title: Vorticity

text: A vortex tube is the surface in the continuum formed by all vortex lines passing through a given (reducible) closed curve in the continuum. The 'strength' of a vortex tube (also called vortex flux) is the integral of the vorticity across a cross-section of the tube, and is the same everywhere along the tube (because vorticity has zero divergence). It is a consequence of Helmholtz's theorems (or equivalently, of Kelvin's circulation theorem) that in an inviscid fluid the 'strength' of the vortex tube is also constant with time. Viscous effects introduce frictional losses and time dependence.


title: Vorticity

text: In a three-dimensional flow, vorticity (as measured by the volume integral of the square of its magnitude) can be intensified when a vortex line is extended — a phenomenon known as vortex stretching. This phenomenon occurs in the formation of a bathtub vortex in outflowing water, and the build-up of a tornado by rising air currents.


title: Vorticity

text: A rotating-vane vorticity meter was invented by Russian hydraulic engineer A. Ya. Milovich (1874–1958). In 1913 he proposed a cork with four blades attached as a device qualitatively showing the magnitude of the vertical projection of the vorticity and demonstrated a motion-picture photography of the float's motion on the water surface in a model of a river bend.


title: Vorticity

text: Rotating-vane vorticity meters are commonly shown in educational films on continuum mechanics (famous examples include the NCFMF's "Vorticity" and "Fundamental Principles of Flow" by Iowa Institute of Hydraulic Research).


title: Vorticity

text: In aerodynamics, the lift distribution over a finite wing may be approximated by assuming that each spanwise segment of the wing has a semi-infinite trailing vortex behind it. It is then possible to solve for the strength of the vortices using the criterion that there be no flow induced through the surface of the wing. This procedure is called the vortex panel method of computational fluid dynamics. The strengths of the vortices are then summed to find the total approximate circulation about the wing. According to the Kutta–Joukowski theorem, lift is the product of circulation, airspeed, and air density.


title: Vorticity

text: The relative vorticity is the vorticity relative to the Earth induced by the air velocity field. This air velocity field is often modeled as a two-dimensional flow parallel to the ground, so that the relative vorticity vector is generally scalar rotation quantity perpendicular to the ground. Vorticity is positive when – looking down onto the earth's surface – the wind turns counterclockwise. In the northern hemisphere, positive vorticity is called cyclonic rotation, and negative vorticity is anticyclonic rotation; the nomenclature is reversed in the Southern Hemisphere.


title: Vorticity

text: The absolute vorticity is computed from the air velocity relative to an inertial frame, and therefore includes a term due to the Earth's rotation, the Coriolis parameter.


title: Vorticity

text: The potential vorticity is absolute vorticity divided by the vertical spacing between levels of constant (potential) temperature (or entropy). The absolute vorticity of an air mass will change if the air mass is stretched (or compressed) in the vertical direction, but the potential vorticity is conserved in an adiabatic flow. As adiabatic flow predominates in the atmosphere, the potential vorticity is useful as an approximate tracer of air masses in the atmosphere over the timescale of a few days, particularly when viewed on levels of constant entropy.


title: Vorticity

text: The barotropic vorticity equation is the simplest way for forecasting the movement of Rossby waves (that is, the troughs and ridges of 500 hPa geopotential height) over a limited amount of time (a few days). In the 1950s, the first successful programs for numerical weather forecasting utilized that equation.


title: Vorticity

text: In modern numerical weather forecasting models and general circulation models (GCMs), vorticity may be one of the predicted variables, in which case the corresponding time-dependent equation is a prognostic equation.


title: Vorticity

text: where the integral is over a given volume formula_27. In atmospheric science, helicity of the air motion is important in forecasting supercells and the potential for tornadic activity.


title: Hopewell tradition

text: The Hopewell tradition, also called the Hopewell culture and Hopewellian exchange, describes a network of precontact Native American cultures that flourished in settlements along rivers in the northeastern and midwestern Eastern Woodlands from 100 BCE to 500 CE, in the Middle Woodland period. The Hopewell tradition was not a single culture or society but a widely dispersed set of populations connected by a common network of trade routes.


title: Hopewell tradition

text: At its greatest extent, the Hopewell exchange system ran from the northern shores of Lake Ontario south to the Crystal River Indian Mounds in modern-day Florida. Within this area, societies exchanged goods and ideas, with the highest amount of activity along waterways, which were the main transportation routes. Peoples within the Hopewell exchange system received materials from all over the territory of what now comprises the mainland United States. Most of the items traded were exotic materials; they were delivered to peoples living in the major trading and manufacturing areas. These people converted raw materials into products and exported them through local and regional exchange networks. Hopewell communities traded finished goods, such as steatite platform pipes, far and wide; they have been found among grave goods in many burials outside the Midwest.


title: Hopewell tradition

text: Although the origins of the Hopewell are still under discussion, the Hopewell culture can also be considered a cultural climax.


title: Hopewell tradition

text: American archaeologist Warren K. Moorehead popularized the term "Hopewell" after his 1891 and 1892 explorations of the Hopewell Mound Group in Ross County, Ohio. The mound group was named after Mordecai Hopewell, whose family then owned the property where the earthworks are sited. What any of the various peoples now classified as Hopewellian called themselves is unknown, indeed, what language families they spoke is unknown. Archaeologists applied the term, Hopewell, to a broad range of cultures. Many of the Hopewell communities were temporary settlements of one to three households near rivers. They practiced a mixture of hunting, gathering, and horticulture.


title: Hopewell tradition

text: The Hopewell inherited from their Adena forebears an incipient social stratification. This increased social stability and reinforced sedentism, social stratification, specialized use of resources, and probably population growth. Hopewell societies cremated most of their deceased and reserved burial for only the most important people. In some sites, hunters apparently were given a higher status in the community: their graves were more elaborate and contained more status goods.


title: Hopewell tradition

text: The Hopewellian peoples had leaders, but they did not command the kind of centralized power to order armies of slaves or soldiers. These cultures likely accorded certain families a special place of privilege. Some scholars suggest that these societies were marked by the emergence of "big-men". These leaders acquired their positions because of their ability to persuade others to agree with them on important matters such as trade and religion. They also perhaps were able to develop influence by the creation of reciprocal obligations with other important members of the community. Whatever the source of their status and power, the emergence of "big-men" was another step toward the development of the highly structured and stratified sociopolitical organization called the chiefdom.


title: Hopewell tradition

text: The Hopewell settlements were linked by extensive and complex trading routes; these operated also as communication networks, and were a means to bring people together for important ceremonies.


title: Hopewell tradition

text: Today, the best-surviving features of the Hopewell tradition era are earthwork mounds. Researchers have speculated about their purposes and debate continues. Great geometric earthworks are one of the most impressive Native American monuments throughout American prehistory, and were built by cultures following the Hopewell. Eastern Woodlands mounds typically have various geometric shapes and rise to impressive heights. Some of the gigantic sculpted earthworks, described as effigy mounds, were constructed in the shape of animals, birds, or writhing serpents. Due to considerable evidence and surveys, plus the good condition of the largest surviving mounds, more information can be obtained.


title: Hopewell tradition

text: Several scientists, including Dr. Bradley T. Lepper, Curator of Archaeology, Ohio Historical Society, hypothesize that the Octagon earthwork, part of the Newark Earthworks at Newark, Ohio, was a lunar observatory. He believes that it is oriented to the 18.6-year cycle of minimum and maximum lunar risings and settings on the local horizon. The Octagon covers more than 50 acres, the size of 100 football pitches. Dr. John Eddy completed an unpublished survey in 1978, and proposed a lunar major alignment for the Octagon. Ray Hively and Robert Horn of Earlham College in Richmond, Indiana, were the first researchers to analyze numerous lunar sightlines at the Newark Earthworks (1982) and the High Banks Works (1984) in Chillicothe, Ohio.


title: Hopewell tradition

text: Christopher Turner noted that the Fairground Circle in Newark, Ohio aligns to the sunrise on May 4, i.e. that it marks the May cross-quarter sunrise. In 1983, Turner demonstrated that the Hopeton earthworks encode various sunrise and moonrise patterns, including the winter and summer solstices, the equinoxes, the cross-quarter days, the lunar maximum events, and the lunar minimum events, due to their precise straight and parallel lines.


title: Hopewell tradition

text: William F. Romain has written a book on the subject of "astronomers, geometers, and magicians" at the earthworks.


title: Hopewell tradition

text: Many of the mounds also contain various types of human burials. Precious grave or burial good have also been found in the mounds. These include objects of adornment made of copper, mica and obsidian, materials imported to the region from hundreds of miles away. Stone and ceramics were also fashioned into intricate shapes.


title: Hopewell tradition

text: The Hopewell created some of the finest craftwork and artwork of the Americas. Most of their works had some religious significance, and their graves were filled with necklaces, ornate carvings made from bone or wood, decorated ceremonial pottery, ear plugs, and pendants. Some graves were lined with woven mats, mica (a mineral consisting of thin glassy sheets), or stones. The Hopewell produced artwork in a greater variety and with more exotic materials than their predecessors the Adena. Grizzly bear teeth, fresh water pearls, sea shells, sharks' teeth, copper, and small quantities of silver were crafted as elegant pieces. The Hopewell artisans were expert carvers of pipestone, and many of the mortuary mounds are full of exquisitely carved statues and pipes.


title: Hopewell tradition

text: Excavation of the Mound of Pipes at Mound City found more than 200 stone smoking pipes; these depicted animals and birds in well-realized three-dimensional form. More than 130 such artifacts were excavated from the Tremper site in Scioto County. Some artwork was made from carved human bones. A rare mask found at Mound City was created using a human skull as a face plate.


title: Hopewell tradition

text: Hopewell artists created both abstract and realistic portrayals of the human form. One tubular pipe is so accurate in form that the model was identified by researchers as an achondroplastic (chondrodystropic) dwarf. Many other figurines are highly detailed in dress, ornamentation, and hairstyles. An example of the abstract human forms is the "Mica Hand" from the Hopewell Site in Ross County, Ohio. Delicately cut from a piece of mica, more than 11 inches long and 6 inches wide, the hand piece was likely worn or carried for public viewing.They would also make beaded work.


title: Hopewell tradition

text: In addition to the noted Ohio Hopewell, a number of other Middle Woodland period cultures are known to have been involved in the Hopewell tradition and participated in the Hopewell exchange network.


