vaux, "It's a pity that you and your friends cannot conceive of anything written about Christianity without trying to grind some ecclesiastical or non-ecclesiastical axe." The bulk of his work on the Dead Sea Scrolls was done by 1960 and he was at odds with his scrolls colleagues. When a conflict broke out with H.H. Rowley concerning Allegro's interpretation of the scrolls, Allegro, on the invitation of F. F. Bruce, moved from the Department of Near East Studies in the Faculty of Arts at Manchester to the Faculty of Theology. It was during his stay in Theology that he wrote his controversial book, "The Sacred Mushroom and the Cross", whose subtitle was "A Study of the Nature and Origins of Christianity within the Fertility Cults of the Ancient Near East". Apparently realising the impact this book would have, Allegro resigned his post at Manchester.


title: John M. Allegro

text: Allegro's book "The Sacred Mushroom and the Cross" (1970) argued that Christianity began as a shamanistic cult. In his books "The Sacred Mushroom and the Cross" and "The Dead Sea Scrolls and the Christian Myth" (1979), Allegro put forward the theory that stories of early Christianity originated in an Essene clandestine cult centred around the use of psychedelic mushrooms, and that the "New Testament" is the coded record of this shamanistic cult. Allegro further argued that the authors of the Christian gospels did not understand the Essene thought. When writing down the Gospels based on the stories they had heard, the evangelists confused the meaning of the scrolls. In this way, according to Allegro, the Christian tradition is based on a misunderstanding of the scrolls. He also argued that the story of Jesus was based on the crucifixion of the Teacher of Righteousness in the scrolls. Mark Hall writes that Allegro suggested the Dead Sea Scrolls all but proved that a historical Jesus never existed.


title: John M. Allegro

text: Allegro argued that Jesus in the "Gospels" was in fact a code for a type of hallucinogen, the "Amanita muscaria", and that Christianity was the product of an ancient "sex-and-mushroom" cult. Critical reaction was swift and harsh: fourteen British scholars (including Allegro's mentor at Oxford, Godfrey Driver) denounced it. Sidnie White Crawford wrote of the publication of "Sacred Mushroom", "Rightly or wrongly, Allegro would never be taken seriously as a scholar again."


title: John M. Allegro

text: Allegro's theory of a shamanistic cult as the origin of Christianity was criticised sharply by Welsh historian Philip Jenkins who wrote that Allegro was an eccentric scholar who relied on texts that did not exist in quite the form he was citing them. Jenkins called the "Sacred Mushroom and the Cross" "possibly the single most ludicrous book on Jesus scholarship by a qualified academic". Based on the reactions to the book, Allegro's publisher later apologized for issuing the book and Allegro was forced to resign his academic post. A 2006 article by Michael Hoffman discussing Allegro's work called for his theories to be re-evaluated by the mainstream. In November 2009 "The Sacred Mushroom and the Cross" was reprinted in a 40th anniversary edition with a 30-page addendum by Carl Ruck of Boston University.


title: John M. Allegro

text: Allegro married Joan Lawrence in 1948, by whom he had a son and a daughter. In 1982, he was living in Ballasalla on the Isle of Man before returning to live in England. In 1988, he died of a heart attack on his 65th birthday at his home in Sandbach, Cheshire.


title: Matt Cardle

text: Matthew Sheridan Cardle (born 15 April 1983) is an English pop singer. He was born in Southampton and grew up in Halstead, Essex. Cardle has been involved in music since his early teens and has been a member of two different bands; Darwyn and Seven Summers. Cardle rose to fame after winning the seventh series of "The X Factor", and received a £1 million recording contract with Syco Music and later signed a deal with Columbia Records.


title: Matt Cardle

text: Following Cardle's victory on "The X Factor", the winner's single and his debut single, "When We Collide", was released. The track was made available to purchase on 12 December 2010, shortly after the show had ended. On 19 December 2010, the track debuted at number one on the UK Singles Chart, as well as on the Irish Singles Chart. The track also became the second biggest-selling single of 2010 with 815,000 copies sold within two weeks. In June 2012, it had sold 1 million copies, the fourth single by an "X Factor" contestant to have done so.


title: Matt Cardle

text: "Run for Your Life" was the follow-up single released by Cardle which charted at number 6 on the UK Singles Chart. Cardle went on to release his debut album, "Letters", in 2011, which debuted at number two on the UK Albums Chart and the Irish Albums Chart. The album saw two more singles released, "Starlight" and "Amazing". Cardle then parted ways with record labels Syco Music and Columbia Records, and signed a recording contract with So What Recordings in early 2012. He released his second studio album, "The Fire", which charted at number eight on the UK Albums Chart. In October 2013, Cardle released his third album, "Porcelain", in association with Absolute Marketing as an independent release. It reached number 11 on the UK Albums Chart. The lead single was a duet with Melanie C, called "Loving You", which was released on 18 August and reached number 14 on the UK Singles Chart.


title: Matt Cardle

text: Cardle is a guitarist, and plays frequently on tour and other performances. He also plays other instruments including drums and piano. He has toured the United Kingdom and Ireland on his Letters Tour in 2012, Unplugged Tour in 2013, Porcelain Tour in 2014 and Intimate and Live Tour in 2016. Cardle has combined album and single sales of over 2 million.


title: Matt Cardle

text: Cardle was born in Southampton, Hampshire, to David and Jennifer Cardle (née Horner) on 15 April 1983. He has an older brother called Dominic with whom he has a close relationship. His family lived in Bristol before moving to Essex. He started playing guitar and writing songs at aged 11 and knew from that point that music was what he wanted to do with his life. At this time he also started singing lessons but stopped going after missing a class. He attended a summer band camp through his teens and played in bands. He attended the independent Stoke College in Suffolk, then studied a music course at the Institute in Colchester. He then went on to do a media course at Braintree College. Cardle is a keen skateboarder and spent a lot of his college years at skate parks instead of studying and therefore felt that education wasn't the right path for him. When he was a young adult, he interviewed for a music course at Bournemouth University but he didn't make it. He said he was "probably rubbish at the time."


title: Matt Cardle

text: In 2005, Cardle joined alternative rock/pop band Darwyn and the band recorded an 11-track album, "When You Wake", the band also released a follow-up EP, "Little Sunlight" in 2006. The band described themselves as an acoustic rock band. The band's first album contained tracks "Violet" and title track "When You Wake". They were awarded an Arts Council England grant which they used to record the EP "Little Sunlight". The band played at many festivals including Stortford Music Festival and Brownstock Festival and regularly played at the venue and recording studio Highbarn in Essex. Cardle and Darwyn band member Ali McMillan also played as a two-piece under the name Darwyn, playing acoustic cover versions of popular songs in venues in and around the Suffolk area and videos of them playing together have gained many views on YouTube.


title: Matt Cardle

text: In 2009, Cardle became the lead singer and guitarist of rock band called Seven Summers. The band performed live on Sue Marchant's BBC radio program, in December 2009. They released their self-titled album in January 2010. The album featured alternative rock, pop, urban and folk influences. The album included the songs "Youngblood", "Way to Be" and "Dirt" and the follow-up single "Picture of You". Although the band did not have a recording contract and they distributed their music independently, they reached No.30 on the Official UK Album Downloads Chart and No.11 on the Official UK Independent Album Charts for week ending 25 December 2010, and No.1 on the Official UK Independent Album Breakers Charts for week ending 25 December 2010. Following Cardle's success on "The X Factor", the band saw an upsurge in popularity, with their music videos gaining large numbers of views on YouTube.


