title: Development economics

text: Structural-change approaches to development economics have faced criticism for their emphasis on urban development at the expense of rural development which can lead to a substantial rise in inequality between internal regions of a country. The two-sector surplus model, which was developed in the 1950s, has been further criticized for its underlying assumption that predominantly agrarian societies suffer from a surplus of labor. Actual empirical studies have shown that such labor surpluses are only seasonal and drawing such labor to urban areas can result in a collapse of the agricultural sector. The patterns of development approach has been criticized for lacking a theoretical framework.


title: Development economics

text: International dependence theories gained prominence in the 1970s as a reaction to the failure of earlier theories to lead to widespread successes in international development. Unlike earlier theories, international dependence theories have their origins in developing countries and view obstacles to development as being primarily external in nature, rather than internal. These theories view developing countries as being economically and politically dependent on more powerful, developed countries that have an interest in maintaining their dominant position. There are three different, major formulations of international dependence theory: neocolonial dependence theory, the false-paradigm model, and the dualistic-dependence model. The first formulation of international dependence theory, neocolonial dependence theory, has its origins in Marxism and views the failure of many developing nations to undergo successful development as being the result of the historical development of the international capitalist system.


title: Development economics

text: First gaining prominence with the rise of several conservative governments in the developed world during the 1980s, neoclassical theories represent a radical shift away from International Dependence Theories. Neoclassical theories argue that governments should not intervene in the economy; in other words, these theories are claiming that an unobstructed free market is the best means of inducing rapid and successful development. Competitive free markets unrestrained by excessive government regulation are seen as being able to naturally ensure that the allocation of resources occurs with the greatest efficiency possible and the economic growth is raised and stabilized.


title: Development economics

text: It is important to note that there are several different approaches within the realm of neoclassical theory, each with subtle, but important, differences in their views regarding the extent to which the market should be left unregulated. These different takes on neoclassical theory are the "free market approach", "public-choice theory", and the "market-friendly approach". Of the three, both the free-market approach and public-choice theory contend that the market should be totally free, meaning that any intervention by the government is necessarily bad. Public-choice theory is arguably the more radical of the two with its view, closely associated with libertarianism, that governments themselves are rarely good and therefore should be as minimal as possible.


title: Development economics

text: Academic economists have given varied policy advice to governments of developing countries. See for example, Economy of Chile (Arnold Harberger), Economic history of Taiwan (Sho-Chieh Tsiang). Anne Krueger noted in 1996 that success and failure of policy recommendations worldwide had not consistently been incorporated into prevailing academic writings on trade and development.


title: Development economics

text: The market-friendly approach, unlike the other two, is a more recent development and is often associated with the World Bank. This approach still advocates free markets but recognizes that there are many imperfections in the markets of many developing nations and thus argues that some government intervention is an effective means of fixing such imperfections.


title: Development economics

text: Development economics also includes topics such as third world debt, and the functions of such organisations as the International Monetary Fund and World Bank. In fact, the majority of development economists are employed by, do consulting with, or receive funding from institutions like the IMF and the World Bank. Many such economists are interested in ways of promoting stable and sustainable growth in poor countries and areas, by promoting domestic self-reliance and education in some of the lowest income countries in the world. Where economic issues merge with social and political ones, it is referred to as development studies.


title: Development economics

text: Economists Jeffrey D. Sachs, Andrew Mellinger, and John Gallup argue that a nation's geographical location and topography are key determinants and predictors of its economic prosperity. Areas developed along the coast and near "navigable waterways" are far wealthier and more densely populated than those further inland. Furthermore, countries outside the tropic zones, which have more temperate climates, have also developed considerably more than those located within the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. These climates outside the tropic zones, described as "temperate-near," hold roughly a quarter of the world's population and produce more than half of the world's GNP, yet account for only 8.4% of the world's inhabited area. Understanding of these different geographies and climates is imperative, they argue, because future aid programs and policies to facilitate must account for these differences.


title: Development economics

text: A growing body of research has been emerging among development economists since the very late 20th century focusing on interactions between ethnic diversity and economic development, particularly at the level of the nation-state. While most research looks at empirical economics at both the macro and the micro level, this field of study has a particularly heavy sociological approach. The more conservative branch of research focuses on tests for causality in the relationship between different levels of ethnic diversity and economic performance, while a smaller and more radical branch argues for the role of neoliberal economics in enhancing or causing ethnic conflict. Moreover, comparing these two theoretical approaches brings the issue of endogeneity (endogenicity) into questions. This remains a highly contested and uncertain field of research, as well as politically sensitive, largely due to its possible policy implications.


title: Development economics

text: Much discussion among researchers centers around defining and measuring two key but related variables: ethnicity and diversity. It is debated whether ethnicity should be defined by culture, language, or religion. While conflicts in Rwanda were largely along tribal lines, Nigeria's string of conflicts is thought to be – at least to some degree – religiously based. Some have proposed that, as the saliency of these different ethnic variables tends to vary over time and across geography, research methodologies should vary according to the context. Somalia provides an interesting example. Due to the fact that about 85% of its population defined themselves as Somali, Somalia was considered to be a rather ethnically-homogeneous nation. However, civil war caused ethnicity (or ethnic affiliation) to be redefined according to clan groups.


title: Development economics

text: There is also much discussion in academia concerning the creation of an index for "ethnic heterogeneity". Several indices have been proposed in order to model ethnic diversity (with regards to conflict). Easterly and Levine have proposed an ethno-linguistic fractionalization index defined as FRAC or ELF defined by:


title: Development economics

text: where "s" is size of group "i" as a percentage of total population. The ELF index is a measure of the probability that two randomly chosen individuals belong to different ethno-linguistic groups. Other researchers have also applied this index to religious rather than ethno-linguistic groups. Though commonly used, Alesina and La Ferrara point out that the ELF index fails to account for the possibility that fewer large ethnic groups may result in greater inter-ethnic conflict than many small ethnic groups. More recently, researchers such as Montalvo and Reynal-Querol, have put forward the "Q" polarization index as a more appropriate measure of ethnic division. Based on a simplified adaptation of a polarization index developed by Esteban and Ray, the "Q" index is defined as


title: Development economics

text: where "s" once again represents the size of group "i" as a percentage of total population, and is intended to capture the social distance between existing ethnic groups within an area.


title: Development economics

text: Early researchers, such as Jonathan Pool, considered a concept dating back to the account of the Tower of Babel: that linguistic unity may allow for higher levels of development. While pointing out obvious oversimplifications and the subjectivity of definitions and data collection, Pool suggested that we had yet to see a robust economy emerge from a nation with a high degree of linguistic diversity. In his research Pool used the "size of the largest native-language community as a percentage of the population" as his measure of linguistic diversity. Not much later, however, Horowitz pointed out that both highly diverse and highly homogeneous societies exhibit less conflict than those in between. Similarly, Collier and Hoeffler provided evidence that both highly homogenous and highly heterogeneous societies exhibit lower risk of civil war, while societies that are more polarized are at greater risk. As a matter of fact, their research suggests that a society with only two ethnic groups is about 50% more likely to experience civil war than either of the two extremes. Nonetheless, Mauro points out that ethno-linguistic fractionalization is positively correlated with corruption, which in turn is negatively correlated with economic growth. Moreover, in a study on economic growth in African countries, Easterly and Levine find that linguistic fractionalization plays a significant role in reducing national income growth and in explaining poor policies. In addition, empirical research in the U.S., at the municipal level, has revealed that ethnic fractionalization (based on race) may be correlated with poor fiscal management and lower investments in public goods. Finally, more recent research would propose that ethno-linguistic fractionalization is indeed negatively correlated with economic growth while more polarized societies exhibit greater public consumption, lower levels of investment and more frequent civil wars.


title: Development economics

text: Increasingly, attention is being drawn to the role of economics in "spawning" or "cultivating" ethnic conflict. Critics of earlier development theories, mentioned above, point out that "ethnicity" and ethnic conflict cannot be treated as exogenous variables. There is a body of literature that discusses how economic growth and development, particularly in the context of a globalizing world characterized by free trade, appears to be leading to the extinction and homogenization of languages. Manuel Castells asserts that the "widespread destructuring of organizations, delegitimation of institutions, fading away of major social movements, and ephemeral cultural expressions" which characterize globalization lead to a renewed search for meaning; one that is based on identity rather than on practices. Barber and Lewis argue that culturally-based movements of resistance have emerged as a reaction to the threat of modernization (perceived or actual) and neoliberal development.


title: Development economics

text: On a different note, Chua suggests that ethnic conflict often results from the envy of the majority toward a wealthy minority which has benefited from trade in a neoliberal world. She argues that conflict is likely to erupt through political manipulation and the vilification of the minority. Prasch points out that, as economic growth often occurs in tandem with increased inequality, ethnic or religious organizations may be seen as both assistance and an outlet for the disadvantaged. However, empirical research by Piazza argues that economics and unequal development have little to do with social unrest in the form of terrorism. Rather, "more diverse societies, in terms of ethnic and religious demography, and political systems with large, complex, multiparty systems were more likely to experience terrorism than were more homogeneous states with few or no parties at the national level".


title: Development economics

text: Violent conflict and economic development are deeply intertwined. Paul Collier describes how poor countries are more prone to civil conflict. The conflict lowers incomes catching countries in a "conflict trap." Violent conflict destroys physical capital (equipment and infrastructure), diverts valuable resources to military spending, discourages investment and disrupts exchange.


