title: Culling

text: In South Australia, the recovery of the state's native population of New Zealand fur seals ("Arctocephalus forsteri") after severe depletion by sealers in the 1800s has brought them into conflict with the fishing industry. This has prompted members of Parliament to call for seal culling in South Australia. The State Government continues to resist the pressure and as of July 2015, the animals remain protected as listed Marine Mammals under the state's "National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972".


title: Culling

text: Shark culling occurs in four locations : New South Wales, Queensland, KwaZulu-Natal and Réunion. Between 1950 and 2008, 352 tiger sharks and 577 great white sharks were killed in the nets in New South Wales—also during this period, a total of 15,135 marine animals were caught and killed in the nets, including whales, turtles, rays, dolphins, and dugongs. From 2001 to 2018, a total of 10,480 sharks were killed on lethal drum lines in Queensland. In a 30-year period up to early 2017, more than 33,000 sharks were killed in KwaZulu-Natal's shark-killing program—during the same 30-year period, 2,211 turtles, 8,448 rays, and 2,310 dolphins were killed. Authorities on Réunion kill about 100 sharks per year. All of these culls have been criticized by environmentalists, who say killing sharks harms the marine ecosystem.


title: Culling

text: In 2014, a controversial policy was introduced by the Western Australian state government which became known as the Western Australian shark cull. Baited hooks known as drum lines were to be set over several consecutive summers to catch and kill otherwise protected great white sharks. The policy's objective was to protect users of the marine environment from fatal shark attack. Thousands of people protested against its implementation, claiming that it was indiscriminate, inhumane and worked against scientific advice the government had previously received. Seasonal setting of drum lines was abandoned in September 2014 after the program failed to catch any great white sharks, instead catching 172 other elasmobranchii, mostly tiger sharks.


title: Culling

text: White-tailed deer ("Odocoileus virginianus") have been becoming an issue in suburbs across the United States of America due to large population increases. This is thought to be caused mainly by the extirpation of most of their major predators in these areas. In response to these population booms, different management approaches have been taken to decrease their numbers mainly in the form of culls. Culls of deer are often partnered with exclusions with fencing and also administering contraceptives.


title: Culling

text: The effectiveness of these deer culls has been debated and often criticized as only a temporary fix to the larger problem of deer overpopulation and argue that the use of culling will increase fertility of remaining deer by reducing competition. Those in favor of the culls argue that they can be used to combat the selection pressure that is imposed by hunting that creates smaller antler and body sizes in deer. People in favor of the culls recommend that they not be random and actively select for smaller individuals and bucks with smaller antlers, specifically "button bucks" or bucks with only spiked antler in their first year as opposed to forked antlers.


title: Culling

text: Culling of deer can also have benefits in the form of disease prevention and in places that the white-tailed deer is an invasive species such as New Zealand culling of deer has added benefits for native species. Diseases are density dependent factors and decreases in the density of the deer populations through culling causes diseases, such as chronic wasting disease and Lyme disease, to spread less quickly and effectively.


title: Culling

text: Many zoos participate in an international breeding program to maintain a genetically viable population and prevent inbreeding. Animals that can no longer contribute to the breeding program are considered less desirable and are often replaced by more desirable individuals. If an animal is surplus to a zoo's requirements and a place in another zoo can not be found, the animal may be killed. In 2014, the culling of a young, healthy giraffe Marius raised an international public controversy.


title: Culling

text: Zoos sometimes consider female animals to be more desirable than males. One reason for this is that while individual males can contribute to the birth of many young in a short period of time, females give birth to only a few young and are pregnant for a relatively long period of time. This makes it possible to keep many females with just one or two males, but not the reverse. Another reason is that the birth of some animal species increases public interest in the zoo.


title: Culling

text: Germany's orders that zoo animals cannot be culled without verification by official veterinary institutes of the Landkreis or federated state.


title: Culling

text: In the UK, there is no general prohibition on animal euthanasia, which is allowed when overcrowding compromises the well-being of the animals.


title: Culling

text: Jaak Panksepp, an American neuroscientist, concludes that both animals and humans have brains wired to feel emotions, and that animals have the capacity to experience pleasure and happiness from their lives.


title: Culling

text: Culling has been criticized on animal rights grounds as speciesist—it has been argued that killing animals for any reason is cruel and unethical, and that animals have a right to live.


title: Culling

text: Some argue that culling is necessary when biodiversity is threatened. However, the protection of biodiversity argument has been questioned by some animal rights advocates who point out that the animal which most greatly threatens and damages biodiversity is humanity, so if we are not willing to cull our own species we cannot morally justify culling another.


title: Culling

text: There are non-lethal alternatives which may still be considered culling, and serve the same purpose of reducing population numbers and selecting for desired traits without killing existing members of the population. These methods include the use of wildlife contraceptives and reproductive inhibitors. By using such methods population numbers might be reduced more gradually and in a potentially more humane fashion than by directly lethal culling actions.


title: Culling

text: Currently, wildlife contraceptives are largely in the experimental phase and include such products as Gonacon, an adjuvant vaccine which delivers a high dosage of a competitor ligand of the hormone GnRH to female mammals (e.g. whitetail deer). The complex formed of GnRH and the Gonacon molecule promotes production of antibodies against the animal's own GnRH, which themselves complex with GnRH. This encourages an extended duration of the drug's effects (namely, reduction of active/unbound GnRH in the animal's system). Though the endocrinology behind Gonacon is sound, the need for multiple lifetime doses for full efficacy make it a less-guaranteed and less-permanent solution for wildlife than lethal culls. Even among domestic animals in controlled conditions, Gonacon cannot ensure 100% reduction in the occurrence of pregnancies.


title: Culling

text: Reproductive inhibitors need not act on the parental individuals directly, instead damaging reproductive processes and/or developing offspring to reduce the number of viable offspring per mating pair. One such compound called Nicarbazin has been formulated into bait for consumption by Canada Geese, and damages egg yolk formation to reduce the viability of clutches without harming the adult geese.


title: Harold Wilson conspiracy theories

text: Since the mid-1970s, a variety of conspiracy theories have emerged regarding British Labour Prime Minister Harold Wilson, who served as the prime minister of the United Kingdom from 1964 to 1970 and 1974 to 1976. These range from Wilson having been a Soviet agent (a claim which MI5 investigated and found to be false), to Wilson being the victim of treasonous plots by conservative-leaning elements in MI5 and the British military (e.g., the Clockwork Orange plot), claims which Wilson himself made.


title: Harold Wilson conspiracy theories

text: Soviet defector Anatoliy Golitsyn is said to have told a British intelligence officer that Wilson was a KGB operative and that former Labour Party leader Hugh Gaitskell had been assassinated by the KGB to have the pro-US Gaitskell replaced as party leader by Wilson. However, Christopher Andrew, the official historian for Britain's MI5, has described Golitsyn as an "unreliable conspiracy theorist".


title: Harold Wilson conspiracy theories

text: In his memoir "Spycatcher" (1987), former MI5 officer Peter Wright stated that the head of the CIA's Counterintelligence Division, James Angleton, told him that Wilson was a Soviet agent when Wilson became Prime Minister after the 1964 general election. Wright said that Angleton referred to this assertion coming from a source (whom he did not name but who was probably Golitsyn). Golitsyn's words had been frequently taken heed of by Angleton, who had grown suspicious of the loyalty of many political figures, such as Henry Kissinger. According to Wright, Angleton offered to provide further information on the condition that MI5 guarantee to keep the allegations from "political circles", but the management of MI5 declined to accept restrictions on the use of the information and Angleton told them nothing more.


title: Harold Wilson conspiracy theories

text: According to Wright, at the end of the 1960s MI5 received information from two Czechoslovak defectors, Josef Frolík and František August, who had fled to the West, alleging the Labour Party had "almost certainly" been penetrated by the Soviets. The two gave a list of Labour MPs and trade unionists as Soviet agents.


title: Harold Wilson conspiracy theories

text: MI5 maintained a file on Wilson, under the name of Henry Worthington, repeatedly investigating him over the course of several decades, before officially concluding that Wilson had had no relationship with the KGB; nor did it ever find evidence of Soviet penetration of the Labour Party.


title: Harold Wilson conspiracy theories

text: In his 1976 memoir "Walking on Water", Hugh Cudlipp recounts a meeting he arranged at the request of Cecil King, the head of the International Publishing Corporation (IPC), between King and Lord Mountbatten of Burma, then-Prince Charles' great uncle and mentor. The meeting took place on 8 May 1968. Attending were Mountbatten, King, Cudlipp, and Sir Solly Zuckerman, the Chief Scientific Adviser to the British government.


title: Harold Wilson conspiracy theories

text: Mountbatten asked for the opinion of Zuckerman, who stated that the plan amounted to treason and left the room. Mountbatten expressed the same opinion, and King and Cudlipp left. King subsequently decided to override the editorial independence of the "Daily Mirror" when he instructed the paper to publish a front-page article he had written that called for Wilson to be removed through some sort of extra-parliamentary action. The board of the IPC met and demanded his resignation for this breach of procedure and the damage to the interests of IPC as a public company. He refused, so was dismissed by the board on 30 May 1968.


title: Harold Wilson conspiracy theories

text: In addition to Mountbatten's refusal to participate in King's mooted plot, there is no evidence of any other conspirators. Cudlipp himself appears to see the meeting as an example of extreme egotism on King's part.


title: Harold Wilson conspiracy theories

text: A later memoir by Harold Evans, who was editor of "The Sunday Times" in 1968, said that "The Times" had egged on King's plans for a coup:


title: Harold Wilson conspiracy theories

text: William Rees-Mogg called for a coalition in an 8 December 1968 "Times" editorial entitled "The Danger to Britain", a day before King visited the "Times" office.


title: Harold Wilson conspiracy theories

text: A BBC programme "The Plot Against Harold Wilson", broadcast in 2006, reported that, in tapes recorded soon after his resignation, Wilson stated that for eight months of his premiership he did not "feel he knew what was going on, fully, in security". Wilson alleged two plots, in the late 1960s and mid-1970s respectively. He said that plans had been hatched to install Louis Mountbatten as interim prime minister. He also claimed that ex-military leaders had been building up private armies in anticipation of "wholesale domestic liquidation". On a separate track, elements within MI5 had also, the BBC programme reported, spread black propaganda that Wilson and Marcia Williams (Wilson's private secretary) were Soviet agents, and that Wilson was an IRA sympathiser, apparently with the intention of helping the Conservatives win the February 1974 election.