title: Matt Cardle

text: In 2010, Cardle auditioned for the seventh series of "The X Factor" in front of Simon Cowell, Cheryl Cole and Louis Walsh, singing Amy Winehouse's "You Know I'm No Good". At the Bootcamp stage of the show he sang "The First Time Ever I Saw Your Face", a performance which prompted Simon Cowell to say "Why haven't we noticed him before?" and Louis Walsh to say "He's the biggest surprise of today for me!" He was moved to the boys category when the age limit was raised to 28, making Dannii Minogue his mentor. Cardle was favourite to win from before the live shows until the end of the series, with some of the shortest odds the show had ever seen.


title: Matt Cardle

text: On the first live show he sang "When Love Takes Over" which received high praise from all four judges. In week 5 he performed "The First Time Ever I Saw Your Face" again, which earned him the first standing ovation from all four judges of the series. It remains his most viewed performance on YouTube with over 29 million views to date. In the semi-final he had to withdraw from a secret X Factor gig in London due to throat problems which saw him almost have to miss the show that weekend. In the final he performed a duet with Rihanna.


title: Matt Cardle

text: Cardle was announced the winner on 12 December 2010, after receiving 44.61% of the vote. He received the most votes every week from week 2, being beaten only by Mary Byrne in week 1. The week after the series final, Cardle's cover version of "Many of Horror" originally recorded by Scottish rock trio Biffy Clyro and retitled as "When We Collide", topped the UK Singles Chart to become the 2010 Christmas number 1 and remained there for three consecutive weeks. The song was nominated in the Best British Single category at the 2011 BRIT Awards. In June 2012 the song reached the one million sale mark, making it the 123rd single to sell a million copies in the UK and the fourth by an X Factor contestant. In Ireland it is the fourth best selling single of all time, and the best selling single of the century so far, as of 31 December 2015.


title: Matt Cardle

text: Cardle remains good friends with fellow contestant Aiden Grimshaw and mentor Dannii Minogue. On 15 March 2011, it was reported that Cardle signed a record deal with Syco Music in a joint venture with Columbia Records, becoming the first "The X Factor" winner not to be exclusively signed to Simon Cowell's label.


title: Matt Cardle

text: On 18 August 2011, Cardle revealed that his debut album, "Letters", would be released in the UK on 17 October 2011. Cardle said he was nervous about releasing his album as previous male "X Factor" winners have not been very successful, and female winners Leona Lewis and Alexandra Burke enjoyed massive success. Whilst working on the album Cardle collaborated with various writers including Eg White and James Walsh. The album's first single, "Run for Your Life," written by Gary Barlow, was premiered on The Chris Moyles Show on 5 September 2011. Cardle appeared on the BBC Breakfast show on 1 September to give a preview of the video. The video was then premiered in full on 5 September on his YouTube channel. The single was released on 9 October 2011, Cardle performed the song on The X Factor on the same day. He also performed another track from the album, "All For Nothing", on ITV2 show "The Xtra Factor". "Run for Your Life" peaked at number 6 on the UK Top 40 Chart. Prior to the album release Cardle went on a five date tour ending on 3 October at Koko in London. "Letters" was released on 17 October and debuted at number 2 on the UK Albums chart and spent 16 consecutive weeks in the top 40.


title: Matt Cardle

text: A second single, "Starlight", was released on 4 December 2011. It had been originally intended as the first single before "Run for Your Life" was sent to him and was generally better received by fans and journalists. Despite this, it only charted at number 185 but sparked a boost in album sales which saw "Letters" return to the top 25 on the album charts shortly after "Starlight"s release. The third and final single to be released from "Letters" was Amazing which was released as an EP, containing a new track called "All Is Said", which Cardle wrote with James Walsh, a new recording of "First Time Ever I Saw Your Face" and a live version of the album track "Slowly" recorded at the album launch. In February 2012 he embarked on a sell out tour, the Letters Tour. The tour ended on 29 March 2012 at Hammersmith Apollo. In September 2012 he said this was his favourite gig so far in his career.


title: Matt Cardle

text: On 20 May 2012, Cardle announced on Twitter that he had parted ways with Columbia Records. In October 2012, Cardle explained he left Sony through his own choice because he wasn't a priority. "I would just have been left to get on with it while One Direction ruled the planet. Which is brilliant for them – I'm so proud of them – but I needed to be a bit selfish. I asked Sony to let me go and they said okay." Later, in October 2013 he stated another reason for leaving was because of the lack of control he had with decisions such as "Run for Your Life" being released as his first single instead of "Starlight" which he'd written and preferred.


title: Matt Cardle

text: On 9 September 2012, So What Recordings, part of the Silva Screen Music Group, announced that Cardle's second album, "The Fire" would be released on 29 October 2012 on their label. On 11 September 2012, the lead single, "It's Only Love" was released online on Cardle's YouTube channel as an audio only video. The video for the song was premiered on 3 October. Even though the song was promoted as being the lead single, it was not released as a standalone product and was only made available to buy at the same time as the album, and therefore it did not enter the singles chart. "The Fire" debuted at number 8 in the UK album chart, giving Cardle his second top 10 album. He said the album is more like what he did before The X Factor than "Letters", and feels more honest. "I'm getting closer to myself, and getting back to what I do and what I've always done." A second single, "Anyone Else" was released on 31 December 2012. On 10 December 2012 an Unplugged Tour was announced on Cardle's website. Tickets went on general sale on 12 December with some dates selling out on the first day. The tour ran through April and May 2013 over the UK and Ireland.


title: Matt Cardle

text: On 16 April 2013 Cardle confirmed he was in the process of making his third album in a video message to his fans on Facebook. In July 2013, Music Week announced he has teamed up with Absolute Marketing for the album, which is an independent release, having moved on from So What Recordings. The title, "Porcelain", was revealed on 19 August 2013, with 28 October 2013 as the release date. It is described as incorporating "everything from Rock, Funk, Soul, Gospel, Pop and Blues to create his most musically diverse piece of work yet." The first single, a duet with Melanie C called "Loving You", premiered on "The Ken Bruce Show" on BBC Radio 2 on 2 July. It was released 18 August 2013 and had a positive response on the charts in UK. It reached number 14 on the single chart, number 2 on the Independent charts, number 11 in the Scottish charts and top 50 in the Irish charts. The second single, "When You Were My Girl", was released on 13 October 2013. On 8 October 2013 Cardle announced he has signed a worldwide publishing deal with BMG Chrysalis. "Porcelain" reached number 11 on the UK Albums chart. On 25 February 2014, he announced the next single from the album would be "Hit My Heart".


title: Matt Cardle

text: On 28 September, Cardle performed a cover of "The First Time Ever I Saw Your Face" at the "Miss World 2013" in Bali, Indonesia.


title: Matt Cardle

text: The Porcelain Tour in support of the album was announced on 30 October 2013, beginning in April 2014.


title: Matt Cardle

text: On 20 June 2014, Cardle performed a free gig at the Portadown's Got Talent awards, hosted in the People's Park of Portadown, Northern Ireland. The event is part of the Peace Process in Northern Ireland and is supported and backed by the EU.


title: Matt Cardle

text: On 11 May 2015, it was announced Cardle would take over the lead role of Huey Calhoun in a production of "Memphis" from 6 July 2015 until the end of its run in October. It was his first acting role.


title: Matt Cardle

text: In August 2014, Cardle confirmed he was working on his fourth album. In 2016, he embarked on a summer tour, entitled the Intimate and Live Tour, to promote the new material and to test it live before recording. A limited edition live album recorded from the tour was released shortly after. Cardle explained the longer than usual gap in between albums was because he was "running on empty" around the release of his last album and that he needed to recharge. "What has been brilliant for me this time around is the more relaxed nature of the writing and recording process. I've had gaps where I've been able to live, recharge and become inspired again." He describes it as a lot more electronic than his previous albums.