title: Development economics

text: Recovery from civil conflict is very uncertain. Countries that maintain stability can experience a "peace dividend," through the rapid re-accumulation of physical capital (investment flows back to the recovering country because of the high return). However, successful recovery depends on the quality of legal system and the protection of private property. Investment is more productive in countries with higher quality institutions. Firms that experienced a civil war were more sensitive to the quality of the legal system that similar firms that had never been exposed to conflict.


title: Development economics

text: Per capita Gross Domestic Product (GDP per head) is used by many developmental economists as an approximation of general national well-being. However, these measures are criticized as not measuring economic growth well enough, especially in countries where there is much economic activity that is not part of measured financial transactions (such as housekeeping and self-homebuilding), or where funding is not available for accurate measurements to be made publicly available for other economists to use in their studies (including private and institutional fraud, in some countries).


title: Development economics

text: Even though per-capita GDP as measured can make economic well-being appear smaller than it really is in some developing countries, the discrepancy could be still bigger in a developed country where people may perform outside of financial transactions an even higher-value service than housekeeping or homebuilding as gifts or in their own households, such as counseling, lifestyle coaching, a more valuable home décor service, and time management. Even free choice can be considered to add value to lifestyles without necessarily increasing the financial transaction amounts.


title: Development economics

text: More recent theories of Human Development have begun to see beyond purely financial measures of development, for example with measures such as medical care available, education, equality, and political freedom. One measure used is the Genuine Progress Indicator, which relates strongly to theories of distributive justice. Actual knowledge about what creates growth is largely unproven; however recent advances in econometrics and more accurate measurements in many countries are creating new knowledge by compensating for the effects of variables to determine probable causes out of merely correlational statistics.


title: Development economics

text: Recent theories revolve around questions about what variables or inputs correlate or affect economic growth the most: elementary, secondary, or higher education, government policy stability, tariffs and subsidies, fair court systems, available infrastructure, availability of medical care, prenatal care and clean water, ease of entry and exit into trade, and equality of income distribution (for example, as indicated by the Gini coefficient), and how to advise governments about macroeconomic policies, which include all policies that affect the economy.


title: Development economics

text: Education enables countries to adapt the latest technology and creates an environment for new innovations.


title: Development economics

text: The cause of limited growth and divergence in economic growth lies in the high rate of acceleration of technological change by a small number of developed countries . These countries' acceleration of technology was due to increased incentive structures for mass education which in turn created a framework for the population to create and adapt new innovations and methods. Furthermore, the content of their education was composed of secular schooling that resulted in higher productivity levels and modern economic growth.


title: Development economics

text: Researchers at the Overseas Development Institute also highlight the importance of using economic growth to improve the human condition, raising people out of poverty and achieving the Millennium Development Goals. Despite research showing almost no relation between growth and the achievement of the goals 2 to 7 and statistics showing that during periods of growth poverty levels in some cases have actually risen (e.g. Uganda grew by 2.5% annually between 2000–2003, yet poverty levels rose by 3.8%), researchers at the ODI suggest growth is necessary, but that it must be equitable. This concept of inclusive growth is shared even by key world leaders such as former Secretary General Ban Ki-moon, who emphasises that:


title: Development economics

text: Researchers at the ODI thus emphasise the need to ensure social protection is extended to allow universal access and that active policy measures are introduced to encourage the private sector to create new jobs as the economy grows (as opposed to jobless growth) and seek to employ people from disadvantaged groups.


title: Bhonsle

text: The Bhonsle (or Bhonsale, Bhosale, Bhosle) are a prominent group within the Maratha clan system of kunbi origin. They claimed descent from the Sisodia Rajputs but were likely Kunbi tiller-plainsmen.


title: Bhonsle

text: The earliest accepted members of the Bhonsles are Mudhoji Bhonsle and his kin Rupaji Bhonsle, who were the village headman (pāṭīl) of Hingani — this branch has been since known as Hinganikar Bhonsles. A branch seem to have split soon, who went on to claim an ancestral right to the post of district steward (deśmukhī) of Kadewalit: Suryaji Bhonsle during the reign of Ahmad Nizam Shah I (early 1490s), and his son Sharafji Bhonsle during the conquest of the region by Daniyal Mirza (1599). This branch has been since known as Kadewalit Bhonsles.


title: Bhonsle

text: The next significant Bhonsle was probably Maloji Bhosale from the Hinganikar branch. He was the great-grandson of one Kheloji (c. 1490).


title: Bhonsle

text: In the opinion of Jadunath Sarkar and other scholars, Bhonsles were predominantly Deccani tiller-plainsmen from the Shudra caste; they were part of the Marathas/Kunbis, an amorphous class-group. Scholars have however disagreed about the agricultural status of Bhosles. Rosalind O'Hanlon notes that the historical evolution of castes grouped under the Maratha-Kunbis is sketchy. Ananya Vajpeyi rejects the designation of Shudra, since the category has remained in a state of flux across centuries; she instead notes them to be a Marathi lineage, who enjoyed "reasonably high" social status as landholders and warlords, being in the service of Deccan Sultanate or Mughals.


title: Bhonsle

text: According to R. C. Dhere's interpretation of local oral history and ethnography, Bhonsles descend from the Hoysalas and Yadavas of Devagiri, who were cow-herding Gavli sovereigns. In early thirteenth century, "Baliyeppa Gopati Sirsat", a Hoysala cousin of Simhana migrated from Gadag to Satara along with his pastoral herd and kul-devta; the Sambhu Mahadev was thus installed at a hill-top in Singhnapur. Historical records indicate that this shrine received extensive patronage from Maloji onwards. Further, there exists a branch of the Bhosles named "Sirsat Bhosles" and Bhosle (or "Bhosale") is linguistically similar to "Hoysala". M. K. Dhavalikar found the work to convincingly explain the foundation of the Bhosle clan (as well as Sambhu Mahadev cult). Vajpeyi too advocates that Dhere's theory be probed in greater detail — "[f]rom pastoralist big men to warlords on horseback, is not an impossible distance to cover in two to three centuries."


title: Bhonsle

text: By 1670s, Shivaji had acquired extensive territory and wealth from his campaigns. But, lacking a formal crown, he had no operational legitimacy to rule his "de facto" domain and technically, remained subject to his Mughal (or Deccan Sultanate) overlords; in the hierarchy of power, Shivaji's position remained similar to fellow Maratha chieftains. Also, he was often opposed by the orthodox Brahmin community of Maharashtra. A coronation sanctioned by the Brahmins was thus planned, in a bid to proclaim sovereignty and legitimize his rule.


title: Bhonsle

text: On proposing the Brahmins of his court to have him proclaimed as the rightful king, a controversy erupted: the regnal status was reserved for those belonging to the kshatriya varna. Not only was there a fundamental dispute among scholars on whether any true Kshatriya survived in the Kali Yuga, having been all destroyed by Parashurama but also Shivaji's grandfather was a tiller-headman, Shivaji did not wear the sacred thread, and his marriage was not in accordance with the Kshatriya customs. Thus, the Brahmins had him categorised as a shudra.


title: Bhonsle

text: Compelled to postpone his coronation, Shivaji had his secretary Balaji Avji Chitnis sent to the Sisodiyas of Mewar for inspection of the royal genealogies; Avji returned with a favorable finding — Shahji turned out to be a descendant of Chacho Sisodiya, a half-Rajput uncle of Mokal Singh. Gaga Bhatt, a famed Brahmin of Banaras, was then hired to ratify Chitnis' find, and the Bhonsles were now permitted to stake a claim to Kshatriya caste. The coronation would be re-executed in June 1674 but only after going through a long list of preludes.


title: Bhonsle

text: Led by Bhatt, who employed traditional Hindu imagery in an unprecedented scale, the first phase had Shivaji penance for having lived as a Maratha despite being a Kshatriya. Then came the sacred thread ceremony ('maunjibandhanam') followed by remarriage according to Kshatriya customs ('mantra-vivah') and a sequence of Vedic rituals before the eventual coronation ('abhisheka') — a public spectacle of enormous expense that heralded the rebirth of Shivaji as a Kshatriya king. Panegyrics composed by court-poets during these spans (and afterward) reinforced onto the public memory that Shivaji (and the Bhonsles) indeed belonged from the Sisodiyas.


title: Bhonsle

text: However, the Kshatriyization was not unanimous; a section of Brahmins continued to deny the Kshatriya status. Brahmins of the Peshwa period rejected Bhatt's acceptance of Shivaji's claims and blamed the non-dharmic coronation for all ills that plagued Shivaji and his heirs—in tune with the general Brahminical sentiment to categorize all Marathas as Shudras, carte-blanche; there have been even claims that Bhatt was excommunicated by Maratha Brahmins for his role in the coronation of Shivaji! Interestingly, all claims to Rajput ancestry had largely vanished from the family's subsequent projections of identity.


title: Bhonsle

text: Vajpeyi notes the "veridical status" of Chitnis' finds to be not determinable to "historical certainty" — the links were tenuous at best and inventive at worst. Shivaji was not a Rajput and the sole purpose of the lineage was to guarantee Shivaji's consecration as a Kshatriya, in a tactic that had clear parallels to Rajputisation. Jadunath Sarkar deemed that the genealogy was cleverly fabricated by Balaji Awji and after some reluctance accepted by Gaga Bhatt, who in turn was "rewarded with a huge fee". V. K. Rajwade, Dhere, Allison Busch, John Keay and Audrey Truschke also agree with Sarkar about the fabrication. G. S. Sardesai notes that the descent is "not authentically proved". Stewart N. Gordon does not pass any judgement but notes Bhatt to be a "creative Brahmin". André Wink deems that the Sisodia genealogical claim is destined to remain disputed forever.