title: Harold Wilson conspiracy theories

text: On the BBC television programme "The Plot Against Harold Wilson", broadcast on 16 March 2006 on BBC2, it was claimed there were threats of a "coup d'état" against the Wilson government, which were corroborated by leading figures of the time on both the left and the right. Wilson told two BBC journalists, Barrie Penrose and Roger Courtiour, who recorded the meetings on a cassette tape recorder, that he feared he was being undermined by MI5. The first time was in the late 1960s after the Wilson Government devalued the pound sterling but the threat faded after Conservative leader Edward Heath won the election of 1970. However, after a coal miners' strike Heath decided to hold an election to renew his mandate to govern in February 1974 but lost narrowly to Wilson. There was again talk of a military coup, with rumours of Lord Mountbatten as head of an interim administration after Wilson had been deposed. In 1974 the army occupied Heathrow Airport on the grounds of training for possible IRA terrorist action at the airport. Although the military stated that this was a planned military exercise, Downing Street was not informed in advance, and Wilson himself interpreted it as a show of strength, or warning, being made by the army.


title: Harold Wilson conspiracy theories

text: Peter Wright claimed that he was confronted by two of his MI5 colleagues and that they said to him: "Wilson's a bloody menace and it's about time the public knew the truth", and "We'll have him out, this time we'll have him out". Wright alleged that there was a plan to leak damaging information about Wilson and that this had been approved by "up to thirty officers". As the 1974 election approached, the plan went, MI5 would leak selective details of the intelligence about Labour leaders, especially Wilson, to "sympathetic" journalists. According to Wright, MI5 would use their contacts in the press and the trade unions to spread around the idea that Wilson was considered a security risk. The matter was to be raised in Parliament for "maximum effect". However Wright declined to let them see the files on Wilson and the plan was never carried out; but Wright does claim it was a "carbon copy" of the Zinoviev Letter which was believed to have helped destabilise the first Labour Government in 1924.


title: Harold Wilson conspiracy theories

text: On 22 March 1987 former MI5 officer James Miller claimed that the Ulster Workers Council Strike of 1974 had been promoted by MI5 to help destabilise Wilson's government.


title: Harold Wilson conspiracy theories

text: In July 1987, Labour MP, Ken Livingstone used his maiden speech to raise the allegations of a former Army press officer, Colin Wallace, that the Army press office in Northern Ireland had been used in the 1970s as part of a smear campaign, codenamed Clockwork Orange, against Harold Wilson and other British and Irish politicians.


title: Harold Wilson conspiracy theories

text: In "The Defence of the Realm" (2009), the first authorised history of MI5, by Christopher Andrew, it was shown that MI5 kept a file on Wilson from 1945, when he became an MP – because communist civil servants claimed that he had similar political sympathies. However, "Defence of the Realm" claims that there was no conspiracy against Wilson, and repeats the Callaghan government claim that there was no bugging of 10 Downing Street. Doubt was cast on this claim, however, in 2010 when newspaper reports made detailed allegations that the bugging of 10 Downing Street had been omitted from the history for "wider public interest reasons". The government did not issue a denial of the allegations. In 1963, on Harold Macmillan's orders following the Profumo Affair, MI5 bugged the cabinet room, the waiting room, and the prime minister's study until the bugs were removed in 1977 on James Callaghan's orders. From the records it is unclear if Harold Wilson or Edward Heath knew of the bugging, and no recorded conversations were retained by MI5, so the bugs were possibly never activated.


title: Supercop

text: Police Story 3: Supercop (), released as Supercop in the US, is a 1992 Hong Kong action film starring Jackie Chan and Michelle Yeoh. Jackie reprises his "Kevin" Chan Ka-Kui character, a Hong Kong cop from "Police Story" and "Police Story 2". It is the third installment of the "Police Story" series, as well as first in "Police Story" franchise not to be directed by Jackie, with Stanley Tong taking over the helm. It is also the last appearance in the series for Maggie Cheung as Jackie's girlfriend, May.


title: Supercop

text: Ka-Kui is the "supercop" of the Hong Kong police with amazing martial arts skills. He is sent to Guangzhou, where the Chinese police force's Interpol director, Inspector Jessica Yang, briefs him on his next assignment. The target is Chaibat, a drug lord based in Hong Kong. To infiltrate Chaibat's organization, Ka-Kui is to get close to Chaibat's henchman Panther, who is in a Chinese prison. Ka-Kui, posing as a petty criminal prisoner, manages Panther's escape with the connivance of the guards. Grateful, Panther invites Ka-Kui to go with him to Hong Kong and join Chaibat's gang. Panther meets up with some of his other men, and vouches for Ka-Kui. The group heads for Hong Kong.


title: Supercop

text: On the way, they pass through Ka-Kui's supposed home village, and Panther insists that Ka-Kui visit his family there. He does not actually know anyone in the village, but is pleasantly relieved to be greeted by undercover police posing as his family, with Yang as his sister. The local police pretend to arrest Ka-Kui in a restaurant, but Ka-Kui and Yang (also a martial-arts expert) escape after a big fight, which concludes with the faked killing of a policeman. This confirms Panther's trust in them.


title: Supercop

text: In Hong Kong, Chaibat welcomes Ka-Kui and Yang to his luxurious hide-out. He takes them with him to a big opium grower's fortified compound in the Golden Triangle military camp of Thailand, for a meeting of big-time heroin traffickers. During the meeting, Chaibat's gang attack from outside while Ka-Kui and Yang protect him inside. In a huge gun battle, Chaibat's gang kill the rival traffickers and their guards, and smash up the compound. The grower survives, but will now sell only to Chaibat at Chaibat's price.


title: Supercop

text: The action then shifts to Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, where Chaibat's wife, Chen Wen-Shi, is in prison, facing the death penalty for an unspecified crime. Chaibat needs to get her out of prison, because only she knows the secret codes to his Swiss bank account, and will not reveal them to him unless freed. Chaibat brings his gang, now including Ka-Kui and Yang, to Kuala Lumpur to stage a jailbreak.


title: Supercop

text: A new difficulty arises when Ka-Kui sees his girlfriend May, a tour guide, in Kuala Lumpur leading a party of Hong Kong tourists. He has told her he's on assignment. Ka-Kui evades May at first, but she sees him at the luxurious hotel where Chaibat's gang are staying, with the beautiful Yang, and confronts him in a jealous rage. This nearly blows Ka-Kui's cover, but Panther is persuaded that May is angry because Ka-Kui tried to proposition her as a prostitute. Later, Ka-Kui gets May alone and explains the situation, and she finally calms down. At one point, May even manages to keep Ka-Kui from inadvertently blowing his own cover. But then, in an elevator, May tells a co-worker about Ka-Kui, and is overheard by one of Panther's men. Chaibat takes May hostage, and forces Ka-Kui and Yang – their cover now blown – to help free Chen.


title: Supercop

text: Chaibat's scheme is successful and May is released, as per their agreement. However, the exchange turns sour when Chaibat pushes May from his helicopter, though she survives. Furious, Ka-Kui and Yang pursue Chaibat and his men over the roads, rooftops (where Ka-Kui and Yang defeat Panther and his partner), and skies of Kuala Lumpur. In the climax on top of a speeding train, Chaibat is killed after his helicopter collides with a bridge and lands on him. Yang and Ka-Kui also recapture Chen. Since her husband is dead, she decides to tell Yang and Ka-Kui the password to Chaibat's bank account. The two partners argue whether Hong Kong or China will get the money.


title: Supercop

text: A significant aspect of this film is that it was the first Jackie Chan film from Hong Kong to use sync sound, allowing all the actors' voices to be recorded as they spoke on scene, rather than dubbed over by different actors later.


title: Supercop

text: Exterior scenes were filmed in Hong Kong Island, Shanghai and Kuala Lumpur. Interior scenes were shot in Kuala Lumpur.


title: Supercop

text: According to his book "I Am Jackie Chan: My Life in Action", Chan dislocated his cheekbone during a stunt scene.


title: Supercop

text: The Dimension Films version, which was distributed theatrically in North America in 1996, was dubbed into American English with the participation of Jackie Chan and Michelle Yeoh.


title: Supercop

text: Among the changes was the addition of a new score composed and conducted by composer Joel McNeely. Tom Jones' rendition of "Kung Fu Fighting" plays over the end credits, followed by a song specially written and performed for the film by the band Devo, entitled "Supercop".


title: Supercop

text: "Police Story 3" grossed HK$32,609,783 () in its Hong Kong theatrical run. In Taiwan, it grossed NT$64,576,200 (US$2,607,187). In Japan, it earned () at the box office. In South Korea, it grossed , adding up to grossed in East Asia.


title: Supercop

text: In the United States, the film was screened in 1993 at the Hogg Memorial Auditorium in Austin, Texas, along with the original "Police Story", with both films well-received among Austin audiences at the time. After the North American success of "Rumble in the Bronx", "Police Story 3" received a wide release in North America on 25 July 1996. Opening at 1,406 theatres, it grossed US$5,503,176 ($3,914 per screen), on its way to a total gross of US$16,270,600 from ticket sales.


title: Supercop

text: In France, the film sold 61,402 tickets in 1994, equivalent to an estimated () in gross revenue. In Italy, the film sold 2,385 tickets in 1997, equivalent to an estimated () in gross revenue. In Spain (released 1999), it sold 61,402 tickets, and 1,100 tickets in Romania, equivalent to an estimated () in gross revenue.


title: Supercop

text: In the United States, the home video release grossed in video rental revenue during 1997, making it the year's second highest-grossing Dimension rental video (after "Scream"). This adds up to an estimated grossed from the box office and US video rentals.


title: Supercop

text: The North American release by Dimension was well received. The U.S. version of the film holds a "Certified Fresh" rating of 92% on review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes from 53 reviews.


title: Supercop

text: "As is usual in a Chan film, the end credits (which show out-takes of failed stunts) are one of "Police Story 3"s highlights. There are more laughs in this hilarious three-minute sequence than in the whole of "Kingpin". I can't think of a better reason to stay through the entire movie. Ultimately, the closing montage points out one of the chief differences between Chan's stylized, fast-paced films and those of his American counterparts: this is action with a smile, not a grimace".


title: Supercop

text: "Chan seems to have met his soul mate in Khan [Yeoh's credited name], Asia's top female action star. Like Chan, Khan does her own fighting and stunts. Unlike the Hollywood action contingent, Chan and Khan don't rely on cinematic trickery. Theirs are not special effects, just spectacular ones. Connoisseurs will find Chan's helicopter-train chase far riskier, more exciting and more believable than its mates in "" and "The Living Daylights"".