title: Matt Cardle

text: His fourth album, "Time to Be Alive", was released through Sony on 27 April 2018. The lead single "Desire" was premiered on BBC Radio 2 on 13 March 2018.


title: Matt Cardle

text: Cardle returned to the West End on 31 July 2018, playing the role of Wally Strand in "Strictly Ballroom" until it closes on 27 October 2018.


title: Matt Cardle

text: Cardle played the role of Pilate in "Jesus Christ Superstar" at the "Barbican" from 4 July until 24 August 2019.


title: Matt Cardle

text: Later in the year he reunited with his former band Seven Summers for a gig in Chelmsford, and they have begun to work to new music together.


title: Matt Cardle

text: After moving to Swansea in 2019, Cardle announced the release of "Purple Crayon" on 12 January 2021, ahead of the release of his fifth studio album. The song was released digitally on 15 January 2021. Cardle says, "Purple Crayon is song about my struggles with addiction to Valium and the escape I found through using it. The song's emotions are intertwined with imagery from my favourite children's book Harold and the Purple Crayon." O 26 March 2021, Cardle released the second single from his upcoming album, "We're the Butterflies".


title: Matt Cardle

text: Cardle is a tenor with a vocal range of around B2-F5. Being a fan of heavy metal music from a young age, he had tried to emulate the singing style of his rock heroes such as Kurt Cobain, but found it was damaging his vocal cords. After taking advice from the owners of Highbarn, a venue in Essex he'd often played at in the past, he had vocal coaching, which helped increase his range and soften his sound. He is known for his falsetto and being able to reach notes typically unusual for a male singer. Upon Cardle winning "The X Factor" he has been involved in what type of music he would like to record, which led to the release of his debut album "Letters". Cardle co-wrote eleven of the tracks which appeared on the album and a reviewer noted Cardle's "impressive falsetto".


title: Matt Cardle

text: Cardle says he is influenced by everything he has ever listened to, being a fan of a range of music "I love Dave Matthews and Rage Against the Machine are one of my favourite bands, but then again I also love Katy Perry and Lady Gaga, so kind of all sorts really. It's a pretty weird mix." He cites "Thank U" by Alanis Morissette as the first song he was really inspired by and is a big fan of hers, he has covered this song on tour as well as another of her songs, "Uninvited". Other artists Cardle has cited as favourites when he began singing include Michael Jackson, Kurt Cobain, Pearl Jam and Peter Gabriel.


title: Matt Cardle

text: While recording his debut album, "Letters", Cardle took many different artists as an influence; reviews compared tracks to those by artists such as Snow Patrol, Coldplay as well as Chris Martin.


title: Matt Cardle

text: In 2012, Cardle published the song "Amazing", co-written by himself, with Martin Harrington, Tom Leonard, Ash Howes and Richard Stannard. The chorus of the song was claimed to be plagiarized by Ed Sheeran in the chorus of his song, "Photograph", written in 2013. The lawsuit, ended in 2017, by Harrington and Leonard, which led to a $20,000,000 (£16,000,000) victory.


title: Demographics of Nepal

text: The current population of Nepal is 29,192,480 as per the 2021 census. The population growth rate is 0.93% per year.


title: Demographics of Nepal

text: In the 2011 census, Nepal's population was approximately 26 million people with a population growth rate of 1.35% and a median age of 21.6 years.


title: Demographics of Nepal

text: In 2016, the female median age was approximately 25 years old and the male median age was approximately 22 years old. Only 4.4% of the population is estimated to be more than 65 years old, comprising 681,252 females and 597,628 males. 61% of the population is between 15 and 64 years old, and 34.6% is younger than 14 years.


title: Demographics of Nepal

text: In 2011, the birth rate is estimated to be 22.17 births per 1,000 people with an infant mortality rate of 46 deaths per 1,000 live births. Compared to the infant mortality rate in 2006 of 48 deaths per 1000 live births, the 2011 IMR is a slight decrease within that 5-year period. Infant mortality rate in Nepal is higher in rural regions at 44 deaths per 1000 live births, whereas in urban regions the IMR is lower at 40 deaths per 1000 live births. This difference is due to a lack of delivery assistance services in rural communities compared to their urban counterparts who have better access to hospitals and neonatal clinics.


title: Demographics of Nepal

text: Life expectancy at birth is estimated to be 67.44 years for females and 64.94 years for males. The mortality rate is estimated to be 681 deaths per 100,000 people.


title: Demographics of Nepal

text: The population of Nepal has been steadily rising in recent decades. In the June 2001 census, there was a population of about 23 million in Nepal. The population increased by 5 million from the preceding 1991 census; the growth rate is 2.3%. The current population is roughly 30 million which contributes to an increase of about 3 million people every 5 years.


title: Demographics of Nepal

text: Sixty caste and linguistic subgroups have formed throughout time with the waves of migration from Tibet and India. There was a moderate amount of immigration early in Nepal's history, then the population essentially remained the same without any significant fluctuations for over one hundred years. Natural disasters and the following government resettlement programs in the 1950s led to a spike in internal migration from the hills to the Terai region. In the 1980s the Western Chitwan Valley became a major transportation hub for all of Nepal. Along with this major change came a dramatic increase in government services, business expansion, and growing employment, especially in the agricultural industry. The valley's population grew rapidly through both in-migration and natural increase.


title: Demographics of Nepal

text: Nepal's diverse linguistic heritage evolved from three major language groups: Indo-Aryan, Tibeto-Burman languages, and various indigenous language isolates. According to the 2001 national census, 92 different living languages are spoken in Nepal (a 93rd category was "unspecified"). Based upon the 2011 census, the major languages spoken in Nepal (percentage spoken out of the mother tongue language) includes


title: Demographics of Nepal

text: Nepali (derived from Khas bhasa) is an Indo-Aryan language and is written in Devanagari script. Nepali was the language of the house of Gorkhas in the late 18th century and became the official, national language that serves as the "lingua franca" among Nepalese of different ethnolinguistic groups. Maithili, Bhojpuri, Bajjika and Awadhi languages are spoken in the southern Terai. There has been a surge in the number and percentage of people who understand English. Majority of the urban and a significant number of the rural schools are English-medium schools. Higher education in technical, medical, scientific and engineering fields are entirely in English. Nepal Bhasa, the mother-tongue of the Newars, is widely used and spoken in and around Kathmandu Valley and in major Newar trade towns across Nepal.


title: Demographics of Nepal

text: Other languages, particularly in the Inner Terai hill and mountain regions, are remnants of the country's pre-unification history of dozens of political entities isolated by mountains and gorges. These languages typically are limited to an area spanning about one day's walk. Beyond that distance, dialects and languages lose mutual intelligibility. However, there are some major languages spoken by indigenous peoples in the region: Magar and Gurung in the west-central hills, Tamang in the east-centre and Limbu in the east. In the high Himalayas are spoken various Tibetan languages, including Bhotia.


title: Demographics of Nepal

text: Since Nepal's unification, various indigenous languages have come under threat of extinction as the government of Nepal has marginalized their use through strict policies designed to promote Nepali as the official language. Indigenous languages which have gone extinct or are critically threatened include Byangsi, Chonkha, and Longaba. Since democracy was restored in 1990, however, the government has worked to improve the marginalization of these languages. Tribhuvan University began surveying and recording threatened languages in 2010 and the government intends to use this information to include more languages on the next Nepalese census.


title: Demographics of Nepal

text: As of the 2011 census, 81.3% of the Nepalese population was Hindu, 9.0% Buddhist, 4.4% Muslim, 3.0% Kiratist/Yumaist, 1.42% Christian, and 0.9% followed other or no religion.