title: Hopewell tradition

text: The Armstrong culture was a Hopewell group in the Big Sandy River Valley of northeastern Kentucky and western West Virginia from 1 to 500 CE. They are thought to have been a regional variant of the Hopewell tradition or a Hopewell-influenced Middle Woodland group who had peacefully mingled with the local Adena peoples. Archaeologist Dr. Edward McMichael characterized them as an intrusive Hopewell-like trade culture or a vanguard of Hopewellian tradition that had probably peacefully absorbed the local Adena in the Kanawha River Valley. Their culture and very Late Adena (46PU2) is thought to have slowly evolved into the later Buck Garden people.


title: Hopewell tradition

text: The Copena culture was a Hopewellian culture in northern Alabama, Mississippi, and Tennessee, as well as in other sections of the surrounding region including Kentucky. Researchers developed the Copena name based on the first three letters of copper and the last three letters of the mineral galena, as copper and galena artifacts have often been found with Copena burials.


title: Hopewell tradition

text: During the Middle Woodland period, the Crab Orchard culture population increased from a dispersed and sparsely settled Early Woodland pattern to one consisting of small and large base camps. These were concentrated on terrace and floodplain landforms associated with the Ohio River channel in southern Indiana, southern Illinois, and northwestern and western Kentucky. In the far western limits of Crab Orchard culture is the O'byams Fort site. This large earthwork, shaped like a tuning fork, is reminiscent of Ohio Hopewell enclosures. Examples of a type of pottery decoration found at the Mann site are also known from Hopewell sites in Ohio (such as Seip earthworks, Rockhold, Harness, and Turner), as well as from Southeastern sites with Hopewellian assemblages, such as the Miner's Creek site, Leake Mounds, 9HY98, and Mandeville site in Georgia, and the Yearwood site in southern Tennessee.


title: Hopewell tradition

text: The Goodall focus culture occupied Michigan and northern Indiana from around 200 BCE to 500 CE. The Goodall pattern stretched from the southern tip of Lake Michigan, east across northern Indiana, to the Ohio border, then northward, covering central Michigan, almost reaching to Saginaw Bay on the east and Grand Traverse Bay to the north. The culture is named for the Goodall site in northwest Indiana.


title: Hopewell tradition

text: The Havana Hopewell culture was a Hopewellian people in the Illinois and Mississippi river valleys in Iowa, Illinois, and Missouri. They are considered ancestral to the groups who eventually formed the Mississippian culture that built Cahokia (in present-day southwestern Illinois) and influenced the hinterlands of the Mississippi and Ohio rivers, including into the Appalachian Mountains.


title: Hopewell tradition

text: The Toolesboro site is a group of seven burial mounds on a bluff overlooking the Iowa River near its confluence with the Mississippi River. The conical mounds were constructed between 100 BCE and 200 CE. At one time, as many as 12 mounds may have existed. Mound 2, the largest remaining, measures 100 feet in diameter and 8 feet in height. This mound was possibly the largest Hopewell mound in Iowa.


title: Hopewell tradition

text: At the western edge of the Hopewell interaction sphere is the Kansas City Hopewell. The Renner Village archeological site in Riverside, Missouri, is one of several sites near the junction of Line Creek and the Missouri River. The site contains Hopewell and succeeding Middle Mississippian remains. The Trowbridge archeological site near Kansas City is close to the western limit of the Hopewell. "Hopewell-style" pottery and stone tools, typical of the Illinois and Ohio River valleys, are abundant at the Trowbridge site. Decorated Hopewell-style pottery rarely appears further west.


title: Hopewell tradition

text: The Cloverdale site is situated at the mouth of a small valley that opens into the Missouri River Valley, near present-day Saint Joseph, Missouri. It is a multi-component site with evidence of Kansas City Hopewell (around 100 to 500 CE) and Steed-Kisker (around 1200 CE) occupation.


title: Hopewell tradition

text: The Laurel complex was a Native American culture in what is now southern Quebec, southern and northwestern Ontario, and east-central Manitoba in Canada; and northern Michigan, northwestern Wisconsin, and northern Minnesota in the United States. They were the first pottery-using people of Ontario north of the Trent-Severn Waterway. The complex is named after the former unincorporated community of Laurel, Minnesota.


title: Hopewell tradition

text: The Marksville culture was a Hopewellian culture in the Lower Mississippi valley, Yazoo valley, and Tensas valley areas of present-day Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri, and Arkansas. It evolved into the Baytown culture and later the Coles Creek and Plum Bayou cultures. It is named for the Marksville Prehistoric Indian Site in Marksville, Louisiana.


title: Hopewell tradition

text: The Miller culture was a Hopewellian culture located in the upper Tombigbee River drainage areas of southwestern Tennessee, northeastern Mississippi, and west-central Alabama, best known from excavations at the Pinson Mounds, Bynum Mounds, Miller (type site), and Pharr Mounds sites. The culture is divided chronologically into two phases, Miller 1 and Miller 2, with a later Miller 3 belonging to the Late Woodland period. Some sites associated with the Miller culture, such as Ingomar Mound and Pinson Mounds on its western periphery, built large platform mounds. Archaeologist speculate the mounds were for feasting rituals. With that purpose, they fundamentally differed from later Mississippian culture platform mounds, which were mortuary and substructure platforms. By the end of the Late Woodland period, about 1000CE, the Miller culture area was absorbed into the succeeding Mississippian culture.


title: Hopewell tradition

text: The Montane Hopewell on the Tygart Valley area, an upper branch of the Monongahela River of northern West Virginia, is similar to Armstrong. The pottery and cultural characteristics are also similar to late Ohio Hopewell. They occurred during the neighboring Watson through Buck Garden periods of peoples to the south and westerly in the state. Montane Hopewell is a variant that is a considerable distance from Cole Culture and Peters Phase, or Hopewell central Ohio. According to Dr. McMichael, the culture built small, conical mounds in the late Hopewell period; this religion appeared to be waning in terms of being expressed in the daily living activities at these sites. The influence of an elite priest cult, burial phase was centered toward the Midwest states and was less important here.


title: Hopewell tradition

text: The greatest concentration of Hopewell ceremonial sites is in the Scioto River Valley (from Columbus to Portsmouth, Ohio) and adjacent Paint Creek valley, centered on Chillicothe, Ohio. These cultural centers typically contained a burial mound and a geometric earthwork complex that covers ten to hundreds of acres, with sparse residential settlements. There is little evidence of large resident populations at the monument complexes.


title: Hopewell tradition

text: The Hopewell Culture National Historical Park, encompassing mounds for which the culture is named, is in the Paint Creek Valley just a few miles from Chillicothe, Ohio. Other earthworks in the Chillicothe area include Hopeton, Mound City, Seip Earthworks and Dill Mounds District, High Banks Works, Liberty, Cedar-Bank Works, Anderson, Frankfort, Dunlap, Spruce Hill, Story Mound, and Shriver Circle. When colonial settlers first crossed the Appalachians, after almost a century and a half in North America, they were astounded at these monumental constructions, some of which were as high as 70 feet and covering acres.


title: Hopewell tradition

text: The Portsmouth Earthworks were constructed from 100 BCE to 500 CE. It is a large ceremonial center located at the confluence of the Scioto and Ohio rivers. Part of this earthwork complex extends across the Ohio River into Kentucky. The earthworks included a northern section consisting of a number of circular enclosures, two large, horseshoe-shaped enclosures, and three sets of parallel-walled roads leading away from this location. One set of walls went to the southwest and may have linked to a large square enclosure located on the Kentucky side of the Ohio River. Another set of walls led to the southeast, where it crossed the Ohio River and continued to the Biggs site, a complicated circular enclosure surrounding a conical mound. The third set of walls went to the northwest for an undetermined distance, in the direction of the Tremper site.


title: Hopewell tradition

text: The Point Peninsula complex was a Native American culture located in present-day Ontario, Canada and New York, United States, during the Middle Woodland period. It is thought to have been influenced by the Hopewell traditions of the Ohio River valley. This influence seems to have ended about 250 CE, after which burial ceremonialism was no longer practiced.


title: Hopewell tradition

text: The Saugeen complex was a Native American culture located around the southeast shores of Lake Huron and the Bruce Peninsula, around the London, Ontario area, and possibly as far east as the Grand River in Canada. Some evidence exists that the Saugeen complex people of the Bruce Peninsula may have evolved into the historic Odawa people, also known as the Ottawa.


title: Hopewell tradition

text: The Swift Creek culture was a Middle Woodland period archaeological culture in the southeast of the United States (present-day Georgia, Alabama, Florida, South Carolina, and Tennessee) dating to around 100–700 CE.


title: Hopewell tradition

text: The Wilhelm culture (1 to 500 CE), Hopewellian influenced, appeared in the northern panhandle of West Virginia. They were contemporaneous to Armstrong central in the Big Sandy valley, nearly 200 miles downstream on the Ohio River. They were surrounded by peoples who made Watson-styled pottery, with a Z-twist cordage finished surface. Wilhelm pottery was similar to Armstrong pottery, but not as well made. Pipe fragments appear to be the platform-base type.


title: Hopewell tradition

text: Small earthwork mounds were built around individual burials in stone-lined graves (cists). These were covered over together under a single large mound.


title: Hopewell tradition

text: Little studied are their four reported village sites, which appear to have been abandoned by about 500 CE. Today, new local researchers are looking at this area period and may provide future insight.


title: Hopewell tradition

text: Around 500 CE, the Hopewell exchange ceased, mound building stopped, and art forms were no longer produced. War is a possible cause, as villages dating to the Late Woodland period shifted to larger communities; they built defensive fortifications of palisade walls and ditches. Colder climatic conditions could have driven game animals north or west, as weather would have a detrimental effect on plant life, drastically cutting the subsistence base for these foods. The introduction of the bow and arrow, by improving hunts, may have caused stress on already depleted food populations. This may have been another reason for people to live in larger, more permanent communities for protection, as warfare became more deadly. With fewer people using trade routes, there was no longer a network linking people to the Hopewell traditions. The breakdown in societal organization could also have been the result of adoption of full-scale agriculture. Conclusive reasons for the evident dispersal of the people have not yet been determined.


title: Heterodoxy

text: In religion, heterodoxy (from Ancient Greek: , "other, another, different" + , "popular belief") means "any opinions or doctrines at variance with an official or orthodox position". Under this definition, heterodoxy is similar to unorthodoxy, while the adjective 'heterodox' could be applied to a dissident.