title: Supercop

text: Furthermore, in 2009, director Quentin Tarantino named "Police Story 3" as one of his favorite films of the past seventeen years. He said that "Supercop" features the "greatest stunts ever filmed in any movie ever". In 2016 during a roundtable discussion, when asked which movie scene he would love to save for the last of humanity to see, he named the final scene of the movie as his choice.


title: Supercop

text: In 2014, "Time Out" polled several film critics, directors, actors and stunt actors to list their top action films. "Supercop" was listed at 75th place on this list.


title: Supercop

text: Michelle Yeoh went on to star in a 1993 spin-off called "Supercop 2" or "Project S". Though it features a cameo appearance by Jackie Chan and Bill Tung reprises his role as "Uncle" Bill, this film is not a proper part of the "Police Story" series.


title: Supercop

text: The film inspired two missions in the 2004 videogame "", both of which were taken from the film's final scenes. The game's last mission, "End of the Line", in which C.J must chase a firetruck with a red open-top car and catch Sean "Sweet" Johnson, was taken from the scene in which Jackie must chase a van using a red open-top car to catch Jessica Yang (Michelle Yeoh).


title: Supercop

text: The mission "Wrong Side of the Tracks", in which the player must follow a train from a dirt bike, was taken from the scene in which Jessica Yang (Michelle Yeoh) follows the train on a similar dirt bike.


title: Supercop

text: The film briefly appears in a scene in British police comedy film "Hot Fuzz" in which Danny Butterman sees the film in a supermarket's bargain bin and reads it while Nicholas Angel pursues a shoplifter.


title: Supercop

text: Two songs "I Have My Way" (我有我路向) sung by Jackie Chan and "I Just Want You to Understand" (我只想你懂) sung by Taiwanese musician Jonathan Lee, both lyricized by Hong Kong songwriter James Wong and composed by Lee, are featured as theme songs for the Asian versions of the film.


title: Supercop

text: A soundtrack containing alternative rock and hip hop song was released on 30 July 1996 by Interscope Records. It peaked at #133 on the "Billboard" 200.


title: Šarūnas Jasikevičius

text: Šarūnas "Šaras" Jasikevičius (; born 5 March 1976) is a Lithuanian professional basketball coach and former player. He currently serves as a head coach for FC Barcelona of the Liga ACB and the EuroLeague. During his playing career, standing at a height of tall, he played at the point guard position.


title: Šarūnas Jasikevičius

text: Often considered one of the best Lithuanian and European point guards ever, Jasikevičius was a two-time All-EuroLeague First Team selection, the EuroLeague Final Four MVP in 2005 and a four-time triple crown winner. He was named the 2005 Israeli Basketball Premier League MVP. Moreover, he is the only player in EuroLeague history to win the competition with three clubs. A former representative of the senior Lithuanian men's national team, he won the gold medal at 2003 EuroBasket, earning an All-EuroBasket Team selection and MVP honors in the process. He also won the bronze medal at the 2000 Summer Olympic Games, and the bronze medal at 2007 EuroBasket.


title: Šarūnas Jasikevičius

text: On 9 February 2015, Jasikevičius was named a EuroLeague Basketball Legend, as a reward for his stunning playing career. He was then honored with a ceremony on 12 February.


title: Šarūnas Jasikevičius

text: Jasikevičius was born into a family of sportsmen. His mother Rita, a famous Lithuanian handball player, won a silver medal with the Soviet Union women's national handball team during the 1975 World Women's Handball Championship. Following the success in the world championship, Rita was preparing for the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal. According to Rita: "Everything was calculated, planned: Olympic Games, then - the increase of family, one year break and then back to sports again. But everything happened differently" and she had to choose between her son and the Olympic Games. She decided to give birth to a child and give up the Olympic dream. Later on, the Soviet squad went on to win the Olympic gold medals in the Montreal Olympics and the national team's head coach shut the door for Rita Jasikevičienė to return into the national team in the future. However, Šarūnas's mother never regretted her decision. Šarūnas remembers that his mother constantly said: "My son will give me back the Olympics".


title: Šarūnas Jasikevičius

text: In his childhood Šarūnas was a very agile child. His mother remembers that quickly after learning to walk, Šarūnas immediately began to run leaned by 45 degrees. Rita: "He was running and running everywhere and I had to constantly chase him". The biggest penalty for Šarūnas was to sit. His younger brother Vytenis was slightly different though. He was slower, but both brothers were unable to live without the ball in their childhood.


title: Šarūnas Jasikevičius

text: Jasikevičius's father Linas always was a sports lover and along with him, he followed practically everything, together they cheered for USSR national teams or any athlete who had USSR written across his or her chest. Not surprisingly, his dad took him to the first basketball workout when he was 6 years old. His first coach was Feliksas Mitkevičius in Kaunas basketball school, who was strict and not once was chasing Šarūnas when he was trying to run away from the workouts. According to Mitkevičius, when Šarūnas was 12 years old, he was so sick of basketball that he wished to drop it. He visited his parents, outlined the situation and stated that it would be a huge loss to Lithuania. Following it, his dad had a strong conversation with Šarūnas and forbade to drop basketball, which he wished to replace with tennis. In Kaunas basketball school he met with the future NBA star Žydrūnas Ilgauskas with which he was meeting practically every day, at school, in the gym or elsewhere for the next eleven years. Tomas Masiulis was another notable player in his team. Jasikevičius remembers that at first he was seen as the guy who was "talented but lazy" as he was no devotee of the gym; all he did was joke around and try to work as little as possible. Consequently, once his dad stopped him from going on a trip to Minsk with the team, a trip of kind which happens only once a year, as his marks were disastrous and it was a punishment: "No school? So no basketball". Though, his parents were happy to see him venting his hyperactivity in basketball, and this made them urge him on towards the sport, as it also helped him avoid bad company in the area. They played in the gym, and also in the street using scrap metal instead of real baskets, and their favorite pastime was called "minus", a kind of forerunner of little game that can be seen today during the NBA All-Star Game called "horse". It was far from ideal, but his parents preferred to see him play with the scrap metal hoops in front of their home rather than down at the pitch, where it would have taken him less than five minutes to pick a fight with the wrong person. His childhood dream was to become a Žalgiris player about which he was so crazy that he knew everything about every player, even the players’ shoe sizes. Following the Žalgiris' victory in 1986 Intercontinental Cup, he begged his father to take him to the airport to welcome home the players, where hundreds of people were waiting in the freezing cold. His father knew some of the players, and managed to get signed posters and photos that he used to decorate all the walls of his room.


title: Šarūnas Jasikevičius

text: Šarūnas started going to school in Jonas Jablonskis Middle School in 1982 and attended it till 1987. He had to take the bus to go to school even though the thermometer outside read minus twenty and he knew that the most important thing for his parents was that he spent as little time as possible with the toughest people of Partizanai Street. From 1987 to 1993, he was studying at Kaunas 4th Middle School. His first trip destination was Moscow, which he visited before the tournament. Jasikevičius's greatest youth memory in the city was the opening of the first McDonald's in Russia. He remembers that his classmates were listening with their mouths gaping when he was narrating about the French fries, bread rolls with minced beef and fizzy drinks. One of his childhood passions was history, especially about the Native Americans, as well as books about basketball as he was capable of reading a book of more than four hundred pages on basketball in two days. He was also curious about politics, especially when Perestroika began, because of which he was able to travel to Berlin with his father and brother, and was amazed by the visit to the Checkpoint Charlie Museum. His childhood favorite Lithuanian player was Arvydas Sabonis, which he admired more than other Lithuanian superstars, such as Rimas Kurtinaitis and Valdemaras Chomičius, due to his passing. However, his idol was Dražen Petrović, and he wished to be as good as him, watching matches of him over and over again, dozens of times, for hours and hours, and later started imitating him in workouts. After one of his trips, his dad came back with a videocassette recorder, using which he was able to record an NBA All-Star Game with Michael Jordan, Clyde Drexler, Larry Bird, Magic Johnson, David Robinson, and later to watch it for couple of years, more than hundred times. Jasikevičius also started to record games of Žalgiris and Petrović every time he was able to. Thanks to the video recorder, he discovered the existence of a no-look pass of Magic Johnson. For him, he was the NBA, not Michael Jordan. His unselfishness, imagination and the way he dribbled, passed between his opponent's legs bewitched Jasikevičius. Consequently, his favorite element of basketball quickly became assisting his teammates, and he was trying to do it like Petrović or Johnson.


title: Šarūnas Jasikevičius

text: Later he continued his studies in the United States. In 1993–94 he attended the Solanco High School in Quarryville, Pennsylvania. That year his team won 25 of 27 games and was one of the contenders for the State Championship final, however they lost their first playoffs game and finished the season early. Although, he was noticed by Billy Hahn, who was working as University of Maryland assistant coach and invited Jasikevičius to join them.


title: Šarūnas Jasikevičius

text: Jasikevičius played NCAA Division I college basketball at the University of Maryland, with the Maryland Terrapins. He played as a wing, although he remade himself into a point guard in his pro career. He did not see much playing time in his first two years in college, with seniors Duane Simpkins, Johnny Rhodes, and Exree Hipp ahead of him at the wing positions. As a junior, he became a better passer and improved his defense. He averaged a shade under 13 points and 4 assists in his junior and senior years.


title: Šarūnas Jasikevičius

text: Jasikevičius made his pro debut in the 1998–99 season, with the Lithuanian club Lietuvos rytas, of Vilnius. With Rytas, he averaged 18.0 points and 5.4 assists per game. In the following 1999–2000 season, Jasikevičius joined the Slovenian club Union Olimpija. With Union Olimpija, he won the Slovenian Cup. With Union Olimpija, he averaged 9.3 points and 3.4 assists per game.


title: Šarūnas Jasikevičius

text: Jasikevičius played the next three seasons with FC Barcelona, and won the EuroLeague with them in 2003. He started for the championship team, and averaged 13.4 points and 3.2 assists per game. He also led the team to two Spanish League titles, and two Spanish King's Cups.


title: Šarūnas Jasikevičius

text: Jasikevičius joined Maccabi Tel Aviv in 2003, and helped them win two EuroLeague titles, two Israeli League crowns, and two Israeli Cups. He was named the 2005 Israeli Basketball Premier League MVP.


title: Šarūnas Jasikevičius

text: Jasikevičius signed with the Indiana Pacers in July 2005. The deal was worth $12 million over three years. He played in the NBA with the Pacers in 112 regular season games (16 starts), in one and a half seasons, averaging 7.3 points and 3.0 assists per game.