title: Demographics of Nepal

text: Nepal defines itself as a secular nation according to Constitution of Nepal It is common for many Hindus in the country to also worship Buddhist deities simultaneously with Hindu traditions. The notion of religion in Nepal is more fluid than other countries, particularly Western countries. The Nepali people build their social networks through their religious celebrations, which are a central part to the whole of communities within the country.


title: Demographics of Nepal

text: There is a general idea held by the Nepalese people that there is an omnipotent, transcendental "moral order" that is sacred to Hinduism. This idea exists along with the constant presence of chaos and disorder in the material world. In the northwestern region of the country, this all-encompassing state of disorder in the world is synonymous with human affliction, which the religious shamans are believed to alleviate.


title: Demographics of Nepal

text: Kathmandu Valley is home to the Newars, a major ethnic group in Nepal. The city Bhaktapur is located inside of Kathmandu Valley. Bhaktapur was once an independent Hindu Kingdom. Individual homes typically have at least one shrine devoted to personal deities, with an altar displaying flowers, fruit, and oil among other offerings to the Gods. The perimeter of Kathmandu Valley is lined with shrines devoted to Hindu goddesses, whose purpose is to protect the city from chaotic events. At least one shrine can be found on the vast majority of streets in Kathmandu. The people of Nepal do not feel the need to segregate or compete based upon religion, so Hindu and Buddhist shrines are often coexisting in the same areas. The areas outside of the city are perceived to always possess some form of wild or disordered nature, so the Nepalese people inside of the city lines regularly worship the Hindu gods through public ceremonies.


title: Demographics of Nepal

text: The Hindu god Vishnu is believed to symbolise moral order in the Newar society. The natural human shortcomings in maintaining this moral order is believed to be represented by the Hindu god Shiva. The destruction of Shiva is neutralised by the preserver Vishnu, who tips the scales to restore order. In recent times, there has been a rise in political violence, specifically Maoist violence. This increased violence, along with the widespread poverty, has caused the Nepalese to seek stability and peace in religion.


title: Demographics of Nepal

text: Nepal's constitution continues long-standing legal provisions prohibiting discrimination against other religions (but also proselytization). The king was deified as the earthly manifestation of the Hindu god Vishnu. On May 19, 2006, the government faced a constitutional crisis, the House of Representatives which had been just reformed, having been previously dissolved, declared Nepal a "secular state". However, the 2001 census identified 80.6% of the population as Hindu and 10.7% as Buddhist (although many people labeled Hindu or Buddhist often practice a syncretic blend of Hinduism, Buddhism, or animist traditions), 4.2% of the population was Muslim, 3.6% of the population followed the indigenous Kirat Mundhum religion and Christianity was practiced by 0.45% of the population.


title: Demographics of Nepal

text: Buddhist and Hindu shrines and festivals are respected and celebrated by most Nepalese. Certain animist practises of old indigenous religions continue to survive to the modern era.


title: Demographics of Nepal

text: Nepali was the national language and Sanskrit became a required school subject. Children who spoke Nepali natively and who were exposed to Sanskrit had much better chances of passing the national examinations at the end of high school, which meant they had better employment prospects and could continue into higher education. Children who natively spoke local languages of the Madhesh and Hills, or Tibetan dialects prevailing in the high mountains were at a considerable disadvantage. This history of exclusion coupled with poor prospects for improvement created grievances that encouraged many in ethnic communities such as Madhesi and Tharu in the Tharuhat and Madhesh and Kham Magar in the mid-western hills to support the Unified Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) and various other armed Maoist opposition groups such as the JTMM during and after the Nepalese Civil War. The negotiated end to this war forced King Gyanendra to abdicate in 2008. Issues of ethnic and regional equity have tended to dominate the agenda of the new republican government and continue to be divisive. Today, even after the end of a 10-year-old Maoist conflict, the upper caste dominates every field in Nepal. Although Newars are low in numbers, their urban living habitat gives them a competitive advantage. Kayastha of Madhesh are the toppers in Human Development Index. From a gender perspective, Newari women are the most literate and lead in every sector. Brahmin and Chhetri women have experienced less social and economic mobility compared to Newari women. Specifically, Brahmin women experience less equality due to their predominately rural living conditions which deprives them of access to certain educational and healthcare advantages.


title: Demographics of Nepal

text: In the 2001 census, approximately 6,000 Nepalese were living in the UK. According to latest figure from Office for National Statistics estimates that 51,000 Nepal-born people are currently resident in the UK. There has been increasing interest in the opportunities offered in the UK by the Nepalese, especially education. Between the years of 2001 to 2006, there were 7,500 applications for student visas.


title: Demographics of Nepal

text: The Nepali people residing in Hong Kong are primarily made up of children of ex-Gurkhas; born in Hong Kong during their parents' service with the British Army's Brigade of Gurkhas, which was based in Hong Kong from the 1970s until the handover. Large groups of Nepali people can be found in Shek Kong and Yuen Long District off of the main bases of the British army. Many ex-Gurkhas remained in Hong Kong after the end of their service under the sponsorship of their Hong Kong-born children, who held right of abode.


title: Demographics of Nepal

text: Nepalese of middle age or older generations in Hong Kong are predominantly found in security, while those of younger generations are predominantly found in the business industry.


title: Demographics of Nepal

text: Mostly the people from Kirati ethnic groups such as Rai and Limbu are the ones residing in Hong Kong and other neighbouring nations such as Singapore and Japan.


title: Demographics of Nepal

text: Nepali migrants abroad have suffered tremendous hardships, including some 7,500 deaths in the Middle East and Malaysia alone since the year 2000, some 3,500 in Saudi Arabia.


title: Demographics of Nepal

text: According to the 2001 census, there were 116,571 foreign born citizens in Nepal; 90% of them were of Indian origin (Biharis) followed by Bhutan, Pakistan and China. This number does not include the refugees from Bhutan and Tibet.


title: Green goddess dressing

text: Green goddess is a salad dressing, typically containing mayonnaise, sour cream, chervil, chives, anchovy, tarragon, lemon juice, and pepper.


title: Green goddess dressing

text: The dressing is named for its tint. The most accepted theory regarding its origins points to the Palace Hotel in San Francisco in 1923, when the hotel's executive chef Philip Roemer wanted something to pay tribute to actor George Arliss and his hit play, "The Green Goddess". He then concocted this dressing, which, like the play, became a hit. This dressing, which contained anchovies, scallions, parsley, tarragon, chives, mayonnaise, and vinegar, is a variation of a dressing originated in France by a chef to Louis XIII who made a "sauce au vert" (green sauce) which was traditionally served with "green eel".


title: Green goddess dressing

text: In 1948, the "New York Times" published a recipe for the dressing that included Worcestershire sauce. Later recipes have included variations such as the addition of avocado or basil.


title: Green goddess dressing

text: In the early 1970s, salad dressing maker Seven Seas produced a bottled version of this dressing. It is still made in limited quantities, although the company has since been purchased by Kraft Foods.


title: Mark Levinson (audio equipment designer)

text: Mark Levinson (born December 11, 1946) is an American audio equipment designer, recording and mastering engineer, multi-instrumentalist musician, and serial entrepreneur. He was formerly married to the actress Kim Cattrall.


text: Mark Levinson worked as the bassist for jazz pianist Paul Bley (in 1966 through 1971 by his own account), and mentions other renowned jazz musicians with whom he played then. Bley's memoir has a 1965 photo of his trio with Levinson and Barry Altschul, and tells of touring and recording in Europe with them in 1966. Bley describes Levinson and Altschul as "a rhythm section with a wide range of talents".


text: In 1972, Levinson founded Mark Levinson Audio Systems (MLAS, Ltd.) in New Haven, Connecticut. He ran MLAS from 1972 to 1980, during which time he created products such as the LNP-2 preamplifier. He also invented the concept of high-end car sound in 1979.