title: Heterodoxy

text: Heterodoxy is also an ecclesiastical term of art, defined in various ways by different religions and churches. For example, in the apostolic churches (the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Roman Catholic Church, the Church of the East, the Anglican Communion, and the Oriental Orthodox Churches), heterodoxy may describe beliefs that differ from strictly orthodox views, but that fall short either of formal or of material heresy.


title: Heterodoxy

text: In the Eastern Orthodox Church, the term is used primarily in reference to Christian churches and denominations not belonging to the communion of Eastern Orthodox churches and espousing doctrines contrary to the received Holy Tradition. It also describes any theological position, moral principle, spiritual practice, or lifestyle thought to be inconsistent with the Catholic Rule of Faith. In general, this term is used in two distinct senses:


title: Heterodoxy

text: Heterodoxy in the Roman Catholic Church refers to views that differ from strictly orthodox views, but retain sufficient faithfulness to the original doctrine to avoid heresy. Many Roman Catholics profess some heterodox views, either on doctrinal or social issues.


title: Heterodoxy

text: Many Protestants, such as Lutherans, consider Christian teachings which are not in agreement with their understanding of scripture to be heterodoxical. As Charles Spurgeon says:


title: Heterodoxy

text: [Y]ou shall find spiritual life in every church. I know it is the notion of the bigot, that all the truly godly people belong to the denomination which he adorns. Orthodoxy is my doxy; heterodoxy is anybody else's doxy who does not agree with me.


title: Heterodoxy

text: The Arabic word is used by Shia Muslims for beliefs perceived as being extremely heterodox (more in line with the Christian use of the word "heresy"). In particular, the term is used to describe the beliefs of minority Muslim groups who ascribe divine characteristics to a member of Muhammad's family (especially Ali) or the early companions of the Prophet such as Salman the Persian. The assumption is that the groups thus described have gone too far and have come to associate them with God ().


title: Heterodoxy

text: Sunni and Shia Muslims see each other as heterodox, differing in practice mainly on matters of jurisprudence or , splitting historically on the matter of the succession of Ali to the caliphate by Muawiyah. A third and much smaller movement is Ibadi, which differ from both of these groups on a few key points. Several ultra-orthodox groups such as the Wahhabis, in turn, see themselves as the only truly orthodox groups within Islam.


title: Heterodoxy

text: The Shia Ismailis, who in turn split from the Shia mainstream of Twelvers over another succession dispute, have subsumed several groups which the majority of Muslims view as heterodox, such as the Seveners, and gnostic-influenced Alawites, and many other sects and subsects. The gnostic-influenced Druze sect has also been affiliated with the Ismailis, but some of its followers go so far as to see it as a distinct religion altogether. The Sufis, divided into many sects and orders, incorporate many mystical doctrines and rituals into Islam, but many also consider themselves Shi'i or Sunnis. Another Shia group, influenced heavily by the Sufis, Turkic religion and other mystical movements, is that of the Alevi. Historical groups viewed as highly heterodox by most Muslims include the Kharijites, who took a third view on Ali's succession (and are today succeeded by the Ibadi), the Mu'tazilites, who most famously asserted that the Qur'an was created, a view which enjoyed Caliphal approval before the time of Mutawakkil, the Qarmatians, a branch of the Seveners within Ismaili Islam who took control of much of the Arabian peninsula in the 9th and 10th century, practiced vegetarianism, attacked Hajj pilgrims and took control of the Well of Zamzam and the Black Stone before their decline, and the Hashashin or Assassins, another Ismaili group, famous for their reclusive lifestyle, manners of indoctrination and assassinations in the years after the First Crusade.


title: Heterodoxy

text: According to Philip Hitti, during the Umayyad and Abbasid caliphates there was a marked tendency among several quite unrelated heterodox groups to affiliate themselves with the Shiites, particularly the Ismailis, in a general feeling of heterodox solidarity in a Sunni-controlled empire. The cause of the Alids thus became a rallying point for a diverse range of heterodox Islamic movements. The view that Ali was divine, though never mainstream within Shiism, is attested in the early centuries of Islam.


title: Heterodoxy

text: Two more recent movements seen as particularly at odds with the majority Muslim view are the Ahmadiyya and Nation of Islam movements. Many followers of the former consider its 19th century founder, Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, to have been a prophet, as well as such other religious figures as Krishna and Buddha, despite the mainstream Muslim view that Muhammad was the last. Both Ahmadi denominations consider Ahmad to have been the Mahdi and second coming of Jesus. The Nation of Islam is a movement which acknowledges its 20th century founder, Wallace Fard Muhammad, as an incarnation of Allah, a view most Muslims consider (polytheism). Bábism (most followers of which came to follow Baha'u'llah and became the Baháʼí Faith and were further divided into many sects) is viewed by many non-followers as originally having been a highly divergent movement within the Twelver Ismailism practiced in 19th century Persia. Beyond heterodoxy, many elements of Islam have been incorporated into distinct belief systems several times, most specifically into Sikhism and the Baháʼí Faith, whose predecessor movement was Bábism.


title: Heterodoxy

text: The main schools of Indian philosophy that reject the absoluteness of Vedas, including Buddhism and Jainism, were regarded as heterodox by Hindusim. In 2015, the Supreme Court of India ruled that Hinduism cannot be narrowed down to particular beliefs or doctrine, saying that it "incorporates all forms of belief without mandating the selection or elimination of any one single belief".


title: Heterodoxy

text: In late 1999, legislation was created in China to outlaw "heterodox religions". This was applied retroactively to Falun Gong, a spiritual practice introduced to the public in China by Li Hongzhi () in 1992.


title: Heterodoxy

text: Heterodox economics refers to schools of economic thought considered outside of mainstream economics, referred to as orthodox economics, often represented by expositors as contrasting with or going beyond neoclassical economics.


title: Heterodoxy

text: Heterodox economics refers to the consideration of a variety of economic schools and methodologies, which can include neoclassical or other orthodox economics in part. Heterodox economics refers to a variety of separate unorthodox approaches or schools such as institutional, post-Keynesian, socialist, Marxian, feminist, Georgist, Austrian, ecological, and social economics, among others.


title: Roberto Osuna

text: Roberto Osuna Quintero Jr. (born February 7, 1995) is a Mexican professional baseball pitcher for the Fukuoka SoftBank Hawks of Nippon Professional Baseball (NPB). He has played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the Toronto Blue Jays and Houston Astros.


title: Roberto Osuna

text: Osuna was signed by the Blue Jays out of Mexico as a 16-year-old, and played three seasons in their minor league organization. On April 8, 2015, at 20 years of age he became the youngest pitcher to appear in a game for the organization, and the first player born in 1995 to play in Major League Baseball. In 2017 he was an American League All Star. In 2018, he was suspended for 75 games for violating the league's policy on domestic assault. In 2019 he led the American League with 38 saves.


title: Roberto Osuna

text: Osuna was born in Juan José Ríos, Sinaloa, Mexico. At age 11 he dropped out of school to pick vegetables to help support his family. When he was 16 years old the Toronto Blue Jays signed him with a $1.5 million signing bonus.


title: Roberto Osuna

text: Osuna made his professional baseball debut with the Diablos Rojos del México of the Mexican League in 2011. In 13 appearances totaling 19 innings, he pitched to a 0–1 record, 5.49 earned run average (ERA), and 12 strikeouts.


title: Roberto Osuna

text: In August 2011, Osuna was acquired by the Blue Jays for $1.5 million. He began the 2012 season with the Bluefield Blue Jays of the Appalachian League, but was promoted to the Vancouver Canadians of the Northwest League after posting a 1–0 record with a 1.50 earned run average in seven appearances (four starts). He made his Canadians debut on July 28, 2012, striking out a franchise-record 13 batters over five innings pitched. In total, Osuna pitched 43 innings in 2012, and posted a 2–0 record, 2.27 ERA, and 49 strikeouts.


title: Roberto Osuna

text: On January 29, 2013, Osuna was ranked 90th on MLB's Top 100 Prospects list. He started the 2013 season with the Class-A Lansing Lugnuts of the Midwest League. On May 9, 2013, it was announced that Osuna had torn his ulnar collateral ligament, an injury that usually requires Tommy John surgery. He met with Dr. James Andrews, and was advised to rest and rehab the injury, rather than undergo surgery. Osuna returned from the disabled list on June 9, and pitched five shutout innings for Lansing. Despite his attempt to rehab his elbow, Osuna underwent Tommy John surgery in late June. On July 26, he was ranked 58th on MLB's revised Top 100 Prospects list, and the number two prospect in the Blue Jays organization.


title: Roberto Osuna

text: Osuna made his first rehab appearance since the procedure on July 8, 2014, and pitched one inning for the Gulf Coast League Blue Jays. He was then promoted to the High-A Dunedin Blue Jays and made seven starts before the end of the season, posting a 0–2 record, a 6.55 ERA, and 30 strikeouts in 22 innings pitched. In the 2015 preseason prospect rankings, he was named the number six prospect in the Blue Jays organization by MLB.


title: Roberto Osuna

text: Osuna was invited to spring training in 2015 as a non-roster invitee. While initially not expecting to have any chance at making the major league team out of camp, Osuna impressed Blue Jays management through the first half of the spring. On March 22, he started a game against the Tampa Bay Rays and pitched 3 scoreless innings. After Steve Delabar was optioned to minor league camp on March 26, it was reported that Osuna would likely make the Opening Day roster as a reliever. His position on the roster was confirmed on March 31.


title: Roberto Osuna

text: Osuna made his Major League debut in a game against the New York Yankees on April 8, 2015, striking out Alex Rodriguez and getting Stephen Drew to flyout. In making his debut, Osuna became the youngest pitcher to appear in a Major League game for Toronto, at 20 years and 60 days old. Through the first month of the season, Osuna became the most reliable arm in the bullpen for the Blue Jays, posting a 1.38 ERA through his first 10 appearances. He earned his first win on May 18, pitching 1 scoreless innings in a 10–6 victory over the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim. In doing so, Osuna became the youngest pitcher to earn a win for the Blue Jays, at 20 years and 100 days old. He earned his first career save on June 22, closing out an 8–5 win over the Tampa Bay Rays. On August 7, Osuna became the youngest player in MLB history to record an extra-innings save, when he closed out a 2–1 win over the New York Yankees in the tenth inning. Osuna finished the 2015 regular season with a 1–6 record, 20 saves, 2.58 ERA, and 75 strikeouts in 69 innings pitched, and was the youngest player in the AL.