title: Šarūnas Jasikevičius

text: On 17 January 2007, Jasikevičius was traded to the Golden State Warriors, along with Stephen Jackson, Al Harrington, and Josh Powell, in exchange for Troy Murphy, Mike Dunleavy, Jr., Ike Diogu, and Keith McLeod. He did not become a part of the rotation in Golden State. He averaged 4.3 points and 2.3 assists per game, in 26 games (2 starts) played, in only 11.9 minutes per game. Jasikevičius was bought out by the Warriors on 20 September 2007.


title: Šarūnas Jasikevičius

text: On 25 September 2007, Jasikevičius signed with Panathinaikos. The deal reportedly was worth €7 million euros net income over two years (7.7 million including his buyout). With Panathinaikos, he won the EuroLeague again in 2009. Jasikevičius became the only player in basketball history to win the EuroLeague with three different teams. He also won three Greek League titles and three Greek Cups with Panathinaikos. In 2009, he signed a contract extension worth € 3.5 million euros net income with Panathinaikos. He underwent a knee surgery that same year, and after 5 months of rehabilitation, he returned to the court with limited playing time.


title: Šarūnas Jasikevičius

text: In November 2010, Jasikevičius signed a one-year contract with Lietuvos rytas of the Lithuanian Basketball League.


title: Šarūnas Jasikevičius

text: In January 2011, Fenerbahçe, bought-out Jasikevičius' contract with Lietuvos Rytas, and he signed a one-year contract with them.


title: Šarūnas Jasikevičius

text: In September 2011, Jasikevičius signed a new contract with Panathinaikos. At age 36, he was named the Greek Cup Final MVP, as he helped Panathinaikos to victory against Olympiacos, in a game that finished with a score of 71–70.


title: Šarūnas Jasikevičius

text: Despite rumors that Jasikevičius would join Žalgiris, in July 2012, Jasikevičius signed with his former team, FC Barcelona. During the fifth Spanish Liga ACB finals game against Real Madrid, Jasikevičius scored 23 points, and dished out 2 assists, in 19 minutes of game action. However, it wasn't enough, as Real won the game 79 to 71.


title: Šarūnas Jasikevičius

text: In September 2013, Jasikevičius returned home to Kaunas, signing with Žalgiris. On 30 September 2013, he debuted with Žalgiris, during a game against Unics Kazan, scoring 6 points and dishing out 4 assists. He retired after the season, and joined the Žalgiris coaching staff.


title: Šarūnas Jasikevičius

text: Jasikevičius was a member of the junior national teams of Lithuania. With Lithuania's junior national teams, he won the gold medal at the 1994 FIBA Europe Under-18 Championship, and the gold medal at the 1996 FIBA Europe Under-20 Championship.


title: Šarūnas Jasikevičius

text: Jasikevičius started his senior national team career in 1997, when he played for Lithuania's senior national team at the EuroBasket 1997. Jasikevičius was also a member of the senior Lithuanian national team that won the bronze medal at the 2000 Summer Olympics. He averaged 14.0 points and 5.1 assists, and scored a tournament-high 27 points, in a semifinals loss to the United States.


title: Šarūnas Jasikevičius

text: Jasikevičius also led Lithuania to the EuroBasket 2003 gold medal. He was named the tournament's MVP, after averaging 14.0 points and 8.2 assists per game.


title: Šarūnas Jasikevičius

text: Jasikevičius also helped Lithuania win the bronze medal at the EuroBasket 2007. He averaged 10.4 points and 5.6 assists per game, and scored a tournament-high 18 points against Turkey, on 3 September 2007.


title: Šarūnas Jasikevičius

text: As of 2012, he was the only Lithuanian basketball player to participate in the Summer Olympics four times in a row. He retired from the Lithuanian national team following the 2012 Summer Olympics. In his entire career as a senior Lithuania national basketball team member, he averaged 10 points, 2.3 rebounds, and 4.9 assists per game.


title: Šarūnas Jasikevičius

text: On 29 July 2014, Jasikevičius announced his retirement from playing basketball, and was appointed to an assistant coach position with Žalgiris. After the firing of head coach Gintaras Krapikas during the 2015–16 season, Jasikevičius became the team's interim head coach. On 13 January 2016, it was announced that he was appointed as their new head coach.


title: Šarūnas Jasikevičius

text: On 22 January 2016, he accomplished his first EuroLeague victory as a head coach, when Žalgiris shockingly crushed the previous season's runners-up, Olympiacos, by a score of 75–55, at Žalgiris Arena. On 26 October 2016, just before the first game versus his former long-time head coach Željko Obradović, Željko said: "I knew that he will be a good coach and in the future - one of the best in Europe". On 13 June 2017, he was named best coach of the 2016–17 LKL season. After the season, San Antonio Spurs and U.S. national team head coach Gregg Popovich invited him to join his coaching staff during the 2017 NBA Summer League. However, Jasikevičius declined, due to his already early planned summer. Jasikevičius also took third place in the voting for the 2017 Alexander Gomelsky EuroLeague Coach of the Year award.


title: Šarūnas Jasikevičius

text: In the 2017–18 EuroLeague season, Jasikevičius and his Žalgiris surprised by ending in the sixth place in the regular season. On 26 April 2018, Žalgiris qualified for the 2018 EuroLeague Final Four by beating Olympiacos in game 4 to clinch a 3–1 series win. It was achieved by having a second lowest budget in the whole league. During the semi-final, Žalgiris played Fenerbahçe Doğuş, unfortunately losing 76–67. Two days later they faced CSKA Moscow in the bronze medal game, winning that game 77–79 and finishing third in the season. On 20 June 2018, he was named best coach of the 2017–18 LKL season after coaching Žalgiris to yet another Lithuanian League title. On 27 June, Jasikevičius signed one-season contract with Žalgiris. He was named as a LKL Coach of the Year for the third straight time in 2019.


title: Šarūnas Jasikevičius

text: According to the Euroleague statistics, Jasikevičius team's defensive rating had 97,0 in the 2019/20 season. Offensive rating of Jasikevičius team was 100,7. The tight offensive system by Jasikevičius led to only 15,6 turnovers per game in his last season. Under Šarūnas Jasikevičius, Žalgiris was the third slowest team with 80 possessions per game. This can be explained by mentioning the depth of Jasikevičius playbook, who had more than 40 different plays prepared.


title: Šarūnas Jasikevičius

text: On 2 July 2020, Jasikevičius signed a two-year contract to be FC Barcelona head coach. During his first season as a head coach of the FC Barcelona, the club won the 2020–21 EuroLeague Regular Season.


title: Šarūnas Jasikevičius

text: In 2006, Jasikevičius became the first European player to have his own nominal basketball shoes manufactured by Adidas.


title: Šarūnas Jasikevičius

text: In 2006, Jasikevičius married Israeli model Linor Abargil, the winner of the Miss World 1998 beauty pageant (as Miss Israel). They divorced in 2008.


title: Šarūnas Jasikevičius

text: In 2009, he met Anna Douka, in an Athens bar. Currently, the pair have two children: a girl named Aila, who was born in 2010, and a boy named Lukas, who was born in 2012.


title: Šarūnas Jasikevičius

text: In 2015, his biographical book "Laimėti neužtenka" (English: To win is not enough) was published in Italian, Greek and Lithuanian languages. An English version was also soon released. Later on, Spanish and Israeli publishing houses also showed interest.


title: Šarūnas Jasikevičius

text: On 21 July 2017, Jasikevičius married the mother of his two children, Anna Douka, after 8 years of relationship. The ceremony was held in Greece. Many famous basketball personalities attended the event, including Željko Obradović, Dimitris Itoudis, Mike Batiste, Paulius Jankūnas, Darius Songaila, and others.


title: History of Hyderabad

text: Hyderabad is the capital of the Indian states of Telangana and Andhra Pradesh. It is a historic city noted for its many monuments, temples, mosques and bazaars. A multitude of influences has shaped the character of the city in the last 400 years.


title: History of Hyderabad

text: The city of Hyderabad was founded by the Qutb Shahi sultan Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah in 1591 CE. It was built around the Charminar, which formed the centerpiece of the city. Hyderabad became an important trading centre for diamonds and pearls, and a centre for culture.


title: History of Hyderabad

text: After a brief period of Mughal rule, the first Nizam of Hyderabad conquered the city in 1724. The Nizams later signed a subsidiary alliance with the British, and their territory became Hyderabad State, the largest princely state in British India with the city of Hyderabad as its capital. During this period, industry, railways, modern education, and airways developed in Hyderabad.


title: History of Hyderabad

text: After India's independence in 1947, the Nizam did not wish to accede his state to the newly formed nation. By then, his power had weakened due to the Telangana movement. The Indian Army annexed Hyderabad in 1948. In 1956, the Hyderabad State was divided on the basis of linguistic differences, and the city of Hyderabad became the capital of Andhra Pradesh.


title: History of Hyderabad

text: In 2014, the state of Telangana was carved out from Andhra Pradesh and Hyderabad became its new capital.


title: History of Hyderabad

text: Archaeologists excavating near the city have unearthed Iron Age sites that can be dated to 500 BCE. The area around Hyderabad was ruled by the Mauryan Empire in the third century BCE during the reign of Ashoka the Great. After the death of Ashoka (232 BCE), as the Maurya Empire began to weaken and decline, the Sātavāhanas who started out as feudatories to the Mauryan dynasty, declared independence and established their empire in this region. The Sātavāhana Empire was a royal Indian dynasty based from Kotilingala in Telangana as well as Junnar (Pune) and Prathisthan (Paithan) in Maharashtra. The territory of the empire covered much of the Deccan plateau and central India for 450 years,i.e., from 230 BCE onward until around 220 CE. After the decline of the Satavahana Empire in 210 CE, the region came under the rule of the Ikshvaku dynasty (225 CE – 325 CE), the successors of the Satavahanas in eastern Deccan. The capital of Ikshvaku dynasty was the town of Nagarjunakonda in modern day, Guntur district and named after Nagarjuna, a southern Indian master of Mahayana Buddhism who lived in the 2nd century CE, who is believed to have been responsible for the Buddhist activity in the area.


title: History of Hyderabad

text: Various Buddhist and Hindu kingdoms ruled the area during the subsequent centuries. The area was ruled by the Kalyani branch of the Chalukya kings. When the Chalukya kingdom became weaker, Kakatiyas, who were feudal chieftains of Chalukya, declared independence and set up their kingdom around Warangal.


title: History of Hyderabad

text: The Kakatiyas built the Golkonda Fort in the vicinity of Hyderabad as part of their western defenses along the lines of the Kondapalli Fort. The city and the fortress were built on a granite hill that is high, surrounded by massive battlements. The fort was rebuilt and strengthened by Rani Rudrama Devi and her successor Prataparudra.