text: However, by 1980 MLAS was in financial trouble. Levinson then asked Sanford Berlin, a retired executive in the audio industry, to invest in MLAS and to aid in the management of the company. Berlin personally invested $480,000 in the company and persuaded several others to invest an additional $300,000.


text: In the summer of 1984 Levinson left MLAS and founded another company to produce audio equipment, Cello Ltd. Levinson became president and one of the three directors of Cello. MLAS launched a lawsuit attempting to prevent Levinson from working in the audio industry for the rest of his life, on the grounds that he was a "walking trade name" who could "diminish the value of their asset".


text: Levinson won the case in 1986 but lost the right to use his name as a trade name on an audio product. For this reason, since several years before the lawsuit, "Mark Levinson" branded audio products have had no relationship to the brand's founder; the "Mark Levinson" brand name has been and continues to be an intellectual property wholly owned by Harman International. In resolving the case, the Second Circuit Court of Appeals wrote a 25-page decision that outlined the rights of entrepreneurs who use their own name as the name of a company. Levinson himself has continued to work in the industry, creating several new companies.


text: Levinson ran his second company, Cello Ltd., from 1984 to 1998. With Cello, Levinson created high-priced models such as the Audio Palette. In 1999, Levinson founded Red Rose Music, an audio company with its own New York retail store on Madison Avenue. The business model of Red Rose was to create compact, affordable products with very high-quality sound.


text: In 2007, Levinson moved to Switzerland and used his consulting revenue to finance the founding of Daniel Hertz S.A., an audio equipment and audio software company.


text: Mark Levinson and the actress Kim Cattrall were married from 1998 to 2004. The couple co-wrote the book "Satisfaction: The Art of the Female Orgasm" (2002).


text: All of Levinson's recorded work as a jazz bassist was in jazz piano trios led by Paul Bley, with Barry Altschul on drums.


title: Goyard

text: Maison Goyard, or simply Goyard, is a French trunk and leather goods maker established in 1792 as Maison Martin in Paris; the company also operated as Maison Morel, before becoming Maison Goyard in 1853. The brand is known for a certain amount of secrecy surrounding its products; little is known of the origins of the iconic interlocking Chevron pattern, seen on many Goyard bags.


title: Goyard

text: Maison Morel was the official purveyor of Marie-Caroline de Bourbon-Sicile, duchesse de Berry, an honor that granted it the title of "box maker, trunk maker and packer of Her Royal Highness The Duchess of Berry". Maison Martin's store sign featured references to the three traditional crafts of "box making, trunk making and packing" that were at the core of its business. Pierre François Martin was the guardian of a young female ward, Pauline Moutat, and gave his business as her dowry. He was also instrumental in arranging her marriage to one of his employees, Louis-Henri Morel (1817–1852). Morel followed on Martin's footsteps, and introduced himself as the "Successor to former Maison Morel, located on rue Neuve-des-Capucines, near Place Vendôme."


title: Goyard

text: In turn, Louis-Henri Morel, passed on his skills and knowledge to a seventeen-year-old apprentice by the name of François Goyard, whom he hired in 1845. The apprentice received a state-of-the-art training under the dual guidance of Pierre François Martin and Louis-Henri Morel. Monsieur Morel died suddenly on 24 August 1852.


title: Goyard

text: In a short time, the house's corporate name changed from Morel to Goyard, and from Goyard to Goyard Aîné (French for "elder", François being the firstborn among Goyard brothers), as to differentiate himself from his siblings. When he died, François Goyard left his son Edmond with a very reputable business with workshops in Bezons, a city in the northwestern suburbs of Paris.


title: Goyard

text: In 1834, Pierre François Martin moved his store from 4, Rue Neuve des Capucines, where Louis Vuitton opened in 1854, to 347, rue Saint-Honoré. On account of the new street numbering policy implemented in Paris in 1856, the address changed to 233, rue Saint-Honoré. His successors remained at this location at the corner of rue Saint-Honoré and rue de Castiglione, near Place Vendôme. After a thirty-two-year-tenure as head of business, François handed the company over to his 25-year-old eldest son Edmond on April "1st", 1885. The house changed its name to E. Goyard Aîné.


title: Goyard

text: Edmond Goyard, drawing on his father François Goyard's work, turned the store on rue Saint-Honoré into an increasingly elitist luxury brand with an international clientele. He created the first Goyard advertisements, participated in various World Expositions and opened four branch stores. He also laid the foundations for the brand as we know it today, as he came up with the Goyardine canvas, launched a pet accessories range and developed products for automobiles. He partnered with his eldest son Robert, and together they ran E. Goyard Aîné et Fils (E.Goyard Elder and Son). Robert followed his father's footsteps and ran the business from 1937 to 1979.


title: Goyard

text: In 1998, a purchaser took over from the Goyard family: , a keen collector of all things Goyard, undertook the challenge of reinventing Goyard with the help of his sons. Without the backing of a leading luxury brand group, he exploited the heritage of the house, built new workshops in Carcassonne, France, and opened retail stores all over the world.


title: Goyard

text: The Goyards originated from Clamecy in Burgundy, where the family males had long worked as log drivers. They were members of the Compagnons de Rivière, a guild of transporters moving firewood to Paris. The family name "Goyard" derives from the French "goujard", also spelled "goyard". This sickle-like tool with a blade attached to a two-metre-long strong wooden handle was used by the Bourguignon people from the Aube area to cut thorns they would then transplant onto hedgerow stakes.


title: Goyard

text: In 1832, a massive cholera epidemic decimated the population of Clamecy. On 17 December, Edmé Goyard's father died at the age of 72. His son subsequently left the hamlet with his wife and two sons, François and Claude, who were respectively four and two-years old. The family settled down in Paris and soon welcomed another son, Martin, who was born on 10 October 1833.


title: Goyard

text: Just like his father did, Robert ran the store until his demise in 1979. His impact on the house proved considerable, as he constantly updated the range of products, notably by developing a new canvas. He patented the design for this woven canvas in 1965. The Chevron pattern remained, and the overall design was simplified, as the production process required, leaving the canvas bare of any name.


title: Goyard

text: Robert Goyard was also determined to contribute to the prestige of his neighbourhood. On 9 December 1936, the Place Vendôme Association was set up; on 25 July 1944, an extraordinary general meeting aiming to reform the association was held. The association initially changed its name to "Place Vendôme, Rue de la Paix and surroundings" before opting for "Comité Vendôme", its current name. Robert Goyard was instrumental in setting up this cooperative agreement by taking care of the formalities for its constitution and locating its offices at Goyard's headquarters at 233, rue Saint-Honoré.


title: Goyard

text: Jean Edmond François was the son of Robert Goyard, and collaborated with his father. The Occupation took its toll on the house, and the store at 233, rue Saint-Honoré closed down temporarily. François took a stake in the family business on 25 May 1951, which became a limited company four days later. After the end of World War II, Robert resumed running the company until 1979; upon his death, his granddaughter Isabelle Goyard took over with the help of her father.


title: Goyard

text: Goyard's letterhead paper dated 24 June 1891 bore the coats of arms of the United Kingdom and the Russian Empire and the Great Seal of the United States of America. The queens of Yugoslavia and Greece became customers after World War II, whilst the Duke and Duchess of Windsor purchased their first Goyard goods in 1939. High-profile purchasers such as the Grimaldis or the Maharajah of Kapurthala rub shoulders with celebrities, socialites or first ladies like Catherine Deneuve, Édith Piaf, Romy Schneider, Jean-Claude Brialy, who acquired his first Goyard pieces in 1974, Mrs Georges Pompidou, who became a client from 1963 onwards, princess Andrée Aga Khan (1956), princess Radziwill (1949) or the prince and princess von Fürstenberg (1968). Contemporary glitterati like Madonna, Victoria Beckham, Carla Bruni-Sarkozy are regularly spotted wearing Goyard bags. Kanye West mentioned his affinity for Goyard trunks in the 2007 song, "The Glory," and Rich the Kid filmed a music video in a Goyard store.