title: Robert Gossett

text: Robert Gossett (born March 3, 1954) is an American actor. Gossett is the first cousin of actor Louis Gossett Jr. and is best known for his role of Commander Russell Taylor on the TNT crime drama, "The Closer" and on its successor series "Major Crimes".


title: Robert Gossett

text: Gossett landed his first professional job after he graduated from high school in a production of "One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest". He went on to act in the Broadway production of Lloyd Richard's "Fences", Hal Scott's "A Raisin in the Sun" and Donald McKayle's "The Last Minstrel Show". He also performed in the Negro Ensemble Company's productions of "Manhattan Made Me", "Sons & Fathers of Sons", "A Soldier's Play" and "Colored People's Time". Robert also has extensive television experience with guest starring roles on "Crossing Jordan", "NYPD Blue", and "Black Angel". In film, Gossett has acted in the Jeff Bridges/Tim Robbins film "Arlington Road" and the Sandra Bullock movie "The Net".


title: Robert Gossett

text: On the October 18, 2021 episode of ABC's long-running daytime drama, General Hospital, Gossett made his debut as a mysterious man taking a special interest in former private eye and present club owner Curtis Ashford. As Curtis was filling in his current love interest Portia Robinson of parts of his past, including the story of how his father "died" when he was very young, Gossett's character was lurking in the doorway of Curtis' club, simply watching Curtis. This character is subsequently revealed to be Curtis' long lost dad, Marshall Ashford, who suffers from schizophrenia.


title: Security alarm

text: A security alarm is a system designed to detect intrusion, such as unauthorized entry, into a building or other areas such as a home or school. Security alarms used in residential, commercial, industrial, and military properties protect against burglary (theft) or property damage, as well as personal protection against intruders. Security alerts in neighborhoods show a connection with diminished robbery. Car alarms likewise help protect vehicles and their contents. Prisons also use security systems for the control of inmates.


title: Security alarm

text: Some alarm systems serve a single purpose of burglary protection; combination systems provide fire and intrusion protection. Intrusion-alarm systems are combined with closed-circuit television surveillance (CCTV) systems to record intruders' activities and interface to access control systems for electrically locked doors. There are many types of security systems. Homeowners typically have small, self-contained noisemakers. These devices can also be complicated, multirole systems with computer monitoring and control. It may even include a two-way voice which allows communication between the panel and monitoring station.


title: Security alarm

text: The most basic alarm consists of at least one sensor to detect trespassers and an alerting device to indicate the intrusion. However, a typical premises security alarm employs the following components:


title: Security alarm

text: In addition to the system itself, security alarms often offer a monitoring service. In the event of an alarm, the premises control unit contacts a central monitoring station. Operators at the station see the signal and take appropriate action, such as contacting property owners, notifying police, or dispatching private security forces. Such alerts transmit via dedicated alarm circuits, telephone lines, or the internet in many cases.


title: Security alarm

text: The hermetically sealed reed switch is a common type of two-piece sensor. This switch operates with an electrically conductive reed switch that is either normally open or normally closed when under the influence of a magnetic field in respect to proximity to the second piece, which contains a magnet. When the magnet moves away from the reed switch, the reed switch either closes or opens, again based on whether the design is usually open or closed. This action coupled with an electric current (typically at 12V DC) allows an alarm control panel to detect a fault on that zone or circuit. These sensors are common, are found wired directly to an alarm control panel, or are typically found in wireless door or window contacts as sub-components.


title: Security alarm

text: The passive infrared (PIR) motion detector is one of the most common sensors found in household and small business environments. It offers affordable and reliable functionality. The term "passive" refers to the fact that the detector does not generate or radiate energy; it works entirely by detecting the heat energy given off by other objects.


title: Security alarm

text: Strictly speaking, PIR sensors do not detect motion; instead, they identify abrupt changes in temperature at a given point. As an intruder walks in front of the sensor, the temperature at that point will rise from room temperature to body temperature, and then back again. This quick change triggers the detection.


title: Security alarm

text: PIR sensors designed to be wall- or ceiling-mounted, come in various fields of view, from narrow-point detectors to 360-degree radar. PIRs require a power supply in addition to the detection signaling circuit.


title: Security alarm

text: The infrasound detector works by detecting infrasound, or sound waves at frequencies below 20 hertz. Sounds at those frequencies are inaudible to the human ear. Due to its inherent properties, infrasound can travel distances of many hundreds of kilometers. Infrasound signals can result from volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, gravity waves, opening and closing of doors, and forcing windows, to name a few.


title: Security alarm

text: The entire infrasound detection system consists of the following components: a speaker (infrasound sensor) as a microphone input, an order-frequency filter, an analog to digital (A/D) converter, and finally, an MCU used to analyze the recorded signal.


title: Security alarm

text: Each time a potential intruder tries to enter into a house, she or he tests whether it is closed and locked, uses tools on openings, or/and applies pressure, and therefore he or she creates low-frequency sound vibrations. Before the intruder breaks in, the infrasound detector automatically catches sight of the intruder's actions


title: Security alarm

text: The purpose of such a system is to detect burglars before they enter the house to avoid both theft and vandalism. The sensitivity is dependent on the size of a home and the presence of animals.


title: Security alarm

text: These active detectors transmit ultrasonic sound waves that are inaudible to humans using frequencies between 15 kHz and 75 kHz. The Doppler shift principle is the underlying method of operation which detects a change in frequency due to object motion. This detection occurs when the object must cause a change in the ultrasonic frequency to the receiver relative to the transmitting frequency.


title: Security alarm

text: The ultrasonic detector operates by the transmitter emitting an ultrasonic signal into the area to be protected. Solid objects (such as the surrounding floor, walls, and ceiling) reflect sound waves, which the receiver will detect. Because ultrasonic waves are transmitted through air, hard-surfaced objects tend to reflect most of the ultrasonic energy, while soft surfaces tend to absorb the most energy.


title: Security alarm

text: When the surfaces are stationary, the frequency of the waves detected by the receiver will be equal to the transmitted frequency. However, a change in frequency will occur as a result of the Doppler principle, when a person or object is moving towards or away from the detector. Such an event initiates an alarm signal. This technology is not active in many properties because many alarm professionals consider this obsolete.


title: Security alarm

text: This device emits microwaves from a transmitter and detects any reflected microwaves or reduction in beam intensity using a receiver. The transmitter and receiver are usually combined inside a single housing (monostatic) for indoor applications and separate housings (bistatic) for the protection of outdoor perimeters high-risk sites and critical infrastructures such as fuel storage, petrochemical facilities, military sites, civil and military airports, nuclear facilities and more. To reduce false alarms this type of detector is usually combined with a passive infrared detector, or Dual Tec brand or similar alarm. Compared to the monostatic, the bistatic units work over longer distances: typical distances for transmitter-receivers up to 200 m for X-band frequencies and up to 500 m for K-band frequencies.


title: Security alarm

text: Microwave detectors respond to a Doppler shift in the frequency of the reflected energy, by a phase shift, or by a sudden reduction of the level of received energy. Any of these effects may indicate motion of an intruder.


title: Security alarm

text: The microwave generator is equipped with an antenna that allows it to concentrate the beam of electromagnetic waves in one preferred location and the beam is intercepted by the receiver, equipped with a similar antenna to the transmitter.


title: Security alarm

text: The graphical representation of the beam is similar to a cigar, and, when not disturbed, it runs between the transmitter and the receiver and generates a continuous signal. When an individual tries to cross this beam, it produces a disturbance that is caught by the receiver as a variation of amplitude of the received signal.


title: Security alarm

text: These barriers are immune to harsh weather, such as fog, heavy rain, snow and sandstorms: none of these atmospheric phenomena affect in any way the behaviour and the reliability of the microwave detection. Furthermore, the working temperature range of this technology goes from -35°C to +70°C.


title: Security alarm

text: The more recent and higher performance models of these detectors adopt a digital technology with "Fuzzy Logic" analysis of the signals. Those who use this generate a detection whether the intruder is rolling, crossing, crawling or moving very slow within the electromagnetic field. Thanks to this innovative technology, capable of targeting movements, the outcome is a reduction in false alarms. The ellipsoidal shape of the longitudinal section however does not allow a good detection capability close to the receiver or transmitter heads, so we identify these areas as dead zones. A solution to avoid this problem, when installing 2 or more barriers, is to cross the respective transmitter and receiver heads some meters from the respective heads or to use mono-head sensor to cover the above mentioned dead zones.


title: Security alarm

text: Compact surveillance radar emits microwaves from a transmitter and detects any reflected microwaves. They are similar to microwave detectors but can detect the precise location of intruders in areas extending over hundreds of acres. With the capability of measuring the range, angle, velocity, direction, and size of the target, a CSR can pinpoint a precise GPS coordinate of an intruder. This target information is typically displayed on a map, user interface or situational awareness software that defines geographical alert zones or geofences with different types of actions initiated depending on time of day and other factors. CSR is commonly used to protect outside the fence line of critical facilities such as electrical substations, power plants, dams, and bridges.


title: Security alarm

text: Photoelectric beam systems detect the presence of an intruder by transmitting invisible infrared light beams across an area, where these beams may be obstructed. To improve the detection surface area, the beams are often employed in stacks of two or more. However, if an intruder is aware of the technology's presence, it can be avoided. The technology can be an effective long-range detection system, if installed in stacks of three or more where the transmitters and receivers are staggered to create a fence-like barrier. Systems are available for both internal and external applications. To prevent a clandestine attack using a secondary light source being used to hold the detector in a sealed condition whilst an intruder passes through, most systems use and detect a modulated light source.