title: History of Hyderabad

text: The fall of Warangal to Muhammad bin Tughluq's forces from the Delhi Sultanate in 1321 CE brought anarchy to the region. Later, the Golkonda fort came under the control of the Musunuri Nayaks, who defeated the Tughlaqi army occupying Warangal. For the next few decades, the Bahmani Sultanate of the Deccan fought the Musunuri Nayakas on the north and the Vijayanagara Rayas on the south for control of the region. The Golkonda fort was ceded by the Musunuri Kapaya Nayak to the Bahmani Sultanate as part of a treaty in 1364. By the middle of the 15th century, the region was under the firm control of the Bahmani Sultanate, which controlled the Deccan north of the Krishna River from coast to of sultanate.


title: History of Hyderabad

text: Under the Bahmani Sultanate, Golkonda slowly rose to prominence. Sultan Quli Qutb-ul-Mulk (r. 1487–1543), sent as a governor of Telangana, established it as the seat of his government around 1501. Bahmani rule gradually weakened during this period, and Sultan Quli formally became independent in 1538, establishing the Qutb Shahi dynasty based in Golkonda. Over a period of 62 years, the mud fort was expanded by the first three Qutb Shahi sultans into the present structure, a massive fortification of granite extending around 5 km in circumference. It remained the capital of the Qutb Shahi dynasty until 1590 when the capital was shifted to the present city of Hyderabad.


title: History of Hyderabad

text: Chalukya dynasty (624–1075), Kakatiya dynasty (1158–1321), Khalji dynasty (1290–1320), Tughlaq dynasty (1320–1414), Musunuri Nayakas (1336–1365), Bahmani Sultanate (1347–1527), Qutb Shahi dynasty (1518–1687), Mughal Empire (1526–1857), Asaf Jahi dynasty 1724–1948, Republic of India (1948-till date).


title: History of Hyderabad

text: In 1463, Sultan Muhammad Shah Bahmani II dispatched Sultan Quli Qutb-ul-Mulk to the Telangana region to quell disturbances. Sultan Quli quelled the disturbance and was rewarded as the administrator of the region. He established a base at Kakatiya hill fortress of Golconda, which he strengthened and expanded considerably. By the end of the century, Quli ruled from Golconda as the "subedar" (governor) of the Telangana region. Quli enjoyed virtual independence from Bidar, where the Bahmani sultanate was then based.


title: History of Hyderabad

text: In 1518, when the Bahmani Sultanate disintegrated into five different kingdoms, with the others based in Ahmednagar, Berar, Bidar and Bijapur. Sultan Quli declared independence from the Bahmani Sultanate and established the Golconda Sultanate under the title "Sultan Quli Qutub Shah", he rebuilt the mud-fort of Golconda and named the city "Muhammad Nagar".


title: History of Hyderabad

text: The Hussain Sagar lake was built during the reign of Ibrahim Quli Qutb Shah, the fourth Sultan of the dynasty, in 1563. It was named after Hussain Shah Wali, who helped design it.


title: History of Hyderabad

text: In 1589, Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah, the fifth ruler of the Qutb Shahi dynasty, selected the present site of the city and established the city of Hyderabad at the banks of the Musi river to overcome water shortages experienced at Golconda. The "Purana Pul" (old bridge) enabled quick travel between Golconda and Hyderabad.


title: History of Hyderabad

text: There are various theories about the naming of the city. One popular theory suggests that the sultan had named the city "Bhaganagar" or "Bhāgyanagar" after Bhāgmathi, a local "nautch" (dancing) girl with whom he had fallen in love. She converted to Islam and adopted the title "Hyder Mahal". The city was renamed "Hyderabad" in her honour. According to another source, the city was named after Haidar, the son of Quli Qutb Shah. Historians dismiss the theory of dancing girl as a "figment of the imagination" that lacks a "shred of evidence". According to the Hyderabad-based historian Capt. Panduranga Reddy (retd) who studied the city's origin, "It is all fiction that Hyderabad was ever named Bhagyanagar or that it was named after the lover of Mohammad Quli Qutb Shah. Hyderabad was actually built much later around a small village called Chichulam."


title: History of Hyderabad

text: The architectural historian Pushkar Sohoni theorised the foundation of several cities in the Deccan in this period. According to him, Hyderabad was founded in 1591 to decongest Golconda, which was growing rapidly. In addition, the changing nature of economic organisation and warfare technology required mercantile and civilian settlements to be disaggregated from the fortified military and political centres.


title: History of Hyderabad

text: Andrew Petersen, a scholar of Islamic architecture, says the city was originally called "Baghnagar" (city of gardens).


title: History of Hyderabad

text: He ordered the construction of the Charminar in 1591. The construction of the nearby Makkah Masjid was also started during his reign, but would not be completed for a hundred years. Mir Momin Astarabadi, the prime minister in the Qutub Shahi period, developed the plan of the city of Hyderabad, including the location of the Charminar and Char Kaman.


title: History of Hyderabad

text: The early history of Hyderabad is inextricably intertwined and fortune rose during the 16th and early 17th centuries, Hyderabad became a center of a vibrant diamond trade. All eight Qutb Shahi sultans were patrons of learning and were great builders. They contributed to the growth and development of Indo-Persian and Indo-Islamic literature and culture in Hyderabad. Some of the sultans were known as patrons of local Telugu culture as well. During the Qutb Shahi reign Golconda became one of the leading markets in the world for diamonds, pearls, steel, arms, and also printed fabric. In the 16th century, the city grew to accommodate the surplus population of Golconda and eventually became the capital of the Qutb Shahi rulers. Hyderabad became known for its "baghs" (gardens) and its comfortable weather.


title: History of Hyderabad

text: By the mid-17th century, politics in the Deccan were ready for yet another tectonic shift. Mughal prince Aurangzeb spent most of his time in the Deccan fighting local Hindu and Muslim kingdoms to establish and enforce Mughal sovereignty. After the death of Shah Jahan in 1666, Aurangzeb consolidated his power in Delhi as Emperor and returned to the south. He spent most of his imperial reign in military camps in the Deccan, in an almost desperate campaign to expand the empire beyond the greatest extent it had reached under Akbar. The biggest prize in his eyes was the rich city of Hyderabad, protected by the reportedly impregnable fort of Golconda.


title: History of Hyderabad

text: Aurangzeb with his commanders Khwaja Abid Siddiqi ("Qulich Khan") and the latter's son Ghazi-ud-Din Feroze Jung laid siege to Golconda in 1686. Golconda held fast under months of siege, and Aurangzeb had to retreat in frustration. Aurangzeb returned in 1687 and laid siege for 9 months camping in the "Fateh Maidan" ("victory field", now the Lal Bahadur Shastri Stadium). Khwaja Abid Siddiqi died in these war and was buried at Kismatpur near Attapur, Hyderabad. Local legend has it that the fortress held on, but the gates were opened at night by a saboteur Abdullah Khan Pani who was bribed by Aurangzeb. Hyderabad's independence was eclipsed.


title: History of Hyderabad

text: On 21 September 1687, the Golkonda Sultanate came under the rule of the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb after a year-long siege of the Golkonda fort. The annexed city "Hyderabad" was renamed "Darul Jihad" (House of War), whereas its state "Golconda" was renamed "Deccan Suba" (Deccan province) and the capital was moved from Golconda to Aurangabad, about northwest of Hyderabad.


title: History of Hyderabad

text: Mubariz Khan was appointed as the Governor of the Deccan province. Aurangzeb's efforts would turn out largely in vain, with Hyderabad remaining under Mughal rule for less than four decades. During this period, the construction of the Makkah Masjid (which had started in the 16th century) and city wall of Hyderabad with 12 gateways was completed.


title: History of Hyderabad

text: For a few decades, Hyderabad declined, and its vibrant diamond trade was all but destroyed. Aurangzeb's attention moved away quickly to other parts of the Deccan, with the Maratha Empire gaining ground against the Mughals.


title: History of Hyderabad

text: Hyderabad State, (its capital and largest city Hyderabad) under the Nizams of Hyderabad, was the largest princely state in India, with an area larger than England, Scotland and Wales combined. It was considered the "senior-most" princely-state, and within the elaborate protocols of the Raj, its ruler the Nizam was accorded a 21-gun salute. Development of modern facilities and industrialization in Hyderabad city started in the late 19th century. The State had its own currency, mint, railways, and postal system. The Nizam amassed a lot of wealth, as a result of the diamond trade.


title: History of Hyderabad

text: With the emaciation of the Mughal Empire after Aurangzeb's death in 1707, the Mughal-appointed governors of Hyderabad gained more autonomy from Delhi. In 1714, the Mughal Emperor Farrukhsiyar appointed Mir Qamar-ud-din Siddiqi as the viceroy to the Deccan and gave him the title of "Nizam-ul-Mulk (governor of the country)". He was well suited for the position as he had fought alongside his father and grandfather who were commanders during the siege of Golconda.


title: History of Hyderabad

text: In 1724, he defeated Mubariz Khan to establish control over Hyderabad. He received the title of "Asaf Jah" from Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah in the following year. Thus began the Asaf Jahi dynasty that would rule Hyderabad until a year after India's independence from Britain.


title: History of Hyderabad

text: The death of Asaf Jah I in 1748 resulted in a period of political unrest as his sons, backed by opportunistic neighboring states and colonial foreign forces, contended for the throne. The accession of Asif Jah II, who reigned from 1762 to 1803, ended the instability. In 1768 he signed the Treaty of Machilipatnam, surrendering the coastal region to the East India Company in return for a fixed annual rent.


title: History of Hyderabad

text: In 1769 Hyderabad city became the formal capital of the Nizams. In response to regular threats from Hyder Ali ("Dalwai" of Mysore), Baji Rao I ("Peshwa" of the Maratha Empire), and Basalath Jung (Asaf Jah II's elder brother, who was supported by the Marquis de Bussy-Castelnau), the Nizam signed a subsidiary alliance with the East India Company in 1798, allowing the British Indian Army to occupy Bolarum (modern Secunderabad) to protect the state's capital, for which the Nizams paid an annual maintenance to the British.


title: History of Hyderabad

text: When the British and the French spread their hold over the country, successive Nizams won their friendship without bequeathing their power. The Nizams allied themselves with each side at different times, playing a significant role in the Anglo-Mysore Wars.


title: History of Hyderabad

text: During the reign of the third Nizam, Sikandar Jah, the city of Secunderabad was founded to station French troops and subsequently, British troops. The British stationed a Resident at Hyderabad and their own troops at Secunderabad, but the state continued to be ruled by the Nizam. Maintenance of British forces, which was part of subsidiary alliance with British, put heavy burden on Hyderabad state and bankrupted it in the early 19th century.