title: Goyard

text: The coated cloth debuted for the World Exposition in 1900, and was used in the inter-war years. It remains unchanged in present times, keeping its chevron pattern. In 2002, 110 years after its creation, the Signoles family inaugurated their tenure at the helm of Goyard with the introduction of twelve new colours in addition to the historic black canvas. Currently, the Goyardine canvas is available in red, green, sky-blue, navy-blue, yellow, white.


title: Goyard

text: From the beginning, Goyardine was made with cloth; although its appearance is similar to leather. Goyard uses three plant fibers: hemp, linen, and cotton. Hemp is particularly sought after for its hydrophobic qualities, linen is a fine thermal regulator, and the softness of linen probably caught the attention of the trunk maker.


title: Goyard

text: The initial meters of Goyardine were likely hand-painted. When the Goyardine was launched, the workshops moved to , and the manufacturing of the canvas required a ground-colour application followed by three successive layers of etching colours. The trademark slightly raised pattern of the Goyardine results from both the cloth and the printing technique used during the manufacturing process: the plain weave shows through the Chevron pattern, and superimposes on top of the raised pattern produced by the paint dots, leaving a unique design that is difficult to counterfeit.


title: Goyard

text: The dots on the fabric represent three chevrons juxtaposed to form a Y, the central letter in the Goyard family name. Edmond Goyard used the three chevrons of the letter Y to sign his canvas like a painter would sign their painting: his name written in white is the only element that truly stands out, while the address of the Paris store is spelled in two different shades of brown, and "Paris" is repeated twice, and arranged in a centrally symmetrical stack. Edmond Goyard was the very first trunk maker to build his name into his canvas, and did so even before the year 1900. The piled up dot pattern was clearly inspired by the Goyard family history, and evokes their "Compagnon de rivière"(log drivers) ancestors.


title: Goyard

text: If Edmond Goyard left his mark on the history of the brand by creating the Goyardine, his son Robert also created a new fabric: a four-shade-woven canvas. This canvas is used in bags designed for frequent air travel. Robert Goyard patented his new canvas on 24 November 1965, and described its design as "Chevrons intertwined with linear stripes." This new canvas not only allows for a more modern look, for it is a woven canvas, but it is also much softer than the historic Goyard canvas, making it possible to manufacture new products. In order to improve the solidity of the weaving, Robert Goyard altered the pattern in 1968, making it easily recognizable from the previous one (as it is much more even).


title: Goyard

text: In 2010, Goyard debuted a canvas woven on a jacquard loom, marking a technical feat, as it builds "E.Goyard" into a lighter-shaded thread of the canvas, a previously unheard-of achievement in the textile industry. The new canvas is currently available in a black-charcoal grey-dove grey-white colour palette, and will shortly be available in other shades.


title: Goyard

text: A rare canvas developed in collaboration with tennis player Suzanne Lenglen in the 1930s; its production stopped when Lenglen died in 1938.


title: Goyard

text: Nowadays, special orders are to be placed at the store at 233, rue Saint-Honoré, as it was the case when the factory was located in . Special orders are entirely hand-made in the Goyard workshops in southern France, in the . The workshops are installed in converted wine warehouses. Whilst some trunk makers specialize in standardized goods, Goyard is equally at ease with both special orders and ready-made items. Among the many extravagant special orders that Goyard was able to deliver over the course of its history, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's "Writer’s trunk" certainly stands out. In the report he wrote for the International Exposition of Modern Industrial and Decorative Arts in 1925, Paul Léon lists its main characteristics: "The trunk is equipped with a filing cabinet, a bookcase, a typewriter and a foldable desk." The descriptive text that goes with its patent spares no detail either: "All kinds of kits and sets can be placed in the pigeonhole located in the trunk lid, along with photograph frames, a watch, a thermometer and a barometer". After the death of the creator of Sherlock Holmes on 7 July 1930, Edmond Goyard registered a patent for the trunk on 20 July 1931, and seldom remanufactured this exceptional piece.


title: Goyard

text: Each order is the result of a special encounter: that taking place between the trunk maker and the customer. When it comes to special orders, everything is possible: a trunk especially designed to carry and store caviar, or to meet the needs of a sportsperson, a fabulous picnic trunk.


title: Goyard

text: Each piece of hard-sided luggage by Goyard is entirely hand made by a specific trunk maker, according to the highest, strictest standards. When the crafting process is over, the trunk maker writes down the serial number of the piece they made on its identification tag, along with their initials. They also write down that same serial number in the manufacturing register that has been keeping track of all items made by the Goyard workshops ever since took over. The manufacturing register is used as a reference in the event an item needs to be repaired. About twenty trunk makers work in the Goyard workshops and specialize in made-to-order trunks and hard-sided luggage.


title: Goyard

text: When several members of a same family travel together, their luggage stripes are identical, and it is difficult to tell which piece of luggage belongs to whom. In France, tradition dictates that each piece should be monogrammed with the initials of its owner, whereas in the UK, it is customary to use the owner's full first and last names, whether they are a royal or a commoner. Initials have been used for a long time, as evidenced by the wooden trunk the compagnons de rivière used to carry along with them on their timber raft. It was the only valuable object on board, and it was used to protect food and personal belongings from the waters of the river. Over the course of time, it became a token of remembrance, reminding its owner of the many travels he made. It was monogrammed with its owner's initials and also stamped with the employers' logo. François Goyard's grandfather was a compagnon de rivière, and he owned a monogrammed trunk long before the family went into the trunk making business. Stripes perpetuate old traditions, notably those related to horse carriages, which were painted in the colours of each family.


title: Goyard

text: Goyard's monograms are hand-painted onto the Goyardine canvas and can be customized with a variety of different colours. The revival of customized leather goods, whether they are adorned with initials, stripes or coats of arms, proved Goyard's answer to the logo craze.


title: Goyard

text: In 2008, Goyard opened a boutique called "Le Chic du Chien" (Canine Chic) entirely dedicated to pet accessories and excursion items at 352, rue Saint-Honoré, right across the street from its historic store at 233, rue Saint-Honoré. Edmond Goyard was very keen on developing a range of pet accessories, as evidenced by catalogues and invoices dating from as far back as 1890. The Goyard range for pets comprised items for dogs, cats and even monkeys. Edmond Goyard hired the most sought-after illustrators of his time, such as the likes of Benjamin Rabier and Pierre Falize, the latter being also the creator of famous posters for iconic Parisian Restaurant Prunier, to work on the Chic du Chien commercial catalogues.


title: Goyard

text: Ever since it started in 1994, Goyard has been a supporter of Sidaction, a major French public event for raising awareness and collecting charitable funds for AIDS. Goyard donates prestigious prizes for the annual Fashion Dinner's raffle, in order to fund initiatives against AIDS, whether research programs, patient assistance or prevention schemes. Goyard is also a supporter of the annual AVEC (Association pour la Vie, Espoir contre le Cancer, a nonprofit organization fighting cancer) evening. At the end of the charity dinner organized at the Palace of Versailles in January 2012, "the auction was equally fun and lucrative: the Goyard prize (a hard-sided suitcase worth 4700 euros) was auctioned three times and finally repurchased by the very man who had donated it in the first place, , president of Goyard, who ended up offering it to French TV show host Stéphane Bern."