title: Security alarm

text: - Disadvantages: Affected by fog or very high luminosity. Position of the transmitter can be located with some cameras.


title: Security alarm

text: A glass-break detector may be used for internal perimeter building protection. Glass-break acoustic detectors are mounted in close proximity to the glass panes and listen for sound frequencies associated with glass breaking.


title: Security alarm

text: Seismic glass-break detectors, generally referred to as shock sensors, are different in that they are installed on the glass pane. When glass breaks it produces specific shock frequencies which travel through the glass and often through the window frame and the surrounding walls and ceiling. Typically, the most intense frequencies generated are between 3 and 5 kHz, depending on the type of glass and the presence of a plastic interlayer. Seismic glass-break detectors feel these shock frequencies and in turn generate an alarm condition.


title: Security alarm

text: Window foil is a less sophisticated, mostly outdated detection method that involves gluing a thin strip of conducting foil on the inside of the glass and putting low-power electric current through it. Breaking the glass is for all intents and purposes ensured to tear the foil and break the circuit.


title: Security alarm

text: Most systems can also be equipped with smoke, heat, and/or carbon monoxide detectors. These are also known as 24-hour zones (which are on at all times). Smoke and heat detectors protect from the risk of fire using different detection methods. Carbon monoxide detectors help protect from the risk of carbon monoxide poisoning. Although an intruder alarm panel may also have these detectors connected, it may not meet all the local fire code requirements of a fire alarm system.


title: Security alarm

text: Traditional smoke detectors are technically ionization smoke detectors which create an electric current between two metal plates, which sound an alarm when disrupted by smoke entering the chamber. Ionization smoke alarms can quickly detect the small amounts of smoke produced by fast-flaming fires, such as cooking fires or those fueled by paper or flammable liquids. A newer, and perhaps safer, type is a photoelectric smoke detector. It contains a light source in a light-sensitive electric sensor, which is positioned at a 90-degree angle to the sensor. Normally, light from the light source shoots straight across and misses the sensor. When smoke enters the chamber, it scatters the light, which then hits the sensor and triggers the alarm. Photoelectric smoke detectors typically respond faster to a fire in its early, smoldering stage – before the source of the fire bursts into flames.


title: Security alarm

text: Motion sensors are devices that use various forms of technology to detect movement. The technology typically found in motion sensors to trigger an alarm includes infrared, ultrasonic, vibration and contact. Dual technology sensors combine two or more forms of detection in order to reduce false alarms as each method has its advantages and disadvantages. Traditionally motion sensors are an integral part of a home security system. These devices are typically installed to cover a large area as they commonly cover up to 40 ft. with a 135° field of vision.


title: Security alarm

text: A type of motion sensor was used by the Japanese since ancient times. In the past, "(m)any people in Japan kept singing crickets and used them like watch dogs." But crickets work in the opposite manner of watchdogs. A dog barks when it detects an intruder. A cricket stops singing when approached by an intruder. The crickets are kept in decorative cages resembling bird cages. These cages are placed in contact with the floor. During the day, the house is busy with normal daytime tasks. When things quiet down at night, the crickets start singing. If someone comes into the house at night, the floor starts to vibrate. "The vibration frightens the crickets and they stop singing. Then everyone wakes up --- from the silence. The family is used to hearing crickets at night and knows something is wrong if the crickets aren't singing. A similar observation was made in England about millers who lived in their mills. A mill wheel makes a great deal of noise, but the miller only awakens when the mill wheel stops turning.


title: Security alarm

text: Driveway alarm systems can be combined with most security and automation systems. They are designed to alert residents to unexpected visitors, intruders, or deliveries arriving at the property. They come in magnetic and infrared motion sensing options. Driveway alarms can also be purchased in hard-wired and wireless systems. They are common in rural security systems as well as for commercial applications.


title: Security alarm

text: These electro-mechanical devices are mounted on barriers and are used primarily to detect an attack on the structure itself. The technology relies on an unstable mechanical configuration that forms part of the electrical circuit. When movement or vibration occurs, the unstable portion of the circuit moves and breaks the current flow, which produces an alarm. The medium transmitting the vibration must be correctly selected for the specific sensor as they are best suited to different types of structures and configurations. This technology is gradually being replaced by intelligent digital accelerometer-based systems.


title: Security alarm

text: MEMS technology, Micro Electro-Mechanical System, is an electromagnetic device that is created using the same technologies used to produce chips: this technology is called photolithography, incision and ionian implantation. The result is a very compact and small device that has dimensions of 4x4 mm, 1,5 thickness and weight of 0,040 grams. In this small device, in addition to the mechanical system, there are electronic circuits for control, acquisition and conditioning of the signal able to sense the environment.


title: Security alarm

text: MEMS accelerometer can be divided into two groups: Piezoresistive and capacitive based accelerometers. The first group consist of single degree of freedom system of a mass suspended by a spring, they also have a beam with a proof mass at the beam’s tip and a Piezoresistive patch on the beam web.


title: Security alarm

text: On the contrary, capacitive based accelerometers, also known as vibration sensors, rely on a change in electrical capacitance in response to acceleration.


title: Security alarm

text: The current technology allows to realize suspended silicon structures that are attached to the substrate in some points called anchors, and that constitute the sensitive mass of the accelerometer MEMS. These structures are free to move in the direction of the acceleration detected, they constitute the mobile reinforcement of a pair of capacitors connected to the "half bridge".


title: Security alarm

text: In this way the acquired signals are amplified, filtered and converted in digital signals with the supervision of specific control circuits. MEMS' incorporation’s evolved from a single, stand-alone device to the integrated 6-axis and 9-axis inertial motion units that are available on the market today.


title: Security alarm

text: This technology uses a variety of transduction mechanism to detect the displacement. They include capacitive, piezoresistive, thermal, optical, piezoelectric and tunneling.


title: Security alarm

text: In the last decades many technological progresses have been made in this area and MEMS accelerometers are used in high-reliability environments and are starting to replace other established technologies.


title: Security alarm

text: MEMS accelerometer can be applied as a sensor in the earthquake disaster prevention since one of the main characteristics of MEMS accelerometer is the linear frequency response to DC to about 500Hz and this capability offers an improvement in measuring ground motion at lower frequency band.


title: Security alarm

text: Another practical application of MEMS accelerometers is in machine condition monitoring to reduce machines’ maintenance. Wireless and embedded technologies such as Micro-electro Mechanical system sensors offer a wireless smart vibration measurement of machine’s condition.


title: Security alarm

text: Moving to the defence field, it can be applied in fence-mounted intrusion detection systems. Since MEMS sensors are able to work in a wide temperature range, they can prevent intrusions in outdoors and very spread-off perimeters.


title: Security alarm

text: An advantage offered by MEMS Accelerometers is the ability to measure static accelerations, such as acceleration due to gravity. This enables to constantly verify that the positioning of the sensor, based on MEMS accelerometer, remains unaltered from the installation one.


title: Security alarm

text: MEMS accelerometers’ significant advantages are also given by their small size and high measurement frequency; additionally, they can be integrated with multiple sensors with different functions.


title: Security alarm

text: Change in the local magnetic field due to the presence of ferrous metals induces a current in the buried sensors (buried cables or discrete sensors) which are analyzed by the system. If the change exceeds a predetermined threshold, an alarm is generated. This type of sensor can be used to detect intruders carrying substantial amounts of metal, such as a firearm, making it ideally suited for anti-poaching applications.


title: Security alarm

text: Sometimes referred to as E-field, this volumetric sensor uses Electric field proximity sensing and can be installed on buildings, perimeters, fences, and walls. It also has the ability to be installed free-standing on dedicated poles. The system uses an electromagnetic field generator powering one wire, with another sensing wire running parallel to it. The sensing wire is connected to a signal processor that analyses:


title: Security alarm

text: These items define the characteristics of an intruder and when all three are detected simultaneously, an alarm signal is generated.


title: Security alarm

text: The barrier can provide vertical protection from the ground to the height of the mounting posts (typically 4–6 meters of height), depending on the number of sensor wires installed. It is usually configured in zones of about 200 metre lengths.


title: Security alarm

text: Microphonic systems vary in design (for example, time-domain reflectrometer or piezo-electric) but each is generally based on the detection of an intruder attempting to cut or climb over a fence. Usually the microphonic detection systems are installed as sensor cables attached to rigid chain-wire fences, however some specialized versions of these systems can also be installed as buried systems underground. Depending on the version selected, it can be sensitive to different frequencies or levels of noise or vibration. The system is based on coaxial or electro-magnetic sensor cable with the controller having the ability to differentiate between signals from the cable or chain-wire being cut, an intruder climbing the fence, or bad weather conditions.


title: Security alarm

text: The systems are designed to detect and analyze incoming electronic signals received from the sensor cable, and then to generate alarms from signals which exceed pre-set conditions. The systems have adjustable electronics to permit installers to change the sensitivity of the alarm detectors to the suit specific environmental conditions. The tuning of the system is usually accomplished during commissioning of the detection devices.


title: Security alarm

text: A taut wire perimeter security system is basically an independent screen of tensioned tripwires usually mounted on a fence or wall. Alternatively, the screen can be made so thick that there is no need for a supporting chain-wire fence. These systems are designed to detect any physical attempt to penetrate the barrier. Taut wire systems can operate with a variety of switches or detectors that sense movement at each end of the tense wires. These switches or detectors can be a simple mechanical contact, static force transducer or an electronic strain gauge. Unwanted alarms caused by birds and other animals can be avoided by adjusting the sensors to ignore objects that exert small amounts of pressure on the wires. This type of system is vulnerable to intruders digging under the fence. A concrete footing directly below the fence is installed to prevent this type of attack.