title: Roberto Osuna

text: In the 2015 American League Division Series, Osuna recorded a five-out save in the fifth and final game, and in doing so became the youngest pitcher in American League history to record a save in the postseason, as well as the second-youngest to do so in MLB history, behind Don Gullett in 1970. Osuna pitched in 4 of the 5 ALDS games, and did not allow a baserunner in 5 innings pitched. He finished fourth in American League Rookie of the Year, receiving two second-place votes and two third-place votes.


title: Roberto Osuna

text: During the offseason, the Blue Jays acquired reliever Drew Storen, who had been the Washington Nationals' closer for part of the 2015 season. After a competition between Osuna and Storen for the closer's role in spring training, manager John Gibbons announced on March 30 that Osuna would begin the season as the Blue Jays closer. He earned his first save of the season on April 3 (Opening Day), sealing a 5–3 win for Marcus Stroman. At the age of , he became the youngest pitcher in MLB history to record an Opening Day save. On August 13, Osuna closed out a 4–2 win over the Houston Astros to earn the 46th save of his career, which tied the mark set by Terry Forster for saves recorded before the age of 22. He would break the tie with Forster on August 17, saving a 7–4 win over the New York Yankees. Osuna earned his 30th save of the 2016 season on September 4, becoming the 11th pitcher in franchise history to record 30 saves in a season. The save was also the 50th of his career, making him the youngest pitcher in MLB history to reach 50 saves.


title: Roberto Osuna

text: Osuna finished the 2016 regular season with a 4–3 record, 2.68 ERA, 82 strikeouts, and 36 saves (6th in the AL) in 74 innings pitched over 72 games (4th) as he finished 61 games (2nd) and was the 4th-youngest player in the AL. In the postseason, he added nine innings and did not allow a run. He also earned his first career postseason win, pitching two perfect innings in the Blue Jays' decisive Game 3 victory of the ALDS


title: Roberto Osuna

text: Osuna was diagnosed with a cervical spasm late in spring training and started the 2017 season on the 10-day disabled list. On June 24, it was revealed that Osuna was dealing with an anxiety issue. To that point in the season, he had recorded 19 saves and a 2.48 ERA, and had become the youngest player in MLB history to reach 75 career saves. Osuna made his return to the mound the following day, pitching the final inning of the Blue Jays' 8–2 victory over the Kansas City Royals. On July 7, Osuna was added to the American League roster for the 2017 Major League Baseball All-Star Game. Osuna earned his 35th save of the season on August 31, and in doing so, became the first player in franchise history to have back-to-back seasons with at least 35 saves. He finished the season with 39 saves (2nd in the AL) and a 3–4 record, 3.38 ERA, and 83 strikeouts in 64 innings (11.7 per 9 innings) as he finished 58 games (2nd). However, he led the majors in blown saves, with 10.


title: Roberto Osuna

text: Osuna was unable to come to an agreement on a contract with the Blue Jays for 2018, leading to salary arbitration. On February 3, he lost his case with the Blue Jays and was signed to a one-year, $5.3 million contract. Osuna recorded his 100th career save in Toronto's 2–1 win over the Baltimore Orioles on April 10. In doing so, he became the youngest pitcher in MLB history to reach 100 saves. On June 22, Osuna was suspended for 75 games, retroactive to May 8, due to violating the league's policy on domestic assault.


title: Roberto Osuna

text: On July 30, 2018, the Blue Jays traded Osuna to the Houston Astros for pitchers Ken Giles, Héctor Pérez, and David Paulino. The Astros reinstated him to their active roster on August 5. He was loudly booed in his first appearance in Toronto as a member of the Astros. In 2018, between the two teams he was 2-2 with 21 saves and a 2.37 ERA.


title: Roberto Osuna

text: In 2019, Osuna led the American League with 38 saves and 56 games finished. He also recorded a 2.63 ERA and 73 strikeouts in 65 innings. His 154 career saves at season's end were 10th-most among all active pitchers.


title: Roberto Osuna

text: On August 4, 2020, it was announced that Osuna was recommended to need Tommy John surgery. However, Osuna opted not to have the surgery and take the rest-and-rehab route instead. On October 29, 2020, Osuna was placed on outright waivers by the Astros and became a free agent.


title: Roberto Osuna

text: On May 11, 2021, Osuna signed with the Diablos Rojos del México of the Mexican League. He finished the season with a 3–0 record, 1.09 ERA, and 12 saves over 24.2 innings pitched. In 2022, Osuna registered a 2–0 record with a 1.35 ERA and 6 saves over 13.1 innings. On May 31, 2022, Osuna was placed on the reserve list in order to pursue an opportunity in Asia.


title: Roberto Osuna

text: At the age of 12, Osuna quit school to help support his family, picking vegetables with his father, also named Roberto, who pitched in the Mexican League for 22 seasons and taught him to pitch while instructing him after the workday. Osuna's uncle, Antonio, pitched in Major League Baseball for 11 seasons, mostly with the Los Angeles Dodgers.


title: Roberto Osuna

text: On May 8, 2018, Osuna was arrested by Toronto police and charged with assault. He allegedly assaulted Alejandra Roman Cota, the mother of his 3-year-old son. Roman Cota was visiting Toronto with their child. She returned to Mexico shortly afterward and refused to return to Toronto. Due to Roman Cota's refusal to testify, the prosecution withdrew the charge against Osuna in exchange for a peace bond, mandating that for one year he not have contact with the alleged victim without her consent. According to Toronto police sources Roman Cota expressed her intention to resume contact with Osuna.He was placed on administrative leave by MLB commissioner Rob Manfred.


title: Roberto Osuna

text: On June 22, 2018, he received a 75-game suspension without pay for violating the league's domestic violence policy, retroactive to May 8.


title: University of New Brunswick

text: The University of New Brunswick (UNB) is a public university with two primary campuses in Fredericton and Saint John, New Brunswick. It is the oldest English-language university in Canada, and among the oldest public universities in North America. UNB was founded by a group of seven Loyalists who left the United States after the American Revolution.


title: University of New Brunswick

text: UNB has two main campuses: the original campus, founded in 1785 in Fredericton, and a smaller campus which opened in Saint John in 1964. The Saint John campus is home to New Brunswick's anglophone medical school, Dalhousie Medicine New Brunswick, an affiliate of Dalhousie University. In addition, there are two small satellite health sciences campuses located in Moncton and Bathurst, New Brunswick, and two offices in the Caribbean and in Beijing. UNB offers over 75 degrees in fourteen faculties at the undergraduate and graduate levels with a total student enrolment of approximately 9,700 between the two principal campuses. UNB was named the most entrepreneurial university in Canada at the 2014 Startup Canada Awards.


title: University of New Brunswick

text: The University of New Brunswick has educated numerous Canadian federal cabinet ministers including Sir John Douglas Hazen, William Pugsley and Gerald Merrithew, many Premiers of New Brunswick such as Frank McKenna and Blaine Higgs, two puisne justices of the Supreme Court of Canada, Oswald Smith Crocket and Gérard La Forest, as well as prominent artists and writers. UNB had ties to the Confederation Poets movement; Bliss Carman and Sir Charles G.D. Roberts were alumni.


title: University of New Brunswick

text: In 1783, Loyalist settlers began to build upon the ruins of a former Acadian village called Ste-Anne-des-Pays-Bas. The new settlement was named Frederick's Town in honour of Prince Frederick, son of King George III and uncle of Queen Victoria.


title: University of New Brunswick

text: Initially modelled on the Anglican ideals of older, European institutions, the University of New Brunswick was founded in 1785 as the Academy of Liberal Arts and Sciences. The petition requesting the establishment of the school, titled "The Founders' Petition of 1785," was addressed to Governor Thomas Carleton and was signed by seven Loyalist men: William Paine, William Wanton, George Sproule, Zephaniah Kingsley, Sr., John Coffin, Ward Chipman, and Adino Paddock.


title: University of New Brunswick

text: By an 1800 provincial charter, signed by Jonathan Odell, the Academy of Liberal Arts and Sciences became the College of New Brunswick. The college was succeeded by King's College, which was granted by royal charter in December 1827. King's College operated under the control of the Church of England until 1859, when it was made non-sectarian by an act of the provincial legislature that transformed the college into the University of New Brunswick. In 1866, Mary Kingsley Tibbits became the first regularly admitted female student of UNB. By 1867, the University of New Brunswick had two faculties: Arts and Applied Science. It awarded the degrees of Bachelor of Arts, Bachelor of Science, Master of Arts, and Doctor of Science. The latter was awarded only in the fields of civil engineering, electrical engineering, and forestry.


title: University of New Brunswick

text: UNB was one of only two schools in Canada in the late 1800s that offered a Forestry Engineering degree (the other being the University of Toronto). So when the federal government began creating Dominion Forests on federal land in Western Canada between 1899 and 1906, most of the first Forest Rangers were from UNB.


title: University of New Brunswick

text: In 1906, UNB established a bicameral system of university government consisting of a senate responsible for academic policy, and a board of governors exercising exclusive control over financial policy and other matters. The president, appointed by the board, was to provide a link between the two bodies and to provide institutional leadership. At this time, the university had 156 male students, 21 female students, and only eleven academic staff, who were all male.


title: University of New Brunswick

text: In 1964, a second, smaller campus was established in Saint John, New Brunswick. The growth of the UNBSJ campus is particularly notable, for the campus began with only 96 students spread throughout various buildings in Saint John's central business district. In 1968, UNBSJ moved to its new home at Tucker Park.


title: University of New Brunswick

text: In 1968 the university's governance structure was reorganized with the aim of giving faculty members control of academic affairs. The UNB Act of 1968 led to the formation of two governing bodies, both chaired by the president. The Board of Governors, whose role was to oversee and give guidance to president as "chief executive officer" was to have four faculty representatives, while the majority of the Senate was to be made up of faculty members elected by their peers.


title: University of New Brunswick

text: The Association of University of New Brunswick Teachers (AUNBT) was established in 1954; in 1979, this association became the bargaining agent for all full-time academic staff, and in 2008, it achieved certification for contract academic staff.


title: University of New Brunswick

text: In 1959, the Faculty of Law moved from Saint John to Fredericton following a report on the status of legal education in Canada by Professor Maxwell Cohen from McGill University. In his report, Cohen stated that the Saint John Law School was only "nominally a faculty of UNB". This prompted Lord Beaverbrook, as Chancellor, and UNB President Colin B. Mackay, to permanently move the Saint John Law School to the UNB Fredericton campus, despite the Dean's objections.