title: Goyard

text: For the third edition of Un bagage pour la vie, un bagage pour Curie, Goyard organized an auction of customized bags and luggage to raise money for the leading cancer research centre Institut Curie in Paris. The patron of the event was Amélie Mauresmo, and the pieces auctioned off were sponsored by twenty-one female personalities from the worlds of cinema, fashion and sport: Sarah Biasini, Élodie Bouchez, Cécile Cassel, Audrey Dana, Emma de Caunes, Catherine Deneuve, , Charlotte Gainsbourg, Vahina Giocante, Judith Godrèche, Audrey Marnay, Chiara Mastroianni, Amélie Mauresmo, Mathilda May, , Géraldine Pailhas, Vanessa Paradis, , , Audrey Tautou, and Elsa Zylberstein. Each personality was invited by Goyard to use the iconic chevron pattern canvas to express their own vision of travelling: stripes of colour, messages or drawings. Their imagination combined to Goyard's know-how resulted in twenty-one unique pieces auctioned at Christie's in Paris.


title: Goyard

text: The Goyard art book published by Devambez is the reference publication upon Parisian trunk makers. It was dubbed "a luxury bible" by Suzy Menkes in the article called "A tender Tome of Art and Heart" that she wrote in the New York Times on 15 June 2010. The book had a print run of 233 copies, a reference to the address of the Goyard historic store that has been located at 233, rue Saint Honoré since 1834. It will never be republished and is visible by appointment only in the Goyard Paris shop.


title: Goyard

text: The Goyard art book pays tribute to the golden days of luxury travelling, from horse carriage to ocean liners. It retraces the history of Goyard and is showcased in a special made-to-order trunk that is altogether a jewel case and a book's binding (sewing). Each individual purchaser is invited to make their named copy into a unique piece by picking the colour for the trunk canvas, which can also be initialled or adorned with stripes in the shades of their choice. Copies are numbered from 1 to 233, and that number is specified both on the trunk and in the book. The Goyard art book is printed on watermarked deckled vellum paper that was custom-made by Arches, France's most renowned papermakers. Lead letterpress techniques have been used for the texts. The Goyard art book is featured in the collections of the National Library of France, the in Paris and the Kunstbibliothek in Berlin.


title: Circassian beauty

text: Circassian beauty or Adyghe beauty is a stereotype and a belief referring to the Circassian people. A fairly extensive literary history suggests that Circassian women were thought to be unusually beautiful and attractive, spirited, smart and elegant, and as such were desirable (although most Circassians refuse to marry non-Circassians, a requirement of Adyghe Xabze). A similar yet smaller literature also exists for Circassian men, who were thought to be especially handsome.


title: Circassian beauty

text: There are folk songs in various languages all around the Middle East and Balkans describing the unusual beauty of Circassian women, a trend popularised after the Circassian genocide, although the reputation of Circassian women dates back to the Late Middle Ages when the Circassian coast was frequented by traders from Genoa, and the founder of the Medici dynasty, Cosimo de' Medici, had an illegitimate son from a Circassian slave. During the Ottoman Empire and Persian Safavid and Qajar dynasties, Circassian women living as slaves in the Sultan's Imperial Harem and Shah's harems started to build their reputation as extremely beautiful, which then became a common trope in Western Orientalism.


title: Circassian beauty

text: As a result of this reputation, in Europe and America Circassians were often characterised as ideals of feminine beauty in poetry and art. Cosmetic products were advertised, from the 18th century on, using the word "Circassian" in the title, or claiming that the product was based on substances used by the women of Circassia.


title: Circassian beauty

text: In consequence, most wives and mothers of several Ottoman Sultans were ethnic Circassians, including Perestü Valide Sultan, Şevkefza Valide Sultan, Tirimüjgan Valide Sultan, Nükhetseza Başhanımefendi, Şemsiruhsar Hatun, Saçbağlı Sultan, Hümaşah Haseki Sultan, Hatice Muazzez Haseki Sultan, Ayşe Haseki Sultan, Bedrifelek I, Bidar II, Kamures I, Servetseza I, Bezmara VI, Düzdidil III, Hayranıdil II, Meyliservet IV, Mihrengiz II, Neşerek III, Nurefsun II, Reftaridil II, Şayan III, amongst many others. İkbals (honoured lady consorts) of Circassian descent were also numerous, most notable of them being Cevherriz II, Ceylanyar II, Dilfirib I, Nalanıdil III, and Nergis IV in addition to Gözdes (favourite lady consorts), including Dürdane I, Hüsnicenan III, Safderun IV, amongst others. The "golden age" of the Circassian beauty may be considered to be between the 1770s, when the Russian Empire seized the Crimean Khanate and cut off their slave trade, which increased the demand for Circassian women in Near Eastern harems; and the 1860s, when the Russians massacred thousands of Circassians and conquered Circassia. After 1854, almost all Ottoman harem concubines were of Circassian origin; the Circassians had been expelled from Russian lands in the 1860s and the improverished refugee parents sold their daughters in a trade that was formally banned, but tolerated.


title: Circassian beauty

text: In the 1860s the showman P. T. Barnum exhibited women who he claimed were Circassian beauties. They wore a distinctive curly, big hair style, which had no precedent in earlier portrayals of Circassians, but which was soon copied by other female performers in the United States, who became known as "moss-haired girls". This hair style was a sort of exhibit's trademark and was achieved by washing the hair of women in beer, drying it and then teasing it. It is not clear why Barnum chose this hairstyle. It may have been a reference to the Circassian fur hat, rather than the hair.


title: Circassian beauty

text: There were also several classical Turkish music pieces and poems that praise the beauty of the Circassian ethnic group like "Lepiska Saçlı Çerkes" (Straight, flaxen-haired Circassian; "lepiska" refers to long blonde hair which is straight, as if flatironed).


title: Circassian beauty

text: The legend of Circassian women in the western world was enhanced in 1734, when, in his "Letters on the English", Voltaire alludes to the beauty of Circassian women:


title: Circassian beauty

text: Their beauty is mentioned in Henry Fielding's "Tom Jones" (1749), in which Fielding remarked, "How contemptible would the brightest Circassian beauty, drest in all the jewels of the Indies, appear to my eyes!"


title: Circassian beauty

text: Similar claims about Circassian women appear in Lord Byron's "Don Juan" (1818–1824), in which the tale of a slave auction is told:


title: Circassian beauty

text: The legend of Circassian women was also repeated by legal theorist Gustav Hugo, who wrote that "Even beauty is more likely to be found in a Circassian slave girl than in a beggar girl", referring to the fact that even a slave has some security and safety, but a "free" beggar has none. Hugo's comment was later condemned by Karl Marx in "The Philosophical Manifesto of the Historical School of Law" (1842) on the grounds that it excused slavery. Mark Twain reported in "The Innocents Abroad" (1869) that "Circassian and Georgian girls are still sold in Constantinople, but not publicly."


title: Circassian beauty

text: American travel author and diplomat Bayard Taylor in 1862 claimed that, "So far as female beauty is concerned, the Circassian women have no superiors. They have preserved in their mountain home the purity of the Grecian models, and still display the perfect physical loveliness, whose type has descended to us in the Venus de' Medici."


title: Circassian beauty

text: An anthropological literary suggests that Circassians were best characterized by what was called "rosy pale" or "translucent white skin". While most Circassian tribes were famous for abundance of fair or dark blond and red hair combined with greyish-blue or green eyes, many also had the pairing of very dark hair with very light complexions, a typical feature of Peoples of the Caucasus. Many of the Circassian women in the Ottoman harem were described as having "green eyes and long, dark blond hair, pale skin of translucent white colour, thin waist, slender body structure, and very good-looking hands and feet". The fact that Circassian women were traditionally encouraged to wear corsets in order to keep their posture straight might have shaped their wasp waist as a result. In the late 18th century, it was claimed by Western European couturiers that "the Circassian Corset is the only one which displays, without indelicacy, the shape of the bosom to the greatest possible advantage; gives a width to the chest which is equally conducive to health and elegance of appearance".