title: History of Hyderabad

text: Asaf Jah V's reign was marked by reforms by his Prime Minister Salar Jung I, included the establishment of a governmental central treasury in 1855. He reformed the Hyderabad revenue and judicial systems, instituted a postal service and constructed the first rail and telegraph networks. The first higher educational institution of Hyderabad known as "Dar-ul-Uloom" was established during his reign.


title: History of Hyderabad

text: As news of the Indian Rebellion of 1857 reached Hyderabad, Turrebaz Khan and Maulvi Allauddin led rebellions of about 5,000 people and attacked the British Residency. However, this was no match for the superior British troops and the rebellion was quickly crushed.


title: History of Hyderabad

text: Asaf Jah VI Mir Mahbub Ali Khan was the sixth Nizam of Hyderabad. He ruled the state from 1866 till his death in 1911. He inherited the throne at the age of three, and the state was ruled by his regents Salar Jung I and Shams-ul-Umra III. The Nizam assumed full rule at the age of eighteen.


title: History of Hyderabad

text: The Nizam's Guaranteed State Railway was established in 1879, a railway company fully owned by the Nizam. It was formed to connect Hyderabad with the rest of the British India, and was headquartered at Secunderabad Railway Station. After independence, it was integrated into the Indian Railways. The introduction of railways also marked the beginning of industry in Hyderabad, and four factories were built to the south and east of the Hussain Sagar lake.


title: History of Hyderabad

text: The population of Hyderabad city reached 448,000 in 1901, making it the fourth most populous in British India. The surrounding Hyderabad State had a population of 11 million.


title: History of Hyderabad

text: The Great Musi Flood of 1908 ravaged the city during his reign, killing an estimated 15,000 people and affecting at least 200,000. All the bridges over the River Musi were destroyed, except for the Purana Pul. The Nizam threw open his palace Purani Haveli for the flood victims.


title: History of Hyderabad

text: The flood necessitated planned development of the city. The Nizam invited Sir M. Visvesvaraya to design the flood prevention system of modern Hyderabad.


title: History of Hyderabad

text: He founded numerous institutions and public buildings in the city, including the Begumpet Airport, Hyderabad State Bank, Osmania University, Nizamia Observatory, Moazzam Jahi Market, Nizamia Hospital, Assembly Hall (formerly known as the Town Hall) State Central Library (formerly known as the "Asafiya Library"), Hyderabad High Court. and the Osmania General Hospital. The Nizam also invited British architect Vincent Esch for designing some of these. The Nizam also owned an airline, called the Deccan Airways.


title: History of Hyderabad

text: Two large reservoirs, namely the Osman Sagar and the Himayat Sagar were constructed a few kilometers west of Hyderabad to prevent another flood in the city, on the advice of Sir M. Visvesvaraya.


title: History of Hyderabad

text: He was known for his immense wealth, and large jewel collection, composed of 173 jewels, including the Jacob Diamond. He was proclaimed the richest man in the world in 1937, and appeared on the cover of "Time" magazine owing majorly to the Golconda mines, which were the primary source of his wealth.


title: History of Hyderabad

text: Various industries emerged in pre-independence Hyderabad during the rule of Asaf Jah VII. The major industries that were established in various parts of Hyderabad, and surrounding areas are:


title: History of Hyderabad

text: When India gained independence in 1947, the Nizam declared his intention to remain independent, either as a sovereign ruler or by acquiring Dominion status within the British Commonwealth. In order to keep essential trade and supplies flowing, he signed a Standstill agreement with the Indian Union, which surrounded him on all sides. The law and order situation soon deteriorated, with escalating violence between the private Razakar army fighting for continuation of the Nizam's rule and the people with the support of the Congress leaders like Swami Ramanand Tirtha and the communists of Telangana, were fighting for joining the Union. As the violence spiraled out of control with refugees flowing into the coastal Andhra region of the Madras state of India, the Indian Government under Home Minister Sardar Patel initiated a police action titled Operation Polo.


title: History of Hyderabad

text: On 16 September 1948, the Indian Army moved into Hyderabad State from five fronts. Four days later, the Hyderabad forces surrendered. The number of dead was a little over 800. The Police Action achieved success within a matter of days. The Nizam finally surrendered and signed the Instrument of Accession to the Indian Union and Hyderabad was integrated into the Union as a state.


title: History of Hyderabad

text: The state got its first democratic government and the representatives of its 18 million people were admitted to the Constituent Assembly drafting a constitution for free India. For the next eight years, Hyderabad State continued as a separate state within the Union, with its capital Hyderabad.


title: History of Hyderabad

text: In 1955, in a report "Thoughts on Linguistic States", B. R. Ambedkar the then chairman of the Drafting Committee of the Indian Constitution, expressed in his report that the city should be designated as the second capital of India after Delhi. As Hyderabad constitute a strategic central location, infrastructure and amenities. He expressed: "Hyderabad has all the amenities which Delhi has and it is a far better city than Delhi. It has all the grandeur which Delhi has. Buildings are going cheap and they are really beautiful buildings, far superior to those in Delhi. The only thing that is wanting is a Parliament House which the Government of India can easily build." In 2014, the demand resurfaced during the bifurcation of Andhra Pradesh, and in 2019, during the reorganisation of Jammu and Kashmir.


title: History of Hyderabad

text: On 1 November 1956, the states of India were reorganized on linguistic grounds and the 7th Nizam Mir Osman Ali Khan was made the Rajpramukh based on his administrative abilities. Consequently, the territories of the State of Hyderabad were divided between newly created Andhra Pradesh, Bombay state (later Maharashtra), and Karnataka. Hyderabad and the surrounding areas were annexed into India, and later to Andhra Pradesh based on Telugu linguistic majority, and Hyderabad became the capital of the new state of Andhra Pradesh. Since 1956, Rashtrapati Nilayam, Hyderabad has been the second official residence and business office of the President of India.


title: History of Hyderabad

text: HITEC City was launched in the 1990s as by the Andhra Pradesh government. Today, many multinational IT Companies including Amazon, Infosys, Cognizant, Microsoft, Tech Mahindra and HCL have offices in HITEC City, and the surrounding localities of Gachibowli and Madhapur. In 2005, construction began for the Rajiv Gandhi International Airport, which was completed and opened in 2008, to replace the old Begumpet Airport. It is one of the busiest airports in India. The city saw terrorist bomb blasts in May 2007, August 2007 and February 2013.


title: History of Hyderabad

text: By the Andhra Pradesh Reorganization Act, 2014, Telangana was separated from Andhra Pradesh as a new 29th state of India, with the city of Hyderabad as its capital. The new state was created on 2 June 2014. K. Chandrashekhar Rao was elected as the first Chief Minister of Telangana. Hyderabad would also remain the "de jure" capital of Andhra Pradesh for a period of ten years.


title: History of Hyderabad

text: The Hyderabad Metro Rail began operations in 2017, five years after its groundbreaking in 2012. Many of the routes are still under construction.


title: Anamudi

text: Anamudi is a mountain located in Ernakulam district and Idukki district of the Indian state of Kerala. It is the highest peak in the Western Ghats and in South India, at an elevation of and a topographic prominence of . The name Anamudi literally translates to "elephant's head" a reference to the resemblance of the mountain to an elephant's head.


title: Anamudi

text: Anamudi is the highest mountain in peninsular India as well as the largest mountain in Kerala. Meanwhile, the highest independent mountain (free-standing mountain) in Kerala is the Cheriyam mountain in Malappuram district. Cheriyam mountain is located at an elevation of 613 m (2,011 ft) above sea level.


title: Anamudi

text: The first recorded ascent of Anamudi was by General Douglas Hamilton of the Madras Army on 4 May 1862, but it is likely that there had been earlier ascents by local people.


title: Anamudi

text: Anamudi peak is one of only three ultra prominent peaks in South India. It is also the peak with the greatest topographic isolation within India. It is the highest point in India south of Himalayas. Thus it is known as "Everest of South India".


title: Anamudi

text: The peak is not exceptionally dramatic in term of steepness or local relief and is a fault-block mountain. It is located in the southern region of Eravikulam National Park at the junction of the Cardamom Hills, the Anaimalai Hills and the Palani Hills. The nearest town is Munnar, at a distance of . The easiest route to the summit of Anamudi is a technically easy hike on grass slopes, starting from a rolling hill plateau with a base elevation of about . The north and south slopes are gentle, while the east and west slopes are steeper, with more difficult rock faces.


title: Anamudi

text: Anamudi and the Eravikulam National Park surrounding it is home to the largest surviving population of the Nilgiri tahr ("Nilgiritragus hylocrius"). Asian elephants, gaur, Bengal tigers, and the Nilgiri marten (Martes gwatkinsii) are some of the species of animals found here . The Anamudi peak area is also habitat of a unique frog "Raorchestes resplendens". This newly discovered species is located in the Eravikulam National Park and is restricted to less than three km on the summit of Anamudi. The summit of the Anamudi is vegetated with patches of stunted "Arundinaria densifolia" and "Gaultheria fragrantissima" (wintergreen), "Anaphalis" sp., "Impatiens" and some species of "Eriocaulon".


title: Anamudi

text: Anamudi is the highest peak in the Western Ghats in India, having an elevation of . Anamudi is also the highest point in South India. This gives Anamudi its relatively large topographic prominence of , the associated key saddle being over away at in Haryana state just to the west of Delhi. The peak is the highest point of the Periyar River basin.


title: Anamudi

text: Köppen-Geiger climate classification system classifies it as subtropical highland ("Cwb"). Sholas are found in its valleys, like most meadows of the Western Ghats.


title: Xen

text: Xen (pronounced ) is a type-1 hypervisor, providing services that allow multiple computer operating systems to execute on the same computer hardware concurrently. It was


title: Xen

text: originally developed by the University of Cambridge Computer Laboratory and is now being developed by the Linux Foundation with support from Intel, Citrix, Arm Ltd, Huawei, AWS, Alibaba Cloud, AMD, Bitdefender and epam.


title: Xen

text: The Xen Project community develops and maintains Xen Project as free and open-source software, subject to the requirements of the GNU General Public License (GPL), version 2. Xen Project is currently available for the IA-32, x86-64 and ARM instruction sets.


title: Xen

text: Xen Project runs in a more privileged CPU state than any other software on the machine, except for Firmware.


title: Xen

text: Responsibilities of the hypervisor include memory management and CPU scheduling of all virtual machines ("domains"), and for launching the most privileged domain ("dom0") - the only virtual machine which by default has direct access to hardware. From the dom0 the hypervisor can be managed and unprivileged domains ("domU") can be launched.