title: University of New Brunswick

text: In March 1969 UNB was censured by the Canadian Association of University Teachers (CAUT) because of its suspension of Norman Strax, a physics professor who had led protests in September 1968 against the introduction of photo id cards. The censure was lifted after the university agreed to engage in arbitration with Strax. Among the "tumultuous events" of the 1968–69 academic year were the occupation by Strax's supporters of his office in Loring Bailey Hall and the prosecution and jailing of a student journalist over an article in the "Brunswickan".


title: University of New Brunswick

text: In the fall of 2007, a report commissioned by the provincial government recommended that UNBSJ and the New Brunswick Community College be reformed and consolidated into a new polytechnic post-secondary institute. The proposal immediately came under heavy criticism and led to the several organized protests. Under heavy fire from the public, the Graham government eventually announced that it would set aside the possibility of UNB Saint John losing its status as a university and would refer the report to a working group for further study. The government would go on to announce in January that UNBSJ would retain its liberal arts program and its association with UNB and the working group reported back to government in May, with its findings and government's response being made public in June.


title: University of New Brunswick

text: Currently UNBF has approximately 9,000 students, while UNBSJ has 3,000. Though UNBF has more students at the moment, UNBSJ is growing at a faster rate. Both campuses have undergone significant expansion over the years, and many university buildings have received funding from Lord Beaverbrook and other prominent industrialists and philanthropists. UNB's largest expansion coincided with the baby boom, when its Fredericton campus tripled in size.


title: University of New Brunswick

text: The UNB Fredericton campus is located on a hill overlooking the Saint John River. The campus is well known for its colourful fall foliage, Georgian style red-brick buildings, and a very steep hill. UNB Fredericton has shared the "College Hill" with St. Thomas University (STU) since 1964, when the former St. Thomas College moved from Chatham, NB (now Miramichi). While the universities share some infrastructure, they remain separate institutions.


title: University of New Brunswick

text: Architect G. Ernest Fairweather designed several of the campus buildings, including the Old Civil Engineering Building (1900) and the Gymnasium (1906). In addition, several of the stained glass windows in the Convocation Hall were created by Robert McCausland Limited.


title: University of New Brunswick

text: UNBF's War Memorial Hall (usually referred to as Memorial Hall), originally built as a science building in 1924, honours the 35 UNB Alumni who died in World War I.


title: University of New Brunswick

text: UNBF's Brigadier Milton F. Gregg, V.C., Centre for the Study of War and Society (usually referred to as The Gregg Centre) was created in 2006.


title: University of New Brunswick

text: Two buildings on the Fredericton campus have been designated National Historic Sites of Canada: the 1827 Sir Howard Douglas Hall (the Old Arts Building), and the 1851 William Brydone Jack Observatory.


title: University of New Brunswick

text: The UNB Saint John campus (UNBSJ) is located in Tucker Park in the Millidgeville neighbourhood, several kilometres north of the city's central business district, and has views of the Kennebecasis River and Grand Bay. New Brunswick's largest health care facility, Saint John Regional Hospital, is located adjacent to the UNBSJ campus. Since 2010, the UNBSJ campus has been home to Dalhousie Medicine New Brunswick, a medical school that operates as a partnership between the Government of New Brunswick, the University of New Brunswick and Dalhousie’s Faculty of Medicine.


title: University of New Brunswick

text: The Saint John campus has undergone expansion over the years and is the fastest growing component of the UNB system with many new buildings constructed between the 1970s and the first decade of the 21st century. A trend in recent years has been a growth in the number of international students.


title: University of New Brunswick

text: Notable differences from its parent campus in Fredericton lay in the campus culture. While UNB Fredericton has a substantial number of students living in its on-campus residences, this is not the case for UNBSJ. The majority of students do not live within walking distance of the campus due to its remote location, so unlike Fredericton, Saint John is predominantly a "commuter campus".


title: University of New Brunswick

text: Construction on the Hans W. Klohn Commons began on April 1, 2010, and the building officially opened on September 7, 2011. This building is one of the most environmentally friendly buildings in Atlantic Canada. The building features an electric elevator that produces power for the commons. The building is part of the Tucker Park enhancement project, which includes the refurbishment of the Canada Games Stadium, the new Dalhousie Medicine New Brunswick facility, and the New Brunswick Community College's Allied Health building. The Commons houses the library, Writing Centre, Math and Science Help Centre, an IT help desk, and the Commons Cafe.


title: University of New Brunswick

text: A new residence building, named the Barry and Flora Beckett Residence, which opened in Winter 2021, is a geothermally-heated building, offering 104 beds. This new residence building is named after the Becketts; two prominent figures in the campus' history. Dr Barry Beckett taught as a chemistry professor all the way back when UNB Saint John was just a campus in uptown Saint John, while Dr Flora Beckett taught mathematics and served as the director of the Math Help Centre. With the announcement of the Integrated Health Initiative (IHI), the campus is set to reconstruct the currently (unused) Ward Chipman Library into the new Health and Social Innovation Centre.


title: University of New Brunswick

text: There are over 75 undergraduate programs, while the School of Graduate Studies offers course and research-based programs in over 30 fields. UNB has a 16:1 student-to-faculty ratio.


title: University of New Brunswick

text: UNB is the seat of 14 Canada Research Chairs and is home to more than 60 research centres and institutes. It conducts about 75 per cent of all university research in the province. UNB's annual research spending (2013–14) generated $32.2 million in added provincial income for the New Brunswick economy. Between 2004 and 2009, the university's research revenue increased by 77 per cent: the highest increase among Canadian comprehensive universities.


title: University of New Brunswick

text: UNB has developed technology used by Google, is a research partner with the NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory, is a global leader in powered prosthetic research and developing MRI technology, and is home to one of the motion analysis labs in North America as well as the world's first research centre in dermoskeletics.


title: University of New Brunswick

text: In 2021, UNB was awarded 5 stars from the "QS World University Rankings", the second university in Atlantic Canada to receive this rating.


title: University of New Brunswick

text: In "Maclean's" 2023 "comprehensive university" rankings, UNB ranked eigth out of 15 universities, tied with Toronto Metropolitan University.


title: University of New Brunswick

text: In 2014, UNB was awarded the most entrepreneurial university in Canada by Startup Canada. The university has also supported in launching 23 new startup companies as of 2015.


title: University of New Brunswick

text: In 2012, UNB's law school was ranked second nationally in elite firm hiring by "Maclean's". According to Canadian Lawyer Magazine, the law school ranks among the top five in Canada.


title: University of New Brunswick

text: In 2008, the "National Post" and the "Ottawa Citizen" recognized UNB as being among the top three comprehensive research universities in Canada for the highest percentage growth of research income across a five-year period.


title: University of New Brunswick

text: Because so many of UNB's students, alumni, and professors have produced celebrated poetry, the city of Fredericton has earned the nickname "Poets' Corner." Two of Canada's four Confederation Poets – Sir Charles G.D. Roberts and Bliss Carman – were educated at UNB, as was Francis Joseph Sherman, along with a number of notable 20th- and 21st-century Canadian writers. In 1947, the Historic Sites and Monuments Board of Canada unveiled a "Poet's Corner" monument in honour of Carman, Roberts, and Sherman.


title: University of New Brunswick

text: The Institute of Biomedical Engineering (IBME) on the Fredericton campus is one of the research institutes in biomedical engineering in Canada. It was founded in 1965 as the Bio-Engineering Institute, making it one of the oldest research institutes to be solely dedicated to the field of biomedical engineering. The institute is also the region's prosthetic fitting centre where amputees are fitted with "intelligent" artificial limbs. The institute also carries out research in the field of myoelectric signal processing, biomedical instrumentation and human motion analysis. The IBME also developed the UNB Test of Prosthetic Function which is used by researchers all over the world. Although the institute does not offer degrees in biomedical engineering, students at UNB usually enrol in one of the other faculties of engineering such as electrical or mechanical and pursue their research in biomedical engineering at the IBME.


title: University of New Brunswick

text: The Canadian Rivers Institute was founded in 2000 and is a site of river sciences research. The mandate of the CRI is to conduct both multi-disciplinary basic and applied research focusing on rivers from their headwaters to their estuaries, to promote the conservation, protection and sustainable use of water, and to educate professionals, graduate students and the public on water sciences. Members of the CRI conduct research on regional, national and international issues related to rivers and their land-water linkages.


title: University of New Brunswick

text: With researchers from both UNB campuses, the CRI develops the aquatic science needed to understand, protect and sustain water resources. Since 2013, the CRI and its partners have been working with NB Power to research the potential environmental impacts of the future options being considered for the Mactaquac Generating Station. The Mactaquac Dam on the Saint John River will reach the end of its lifespan by 2030, and CRI has been evaluating key environmental challenges such as river health, fish passage and flow management. In 2015, CRI was given an additional $2.8 million from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council (NSERC) to conduct an aquatic ecosystem study on the Saint John River.


title: University of New Brunswick

text: In 2021, Parks Canada announced their first research chair in aquatic restoration, carrying out Atlantic salmon recovery research with researchers from the Canadian Rivers Institute.


title: University of New Brunswick

text: UNB created its BEd program for First Nations students in 1977 in an effort to help First Nations communities take control of their own schools. In 1981, the Mi'kmaq-Maliseet Institute (MMI), the former name of the MWC, opened its doors with an expanded mandate to train professionals and improve First Nations access to First Nations education. The Institute provided a variety of services, including research, curriculum development, language education, policy development, children's literacy, and more. In addition, the Institute funded the Mi'kmaq-Maliseet Resource Collection, which contains materials that are immensely valuable to knowledge of First Nations culture, history, and perspective in the region.


title: University of New Brunswick

text: The Canadian Research Institute for Social Policy was founded in 1996 as the Atlantic Centre for Policy Research, supported by the Canadian Institute For Advanced Research. The name change took effect in January, 2000. The institute was designated as a Statistics Canada Research Data Centre in 2002. The institute brings interdisciplinary researchers together to focus on issues pertaining to social policy on a national and international level, specifically issues relevant to children and youth development. Projects included the New Brunswick Schools Early Literacy Initiative; Mapping Literacy as a Determinant of Healt;, Raising and Leveling the Bar: A Collaborative Research Initiative on Children's Learning, Behavioural, and Health Outcomes; and the Confident Learners Initiative.