title: Circassian beauty

text: It has also been suggested that a lithe and erect physique were favored for Circassians, and many villages had large numbers of healthy elderly people, many over a hundred years of age.


title: Circassian beauty

text: Maturin Murray Ballou described Circassians as being of the "fair and rosy-cheeked race", and "with a form of ravishing loveliness, large and lustrous eyes, and every belonging that might go to make up a Venus".


title: Circassian beauty

text: In Henry Lindlahr's words in the early 20th century, "Blue-eyed Caucasian regiments today form the cream of the Sultan's army. Circassian beauties are admired for their abundant and luxuriant yellow hair and blue eyes."


title: Circassian beauty

text: In his book "A Year Among the Circassians", John Augustus Longworth describes a Circassian girl of typical Circassian features as the following: "She had regular and pretty features, blue eyes, and fair complexion; her hair was of a light auburn colour, and hung in a profusion of braided tresses over her shoulders, from a bonnet of scarlet cloth, trimmed and crossed with broad silver lace, not unlike the Albanian skull-cap. She was tall, and well, though slightly, shaped; and held herself, like all Circassians, men or women, very erect."


title: Circassian beauty

text: It is also understood from the memoirs of Princess Emily Ruete, a half-Circassian and half-Omani herself, that Circassian women, who were captured in Constantinople and brought to Africa for the harem of Zanzibari Said bin Sultan, Sultan of Muscat and Oman, were envied by their rivals who considered Circassians to be of the "hateful race of blue-eyed cats".


title: Circassian beauty

text: Regarding one of her half-sisters who was also from a Circassian mother, Princess Ruete of Zanzibar mentions that "The daughter of a Circassian was a dazzling beauty with the complexion of a German blonde. Besides, she possessed a sharp intellect, which made her into a faithful advisor of my father's."


title: Circassian beauty

text: The characteristics of Circassian and Georgian women were further articulated in 1839 by the author Emma Reeve who, as stated by Joan DelPlato, differentiated "between 'the blond Circassians' who are 'indolent and graceful, their voices low and sweet' and what she calls the slightly darker-skinned Georgians who are 'more animated' and have more 'intelligence and vivacity than their delicate rivals.


title: Circassian beauty

text: Similar descriptions of the Circassian women appear in Florence Nightingale's travel journal where Nightingale called Circassians "the most graceful and the most sensual-looking creatures I ever saw".


title: Circassian beauty

text: According to the feminist Harriet Martineau, Circassians were the only saving virtue of the Egyptian harem where these Circassian mothers produced the finest children and if they were to be excluded from the harem, the upper class in Egypt would be doomed.


title: Circassian beauty

text: In parts of Europe and North America where blond hair was more common, the pairing of extremely white skin with very dark hair also present among some Circassians was exalted, even in Russia which was at war with the Circassians; Semyon Bronevskii exalted Circassian women for having light skin, dark brown hair, dark eyes and "the lineaments of the face of the Ancient Greek". In the United States, the girls disguised as "Circassians" exhibited by Phineas T. Barnum were in fact Catholic Irish girls from Lower Manhattan.


title: Circassian beauty

text: Circassian men were also exalted for their beauty, manliness and bravery in Western Europe, in a way Caucasus historian Charles King calls "homoerotic". In Scotland, in 1862, Circassian chiefs arrived to advocate their cause against Russia and to persuade Britain to stop the actions of the Russian army at that time, and upon the arrival of two Circassian leaders, Hadji Hayder Hassan and Kustan Ogli Ismael, the "Dundee Advertiser" reported that "the Chiefs are two remarkable looking men. Their imposing bearing, their romantic dress ... and their natural dignity of mien, stamp them as very superior ... Raven haired, black-bearded, broad-browed, with wide springing eyebrows of sooty black ... these bronzed and armed children of the mountains tend to put us out of love with our own specimens of men, and suggests thoughts not complementary to the types of manhood which, in this country, they are surrounded."


title: Circassian beauty

text: During the 19th century, various Western intellectuals offered pseudoscientific explanations for the light complexion present among Circassians. The doctor of medicine Hugh Williamson, a signatory to the United States Constitution, argued that the reason for the extreme whiteness of the Circassian and coastal Celto-Germanic peoples can be explained by the geographical location of these folks' ancestral homelands which lie in high latitudes ranging from 45° to 55° N near a sea or ocean where westerlies prevail from the west towards the east.


title: Circassian beauty

text: According to Voltaire, the practice of inoculation (see also variolation, an early form of vaccination) resulted in the Circassians having skin clean of smallpox scars:


title: Circassian beauty

text: By the early nineteenth century, Circassians were associated with theories of racial hierarchy, which elevated the Caucasus region as the source of the purest examples of the "white race", which was named the Caucasian race after the area by Johann Friedrich Blumenbach. Blumenbach theorised that the Circassians were the closest to God's original model of humanity, and thus "the purest and most beautiful whites were the Circassians". This fuelled the idea of female Circassian beauty.


title: Circassian beauty

text: In 1873, the decade after the expulsion of Circassians from the Caucasus where only a minority of them live today, it was argued that "the Caucasian Race receives its name from the Caucasus, the abode of the Circassians who are said to be the handsomest and best-formed nation, not only of this race, but of the whole human family." Another anthropologist, William Guthrie, distinguished the Caucasian race and the "Circassians who are admired for their beauty" in particular by their oval form of their head, straight nose, thin lips, vertically-placed teeth, facial angle from 80 to 90 degrees that he calls the most developed one, and their regular features overall, which "causes them to be considered as the most handsome and agreeable".


title: Circassian beauty

text: Bayard Taylor observed the Circassian women during his trip to the Ottoman Empire and argued that "the Circassian face is a pure oval; the forehead is low and fair, an excellent thing in woman, and the skin of an ivory whiteness, except the faint pink of the cheeks and the ripe, roseate stain of the lips."


title: Circassian beauty

text: Circassians are depicted in images of harems at this time through these ideologies of racial hierarchy. John Frederick Lewis's "The Harem" portrays Circassians as the dominant mistresses of the harem, who look down on other women, as implied in the review of the painting in "The Art Journal", which described it as follows:


title: Circassian beauty

text: It represents the interior of a harem and slaves at Cairo, wherein is seated in luxurious ease a young man, attired in the excess of Moslem fashion. Near him, and reclining upon cushions, are two European Circassian women, whom also dressed in the extremity of Egyptian Oriental taste of Cairo ... On the right is seen a tall Nubian eunuch, who removes from the shoulders of an African Black slave the shawl by which she had been covered, in order to show her to the master of the harem; this figure with her high shoulders and the characteristics of her features, is a most successful national impersonation. The Circassian women look languidly to the African with an expression of supreme contempt, which is responded to by a sneer on the face of the Nubian eunuch.


title: Circassian beauty

text: The Circassians became major news during the Caucasian War, in which Russia conquered the North Caucasus, displacing large numbers of Circassians southwards. In 1856 "The New York Times" published a report entitled "Horrible Traffic in Circassian Women – Infanticide in Turkey", asserting that a consequence of the Russian conquest of the Caucasus was an excess of beautiful Circassian women on the Constantinople slave market, and that this was causing prices of slaves in general to plummet. The story drew on ideas of racial hierarchy, stating that:


title: Circassian beauty

text: The temptation to possess a Circassian girl at such low prices is so great in the minds of the Turks that many who cannot afford to keep several slaves have been sending their blacks to market, in order to make room for a newly purchased white girl.


title: Circassian beauty

text: The article also claimed that children born to the "inferior" black concubines were being killed. This story drew widespread attention to the area, as did later conflicts.