title: Security alarm

text: A fiber-optic cable can be used to detect intruders by measuring the difference in the amount of light sent through the fiber core. A variety of fiber optic sensing technologies may be used, including Rayleigh scattering or interferometry, If the cable is disturbed, the light will be changed and the intrusion detected. The cable can be attached directly to a chain-wire fence or bonded into a barbed steel tape that is used to protect the tops of walls and fences. This type of barbed tape provides a good physical deterrent as well as giving an immediate alarm if the tape is cut or severely distorted.


title: Security alarm

text: This system employs an electro-magnetic field disturbance principle based on two unshielded (or 'leaky') coaxial cables buried approximately 30 cm (1 ft.) deep and 1 m (3 ft.) apart. The transmitter emits continuous Radio Frequency (RF) energy along one cable and the energy is received by the other cable. When the change in field strength weakens due to the presence of an object and reaches a pre-set lower threshold, an alarm condition is generated. The system is covert after installation. Care must be taken to ensure the surrounding soil offers good drainage in order to avoid nuisance alarms.


title: Security alarm

text: Security electric fences consist of wires that carry pulses of electric current to provide a non-lethal shock to deter potential intruders. Tampering with the fence also results in an alarm that is logged by the security electric fence energiser, and can also trigger a siren, strobe, and/or notifications to a control room or directly to the owner via email or phone. In practical terms, security electric fences are a type of sensor array that acts as a (or part of a) physical barrier, a psychological deterrent to potential intruders, and as part of a security alarm system.


title: Security alarm

text: The trigger signal from every sensor is transmitted to one or more control units either through wires or wireless means (radio, line carrier, infrared). Wired systems are convenient when sensors (such as PIRs, smoke detectors, etc.) require external power to operate correctly; however, they may be more costly to install. Entry-level wired systems utilize a star network topology, where the panel is at the center logically, and all devices home run their line wires back to the panel. More complex panels use a Bus network topology where the wire basically is a data loop around the perimeter of the facility, and has drops for the sensor devices which must include a unique device identifier integrated into the sensor device itself (e.g. id. biscuit). Wired systems also have the advantage, if wired properly for example by dual loop, of being tamper-evident.


title: Security alarm

text: Wireless systems, on the other hand, often use battery-powered transmitters which are easier to install and have less expensive start-up costs, but may fail if the batteries are not maintained. Depending on distance and construction materials, one or more wireless repeaters may be required to bring the signal to the alarm panel reliably. A wireless system can be moved to a new home easily, an advantage for those who rent or who move frequently. The more important wireless connection for security is the one between the control panel and the monitoring station. Wireless monitoring of the alarm system protects against a burglar cutting a cable or from failures of an internet provider. This full wireless setup is commonly referred to as 100% wireless.


title: Security alarm

text: Hybrid systems use both wired and wireless sensors to achieve the benefits of both. Transmitters can also be connected through the premises' electrical circuits to transmit coded signals to the control unit (line carrier). The control unit usually has a separate channel or zone for burglar and fire sensors, and better systems have a separate zone for every different sensor, as well as internal trouble indicators (mains power loss, low battery, broken wire, etc.).


title: Security alarm

text: Depending upon the application, the alarm output may be local, remote or a combination. Local alarms do not include monitoring, though may include indoor and/or outdoor sounders (e.g. motorized bell or electronic siren) and lights (e.g. strobe light) which may be useful for signaling an evacuation notice for people during fire alarms, or where one hopes to scare off an amateur burglar quickly. However, with the widespread use of alarm systems (especially in cars), false alarms are very frequent and many urbanites tend to ignore alarms rather than investigating, let alone contacting the necessary authorities. In short, there may be no response at all. In rural areas where nobody may hear the fire bell or burglar siren, lights or sounds may not make much difference, as the nearest emergency responders may arrive too late to avoid losses.


title: Security alarm

text: Remote alarm systems are used to connect the control unit to a predetermined monitor of some sort, and they come in many different configurations. High-end systems connect to a central station or first responder (e.g. police/fire/medical) via a direct phone wire, a cellular network, a radio network (i.e. GPRS/GSM), or an IP path. In the case of a dual signaling system two of these options are utilized simultaneously. The alarm monitoring includes not only the sensors, but also the communication transmitter itself. While direct phone circuits are still available in some areas from phone companies, because of their high cost and the advent of dual signaling with its comparatively lower cost they are becoming uncommon. Direct connections are now most usually seen only in federal, state, and local government buildings, or on a school campus that has a dedicated security, police, fire, or emergency medical department (in the UK communication is only possible to an alarm receiving centre – communication directly to the emergency services is not permitted).


title: Security alarm

text: More typical systems incorporate a digital cellular communication unit that will contact the central station (or some other location) via the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) and raise the alarm, either with a synthesized voice or increasingly via an encoded message string that the central station decodes. These may connect to the regular phone system on the system side of the demarcation point, but typically connect on the customer side ahead of all phones within the monitored premises so that the alarm system can seize the line by cutting-off any active calls and call the monitoring company if needed. A dual signaling system would raise the alarm wirelessly via a radio path (GPRS/GSM) or cellular path using the phone line or broadband line as a back-up overcoming any compromise to the phone line. Encoders can be programmed to indicate which specific sensor was triggered, and monitors can show the physical location (or "zone") of the sensor on a list or even a map of the protected premises, which can make the resulting response more effective. For example, a heat sensor alarm, coupled with a flame detector in the same area is a more reliable indication of an actual fire than just one or the other sensor indication by itself.


title: Security alarm

text: Many alarm panels are equipped with a backup communication path for use when the primary PSTN circuit is not functioning. The redundant dialer may be connected to a second communication path, or a specialized encoded cellular phone, radio, or internet interface device to bypass the PSTN entirely, to thwart intentional tampering with the phone lines. Just the fact that someone tampered with the line could trigger a supervisory alarm via the radio network, giving early warning of an imminent problem (e.g. arson). In some cases a remote building may not have PSTN phone service, and the cost of trenching and running a direct line may be prohibitive. It is possible to use a wireless cellular or radio device as the primary communication method.


title: Security alarm

text: In the UK the most popular solution of this kind is similar in principle to the above but with the primary and back up paths reversed. Utilizing a radio path (GPRS/GSM) as the primary signaling path is not only quicker than PSTN but also allows huge cost savings as unlimited amounts of data can be sent at no extra expense.


title: Security alarm

text: Increasing deployment of voice over IP technology (VoIP) is driving the adoption of broadband signaling for alarm reporting. Many sites requiring alarm installations no longer have conventional telephone lines (POTS), and alarm panels with conventional telephone dialer capability do not work reliably over some types of VoIP service.


title: Security alarm

text: Dial-up analogue alarm panels or systems with serial/parallel data ports may be migrated to broadband through the addition of an alarm server device which converts telephone signaling signals or data port traffic to IP messages suitable for broadband transmission. But the direct use of VoIP (POTS port on premises terminal) to transport analogue alarms without an alarm server device is problematic as the audio codecs used throughout the entire network transmission path cannot guarantee a suitable level of reliability or quality of service acceptable for the application.


title: Security alarm

text: In response to the changing public communications network and new alarm systems often can use broadband signaling as a method of alarm transmission, and manufacturers are including IP reporting capability directly in their alarm panel products. When the Internet is used as a primary signaling method for critical security and life safety applications, frequent supervision messages are configured to overcome concerns about backup power for network equipment and signal delivery time. But for typical applications, connectivity concerns are controlled by normal supervision messages, sent daily or weekly.


title: Security alarm

text: Various IP Alarm transmission protocols exist but most in use today are proprietary. Just as the formats used for conventional telephone reporting were standardized and published, broadband signaling for alarm reporting is being standardized today. In 2007, US alarm manufacturers developed an open standard called DC-09. This standard has been accepted as an American National Standard, and is published as ANSI/SIA DC-09-2007. [ref: ANSI/SIA DC-09-2007] without The protocol provides an encoding scheme and transport mechanism to carry data from 17 previously defined alarm protocols, including the latest Contact ID, SIA DC-03 and SIA 2000 protocols. [ref: ANSI/SIA DC-07-2001.04] Several manufacturers of panels and receivers are reported to be developing or have released support for DC-09.


title: Security alarm

text: Dual signaling is a method of alarm transmission that uses a mobile phone network and a telephone and/or IP path to transmit intruder, fire and personal attack signals at high speed from the protected premises to an Alarm Receiving Centre (ARC). It most commonly uses GPRS or GSM, a high-speed signaling technology used to send and receive ‘packets’ of data, with a telephone line in addition. The option of IP is not used as frequently due to issues with installation and configuration as a high level of I.T expertise is often required in addition to alarm installation knowledge.


title: Security alarm

text: A dual signaling communication device is attached to a control panel on a security installation and is the component that transmits the alarm to the ARC. It can do this in a number of different ways, via the GPRS radio path, via the GSM radio path or via the telephone line/or IP if that has been chosen. These multiple signaling paths are all present and live at the same time backing each other up to minimize exposure of the property to intruders. Should one fail there is always one form of back up and depending on the manufacturer chosen up to three paths working simultaneously at any one time. Prior to the availability of dual signaling systems, police and keyholders were often called out to the premises because of an alarm signal on the telephone path only to discover that it was a network fault and not a genuine alarm


title: Security alarm

text: Dual paths allow distinction between hardware failures and a genuine attack on the alarm. This helps eliminate false alarms and unnecessary responses. Dual signaling has helped considerably with the restoration of Police response as in an instance where a phone line is cut as the dual signaling device can continue to send alarm calls via one of its alternative paths either confirming or denying the alarm from the initial path.