title: University of New Brunswick

text: The Faculty of Engineering at UNB is the first to offer engineering degrees in Canada. It has five departments and offers seven accredited engineering programmes in Civil Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Electrical, Geomatics Engineering, Geological Engineering (jointly offered with the Faculty of Science), Mechanical Engineering, and Software Engineering (jointly offered with the Faculty of Computer Science). The faculty had 920 full-time equivalent students as of Winter 2021.


title: University of New Brunswick

text: The University of New Brunswick's Medical Training Centre is the first anglophone school of medicine in New Brunswick. It is a joint medical programme, offered with Dalhousie University Faculty of Medicine.


title: University of New Brunswick

text: UNB awards over five million dollars in scholarships each year. These include the Blake-Kirkpatrick, Beaverbrook, and President's scholarships. With $7.2 million available in undergraduate scholarships, one in two students entering UNB from high school received a scholarship as of 2015. UNB has a scholarship guarantee in which any admitted student with an average of 80% or higher will receive a guaranteed amount of five hundred dollars.


title: University of New Brunswick

text: As a member of the Loran Scholars university consortium, UNB offers a matching tuition waiver as part of a $100,000 undergraduate scholarship to recognize incoming students who demonstrate "exemplary character, service and leadership". Five Loran Scholars have studied at UNB over the years. Additionally, it is part of the Schulich Leader Scholarships program, awarding an $100,000 STEM scholarship to an incoming engineering student and a $80,000 scholarship to a science, technology, or mathematics student each year.


title: University of New Brunswick

text: UNB has approximately 10,000 students from over 100 countries. Students have over 125 clubs and societies to choose from between the Fredericton and Saint John campuses and there are 13 residences available to students in Fredericton and two in Saint John. Students on both campuses have access to UNB's facilities, fitness classes and outdoor activities such as snowshoeing and kayaking. There are exchanges available in more than 35 countries around the world with over 89 university partners.


title: University of New Brunswick

text: UNB Fredericton is represented in U Sports by the UNB Reds while UNBSJ is represented in CCAA by the UNB Saint John Seawolves. The Reds compete in the following sports: men's and women's basketball, men's and women's hockey, men's and women's soccer, men's and women's volleyball, and swimming. Men's and women's track & field and cross country were added as a varsity sport for 2010–2011; this is a joint Fredericton/Saint John Campus program.


title: University of New Brunswick

text: In the past, UNBF used different names for each individual sport's team; for instance, the men's swim team was the Beavers, and the hockey team was the Red Devils. The university club teams, which are supported financially by the Student Union as well as by individual members of the teams, do not use the Reds name and thus continue the tradition of using different nicknames for each sport.


title: University of New Brunswick

text: Traditional among a number of songs commonly played and sung at various times such as commencement, convocation, and athletic events are "Carmina Universitatis Novi Brunsvici", "Alma Mater" (1904), and "UNB Anthem", with words by A.G. Bailey and music by D.V. Start.


title: University of New Brunswick

text: UNB Saint John was the first university in Canada to offer an e-business program with its bachelor of business administration in electronic commerce. The university has since been ranked by "Canadian Business Magazine" as first in e-business.


title: University of New Brunswick

text: As of 2020, the University of New Brunswick reports 90,000 living alumni, with over 39,000 in New Brunswick.


title: University of New Brunswick

text: The university presses, "The Baron" and "The Brunswickan", are members of Canadian University Press. Publishing since 1867, "The Brunswickan" is the oldest official student publication in Canada.


title: University of New Brunswick

text: UNB is also home to several notable magazines and journals, such as "The Fiddlehead" and "Studies in Canadian Literature".


title: Rik Emmett

text: Richard Gordon Emmett (born July 10, 1953) is a vocalist, guitarist, and member of the Canadian rock band Triumph.


title: Rik Emmett

text: Emmett left Triumph in 1988 to pursue a solo career. His first solo album, "Absolutely", was released in 1990 and became a moderate hit across the United States and Canada thanks to the hits "When a Heart Breaks," "Big Lie" and "Saved by Love". He is also a writer for "Guitar Player" magazine and teaches song-writing and music business at Humber College in Toronto. For a time during the 1980s, Emmett contributed cartoons to "Hit Parader" magazine satirizing the music industry.


title: Rik Emmett

text: Due to a production error by Gil Moore and Mike Levine on Triumph's first album, Emmett changed the spelling of his first name to "Rik" rather than have the album recalled or cause confusion with fans.


title: Rik Emmett

text: Although he is best known as a rock guitarist, his playing style incorporates rock, blues, jazz, classical, bluegrass, and flamenco techniques. Similarly, his songwriting and discography demonstrate his ability to employ and blend multiple genres. In April 2005, he won the Canadian Smooth Jazz Award for Guitarist of the Year.


title: Rik Emmett

text: Emmett is also a proficient singer, splitting lead vocal duties of Triumph with Gil Moore. However, most of the songs garnering radio play were those of Emmett as he tended to write and sing in a more commercial style, while Moore's song-writing and singing were in more of a heavy metal style. Emmett's voice also has a noticeable resemblance to Geddy Lee (of Rush),{} leading to the band's sound itself often being compared to Rush.


title: Rik Emmett

text: In 2007, Emmett joined former Triumph bandmates Gil Moore and Mike Levine for their induction into the Canadian Music Industry Hall of Fame. On Sunday April 6, 2008 at The 2008 JUNO Awards, Triumph was inducted into the Canadian Music Hall of Fame by the Canadian Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences (CARAS).


title: Rik Emmett

text: As a result of positive audience response to their dual guitar work in live shows, Emmett and guitarist Dave Dunlop formed the duo Strung-Out Troubadours. In 2007, they won 'Album of the Year' and 'Group/Duo of the Year' at the Canadian Smooth Jazz Awards, where they were the most heavily nominated act. Both were also nominated for 'Best Guitarist'.


title: Rik Emmett

text: Emmett's 2018 tour with Dunlop may prove to be his last, citing an interest in retirement, or at least an extended break.


title: Colcannon

text: Colcannon is most commonly made with only four ingredients: potatoes, butter, milk and cabbage (or kale). Irish historian Patrick Weston Joyce defined it as "potatoes mashed with butter and milk, with chopped up cabbage and pot herbs". It can contain other ingredients such as scallions (spring onions), leeks, laverbread, onions and chives. Some recipes substitute cabbage for kale. There are many regional variations of this staple dish. It was a cheap, year-round food. It is often eaten with boiled ham, salt pork or Irish bacon. As a side dish it goes well with corned beef and cabbage.


title: Colcannon

text: An Irish Halloween tradition is to serve colcannon with a ring and a thimble hidden in the dish. Prizes of small coins such as threepenny or sixpenny bits were also concealed inside the dish. Other items could include a stick indicating an unhappy marriage, and a rag denoting a life of poverty. The dish champ is similar but made with scallions, butter, and milk. It was traditional to offer a portion of champ to the fairies by placing a dish of colcannon with a spoon at the foot of a hawthorn.


title: Colcannon

text: The origin of the word is unclear. The first syllable 'col' is likely to be derived from the Irish 'cál' meaning cabbage. The second syllable may derive from 'ceann-fhionn' meaning a white head (i.e. 'a white head of cabbage') – this usage is also found in the Irish name for a coot, a white-headed bird known as 'cearc cheannan', or 'white-head hen'. In Welsh the name for leek soup is cawl cennin, a phrase combining cawl meaning "soup", "broth" or "gruel", when it is not a reference to the typical Welsh meat and vegetable stew named in full 'cawl Cymreig', with 'cennin', the plural of 'cenhinen', meaning "leeks".. It is unlikely that this Welsh phrase is the source for the Irish word, because of the differences in pronunciation affecting the vowels, and the great divergence in sense, "mashed potato and cabbage" versus "leek broth".


title: Colcannon

text: The song "Colcannon", also called "The Skillet Pot", is a traditional Irish song that has been recorded by numerous artists, including Mary Black. It begins:


title: Maurice Gamelin

text: Maurice Gustave Gamelin (, 20 September 1872 – 18 April 1958) was an army general in the French Army. Gamelin is remembered for his disastrous command (until 17 May 1940) of the French military during the Battle of France (10 May–22 June 1940) in World War II and his steadfast defence of republican values.


title: Maurice Gamelin

text: The Commander-in-chief of the French Armed Forces at the start of World War II, Gamelin was viewed as a man with significant intellectual ability. He was respected, even in Germany, for his intelligence and "subtle mind", though he was viewed by some German generals as stiff and predictable. Despite this, and his competent service in World War I, his command of the French armies during the critical days of May 1940 proved to be disastrous. Historian and journalist William L. Shirer presented the view that Gamelin used World War I methods to fight World War II, but with less vigor and slower response.


title: Maurice Gamelin

text: Gamelin served with distinction under Joseph Joffre in World War I. He is often credited with being responsible for devising the outline of the French counter-attack in 1914 which led to victory during the First Battle of the Marne. In 1933 Gamelin rose to command the French Army and oversaw a modernisation and mechanisation programme, including the completion of the Maginot Line defences.


title: Maurice Gamelin

text: Édouard Daladier supported Gamelin throughout his career, owing to Gamelin's refusal to allow politics to play a part in military planning and promotion, and his commitment to the republican model of government; this was not a trivial matter at a time when Communists on the left and Royalists and Fascists on the right were openly advocating regime change in France.


title: Maurice Gamelin

text: Maurice Gamelin was born in Paris on 20 September 1872. Gamelin's father, Zéphyrin, fought in the Battle of Solferino in 1859. From an early age Gamelin showed potential as a soldier, growing up in a generation seeking revenge on Germany for the annexation of Alsace-Lorraine at the end of the Franco-Prussian War.


title: Maurice Gamelin

text: Gamelin volunteered for service on 19 October 1891 before entering the military academy at Saint-Cyr on 31 October. In 1893, he graduated first in his class.


title: Maurice Gamelin

text: He began in the French tirailleurs with the 3rd Regiment based in Tunisia. He then joined the topographic brigade. When Gamelin came back to Paris in 1897, he entered the prestigious "École Supérieure de Guerre" and finished second of his class of about eighty of the best future officers in the French Army. Charles Lanrezac, then second-in-command of the "École Supérieure de Guerre", and later a general in the early days of World War I, noted Gamelin as an intelligent, cultivated, and industrious young officer, bound to earn higher functions in the future. Gamelin joined the staff of the 15th Army Corps before commanding a company of the 15th battalion of the "Chasseurs Alpins" in 1904. He received the applause of his superiors for his diligence at manœuvre.