title: Xen

text: The dom0 domain is typically a version of Linux or BSD. User domains may either be traditional operating systems, such as Microsoft Windows under which privileged instructions are provided by hardware virtualization instructions (if the host processor supports x86 virtualization, e.g., Intel VT-x and AMD-V), or paravirtualized operating systems whereby the operating system is aware that it is running inside a virtual machine, and so makes hypercalls directly, rather than issuing privileged instructions.


title: Xen

text: Xen Project boots from a bootloader such as GNU GRUB, and then usually loads a paravirtualized host operating system into the host domain (dom0).


title: Xen

text: Xen originated as a research project at the University of Cambridge led by Ian Pratt, a senior lecturer in the Computer Laboratory, and his PhD student Keir Fraser. The first public release of Xen was made in 2003, with v1.0 following in 2004. Soon after, Pratt and Fraser along with other Cambridge alumni including Simon Crosby and founding CEO Nick Gault created XenSource Inc. to turn Xen into a competitive enterprise product.


title: Xen

text: To support embedded systems such as smartphone/ IoT with relatively scarce hardware computing resources, the Secure Xen ARM architecture on an ARM CPU was exhibited at Xen Summit on April 17, 2007, held in IBM TJ Watson. The first public release of Secure Xen ARM source code was made at Xen Summit on June 24, 2008 by Sang-bum Suh, a Cambridge alumnus, in Samsung Electronics.


title: Xen

text: On October 22, 2007, Citrix Systems completed its acquisition of XenSource, and the Xen Project moved to the xen.org domain. This move had started some time previously, and made public the existence of the Xen Project Advisory Board (Xen AB), which had members from Citrix, IBM, Intel, Hewlett-Packard, Novell, Red Hat, Sun Microsystems and Oracle. The Xen Advisory Board advises the Xen Project leader and is responsible for the Xen trademark, which Citrix has freely licensed to all vendors and projects that implement the Xen hypervisor. Citrix also used the Xen brand itself for some proprietary products unrelated to Xen, including XenApp and XenDesktop.


title: Xen

text: On April 15, 2013, it was announced that the Xen Project was moved under the auspices of the Linux Foundation as a Collaborative Project. The Linux Foundation launched a new trademark for "Xen Project" to differentiate the project from any commercial use of the older "Xen" trademark. A new community website was launched at xenproject.org as part of the transfer. Project members at the time of the announcement included: Amazon, AMD, Bromium, CA Technologies, Calxeda, Cisco, Citrix, Google, Intel, Oracle, Samsung, and Verizon. The Xen project itself is self-governing.


title: Xen

text: Internet hosting service companies use hypervisors to provide virtual private servers. Amazon EC2 (since August 2006), IBM SoftLayer, Liquid Web, Fujitsu Global Cloud Platform, Linode, OrionVM and Rackspace Cloud use Xen as the primary VM hypervisor for their product offerings.


title: Xen

text: Virtual machine monitors (also known as hypervisors) also often operate on mainframes and large servers running IBM, HP, and other systems.


title: Xen

text: Xen's support for virtual machine live migration from one host to another allows load balancing and the avoidance of downtime.


title: Xen

text: Virtualization also has benefits when working on development (including the development of operating systems): running the new system as a guest avoids the need to reboot the physical computer whenever a bug occurs. Sandboxed guest systems can also help in computer-security research, allowing study of the effects of some virus or worm without the possibility of compromising the host system.


title: Xen

text: Finally, hardware appliance vendors may decide to ship their appliance running several guest systems, so as to be able to execute various pieces of software that require different operating systems.


title: Xen

text: Xen provides a form of virtualization known as paravirtualization, in which guests run a modified operating system. The guests are modified to use a special hypercall ABI, instead of certain architectural features. Through paravirtualization, Xen can achieve high performance even on its host architecture (x86) which has a reputation for non-cooperation with traditional virtualization techniques. Xen can run paravirtualized guests ("PV guests" in Xen terminology) even on CPUs without any explicit support for virtualization. Paravirtualization avoids the need to emulate a full set of hardware and firmware services, which makes a PV system simpler to manage and reduces the attack surface exposed to potentially malicious guests. On 32-bit x86, the Xen host kernel code runs in Ring 0, while the hosted domains run in "Ring 1" (kernel) and "Ring 3" (applications).


title: Xen

text: CPUs that support virtualization make it possible to run unmodified guests, including proprietary operating systems (such as Microsoft Windows). This is known as hardware-assisted virtualization, however, in Xen this is known as hardware virtual machine (HVM). HVM extensions provide additional execution modes, with an explicit distinction between the most-privileged modes used by the hypervisor with access to the real hardware (called "root mode" in x86) and the less-privileged modes used by guest kernels and applications with "hardware" accesses under complete control of the hypervisor (in x86, known as "non-root mode"; both root and non-root mode have Rings 0–3). Both Intel and AMD have contributed modifications to Xen to exploit their respective Intel VT-x and AMD-V architecture extensions. Use of ARM v7A and v8A virtualization extensions came with Xen 4.3. HVM extensions also often offer new instructions to allow direct calls by a paravirtualized guest/driver into the hypervisor, typically used for I/O or other operations needing high performance. These allow HVM guests with suitable minor modifications to gain many of the performance benefits of paravirtualized I/O. In current versions of Xen (up to 4.2) only fully virtualized HVM guests can make use of hardware facilities for multiple independent levels of memory protection and paging. As a result, for some workloads, HVM guests with PV drivers (also known as PV-on-HVM, or PVH) provide better performance than pure PV guests. Xen HVM has device emulation based on the QEMU project to provide I/O virtualization to the virtual machines. The system emulates hardware via a patched QEMU "device manager" (qemu-dm) daemon running as a backend in dom0. This means that the virtualized machines see an emulated version of a fairly basic PC. In a performance-critical environment, PV-on-HVM disk and network drivers are used during the normal guest operation, so that the emulated PC hardware is mostly used for booting.


title: Xen

text: Administrators can "live migrate" Xen virtual machines between physical hosts across a LAN without loss of availability. During this procedure, the LAN iteratively copies the memory of the virtual machine to the destination without stopping its execution. The process requires a stoppage of around 60–300 ms to perform final synchronization before the virtual machine begins executing at its final destination, providing an illusion of seamless migration. Similar technology can serve to suspend running virtual machines to disk, "freezing" their running state for resumption at a later date.


title: Xen

text: Xen can scale to 4095 physical CPUs, 256 VCPUs per HVM guest, 512 VCPUs per PV guest, 16 TB of RAM per host, and up to 1 TB of RAM per HVM guest or 512 GB of RAM per PV guest.


title: Xen

text: Xen can be shipped in a dedicated virtualization platform, such as XCP-ng or Citrix Hypervisor (formerly Citrix XenServer, and before that XenSource's XenEnterprise).


title: Xen

text: Alternatively, Xen is distributed as an optional configuration of many standard operating systems. Xen is available for and distributed with:


title: Xen

text: Guest systems can run fully virtualized (which requires hardware support), paravirtualized (which requires a modified guest operating system), or fully virtualized with paravirtualized drivers (PVHVM). Most operating systems which can run on PCs can run as a Xen HVM guest. The following systems can operate as paravirtualized Xen guests:


title: Xen

text: Xen version 3.0 introduced the capability to run Microsoft Windows as a guest operating system unmodified if the host machine's processor supports hardware virtualization provided by Intel VT-x (formerly codenamed Vanderpool) or AMD-V (formerly codenamed Pacifica). During the development of Xen 1.x, Microsoft Research, along with the University of Cambridge Operating System group, developed a port of Windows XP to Xen — made possible by Microsoft's Academic Licensing Program. The terms of this license do not allow the publication of this port, although documentation of the experience appears in the original Xen SOSP paper. James Harper and the Xen open-source community have started developing free software paravirtualization drivers for Windows. These provide front-end drivers for the Xen block and network devices and allow much higher disk and network performance for Windows systems running in HVM mode. Without these drivers all disk and network traffic has to be processed through QEMU-DM. Subsequently, Citrix has released under a BSD license (and continues to maintain) PV drivers for Windows.


title: Xen

text: Third-party developers have built a number of tools (known as Xen Management Consoles) to facilitate the common tasks of administering a Xen host, such as configuring, starting, monitoring and stopping of Xen guests. Examples include:


title: Xen

text: The Xen hypervisor is covered by the GNU General Public Licence, so all of these versions contain a core of free software with source code. However, many of them contain proprietary additions.


title: Voluntary association

text: A voluntary group or union (also sometimes called a voluntary organization, common-interest association, association, or society) is a group of individuals who enter into an agreement, usually as volunteers, to form a body (or organization) to accomplish a purpose. Common examples include trade associations, trade unions, learned societies, professional associations, and environmental groups.


title: Voluntary association

text: All such associations reflect freedom of association in ultimate terms (members may choose whether to join or leave), although membership is not necessarily voluntary in the sense that one's employment may effectively require it via occupational closure. For example, in order for particular associations to function effectively, they might need to be mandatory or at least strongly encouraged, as is true of trade unions. Because of this, some people prefer the term common-interest association to describe groups which form out of a common interest, although this term is not widely used or understood.


title: Voluntary association

text: Voluntary associations may be incorporated or unincorporated; for example, in the US, unions gained additional powers by incorporating. In the UK, the terms voluntary association or voluntary organisation cover every type of group from a small local residents' association to large associations (often registered charities) with multimillion-pound turnover that run large-scale business operations (often providing some kind of public service as subcontractors to government departments or local authorities).


title: Voluntary association

text: Voluntary association is also used to refer to political reforms, especially in the context of urbanization, granting individuals greater freedoms to associate in civil society as they wished, or not at all.


title: Voluntary association

text: In many jurisdictions no formalities are necessary to start an association. In some jurisdictions, there is a minimum for the number of persons starting an association.


title: Voluntary association

text: Some jurisdictions require that the association register with the police or other official body to inform the public of the association's existence. This could be a tool of political control or intimidation, and also a way of protecting the economy from fraud.


title: Voluntary association

text: In many such jurisdictions, only a registered association (an incorporated body) is a juristic person whose members are not responsible for the financial acts of the association. Any group of persons may, of course, work as an informal association, but in such cases, each person making a transaction in the name of the association takes responsibility for that transaction, just as if it were that individual's personal transaction.


title: Voluntary association

text: There are many countries where the formation of truly independent voluntary associations is effectively proscribed by law or where they are theoretically legally permitted, but in practice are persecuted; for example, where membership brings unwelcome attention from police or other state agencies.


title: Voluntary association

text: Voluntary groups are a broad and original form of nonprofit organizations, and have existed since ancient history. In Ancient Greece, for example, there were various organizations ranging from elite clubs of wealthy men ("hetaireiai") to private religious or professional associations.


title: Voluntary association

text: In preindustrial societies, governmental administrative duties were often handled by voluntary associations such as guilds. In medieval Europe, guilds often controlled towns. Merchant guilds enforced contracts through embargoes and sanctions on their members, and also adjudicated disputes. However, by the 1800s, merchant guilds had largely disappeared. Economic historians have debated the precise role that merchant guilds played in premodern society and economic growth.


title: Voluntary association

text: In the United Kingdom, craft guilds were more successful than merchant guilds and formed livery companies which exerted significant influence on society.


title: Voluntary association

text: A standard definition of an unincorporated association was given by Lord Justice Lawton in the English trust law case "Conservative and Unionist Central Office v Burrell" (1981):


title: Voluntary association

text: In most countries, an unincorporated association does not have separate legal personality, and few members of the association usually enjoy limited liability. However, in some countries they are treated as having separate legal personality for tax purposes: for example, in the United Kingdom an unincorporated association is assessable to corporation tax. However, because of their lack of legal personality, legacies to unincorporated associations are sometimes subject to general common law prohibitions against purpose trusts.


title: Voluntary association

text: Associations that are organized for profit or financial gain are usually called partnerships. A special kind of partnership is a co-operative which is usually founded on one person-one vote principle and distributes its profits according to the amount of goods produced or bought by the members. Associations may take the form of a non-profit organization or they may be not-for-profit corporations; this does not mean that the association cannot make benefits from its activity, but all the benefits must be reinvested. Most associations have some kind of document or documents that regulate the way in which the body meets and operates. Such an instrument is often called the organization's bylaws, constitution, regulations, or agreement of association.


title: Voluntary association

text: Under English law, an unincorporated association consists of two or more members bound by the rules of a society which has, at some point in time, been founded.


title: Voluntary association

text: Several theories have been proposed as to the way that such associations hold rights. A transfer may be considered to have been made to the association's members directly as joint tenants or tenants in common. Alternatively, the funds transferred may be considered to have been under the terms of a private purpose trust. Many purpose trusts fail for want of a beneficiary and this may therefore may result in the gift failing. However, some purpose trusts are valid, and, accordingly, some cases have decided that the rights associated with unincorporated associations are held on this basis. The dominant theory, however, is that the rights are transferred to the members or officers absolutely, perhaps on trust for the members, but are importantly bound by contracts "inter se".


title: Voluntary association

text: Accordingly, on dissolution, the distribution of these rights depends on how they were held. A purpose trust may by its nature survive the dissolution of the association, or it may not. If it fails as a result of the dissolution, then the rights will be held on resulting trust for the contributors, unless they can be shown to have renounced their right to such a trust in their favour. If the rights are held subject to contract, then they will be divided among the surviving membership upon dissolution, according to the terms of the contracts "inter se" or an implied term according to contribution. If, as a result of this contract or statute, no member can claim, the rights will pass to the Crown as "bona vacantia". This conclusion has also been suggested where the association dissolves because only one member remains, although this has been doubted by some commentators who believe the last members should be entitled to the rights.


title: Voluntary association

text: Each state sets its own laws as to what constitutes an unincorporated association and how it is to be treated under the laws. In the United States, voluntary associations which were incorporated were "pre-eminent" in collective action.


title: Voluntary association

text: In most states and territories in Australia, a similar set of laws allows not-for-profit associations to become legal entities with a limit to the liability of their members. An example of such a law, the "Associations Incorporation Act 1985" that is in force in South Australia, allows for the creation of a legal entity able to buy and sell land and in general, enter into legally binding contracts. Many clubs and societies begin life as an unincorporated body and seek to attain incorporated status to protect its members from legal liability and in many cases to seek government financial assistance only available to an incorporated body. Clubs and societies wishing to incorporate must meet the provisions of the relevant state act and lodge their constitution with the corresponding state government authority.


title: Voluntary association

text: In Israel, many non-profit organizations (NPOs) and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are established as registered nonprofit associations (Hebrew "," plural ) (some are established as public benefit companies (Hebrew ) not to be confused with public benefit corporations). ' are regulated by the Associations Law, 1980. An ' is a body corporate, though not a company. The ' is successor to the Ottoman Association which predated the State of Israel, and was established by the now-superseded 1909 Ottoman Law on Associations, based on the French law of 1901. An ' must register with the "Rasham Ha’amutot" ('Registrar of Amutot'), under the purview of the "Rashut Hata’agidim" ('Corporations Authority') of the Ministry of Justice.


title: Voluntary association

text: Under the Quebec Civil Code an association is categorized as a type of statutory specific contract set forth in a constitution. An association can become incorporated with its own legal identity so that it may, e.g., open a bank account, enter into contracts (rent real estate, hire employees, take out an insurance policy), or sue or be sued.


title: Voluntary association

text: In France, all voluntary associations are non-profit. They may count as unincorporated () or incorporated ("") and are created in terms of and governed by the Waldeck-Rousseau Act 1901. This is why "" is subjoined to their name, except in the Alsace-Moselle area, which is governed by local law in this regard (the area was German in 1901), and are therefore called "".. If the association responding to defined criteria, like social or medical help, for example, they can be declared "public utility association" () by French authorities. Associations created under the 1901 act have a significant amount of freedom in their internal operation, such as management or authorized members.


title: Voluntary association

text: The German Civil Code sets out different rights and rules for an unincorporated association () with legal identity ("Vereine", art. 21–79 BGB) versus an incorporated association () with full legal personality, which the law treats as partnerships ("Gesellschaften", art. 705–740 BGB). Associations can be for-profit () or non-for-profit (""). Associations which pursue a public purpose can apply for tax exemptions ().


title: Voluntary association

text: Article 11 of the European Convention on Human Rights also protects the right to freedom of assembly and association.


title: Battle of Artemisium

text: The Battle of Artemisium or Artemision was a series of naval engagements over three days during the second Persian invasion of Greece. The battle took place simultaneously with the land battle at Thermopylae, in August or September 480 BC, off the coast of Euboea and was fought between an alliance of Greek city-states, including Sparta, Athens, Corinth and others, and the Persian Empire of Xerxes I.


title: Battle of Artemisium

text: The Persian invasion was a delayed response to the defeat of the first Persian invasion of Greece, which had been ended by the Athenian victory at the Battle of Marathon. King Xerxes had amassed a huge army and navy, and set out to conquer all of Greece. The Athenian general Themistocles proposed that the Allied Greeks block the advance of the Persian army at the pass of Thermopylae and simultaneously block the Persian navy at the Straits of Artemisium. An Allied naval force of 271 triremes was thus dispatched to await the arrival of the Persians.


title: Battle of Artemisium

text: Approaching Artemisium towards the end of summer, the Persian navy was caught in a gale off the coast of Magnesia and lost around a third of their 1200 ships. After arriving at Artemisium, the Persians sent a detachment of 200 ships around the coast of Euboea in an attempt to trap the Greeks, but these were caught in another storm and shipwrecked. The main action of the battle took place after two days of smaller engagements. The two sides fought all day, with roughly equal losses; however, the smaller Allied fleet could not afford the losses.


title: Battle of Artemisium

text: After the engagement, the Allies received news of the defeat of the Allied army at Thermopylae. Since their strategy required both Thermopylae and Artemisium to be held, and given their losses, the Allies decided to withdraw to Salamis. The Persians overran and gained control over Phocis, then Boeotia, and finally entered Attica where they captured the now-evacuated Athens. However, seeking a decisive victory over the Allied fleet, the Persians were later defeated at the Battle of Salamis in late 480 BC. Fearing being trapped in Europe, Xerxes withdrew with much of his army to Asia, leaving Mardonius to complete the conquest of Greece. The following year, however, saw an Allied army decisively defeat the Persians at the Battle of Plataea, thereby ending the Persian invasion.


title: Battle of Artemisium

text: The Greek city-states of Athens and Eretria had supported the unsuccessful Ionian Revolt against the Persian Empire of Darius I in 499–494 BC. The Persian Empire was still relatively young, and prone to revolts amongst its subject peoples. Moreover, Darius was an usurper, and had spent considerable time extinguishing revolts against his rule. The Ionian revolt threatened the integrity of his empire, and Darius thus vowed to punish those involved (especially those not already part of the empire). Darius also saw the opportunity to expand his empire into the fractious world of Ancient Greece. A preliminary expedition under Mardonius in 492 BC, to secure the land approaches to Greece, re-conquered Thrace, and forced Macedon to become a fully subordinate client kingdom part of Persia. It had been made a vassal or ally as early as the late 6th century BC, but remained having autonomy. Mardonius' campaign of 492 BC changed this.


title: Battle of Artemisium

text: In 491 BC, Darius sent emissaries to all the Greek city-states, asking for a gift of 'earth and water' in token of their submission to him. Having had a demonstration of his power the previous year, the majority of Greek cities duly obliged. In Athens, however, the ambassadors were put on trial and then executed by throwing them in a pit; in Sparta, they were simply thrown down a well. This meant that Sparta was also effectively at war with Persia.


title: Battle of Artemisium

text: Darius thus put together an amphibious task force under Datis and Artaphernes in 490 BC, which attacked Naxos, before receiving the submission of the other Cycladic Islands. The task force then moved on Eretria, which it besieged and destroyed. Finally, it moved to attack Athens, landing at the bay of Marathon, where it was met by a heavily outnumbered Athenian army. At the ensuing Battle of Marathon, the Athenians won a remarkable victory, which resulted in the withdrawal of the Persian army to Asia.


title: Battle of Artemisium

text: Darius therefore began raising a huge new army with which he meant to completely subjugate Greece; however, in 486 BC, his Egyptian subjects revolted, indefinitely postponing any Greek expedition. Darius then died whilst preparing to march on Egypt, and the throne of Persia passed to his son Xerxes I. Xerxes crushed the Egyptian revolt, and very quickly restarted the preparations for the invasion of Greece. Since this was to be a full-scale invasion, it required long-term planning, stock-piling and conscription. Xerxes decided that the Hellespont would be bridged to allow his army to cross to Europe, and that a canal should be dug across the isthmus of Mount Athos (rounding which headland, a Persian fleet had been destroyed in 492 BC). These were both feats of exceptional ambition, which would have been beyond any contemporary state. By early 480 BC, the preparations were complete, and the army Xerxes had mustered at Sardis marched towards Europe, crossing the Hellespont on two pontoon bridges.