title: Security alarm

text: In the UK, CSL DualCom Ltd pioneered dual signaling in 1996. In doing so, the company offered the first credible alternative to existing alarm signaling while setting the current standard for professional dual path security monitoring. Dual signaling is now firmly regarded as the standard format for alarm signaling and is duly specified by all of the leading insurance companies.


title: Security alarm

text: Monitored alarms and speaker phones allow for the central station to speak with the homeowner or intruder. This may be beneficial to the owner for medical emergencies. For actual break-ins, the speaker phones allow the central station to urge the intruder to cease and desist as response units have been dispatched. Listen-in alarm monitoring is also known as Immediate Audio-Response monitoring or Speaking Alarm Systems in the UK.


title: Security alarm

text: The list of services to be monitored at a Central Station has expanded over the past few years to include: Access Control; CCTV Monitoring; Alarm Verification; Environmental Monitoring; Intrusion Alarm Monitoring; Fire Alarm & Sprinkler Monitoring; Critical Condition Monitoring; Medical Response Monitoring; Elevator Telephone Monitoring; Hold-Up or Panic Alarm Monitoring; Duress Monitoring; Auto Dialer tests; Open & Close Signal Supervision & Reporting; Exception Reports; and PIN or Passcode Management. Increasingly, the Central Stations are making this information available directly to end users via the internet and a secure log-on to view and create custom reports on these events themselves.


title: Security alarm

text: In the United States, police respond to at least 36 million alarm activations each year, at an estimated annual cost of $1.8 billion.


title: Security alarm

text: Depending upon the zone triggered, number and sequence of zones, time of day, and other factors, the alarm monitoring center may automatically initiate various actions. Central station operators might be instructed to call emergency services immediately, or to first call the protected premises or property manager to try to determine if the alarm is genuine. Operators could also start calling a list of phone numbers provided by the customer to contact someone to go check on the protected premises. Some zones may trigger a call to the local heating oil company to go check on the system, or a call to the owner with details of which room may be getting flooded. Some alarm systems are tied to video surveillance systems so that current video of the intrusion area can be instantly displayed on a remote monitor, not to mention recorded.


title: Security alarm

text: Some alarm systems use real-time audio and video monitoring technology to verify the legitimacy of an alarm. In some municipalities around the United States, this type of alarm verification allows the property it is protecting to be placed on a "verified response" list, allowing for quicker and safer police responses.


title: Security alarm

text: The first video home security system was patented on December 2, 1969 to inventor Marie Brown. The system used television surveillance.


title: Security alarm

text: To be useful, an intrusion alarm system is deactivated or reconfigured when authorized personnel are present. Authorization may be indicated in any number of ways, often with keys or codes used at the control panel or a remote panel near an entry. High-security alarms may require multiple codes, or a fingerprint, badge, hand-geometry, retinal scan, encrypted-response generator, and other means that are deemed sufficiently secure for the purpose.


title: Security alarm

text: Failed authorizations should result in an alarm or at least a timed lockout to prevent experimenting with possible codes. Some systems can be configured to permit deactivation of individual sensors or groups. Others can also be programmed to bypass or ignore individual sensors (once or multiple times) and leave the remainder of the system armed. This feature is useful for permitting a single door to be opened and closed before the alarm is armed, or to permit a person to leave, but not return. High-end systems allow multiple access codes, and may even permit them to be used only once, or on particular days, or only in combination with other users' codes (i.e., escorted). In any case, a remote monitoring center should arrange an oral code to be provided by an authorized person in case of false alarms, so the monitoring center can be assured that a further alarm response is unnecessary. As with access codes, there can also be a hierarchy of oral codes, say, for furnace repairperson to enter the kitchen and basement sensor areas but not the silver vault in the pantry. There are also systems that permit a duress code to be entered and silence the local alarm, but still trigger the remote alarm to summon the police to a robbery.


title: Security alarm

text: Fire sensors can be isolated, meaning that when triggered, they will not trigger the main alarm network. This is important when smoke and heat is intentionally produced. The owners of buildings can be fined for generating false alarms that waste the time of emergency personnel.


title: Security alarm

text: The United States Department of Justice estimates that between 94% and 98% of all alarm calls to law enforcement are false alarms.


title: Security alarm

text: System reliability and user error are the cause of most false alarms, sometimes called "nuisance alarms." False alarms can be very costly to local governments, local law enforcement, security system users and members of local communities. In 2007, the Department of Justice reported that in just one year, false alarms cost local municipalities and their constituents at least $1.8 billion.


title: Security alarm

text: In many municipalities across the United States, policies have been adopted to fine home and business owners for multiple false alarm activations from their security system. If multiple false alarms from the same property persist, that property could even be added to a "no response" list, which bars police dispatch to the property except in the event of verified emergency. Approximately 1% of police alarm calls actually involve a crime. Nuisance alarms occur when an unintended event evokes an alarm status by an otherwise properly working alarm system. A false alarm also occurs when there is an alarm system malfunction that results in an alarm state. In all three circumstances, the source of the problem should be immediately found and fixed, so that responders will not lose confidence in the alarm reports. It is easier to know when there are false alarms, because the system is designed to react to that condition. Failure alarms are more troublesome because they usually require periodic testing to make sure the sensors are working and that the correct signals are getting through to the monitor. Some systems are designed to detect problems internally, such as low or dead batteries, loose connections, phone circuit trouble, etc. While earlier nuisance alarms could be set off by small disturbances, like insects or pets, newer model alarms have technology to measure the size/weight of the object causing the disturbance, and thus are able to decide how serious the threat is, which is especially useful in burglar alarms.


title: Security alarm

text: Many municipalities across the United States require alarm verification before police are dispatched. Under this approach, alarm monitoring companies must verify the legitimacy of alarms (except holdup, duress, and panic alarms) before calling the police. Verified response typically involves visual on-scene verification of a break-in, or remote audio or video verification.


title: Security alarm

text: Home and business owners can now choose a new type of keypad control panel designed to help reduce false alarms.


title: Security alarm

text: Based on a standard called CP-01-2000, developed by the American National Standards Institute and Security Industry Association, the new generation of keypad control panels takes aim at user error by building in extra precautions that minimize unwarranted dispatch of emergency responders.


title: Security alarm

text: Some of the features of CP-01 keypads include a progress annunciation function that emits a different sound during the last 10 seconds of delay, which hastens exit from the premises. Also, the exit time doubles if the user disables the pre-warning feature.


title: Security alarm

text: Other "rules" address failure to exit premises, which results in arming all zones in Stay Mode and a one-time, automatic restart of exit delay. However, if there is an exit error, an immediate local alarm will sound.


title: Security alarm

text: Alarms that utilize audio, video, or combination of both audio and video verification technology give security companies, dispatchers, police officers, and property managers more reliable data to assess the threat level of a triggered alarm.


title: Security alarm

text: Audio and video verification techniques use microphones and cameras to record audio frequencies, video signals, or image snapshots. The source audio and video streams are sent over a communication link, usually an Internet protocol (IP) network, to the central station where monitors retrieve the images through proprietary software. The information is then relayed to law enforcement and recorded to an event file, which can be used to plan a more strategical and tactical approach of a property, and later as prosecution evidence.


title: Security alarm

text: An example of how this system works is when a passive infrared or other sensor is triggered a designated number of video frames from before and after the event is sent to the central station.


title: Security alarm

text: A second video solution can be incorporated into a standard panel, which sends the central station an alarm. When a signal is received, a trained monitoring professional accesses the on-site digital video recorder (DVR) through an IP link to determine the cause of the activation. For this type of system, the camera input to the DVR reflects the alarm panel's zones and partitioning, which allows personnel to look for an alarm source in multiple areas.


title: Security alarm

text: The United States Department of Justice states that legislation requiring alarm companies to verify the legitimacy of an alarm, before contacting law enforcement (commonly known as "verified response") is the most effective way to reduce false burglar alarms. The Department of Justice considers audio, video, or an eye-witness account as verification for the legitimacy of a burglar alarm.


title: Security alarm

text: Cross-zoning is a strategy that does not require a new keypad. Using multiple sensors to monitor activity in one area, software analyses input from all the sources. For example, if a motion detector trips in one area, the signal is recorded and the central-station monitor notifies the customer. A second alarm signal—received in an adjacent zone within a short time—is the confirmation the central-station monitor needs to request a dispatch immediately. This builds in increased protection and a fail-safe should a door blow open or a bird rattle an exterior window.


title: Security alarm

text: Enhanced call verification (ECV) helps reduce false dispatches 25–50% while still protecting citizens, and is mandated in several US jurisdictions, although the alarm industry has successfully opposed it in others. ECV requires central station personnel to attempt to verify the alarm activation by making a minimum of two phone calls to two different responsible party telephone numbers before dispatching law enforcement to the scene.


title: Security alarm

text: The first alarm-verification call goes to the location the alarm originated. If contact with a person is not made, a second call is placed to a different number. The secondary number, best practices dictate, should be to a telephone that is answered even after hours, preferably a cellular phone of a decision maker authorized to request or bypass emergency response.