title: Maurice Gamelin

text: He published "Philosophical Study on the Art of War" in 1906, which critics praised, predicting he would become an important military thinker in the near future. He then became an attaché to General Joseph Joffre (a future Marshal of France, as he led the French forces during World War I). This position had been obtained with the help of Ferdinand Foch (also a future Marshal of France, as he led the Allied Forces to victory on the Western Front in 1918). These positions provided Gamelin with a solid knowledge of strategic and tactical warfare.


title: Maurice Gamelin

text: In 1911, Gamelin was given command of the 11th battalion of the Chasseurs Alpins in Annecy. However, in March 1914 he joined Joffre's general staff (1914–18 called "Grand Quartier Général"). Early in the war, Gamelin helped draft the plans that led to the victory at the Battle of the Marne. He was promoted to lieutenant colonel and fought in Alsace on the Linge and later on the Somme. He became colonel in April 1916, and with good results on the battlefield was further promoted within eight months to the rank of brigadier general. He commanded the French 11th Infantry Division from April 1917 until the end of the war. In the region of Noyon, he showed sophisticated tactical skills by gaining ground without losing lives needlessly (which had been atypical earlier in the war, see "Attaque à outrance").


title: Maurice Gamelin

text: From 1919 to 1924, Gamelin was the head of the French military mission in Brazil. He then commanded the French Army in the Levant, now Syria and Lebanon. He was the commander of the 30th Military Region in Nancy from 1919 to 1931, when he was named head of the general staff of the French Army. In 1932 he knew the Reichswehr mobilization plan was to at least treble their force, but lacked intelligence on the armament plan, the militia plan, or the Manstein Plan. He prepared France's military until the beginning of World War II, although challenged by restricted funding (→ Great Depression in France) and by the political inertia regarding German re-armament and later the Third Reich, which was intensified after the end of the Allied occupation of the Rhineland and its remilitarisation. At the outbreak of the war in September 1939, Gamelin was considered one of the best commanding generals in Europe, and was respected even among the "Wehrmacht".


title: Maurice Gamelin

text: When war was declared in 1939, Gamelin was France's commander in chief, with his headquarters at the Château de Vincennes, a facility completely devoid of telephonic or any other electronic links to his commanders in the field: a massive oversight in the face of the Wehrmacht's subsequent swift and flexible ‘Blitzkrieg’ tactics. France saw little action during the Phoney War, apart from a few French divisions crossing the German border in the Saar Offensive, who advanced a mere . They stopped even before reaching Germany's unfinished Siegfried Line. According to General Siegfried Westphal, a German staff officer on the Western Front, if France had attacked in September 1939 German forces could not have held out for more than one or two weeks. Gamelin ordered his troops back behind the Maginot Line, but only after telling France's ally, Poland, that France had broken the Siegfried Line and that help was on its way . Before the war, he had expected the Polish Army to hold out against Germany for six months. Gamelin's long-term strategy was to wait until France had fully rearmed and for the British and French armies to build up their forces, even though this would mean waiting until 1941 . He prohibited any bombing of the industrial areas of the Ruhr, in case the Germans retaliated. The French mobilisation had called up many essential workers, which disrupted vital French industries in the first weeks of the campaign.


title: Maurice Gamelin

text: Gamelin's vision for France's defence was based upon a static defence along the Franco-German border, which was reinforced by the Maginot Line. However, the Line did not extend along the Belgian frontier. During the winter of 1939–40, which was one of the coldest of the 20th century, work on the extension of the Line along the Belgian frontier was slow and not of the same quality as the original defences. Gamelin, along with many other members of the French High Command, saw the Ardennes as impenetrable and chose to defend it with only ten reserve divisions and few fortifications. Much of the French army was posted further northwest along the Belgian frontier. According to General Hasso von Manteuffel, a German Panzer commander, France had more and better tanks than Germany, but chose to disperse them.


title: Maurice Gamelin

text: Gamelin's own views had changed from a purely defensive strategy relying on the Maginot Line. French strategists predicted a German drive across northern Belgium, as in 1914. Gamelin favoured an aggressive advance northward to meet the attacking German forces in Belgium and the Netherlands, as far removed from French territory as possible. This strategy, known as the Dyle Plan, fitted with Belgian defensive plans and also with British objectives. Gamelin committed much of the motorised forces of the French Army and the entire British Expeditionary Force (BEF) to this strategy. Such a strategy also meant that the most of the French Army would leave its one-year-old prepared defensive positions in northern France to be committed to joining battle on an unknown Belgian defensive line.


title: Maurice Gamelin

text: Despite reports of the build-up of German forces, and even knowing the date of the planned German attack, Gamelin did nothing until May 1940, stating that he would "await events". Then, when the Germans attacked, Gamelin insisted on moving 40 of his best divisions, including the BEF, northwards to conform to the Dyle Plan.


title: Maurice Gamelin

text: In the first few days of the Battle of Belgium, many Allied aircraft were attacked while still on the ground. The rest of the air support was concentrated on the French advance, rather than attacking the exposed column supplying the German advance. Quickly, the French and the British became fearful of being outflanked and they withdrew from the defensive lines drawn up across Belgium. They did not pull back fast enough to prevent them being outflanked by the German Panzer divisions.


title: Maurice Gamelin

text: The German wing that attacked further south was able to cross the River Meuse faster than anticipated, aided by heavy Luftwaffe aerial bombardment. Although almost all the crossings over the Meuse were destroyed by the French, one weir north of Sedan had been left intact and was only lightly defended. It was thus quickly captured and exploited by the Germans. Meanwhile, French guns were ordered to limit their firing in case they ran out of ammunition. German Colonel-General Heinz Guderian disregarded his orders, and attacked aggressively on this front. In response, Gamelin withdrew forces in this area so that they could defend Paris, thinking this was the Germans' objective, rather than the coast.


title: Maurice Gamelin

text: Believing that he had been betrayed rather than blaming his own strategy, Gamelin then sacked 20 of his front line commanders.


title: Maurice Gamelin

text: Further north, the German forces led by Major-General Erwin Rommel kept advancing quickly as well, also against orders. He reached the sea to the west of the British Expeditionary Force, trapping the forces that had been sent into the Low Countries around Arras and Dunkirk. In moving from France to Belgium and then back to France, a substantial amount of the Allied armour was lost due to mechanical failure. The French and British could no longer launch a counterattack spearheaded by tanks and thus break out of encirclement. The speed of this advance, German air supremacy, and the inability of the British and French to counter-attack undermined the overall Allied position to such a degree that Britain abandoned the conflict on the continent. 338,226 men (including 120,000 French soldiers) withdrew across the English Channel during the Dunkirk evacuation. A second British Expeditionary Force, due to land in Normandy in mid-June, was cancelled.


title: Maurice Gamelin

text: The Dutch surrendered within five days of being attacked, the Belgians in 18 days (""campagne des 18 jours""), and the French were left with only a rump of their former army to defend their nation. Gamelin was removed from his post on 18 May 1940 by Paul Reynaud, who had replaced Édouard Daladier as Prime Minister in March. The 68-year-old Gamelin was replaced by the 73-year-old Maxime Weygand, who crucially delayed planned counter-attacks before eventually launching them.


title: Maurice Gamelin

text: Gamelin was both preceded and succeeded as Général d'armée by Maxime Weygand. The Vichy regime tried Gamelin for treason along with other important political and military figures of the Third Republic (Édouard Daladier, Guy La Chambre, Léon Blum, and Robert Jacomet) in the Riom Trial. Gamelin refused to answer the charges against him, instead maintaining silence, and the entire proceeding collapsed. Imprisoned by the Vichy regime in Fort du Portalet in the Pyrenees, he was later deported by the Germans to the Itter Castle in North Tyrol with a few other French high officials. He was freed from the castle after the Battle for Castle Itter. After the war, he published his memoirs, titled "Servir" (meaning "to serve").


title: Jasmine tea

text: Jasmine tea ( or ) is tea scented with the aroma of jasmine blossoms. Typically, jasmine tea has green tea as the tea base; however, white tea and black tea are also used. The resulting flavour of jasmine tea is subtly sweet and highly fragrant. It is the most famous scented tea in China.


title: Jasmine tea

text: The jasmine plant is believed to have been introduced into China from eastern South Asia via India during the Han Dynasty (206 BC to 220 AD), and was being used to scent tea around the fifth century. However, jasmine tea did not become widespread until the Qing Dynasty (1644 to 1912 AD), when tea started to be exported in large quantities to the West. Nowadays, it's still a common drink served in tea shops around the world.


title: Jasmine tea

text: The jasmine plant is grown at high elevations in the mountains. Jasmine tea produced in the Chinese province of Fujian has the best reputation. Jasmine tea is also produced in the provinces of Hunan, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Guangdong, Guangxi, and Zhejiang. Japan is also known for the production of jasmine tea, especially in Okinawa Prefecture, where it is called .


title: Jasmine tea

text: Tea leaves are harvested in the early spring and stored until the late summer when fresh jasmine flowers are in bloom. Jasmine flowers are picked early in the day when the small petals are tightly closed. The flowers are kept cool until nightfall. During the night, jasmine flowers open, releasing their fragrance. This is when the tea scenting takes place. There are two main methods used to scent the tea with the jasmine. In one method the tea and flowers are placed in alternating layers; in the other, the tea is blended with jasmine flowers and stored overnight. It takes over four hours for the tea to absorb the fragrance and flavour of the jasmine blossoms. The scenting process may be repeated as many as six or seven times for top grades such as Yin Hao. The tea absorbs moisture from the fresh Jasmine flowers so it must be dried again to prevent spoilage.


title: Jasmine tea

text: In southern China, it is customary to serve Jasmine tea as a welcoming gesture to guests. Jasmine tea is the local tea beverage of Fuzhou, while jasmine flowers are its municipal flower.


title: Jasmine tea

text: Jasmine has symbolic meanings in the Chinese culture. For example, the crown of the Buddhist in the Ajanta wall paintings, a world heritage site, is decorated by golden jasmine flowers. The fragrance of jasmines is thought to be of heaven. In the past, people in Fuzhou considered tea as an antidote to many poisons. In the Fuzhou dialect, the word for buying medicine literally means buying tea; brewing medicine, brewing tea; taking medicine, drinking tea. In addition, tea culture is important by shaping the art of drinking tea which follows different steps.


title: Jasmine tea

text: The city is built at a river basin and surrounded by mountains. The climate in Fuzhou is mild, rainfall is abundant and the day-night temperature difference is obvious, creating favorable conditions for jasmine flowers to grow. And there is also the microclimate needed for tea trees—jasmines are planted near rivers, while tea trees grow on slopes between above sea level. According to the "China Daily" newspaper, "Fuzhou has 1,200 hectares of tea gardens and [in 2011] it produced 110,000 tons of jasmine tea, worth 1.78 billion yuan ()."


title: Jasmine tea

text: After the jasmine plant was introduced into Fuzhou, people planted the flower broadly. Between 960 and 1127 AD (during the Song Dynasty), Fuzhou gained the name of "The City of Jasmine in China". Fuzhou is regarded as the origin of the jasmine tea production process, and so far it is the only city to contain the complete production process. The jasmine tea making process began during the Tang Dynasty but changed substantially during the Ming Dynasty. Prior to 1937, the development of Fuzhou jasmine tea was fast and products were sold to many regions. Because of the war, output dropped quickly. From the 1950s through the 1990s, the jasmine tea industry revived and reached 60% of the total national production, but subsequently fell again.


title: Jasmine tea

text: The Chinese government is still working on reviving Fuzhou jasmine tea. In recent years, the Fuzhou Municipal Party Committee and government strove to protect and develop the system of Fuzhou jasmine planting and tea culture, and took active measures to cultivate good stock and applied for the heritage list.


title: Jasmine tea

text: The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations recognized the "Fuzhou jasmine tea and tea culture system" as a "Globally Important Agricultural Heritage System". Experts from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations went to Fuzhou to inspect the process on April 5, 2014, after which, it was awarded the "Globally Important Agricultural Heritage System" title in Rome, Italy, on April 29, 2014.


title: Bhadrakali

text: According to Shaktism, she is one of the fierce forms of the Supreme Goddess Shakti, or Adi Parashakti, mentioned in the Devi Mahatmyam. In Vaishnavism, Bhadrakali is among the many epithets of Yogamaya, the internal potency of illusion of the preserver deity, Vishnu. According to several Puranas, Bhadrakali is a form of the goddess Parvati. She is worshipped in Kerala as Bhagavati, Mahakali, Chamunda, Sree Kurumba, and Kariam Kali Murti. She is purported to be the auspicious and fortunate form of Mahakali who protects the good, known as Bhadra.


title: Bhadrakali

text: In Sanskrit, "Bhadra" means "auspicious." Another interpretation of this name is that "Bhadra" comes from 'Bha' and 'dra', The letter 'Bha' means 'delusion' or 'Maya'and 'dra' is used as a superlative i.e. meaning 'the most/the greatest etc.' which makes the meaning of Bhadra as "Maha Maya".


title: Bhadrakali

text: In other words, maya represents the illusion of the samsara we are in, and worshipping of Bhadrakali is thought of getting liberated from this maha maya. This can be seen with the head that she holds in her hand - the chopped head and the sickle represents that Bhadrakali gives liberation (i.e., liberates ourselves of our own ego, hence the chopped head).


title: Bhadrakali

text: This goddess is represented with three eyes, and four, sixteen, or eighteen hands. She carries a number of weapons, with flames flowing from her head, and a small tusk protruding from her mouth. Her worship is also associated with the Tantric tradition of the Matrikas as well as the tradition of the ten Mahavidyas and falls under the broader umbrella of Shaktism.


title: Bhadrakali

text: Bhadrakali is primarily worshipped in four forms: Darikajit (as the killer of the demon Darika), Dakshajit (as the killer of Daksha), Rurujit (as the slayer of the demon Ruru) and as Mahishajit (as she who killed Mahishasura). There are at least five traditional versions regarding the origin-incarnations or avatar of Bhadrakali:


title: Bhadrakali

text: In Kerala, where the worship of Bhadrakali is prevalent even today, she is worshipped most commonly as "Darikajit," the slayer of Darika, based on a story that originated in the Markandeya Purana, and is called the "Bhadrakali Mahatmyam" or "Darika-vadham".


title: Bhadrakali

text: The asura Darika was said to have a very chaste wife, Manodari, who had in her possession a special mantra that would keep her husband invincible, and thus her marriage forever safe. Darika used his newfound invincibility to torment the lokas and usurp the kingdom of the devas. When Shiva learned of the demon Darika's misdeeds, he opened his fiery third eye and the massive ferocious form of Bhadrakali emerged. Shiva ordered Bhadrakali to destroy Darika, with a Vetala as her vehicle.


title: Bhadrakali

text: However the goddess found it impossible to kill the demon as he was ever in the protection of his wife's mantra chanting. The goddess split her form into that of her fierce warrior self that continued to engage in combat and that of a common woman. The goddess went to Manodari, claiming to be the wife of a soldier who was fighting for Darika in his army in the losing battle. With this, Manodari broke her chanting to console the worried woman, breaking Darika's broke invincibility shield. Kali immediately disappeared from Manodari's presence while on the battlefield she had already managed to injure Darika.


title: Bhadrakali

text: As Darika lay at her feet, about to be killed, he was said to have appealed to her motherly nature as a last resort, with faux praises and prayers. But the devas gathered there began to sing praises to the goddess (such as the mantra "Kante Kalatmaje Kaali, Kante Kali Namostute"), thus reminding the goddess of the atrocities Darika had committed that caused her birth in the first place. Turning a blind eye to Darika's faux innocence, Bhadrakali severed his head and held it aloft in her left hand as she danced around in the battlefield.


title: Bhadrakali

text: But her anger would not succumb and so the devas invoked Shiva to intervene and calm Kali down, as when in anger Kali had the tendency to reduce the universe into nothingness. Shiva lay in her path as a crying baby and this time (Gandakarna), Kali's true motherliness was awakened. A now calm Kali expressed her wish to stay at the spot and protect the local people till the end of time. The spot where she remained is said to be the Kodungallur Bhagavathy Temple. Bhadrakali at Kodungallur still remains one of her 3 most auspicious temples in Kerala, along with Thirumandhamkunnu Temple and Parumala Valiya Panayannarkavu Devi Temple. It is also listed as one of the 13 'kaavu' temples of Kali and as one of the main 64 Bhadrakali temples in Kerala.


title: Bhadrakali

text: Another version of the Bhadrakali story is from the Devi Mahatmyam of the Markandeya Purana, during the battle between Raktabija and goddess Kaushiki (Durga). Kali was born from the wrath of goddess Kaushiki, from her forehead. She slew Chanda and Munda and earned the epithet 'Chamundi'. She also slayed the demon Raktabija, which is her most famous feat. This Chamundi-Kali form is said to be the leader of the Sapta-Matrikas and is the most popular form of the goddess in Northern India.


title: Bhadrakali

text: Another popular story on Bhadrakali is associated with Daksha and his yajna, according to the Shiva Purana, Vayu Purana and the Mahabharata. Goddess Bhadrakali was born from the matted locks of Shiva's hair. He ordered her to free Veerabhadra who was imprisoned by Vishnu, as the latter was protecting Daksha. She succeeds and is later heard of as assisting in Daksha's assassination, and hence earned the title 'Dakshajit'.


title: Bhadrakali

text: According to the Kalika Purana, Bhadrakali is said to have appeared in Treta Yuga to slay the 2nd out of the 3 Mahishasuras. It is believed that when the third Mahishasura wished to know how he would die, he was given a vision of the fair-skinned Bhadrakali who rose out of the milky ocean and slew him in his previous incarnation. He asked to die again at her hands and the goddess promised that she would incarnate as the eighteen-armed Mahishasura Mardini (the account detailed in the Devi Mahatmyam) and slay him. This version of Bhadrakali is worshiped as 'Mahishajit'.


title: Bhadrakali

text: According to the Varaha Purana, the goddess Roudri (incarnation of mother Parvati) was meditating at the foot of the Neeli mountain. She came across the devas who were fleeing, unable to bear the atrocities of the demon Ruru. Angered by the injustice she witnessed, Roudri created Bhadrakali from the embers of her rage and sent her to kill Ruru. Bhadrakali successfully did so and was awarded the epithet 'Rurujit'.


title: Bhadrakali

text: According to "Tantra Rahasya", the feminine form of the divine (Devi) arose from the North ("Uttaramnaya") face ("Amnayas") of Shiva, which is blue in color and with three eyes, as Dakshinakalika, Mahakali, Guhyakah, Smashanakalika, Bhadrakali, Ekajata, Ugratara, Taritni, Katyayani, Chhinnamasta, Nilasarasvati, Durga, Jayadurga, Navadurga, Vashuli, Dhumavati, Visalakshi, Gauri, Bagalamukhi, Pratyangira, Matangi, and Mahishamardini.


title: Bhadrakali

text: According to Kerala traditions, the events described in the Markandeya Purana associated with Bhadrakali (her slaying of the demon Darika to liberate the universe from the evil) took place in Kerala, near Madayi in the Kannur District. Bhadrakali temples in Kerala commemorate this event during traditional festivals and Bhadrakali is worshipped as the daughter of Shiva, from whose third eye she sprung to defeat the demon. According to the Markandeya Purana, her worship purifies the devotee and grants liberation from the cycle of birth and death. She is seen to protect the honour of women and to bestow all spiritual knowledge. In Kerala, she called Virabhadra her "brother" and refused to be treated by him when she was attacked by the deity Vasoorimala, who had marked her face with smallpox. She said that a brother must not touch the face of his sister. Thus, mild pockmarks are sometimes visible on her face in some Keralite depictions of her.


title: Bhadrakali

text: Among the people of the neighboring states, especially in Tamil Nadu, this form of Shakti is known as 'Malayala Bhagavathy' or 'Malayala Bhadrakali', who provides protection to her devotees irrespective of caste and religion.


title: Bhadrakali

text: In Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and the Southern Travancore area of Kerala, especially in the city of Thiruvananthapuram, the Tamil, Kannada and Telugu speaking communities worship a form of Mahakali as 'Ujjaini Mahakali', and they consider Emperor Vikramaditya as their first teacher in this spiritual tradition as having established the tradition in the South.


title: Bhadrakali

text: In other parts of India, the Tantric name 'Kali' or 'Mahakali' is generally more popular as the consort of Shiva in his form of Rudra or Mahakala, and Bhadrakali is identified as Durga's daughter who helped her during the battle with Raktabija. Other sources state that she is the sister of Virabhadra, who was himself born of the wrath of Shiva as Rudra, and that she is the consort of a form of Mahakala or Bhairava. The deeply Tantric-influenced traditions mostly consider 'Kali' as the consort of Shiva.