title: Security alarm

text: ECV, as it cannot confirm an actual intrusion event and will not prompt a priority law enforcement dispatch, is not considered true alarm verification by the security industry.


title: Security alarm

text: Some insurance companies and local agencies require that alarm systems be installed to code or be certified by an independent third party. The alarm system is required to have a maintenance check carried out every 6 – 12 months (in the UK, 'Audible Only' intruder alarm systems require a routine service visit once every 12 months and monitored intruder alarm systems require a check twice in every 12-month period) to ensure all internal components, sensors and PSUs are functioning correctly. In the past, this would require an alarm service engineer to attend site and carry the checks out. With the use of the Internet or radio path and a compatible IP/radio transmitting device (at the alarmed premises), some checks can now be carried out remotely from the central station.


title: Natural justice

text: In English law, natural justice is technical terminology for the rule against bias ("nemo iudex in causa sua") and the right to a fair hearing ("audi alteram partem"). While the term "natural justice" is often retained as a general concept, it has largely been replaced and extended by the general "duty to act fairly".


title: Natural justice

text: The basis for the rule against bias is the need to maintain public confidence in the legal system. Bias can take the form of actual bias, imputed bias, or apparent bias. Actual bias is very difficult to prove in practice whereas imputed bias, once shown, will result in a decision being void without the need for any investigation into the likelihood or suspicion of bias. Cases from different jurisdictions currently apply two tests for apparent bias: the "reasonable suspicion of bias" test and the "real likelihood of bias" test. One view that has been taken is that the differences between these two tests are largely semantic and that they operate similarly.


title: Natural justice

text: The right to a fair hearing requires that individuals should not be penalized by decisions affecting their rights or legitimate expectations unless they have been given prior notice of the case, a fair opportunity to answer it, and the opportunity to present their own case. The mere fact that a decision affects rights or interests is sufficient to subject the decision to the procedures required by natural justice. In Europe, the right to a fair hearing is guaranteed by Article 6(1) of the European Convention on Human Rights, which is said to complement the common law rather than replace it.


title: Natural justice

text: Natural justice is a term of art that denotes specific procedural rights in the English legal system and the systems of other nations based on it. It is similar to the American concepts of fair procedure and procedural due process, the latter having roots that to some degree parallel the origins of natural justice.


title: Natural justice

text: Although natural justice has an impressive ancestry and is said to express the close relationship between the common law and moral principles, the use of the term today is not to be confused with the "natural law" of the Canonists, the mediaeval philosophers' visions of an "ideal pattern of society" or the "natural rights" philosophy of the 18th century. Whilst the term "natural justice" is often retained as a general concept, in jurisdictions such as Australia, and the United Kingdom, it has largely been replaced and extended by the more general "duty to act fairly". Natural justice is identified with the two constituents of a fair hearing, which are the rule against bias ("nemo iudex in causa sua", or "no man a judge in his own cause"), and the right to a fair hearing ("audi alteram partem", or "hear the other side").


title: Natural justice

text: The requirements of natural justice or a duty to act fairly depend on the context. In "Baker v Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration)" (1999), the Supreme Court of Canada set out a list of non-exhaustive factors that would influence the content of the duty of fairness, including the nature of the decision being made and the process followed in making it, the statutory scheme under which the decision-maker operates, the importance of the decision to the person challenging it, the person's legitimate expectations, and the choice of procedure made by the decision-maker. Earlier, in "Knight v Indian Head School Division No 19" (1990), the Supreme Court held that public authorities which make decisions of a legislative and general nature do not have a duty to act fairly, while those that carry out acts of a more administrative and specific nature do. Furthermore, preliminary decisions will generally not trigger the duty to act fairly, but decisions of a more final nature may have such an effect. In addition, whether a duty to act fairly applies depends on the relationship between the public authority and the individual. No duty exists where the relationship is one of master and servant, or where the individual holds office at the pleasure of the authority. On the other hand, a duty to act fairly exists where the individual cannot be removed from office except for cause. Finally, a right to procedural fairness only exists when an authority's decision is significant and has an important impact on the individual.


title: Natural justice

text: A person is barred from deciding any case in which he or she may be, or may fairly be suspected to be, biased. This principle embodies the basic concept of impartiality, and applies to courts of law, tribunals, arbitrators and all those having the duty to act judicially. A public authority has a duty to act judicially whenever it makes decisions that affect people's rights or interests, and not only when it applies some judicial-type procedure in arriving at decisions.


title: Natural justice

text: The basis on which impartiality operates is the need to maintain public confidence in the legal system. The erosion of public confidence undermines the nobility of the legal system and leads to ensuing chaos. The essence of the need for impartiality was observed by Lord Denning, the Master of the Rolls, in "Metropolitan Properties Co (FGC) Ltd v Lannon" (1968): "Justice must be rooted in confidence and confidence is destroyed when right-minded people go away thinking: 'The judge was biased.'"


title: Natural justice

text: Public confidence as the basis for the rule against bias is also embodied in the often-quoted words of Lord Hewart, the Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales, that "[i]t is not merely of some importance, but of fundamental importance that justice should not only be done, but should manifestly be seen to be done".


title: Natural justice

text: Bias may be actual, imputed or apparent. Actual bias is established where it is actually established that a decision-maker was prejudiced in favour of or against a party. However, in practice, the making of such an allegation is rare as it is very hard to prove.


title: Natural justice

text: One form of imputed bias is based on the decision-maker being a party to a suit, or having a pecuniary or proprietary interest in the outcome of the decision. Once this fact has been established, the bias is irrebuttable and disqualification is automatic—the decision-maker will be barred from adjudicating the matter without the need for any investigation into the likelihood or suspicion of bias. A classic case is "Dimes v Grand Junction Canal" (1852), which involved an action between Dimes, a local landowner, and the proprietors of the Grand Junction Canal, in which the Lord Chancellor, Lord Cottenham, had affirmed decrees made to the proprietors. However, it was discovered by Dimes that Lord Cottenham, in fact, owned several pounds' worth of shares in the Grand Junction Canal. This eventually led to the judge being disqualified from deciding the case. There was no inquiry as to whether a reasonable person would consider Lord Cottenham to be biased, or as to the circumstances which led Lord Cottenham to hear the case.


title: Natural justice

text: In certain limited situations, bias can also be imputed when the decision-maker's interest in the decision is not pecuniary but personal. This was established in the unprecedented case of "R v Bow Street Metropolitan Stipendiary Magistrate Ex parte Pinochet Ugarte (No.2)" (1999). In an appeal to the House of Lords, the Crown Prosecution Service sought to overturn a quashing order made by the Divisional Court regarding extradition warrants made against the ex-Chilean dictator, Senator Augusto Pinochet. Amnesty International (AI) was given leave to intervene in the proceedings. However, one of the judges of the case, Lord Hoffmann, was a director and chairperson of Amnesty International Charity Ltd. (AICL), a company under the control of AI. He was eventually disqualified from the case and the outcome of the proceedings set aside. The House of Lords held that the close connection between AICL and AI presented Lord Hoffmann with an interest in the outcome of the litigation. Even though it was non-pecuniary, the Law Lords took the view that the interest was sufficient to warrant Lord Hoffmann's automatic disqualification from hearing the case. In "Locabail (UK) Ltd v Bayfield Properties Ltd" (1999), the Court of Appeal warned against any further extension of the automatic disqualification rule, "unless plainly required to give effect to the important underlying principles upon which the rule is based".


title: Natural justice

text: Apparent bias is present where a judge or other decision-maker is not a party to a matter and does not have an interest in its outcome, but through his or her conduct or behaviour gives rise to a suspicion that he or she is not impartial. An issue that has arisen is the degree of suspicion which would provide the grounds on which a decision should be set aside for apparent bias. Currently, cases from various jurisdictions apply two different tests: "real likelihood of bias" and "reasonable suspicion of bias".


title: Natural justice

text: The real likelihood test centres on whether the facts, as assessed by the court, give rise to a real likelihood of bias. In "R v Gough" (1993), the House of Lords chose to state the test in terms of a "real danger of bias", and emphasized that the test was concerned with the possibility, not probability, of bias. Lord Goff of Chievely also stated that "the court should look at the matter through the eyes of a reasonable man, because the court in cases such as these personifies the reasonable man". However, the test in "Gough" has been disapproved of in some Commonwealth jurisdictions. One criticism is that the emphasis on the court's view of the facts gives insufficient emphasis to the perception of the public. These criticisms were addressed by the House of Lords in "Porter v Magill" (2001). The Court adjusted the "Gough" test by stating it to be "whether the fair-minded and informed observer, having considered the facts, would conclude that there was a real possibility that the tribunal was biased". This case therefore established the current test in the UK to be one of a "real possibility of bias".


title: Natural justice

text: On the other hand, the reasonable suspicion test asks whether a reasonable and fair-minded person sitting in court and knowing all the relevant facts would have a reasonable suspicion that a fair trial for the litigant is not possible. Although not currently adopted in the UK, this test has been endorsed by the Singapore courts.


title: Natural justice

text: It has been suggested that the differences between the two tests are largely semantic and that the two tests operate similarly. In "Locabail", the judges stated that in a large proportion of the cases, application of the two tests would lead to the same outcome. It was also held that "[p]rovided that the court, personifying the reasonable man, takes an approach which is based on broad common sense, and without inappropriate reliance on special knowledge, the minutiae of court procedure or other matters outside the ken of the ordinary, reasonably well-informed members of the public, there should be no risk that the courts will not ensure both that justice is done and that it is perceived by the public to be done". In the Singapore High Court decision "Tang Kin Hwa v. Traditional Chinese Medicine Practitioners Board" (2005), Judicial Commissioner Andrew Phang observed that the real likelihood test is in reality similar to that of reasonable suspicion. First, "likelihood" is in fact "possibility", as opposed to the higher standard of proof centring on "probability". Secondly, he suggested that "real" in "real likelihood" cannot be taken to mean "actual", as this test relates to apparent and not actual bias. He also observed that both the court's and the public's perspectives are "integral parts of a holistic process" with no need to draw a sharp distinction between them.


title: Natural justice

text: In contrast, in "Re Shankar Alan s/o Anant Kulkarni" (2006), Judicial Commissioner Sundaresh Menon thought that there was a real difference between the reasonable suspicion and real likelihood tests. In his opinion, "suspicion" suggests a belief that something that may not be provable could still be possible. "Reasonable" suggests that the belief cannot be fanciful. Here the issue is whether it is reasonable for the one to harbour the suspicions in the circumstances even though the suspicious behaviour could be innocent. On the other hand, "likelihood" points towards something being likely, and "real" suggests that this must be substantial rather than imagined. Here, then, the inquiry is directed more towards the actor than the observer. The issue is the degree to which a particular event is not likely or possible Menon J.C. also disagreed with both Lord Goff in "Gough" and Phang J.C. in "Tang Kin Hwa" in that he thought the shift of the inquiry from how the matter might appear to a reasonable man to whether the judge thinks there is a sufficient possibility of bias was "a very significant point of departure". The real likelihood test is met as long as the court is satisfied that there is a sufficient degree of possibility of bias. Although this a lower standard than satisfaction on a balance of probabilities, this is actually directed at mitigating the sheer difficulty of proving actual bias, especially given its insidious and often subconscious nature. The reasonable suspicion test, however, is met if the court is satisfied that a reasonable member of the public could harbour a reasonable suspicion of bias even though the court itself thought there was no real danger of this on the facts. The difference is that the driver behind this test is the strong public interest in ensuring public confidence in the administration of justice. As of September 2011, the Court of Appeal of Singapore had not yet expressed a view as to whether the position taken in "Tang Kin Hwa" or "Shankar Alan" is preferable.


title: Natural justice

text: There are cases in which a disqualified adjudicator cannot be replaced, as no one else is authorized to act. It has been observed that "disqualification of an adjudicator will not be permitted to destroy the only tribunal with power to act". In such cases, natural justice has to give way to necessity in order to maintain the integrity of judicial and administrative systems.


title: Natural justice

text: This issue regarding necessity was raised in "Dimes". The Lord Chancellor had to sign an order for enrolment in order to allow the appeal to proceed from the Vice-Chancellor to the House of Lords. It was held that his shareholding in the canal company which barred him from sitting in the appeal did not affect his power to enroll, as no one but him had the authority to do so. It was mentioned this was allowed "for this [was] a case of necessity, and where that occurs the objection of interest cannot prevail".


title: Natural justice

text: The court normally requests that an objection be taken as soon as the prejudiced party has knowledge of the bias. If an objection is not raised and proceedings are allowed to continue without disapproval, it will be held that the party has waived its right to do so.


title: Natural justice

text: In "Dimes", the judges advised the House of Lords that Lord Cottenham's pecuniary interest made his judgment not void, but voidable. This advice is not wrong in the context of a judicial act under review, where the judgment will be held valid unless reversed on appeal.


title: Natural justice

text: However, in the cases of administrative acts or decisions under judicial review, the court can only intervene on the grounds of "ultra vires", hence making the judgment void. Lord Esher said in "Allison v General Council of Medical Education and Registration" (1894) that the participation of a disqualified person "certainly rendered the decision wholly void".


title: Natural justice

text: It has been suggested that the rule requiring a fair hearing is broad enough to include the rule against bias since a fair hearing must be an unbiased hearing. However, the rules are often treated separately. It is fundamental to fair procedure that both sides should be heard. The right to a fair hearing requires that individuals are not penalized by decisions affecting their rights or legitimate expectations unless they have been given prior notice of the cases against them, a fair opportunity to answer them, and the opportunity to present their own cases.


title: Natural justice

text: Besides promoting an individual's liberties, the right to a fair hearing has also been used by courts as a base on which to build up fair administrative procedures. It is now well established that it is not the character of the public authority that matters but the character of the power exercised. However, in the United Kingdom prior to "Ridge v Baldwin" (1963), the scope of the right to a fair hearing was severely restricted by case law following "Cooper v Wandsworth Board of Works" (1863). In "R v Electricity Commissioners, ex parte London Electricity Joint Committee Co. (1920), Ltd." (1923), Lord Atkin observed that the right only applied where decision-makers had "the duty to act judicially". In natural justice cases this "dictum" was generally understood to mean that a duty to act judicially was not to be inferred merely from the impact of a decision on the rights of subjects; such a duty would arise only if there was a "superadded" express obligation to follow a judicial-type procedure in arriving at the decision.


title: Natural justice

text: In "Ridge v Baldwin", Lord Reid reviewed the authorities extensively and attacked the problem at its root by demonstrating how the term "judicial" had been misinterpreted as requiring some additional characteristic over and above the characteristic that the power affected some person's rights. In his view, the mere fact that the power affects rights or interests is what makes it "judicial" and so subject to the procedures required by natural justice. This removal of the earlier misconception as to the meaning of "judicial" is thought to have given the judiciary the flexibility it needed to intervene in cases of judicial review.


title: Natural justice

text: The mere fact that a decision-maker is conferred wide discretion by law is not reason enough for a weakening of the requirements of natural justice. In the United Kingdom context, this is demonstrated by "Ahmed v H.M. Treasury (No. 1)" (2010). The Treasury had exercised powers to freeze the appellants' financial assets and economic resources on the ground that it reasonably suspected the appellants were or might be persons who had committed, attempted to commit, participated in or facilitated the commission of terrorism, pursuant to the Terrorism (United Nations Measures) Order 2006 and the Al-Qaida and Taliban (United Nations Measures) Order 2006 made under the United Nations Act 1946. The Supreme Court of the United Kingdom held that since the Al-Qaida Order made no provision for basic procedural fairness, it effectively deprived people designated under the order the fundamental right of access to a judicial remedy and hence was "ultra vires" the power conferred by the United Nations Act 1946 for the making of the Order.


title: Natural justice

text: The right to a fair hearing is also referred to in Article 6(1) of the European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, which states:


title: Natural justice

text: Article 6 does not, however, replace the common law duty to ensure a fair hearing. It has been suggested that Article 6 alone is not enough to protect procedural due process, and only with the development of a more sophisticated common law will the protection of procedural due process extend further into the administrative machine. Nonetheless, Article 6 supplements the common law. For example, the common law does not impose a general duty to give reasons for a decision, but under Article 6(1) a decision-maker must give a reasoned judgment so as to enable an affected individual to decide whether to appeal.


title: Natural justice

text: Natural justice allows a person to claim the right to adequate notification of the date, time, place of the hearing as well as detailed notification of the case to be met. This information allows the person adequate time to effectively prepare his or her own case and to answer the case against him or her. In "Cooper v Wandsworth", Chief Justice William Erle went so far as to state that the lack of notice and hearing afforded to Cooper could be said to be a form of abuse, as he had been treated as if he did not matter. As Lord Mustill famously held in "R v Secretary of State for the Home Department Ex p Doody" (1993): "Since the person affected usually cannot make worthwhile representations without knowing what factors may weigh against his interests fairness will very often require that he is informed of the gist of the case which he has to answer."


title: Natural justice

text: The British courts have held it is not enough for an affected person to merely be informed of a hearing. He or she must also be told what is at stake; in other words, the gist of the case.


title: Natural justice

text: Every person has the right to have a hearing and be allowed to present his or her own case. Should a person not attend the hearing, even with adequate notice given, the adjudicator has the discretion to decide if the hearing should proceed. In "Ridge v Baldwin", a chief constable succeeded in having his dismissal from service declared void as he had not been given the opportunity to make a defence. In another case, "Chief Constable of the North Wales Police v Evans" (1982), a chief constable required a police probationer to resign on account of allegations about his private life which he was given no fair opportunity to rebut. The House of Lords found the dismissal to be unlawful. Likewise in "Surinder Singh Kanda v Federation of Malaya" (1962), a public servant facing disciplinary proceedings was not supplied with a copy of a prejudicial report by a board of inquiry which the adjudicating officer had access to before the hearing. The Privy Council held that the proceedings had failed to provide him a reasonable opportunity of being heard.


title: Natural justice

text: However, this requirement does not necessarily mean the decision-maker has to meet the complainant face to face—"Natural justice does not generally demand orality". It has been suggested that an oral hearing will almost be as good as useless if the affected person has no prior knowledge of the case. In "Lloyd v McMahon" (1987), an oral hearing did not make a difference to the facts on which the case was based. Giving judgment in the Court of Appeal of England and Wales, Lord Justice Harry Woolf held that an oral hearing may not always be the "very pith of the administration of natural justice". It has also been suggested that an oral hearing is only required if issues concerning deprivations of legal rights or legally protected interests arise.


title: Natural justice

text: When deciding how the hearing should be conducted, the adjudicator has to ask whether the person charged has a proper opportunity to consider, challenge or contradict any evidence, and whether the person is also fully aware of the nature of the allegations against him or her so as to have a proper opportunity to present his or her own case. In "Secretary of State for the Home Department v AF" (2009), Lord Phillips of Worth Matravers said: