title: Black Taj Mahal

text: The belief holds that Shah Jahan planned a mausoleum to be built in black marble across the Yamuna river, with the two structures connected by a bridge. The idea originates from fanciful writings of Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, a European traveller who visited Agra in 1665. It was suggested that Shah Jahan was overthrown by his son Aurangzeb before it could be built. Ruins of blackened marble across the river in Moonlight Garden, Mahtab Bagh, seemed to support this legend.


title: Black Taj Mahal

text: According to historian Mohammad Naushad, when the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan came to Burhanpur, he had brought his wife along. Mumtaz had 3 deliveries in Burhanpur. Unfortunately, she died at the time of the birth of their fourteenth child. According to Mumtaz's wish, Shah Jahan built the Taj Mahal in her memory. For six months, Mumtaz was buried in Burhanpur itself. It is called Pine Garden.


title: Black Taj Mahal

text: Shah Jahan wished that the Taj Mahal should be built in Burhanpur itself. Due to the presence of termites in the soil and low water level of Tapti, the architect of that time advised not to build the Taj Mahal here. 65 quality marble was to be installed in the Taj Mahal, which was difficult to bring here from Rajasthan and Iran at that time, but the base design of the Taj Mahal was made in Burhanpur. A replica of this is present in Black Taj Mahal Burhanpur. Tourists from all over the India and foreign countries come to see it.


title: Black Taj Mahal

text: According to historian Mohammad Naushad, there is a tomb of Shahnawaz Khan in the Kala Taj Mahal. Shahnawaz Khan was the eldest son of Abdul Rahim Khankhana. He was brought up in Burhanpur itself. Seeing his bravery, he was made the commander of the Mughal army. He died at the age of 44, buried on the banks of the Utawali river in Burhanpur.


title: Black Taj Mahal

text: Many scholars, like Ram Nath, believe the idea of the Black Taj belongs to fiction rather than history. The traces which are identified as the foundations of the second Taj are actually the enclosing wall of a garden founded by Babur. The irregular position of Shah Jahan's cenotaph in comparison to Mumtaz Mahal's, is similar to that at the tomb of Itmad-ud-Daulah, and thus should not be of any striking significance. Besides, according to Islamic law, bodies are buried with their faces towards Mecca and legs towards the south, and the husband is placed on the right hand side of his wife. The interpretation that the cenotaph of Shah Jahan was not meant to be placed here appears to be superfluous.


title: Black Taj Mahal

text: Excavations carried out in the 1990s found that they were discolored white stones that had turned black. As some believe that a more credible theory for the origins of the black mausoleum was demonstrated in 2006 by archaeologists who reconstructed part of the pool in the Mehtab Bagh (Moonlight Garden). A dark reflection of the white mausoleum could clearly be seen, befitting Shah Jahan's obsession with symmetry and the positioning of the pool itself.


title: Higher-order function

text: In mathematics and computer science, a higher-order function (HOF) is a function that does at least one of the following:


title: Higher-order function

text: All other functions are "first-order functions". In mathematics higher-order functions are also termed "operators" or "functionals". The differential operator in calculus is a common example, since it maps a function to its derivative, also a function. Higher-order functions should not be confused with other uses of the word "functor" throughout mathematics, see Functor (disambiguation).


title: Higher-order function

text: In the untyped lambda calculus, all functions are higher-order; in a typed lambda calculus, from which most functional programming languages are derived, higher-order functions that take one function as argument are values with types of the form formula_1.


title: Higher-order function

text: "The examples are not intended to compare and contrast programming languages, but to serve as examples of higher-order function syntax"


title: Higher-order function

text: In the following examples, the higher-order function takes a function, and applies the function to some value twice. If has to be applied several times for the same it preferably should return a function rather than a value. This is in line with the "don't repeat yourself" principle.


title: Higher-order function

text: In this Erlang example, the higher-order function takes a list of functions () and argument (). It evaluates the function with the argument as argument. If the function returns false then the next function in will be evaluated. If the function returns then the next function in with argument will be evaluated. If the function returns the higher-order function will return . Note that , , and can be functions. The example returns .


title: Higher-order function

text: Notice a function literal can be defined either with an identifier () or anonymously (assigned to variable ).


title: Higher-order function

text: Note that arrow functions implicitly capture any variables that come from the parent scope, whereas anonymous functions require the keyword to do the same.


title: Higher-order function

text: Python decorator syntax is often used to replace a function with the result of passing that function through a higher-order function. E.g., the function could be implemented equivalently:


title: Higher-order function

text: In Raku, all code objects are closures and therefore can reference inner "lexical" variables from an outer scope because the lexical variable is "closed" inside of the function. Raku also supports "pointy block" syntax for lambda expressions which can be assigned to a variable or invoked anonymously.


title: Higher-order function

text: In this Scheme example, the higher-order function is used to implement currying. It takes a single argument and returns a function. The evaluation of the expression first returns a function after evaluating . The returned function is . Then, it evaluates the returned function with 7 as the argument, returning 10. This is equivalent to the expression , since is equivalent to the curried form of .


title: Higher-order function

text: The XACML standard defines higher-order functions in the standard to apply a function to multiple values of attribute bags.


title: Higher-order function

text: Function pointers in languages such as C, C++, and Pascal allow programmers to pass around references to functions. The following C code computes an approximation of the integral of an arbitrary function:


title: Higher-order function

text: The qsort function from the C standard library uses a function pointer to emulate the behavior of a higher-order function.


title: Higher-order function

text: Macros can also be used to achieve some of the effects of higher-order functions. However, macros cannot easily avoid the problem of variable capture; they may also result in large amounts of duplicated code, which can be more difficult for a compiler to optimize. Macros are generally not strongly typed, although they may produce strongly typed code.


title: Higher-order function

text: In other imperative programming languages, it is possible to achieve some of the same algorithmic results as are obtained via higher-order functions by dynamically executing code (sometimes called "Eval" or "Execute" operations) in the scope of evaluation. There can be significant drawbacks to this approach:


title: Higher-order function

text: In object-oriented programming languages that do not support higher-order functions, objects can be an effective substitute. An object's methods act in essence like functions, and a method may accept objects as parameters and produce objects as return values. Objects often carry added run-time overhead compared to pure functions, however, and added boilerplate code for defining and instantiating an object and its method(s). Languages that permit stack-based (versus heap-based) objects or structs can provide more flexibility with this method.


title: Higher-order function

text: An example of using a simple stack based record in Free Pascal with a function that returns a function:


title: Higher-order function

text: The function codice_3 takes a codice_4 record as input and returns the integer value of the sum of the record's codice_5 and codice_6 fields (3 + 7).


title: Higher-order function

text: Defunctionalization can be used to implement higher-order functions in languages that lack first-class functions:


title: Higher-order function

text: In this case, different types are used to trigger different functions via function overloading. The overloaded function in this example has the signature codice_7.


title: Fiat G.91

text: The Fiat G.91 is an Italian jet fighter aircraft designed and built by Fiat Aviazione, which later merged into Aeritalia. The G.91 has its origins in the NATO-organised NBMR-1 competition in 1953, which sought a light fighter-bomber (officially, the competition was seeking a "Light Weight Strike Fighter") to be adopted as standard equipment across the air forces of the various NATO nations. After reviewing multiple submissions, the G.91 was picked as the winning design of the NBMR-1 competition.


title: Fiat G.91

text: The G.91 entered into operational service with the Italian Air Force in 1961, and with the West German "Luftwaffe" in the following year. Various other nations adopted it, such as the Portuguese Air Force, who made extensive use of the type during the Portuguese Colonial War in Angola and Mozambique. The G.91 enjoyed a long service life that extended over 35 years.


title: Fiat G.91

text: The G.91 remained in production for 19 years, during which a total of 756 aircraft were completed, including the prototypes and pre-production models. The assembly lines were finally closed in 1977. The G.91 was also used as a basis for a twin-engined development: the Fiat/Aeritalia G.91Y.


title: Fiat G.91

text: As a result of experiences from the Korean War alongside newly developed concepts of aerial cooperation, the members of NATO recognised a need to reequip their inventories with suitable jet-powered ground attack aircraft. In December 1953, NATO Supreme Command issued specifications for a new light tactical support aircraft. European manufacturers were invited to submit their designs for this requested "Light Weight Strike Fighter" role. The G.91 was designed to this specification by the Italian engineer Giuseppe Gabrielli, hence the "G" designation. The competition was intended to produce an aircraft that was light, small, expendable, equipped with basic weapons and avionics and capable of operating with minimal ground support. These specifications were developed for two reasons: the first was the nuclear threat to large air bases, many cheaper aircraft could be better dispersed, and the other was to counter the trend towards larger and more expensive aircraft.


title: Fiat G.91

text: The specified technical requirements included a 1,100 m (3,610 ft) takeoff distance over a 15 m (49 ft) obstacle, the capability to operate from semi-prepared grass airstrips and roads, a maximum speed of Mach 0.95, a range of 280 km (170 mi) with 10 minutes over the target while possessing a maximum of 2,200 kg (4,850 lb) empty weight and 4,700 kg (10,360 lb) max weight. Equipment requirements were the presence of armoured protection for the pilot and the fuel tanks along with alternative arrangements of 4 × 12.7 mm (.5 in) machine guns or 2 × 20 mm or 30 mm autocannon. These operational specifications were viewed as not being straightforward to fulfil at that time.


title: Fiat G.91

text: The challenge of providing an engine that matched the requirements of lightness and power, reliability and ease of maintenance was solved by using the Bristol Siddeley Orpheus turbojet then at the start of development in the UK. Development of this engine was aided by substantial contribution from the US Mutual Weapons Development Programme. Nine of the ten designs to be subsequently submitted for the competition were powered by the Orpheus engine.


title: Fiat G.91

text: In order to evaluate the bids that various aircraft manufacturers submitted in response, a special Advisory Group for Aeronautical Research and Development (AGARD) committee conducted extensive evaluations. The designs were required within two months of the competition, in which time an assortment of submissions were made, mainly by European companies. Besides the G.91, these included the Northrop N-156, Dassault Mystère XXVI, Sud-Est Baroudeur, Aerfer Sagittario 2 and the Breguet Br.1001 Taon. On 18 March 1953, these submitted designs formally began to be assessed by the AGARD committee, which was under the chairmanship of Theodore von Kármán. The initial project selection process took 18 months to complete.


title: Fiat G.91

text: On 3 June 1955, it was announced that the Fiat G.91 had been selected as the design with the most promise. Out of the submissions, the two winning projects were, in order: the Breguet Br.1001 Taon and the Fiat G.91. A third aircraft design was subsequently added: the Dassault Mystère XXVI. As a result of the G.91's selection, an immediate order was received for three prototypes and a total of 27 pre-production aircraft. Fiat quickly set about developing the concept to the prototype phase; noticeable changes in the design occurred during this phase, such as increases in the aircraft's maximum weight due to the addition of supplementary equipment and structural strengthening measures.


title: Fiat G.91

text: On 9 August 1956, the prototype G.91 conducted its maiden flight at the Caselle airfield, Turin, Italy; it was flown by Chief Test Pilot Riccardo Bignamini. Accordingly, the G.91 had achieved a seven-month head start over the Dassault prototype and almost a year ahead of the Breguet Taon. An intensive series of test flights followed the type's maiden flight, these were not without setbacks. The most serious problem discovered during these was the presence of aeroelastic vibrations, leading to a series of investigative flights to resolve this condition. On 20 February 1957, during a test flight intended to explore the limits of the aircraft's speed-load envelope, difficulties led to the destruction of the first G.91 prototype. The cause of the prototype's loss was linked to problems encountered with the horizontal control system which had led to structural failure; this led to the tail assembly being subjected to rigorous testing to identify the cause of the failure.


title: Fiat G.91

text: The re-engineering work that had been performed to cure the vibration problem was very extensive and resulted in the second prototype being fitted with a larger tail, a six cm (two in) higher canopy, and the addition of a ventral fin. The second prototype had other modifications, including the installation of a full armament and a more powerful Orpheus engine capable of 4,850 lbf. In July 1957, the second prototype performed its first flight; it was not immediately sent to participate in the final evaluation process. Both the third and fourth G.91 prototypes were later sent to France to continue the evaluation flights.


title: Fiat G.91

text: The final selection of the competing designs was planned for late 1957. In September 1957, at the Centre d'Essais en Vol at Brétigny-sur-Orge, in France, the three rival aircraft types met for evaluation trials. During these trials, the Italian aircraft is claimed to have delivered an impressive performance. In January 1958, the Fiat G.91 was officially declared the winner of the competition.


title: Fiat G.91

text: In April 1958, following a meeting of NATO defence ministers, an agreement was formed that the G.91 would be the first NATO lightweight strike fighter, and that it was to be followed in 1961 by "a developed version" of the Breguet Taon. In May 1958, a production meeting was scheduled to discuss the production of the aircraft with financial support from the United States; the Americans would provide some of the finance for the French, German and Italian aircraft, in addition to paying for the Turkish aircraft. The defence ministers reached an agreement to order 50 aircraft for each country.


title: Fiat G.91

text: Given the large economic and commercial interests at stake, there was a certain amount of controversy surrounding this decision. After the loss of the first G.91 prototype, the French government preferred to pursue development of the locally designed Étendard instead. The British government similarly ignored the competition to concentrate on Hawker Hunter production for the same role. The Italian government had elected to order the G.91 for the Italian Air Force prior to the results of the competition being known. These pre-production machines would later go on to serve for many years with the Italian aerobatic team, the "Frecce Tricolori", designated as the "G.91 PAN".


title: Fiat G.91

text: By 1957, Fiat Aviazione was in the process of establishing the first production line for the G.91 at their facility at Turin-Aeritalia Airport, Piedmont, Italy. In total, Fiat constructed 174 G.91s of various variants for Italy, along with an additional 144 G.91 R/3 variants for West Germany (including 50 that had been ordered and then cancelled by Greece and Turkey). The first order was for 50 aircraft from Aeritalia, then Dornier and other German firms had an order for 232 machines, which was later increased to 294. The "Luftwaffe" (German Air Force) also bought 44 G-91T/3 two-seat trainers and another 22 were produced in Germany, ending production in 1972.


title: Fiat G.91

text: The German order involved a production run of 294 G.91s that were domestically constructed in Germany under a license production arrangement by Flugzeug-Union Süd, a consortium of former competitors Messerschmitt, Heinkel and Dornier; Messerschmitt produced the forward fuselage and tail assembly, Dornier manufactured the center fuselage along with final assembly and flight testing, while Heinkel fabricated the wing. The G.91 holds the distinction of being the first combat aircraft to be manufactured in Germany since the Second World War. On 20 July 1961, the first German-built G.91 conducted its first flight from Oberpfaffenhofen Airfield.


title: Fiat G.91

text: Aeritalia also negotiated a comprehensive license manufacturing agreement for the Orpheus engine that powered the type. Messier-Bugatti-Dowty produced the aircraft's undercarriage.


title: Fiat G.91

text: The G.91 was also considered by a number of nations, including Austria, Norway, and Switzerland. During early 1961, four G.91s were shipped to the United States in order to participate in a formal evaluation program for the United States Army; these aircraft were subjected to several evaluation trials, the majority of which taking place within Alabama and New Mexico. The US Army studied the use of the type as a possible Forward Air Control aircraft. However, the service subsequently relinquished all fixed-wing aircraft operations to the United States Air Force, and thus the prospective G.91 procurement was not pursued.


title: Fiat G.91

text: The Fiat G.91 is a lightweight tactical ground attack aircraft designed for simplicity and agility. It is a subsonic aircraft, being powered by a single Bristol Siddeley Orpheus turbojet engine. A key function of the aircraft is its short-field capability, having been constructed with a rugged airframe to withstand the demands imposed by high-intensity operations and the use of semi-prepared airstrips; the undercarriage is furnished with low-pressure tyres for the same purpose. The standard mission of the G.91 was the attack of targets within a 170-mile radius of its base with a typical loiter time of ten minutes, travelling at maximum speed in the combat area and traversing at cruise speeds.


title: Fiat G.91

text: The all-metal fuselage uses conventional and straightforward construction methods, being a semi-monocoque design manufactured in three sections. The forward section, which was produced separate to the others before being rivetted to the centre fuselage, contains various radio navigation and communication equipment such as radio direction finder, transponder, ultra high frequency (UHF) radio, and identification friend or foe (IFF); the nose typically contained a total of three cameras. The cockpit is positioned directly above the chin-mounted air intake for the engine. It is surrounded on three sides with steel armour plating, the glass windshield is also armoured. The cockpit is furnished with a Martin-Baker Mk.4 ejector seat; it is both pressurised and equipped with manually controlled climate controls.


title: Fiat G.91

text: The center fuselage section houses the armament bay, which is set beneath the cockpit, and the seven split fuel tanks, which are protected against damage from ground fire by armour plating. The armament bay can accommodate up to four 12.7 mm (0.50 in) M2 Browning machine guns with 300 rounds of ammo per gun, or alternatively up to two 30 mm (1.18 in) DEFA cannons with 120 rounds per cannon. Other munitions included various rockets and bombs; while gun pods and external drop tanks can be installed on hardpoints fitted on the wing. Both weapons and ammunition in the armament bay were mounted on panel doors, which could be easily removed and quickly swapped by two men during rearming on the ground. In addition, various access panels are incorporated to enable simple field maintenance duties to be readily performed on the type.


title: Fiat G.91

text: The G.91 is equipped with a swept wing, which uses an all-metal two-spar structure; the outer panels can all be detached for transportation or easy replacement, while the center section is integral with the fuselage. It is swept at a 37-degree angle at quarter-chord with a thickness-to-chord ratio of 10 per cent. The wing features single-slotted flaps and hydraulically-actuated ailerons. The tailplane is electrically actuated and had irreversible hydraulic elevators fitted with an artificial feel system as well as hydraulically-actuated air brakes and a drogue parachute located at the base of the rudder for rapid deceleration.


title: Fiat G.91

text: For the purpose of readily carrying out operations from austere airstrips, Fiat developed purpose-built ground support equipment for easy and rapid servicing of the aircraft. The equipment needed to inspect, maintain, resupply and repair the G.91 were designed to possess minimal weight and size to facilitate transportation. Fiat also completed a study to add hooks onto the aircraft for the purpose compatibility with arresting gear and aircraft catapult for further increased short field performance, a number of production aircraft in Luftwaffe service were outfitted as such.


title: Fiat G.91

text: On 20 February 1958, the first pre-production G.91 conducted its maiden flight. In August 1958, the 103mo "Gruppo", 5a "Aerobrigata", called ""Caccia Tattici Leggeri"" (Light Tactical Fighter Group), was formed for the purpose of conducting operational evaluation of the aircraft, initially based at Pratica di Mare Air Force Base. In 1959, the 103Mo were transferred to Frosinone Airport for trialling the austere basing capabilities of the G.91, including operating from various types of terrain. The unit also performed exercises in the vicinity of Venice, such as at Maniago and Campoformido, in the presence of NATO officials; during this stage of the trials, German pilots also flew the aircraft.


title: Fiat G.91

text: In 1961, the next operational unit to be formed was 14mo "Gruppo", "Seconda Aerobrigata". This unit had its role shifted to tactical support, because its groups were 14mo, 103mo (dispatched from 5 A/B to this "Aerobrigade") and 13mo (only in reserve). All of them were based at Treviso-Sant'Angelo.


title: Fiat G.91

text: During 1964, the pre-production aircraft of 103mo "Gruppo" were replaced by production standard G.91 R/1 combat aircraft; thus 16 of the pre-production aircraft were converted for service with the Italian aerobatic team, the "Frecce Tricolori"; these conversions, which had their armament removed and other modifications such as the addition of pitch dampers, ballast, and smoke tanks beneath the wings, were designated as the "G.91 PAN". The G.91 PAN reportedly accumulated roughly 1,500 flight hours per year, and had an average efficiency in excess of 90 per cent.


title: Fiat G.91

text: In late 1964, the first batch of two-seater G.91T/1 aircraft, which had lengthened fuselage to accommodate an additional seat for training purposes, was delivered to the "Scuola Volo Basico Avanzato" (Amendola flying school for advanced jet training). These aircraft were used for the further training of pilots that had recently graduated from the Aermacchi MB-326 jet trainer.


title: Fiat G.91

text: In September 1960, the "Luftwaffe" received their first two Fiat-built G.91 R/3 aircraft. An initial five G.91R/3 aircraft were delivered to "Erprobungstelle 61" for trials with subsequent deliveries being allocated to "Aufklärungsgeschwader 53" (53rd Reconnaissance Group) based at Erding, near Munich along with "Waffenschule 50" (Weapons School 50). On 20 July 1961, the first Dornier-built G.91 performed its first flight. The G.91R/3 equipped four newly formed "Leichte Kampfgeschwader" (light attack wings), often being used to replace older aircraft such as the American-built Republic F-84F Thunderstreak.


title: Fiat G.91

text: In October 1961, "Aufklärungsgeschwader 53" became the first operational G.91 unit to achieve active status; in late May 1962, this same unit proceeded to carry out its first operational training flights. During 1962 and 1963, the Luftwaffe conducted a series of trials to determine the capabilities of the type in terms of austere and unfavourable climate performance, including an overseas deployment to Béchar Province, Algeria, to test the G.91's versatility and operational efficiency within such climate conditions.


title: Fiat G.91

text: An additional 45 G.91 T/3 Fiat-built two-seat trainer aircraft were ordered for the "Luftwaffe", the first 35 being allocated to "Waffenschule 50" with the balance of the order divided between operational units. In early 1961, "Waffenschule 50" began its first training courses for pilot instructors. Of these, 22 aircraft were built by Dornier between 1971 and 1973; this variant were used to train Weapons Systems Officers for the F-4 Phantom.


title: Fiat G.91

text: Fifty G.91 R/4 aircraft were taken up from a cancelled Greek/Turkish order but were deemed to be unsuitable for operational use. Alternatively, these were used as training aircraft and were operated solely by "Waffenschule 50". When the initial training programme was completed, all R/4 aircraft were retired in 1966 and 40 surviving airframes were sold to Portugal. Other R/4 aircraft remained in Germany and were transferred to ground instructional use or for static displays at recruitment presentations.


title: Fiat G.91

text: It has been claimed that the "Luftwaffe" had intended to equip a further four wings with the G.91R/3; however, initial operating experience with the type had allegedly left the Luftwaffe disappointed with the aircraft's performance and thus the intended further orders for the type were cut. A number of Luftwaffe G.91s were emblazoned with a "pig" emblem, this has been interpreted as a comment on the aircraft's lacklustre performance.


title: Fiat G.91

text: On 1 January 1970, the "Luftwaffe" fleet consisted of 310 G.91 R/3 and 40 G.91T aircraft; by 1976, only 20 of the G.91 R/3 aircraft had been lost to accidents, a loss rate of 6 per cent. During the early 1980s, the G.91 R/3 was replaced in German service by the Dassault/Dornier Alpha Jet which operated in the same role; the last G.91 aircraft were officially retired in 1982.


title: Fiat G.91

text: From 1961, Portugal became involved in fighting against nationalist movements in its African overseas territories, the series of conflicts becoming known as the Portuguese Colonial War. Portugal had deployed a detachment of F-86 Sabres to Portuguese Guinea in August 1961, prior to the outbreak of major fighting, but was forced to withdraw the jet fighters back to Europe owing to pressure from the United States and the United Nations, who imposed an arms embargo. This left a gap in air cover for Portugal's African colonies, both in the close air support role, and in the air defence role.


title: Fiat G.91

text: In 1965, as the scale of fighting increased, Portugal attempted to purchase 100 surplus Canadian built Sabre Mk 6s from West Germany, but instead, it was offered 40 G.91R/4s, which had originally been built for Greece and Turkey and which differed from the rest of the Luftwaffe G.91s sufficiently to create maintenance problems in exchange for allowing Germany to build and use an airbase at Beja in Portugal for training.


title: Fiat G.91

text: G.91s arrived in Portuguese Guinea in 1966, equipping "Esquadra 121 Tigres" based at Bissau, and being used for reconnaissance and close support with rockets, napalm and bombs against PAIGC rebels. When the PAIGC started to be supplied with Soviet-made Strela 2 (NATO designation SA-7 Grail) MANPADS in early 1973, these immediately became a threat to Portuguese air superiority. On 25 March 1973, and 28 March, two FAP G.91s were shot down by missiles within three days, with a further two lost to conventional ground fire later in the year. (By comparison, only two G.91s had been lost in Guinea from 1966 to 1973.) A final G.91 was lost to a missile on 31 January 1974, while Strelas were also responsible for the loss of a T-6 Texan and two Do.27K-2s.


title: Fiat G.91

text: G.91s deployed to Mozambique at the end of 1968, equipping "Esquadra 502 Jaguares" ininitally at Beira, later moving to Nacala, with a second squadron "Esquadra 702 Escorpiões" (Scorpions) forming in September 1970 at Tete, flying against FRELIMO forces. FRELIMO also received Strelas in 1973, although unlike elsewhere, the Portuguese in Mozambique did not lose any aircraft to missiles with Chinese support, even if it forced Portuguese pilots to change their tactics. The only G.91 destroyed in combat in Mozambique was the serial number "5429", flown by Lt. Emilio Lourenço: his plane was destroyed and Lourenço killed by a premature detonation of its bombs while flying a strike against rebel positions on 15 March 1973.


title: Fiat G.91

text: In 1973, with the United Nations weapons embargo against Portugal, the Air Force faced problems purchasing further numbers of close air support aircraft. An attempt was then made to acquire more Fiat G.91s from Germany by having Dornier disassembling the aircraft and then selling them as spare parts to Switzerland and Spain. These spare parts would be later sold to Portugal and assembled locally with different serial numbers. However, the deal did not follow through as the German government vetoed it.


title: Fiat G.91

text: In April 1974, the Portuguese government fell in the Carnation Revolution, with the new government seeking to grant its colonies independence. Portugal withdrew its G.91s from Guinea when it was granted independence in 1974, with its forces also leaving Mozambique. One of the G.91 squadrons was briefly deployed to Angola in late 1974, in order to try to prevent fighting between rival National Liberation Front of Angola (FNLA) and National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) forces, being finally withdrawn back to Portugal in January 1975.


title: Fiat G.91

text: In 1976, a second purchase of 14 G.91 R/3s and 7 G.91 T/3 trainers was made from Germany, which were followed by further aircraft when the G.91 was withdrawn from "Luftwaffe" service in from 1980 to 1982, giving a total of 70 R/3s and 26 T/3s, although not all of these entered service, with many being broken up for spare parts. Portugal finally phased out the last of its G.91s in 1993.


title: Fiat G.91

text: On 6 September 1961, the first G.91 R/4 was delivered to the Hellenic Air Force (HAF) for evaluation purposes. The G.91 R/4 variant, of which 25 aircraft were intended to be delivered to both Greece and Turkey, employed the same armament as the G.91 R/1 while using the equipment of the R/3 variant. However, both Greece and Turkey would ultimately not induct any G.91s, these aircraft were instead passed onto Germany's inventory instead.


title: Fiat G.91

text: Trainer and reconnaissance variants were produced right from the start of G.91 production, but the basic design of the aircraft remained virtually unchanged throughout almost the entire production run of the aircraft. The one major difference is that the R series aircraft were single-seaters, while the T series aircraft had two seats. To accommodate the extra seat, the T series aircraft had a slightly longer fuselage.


title: Expurgation

text: Expurgation, also known as bowdlerization, is a form of censorship that involves purging anything deemed noxious or offensive from an artistic work or other type of writing or media.


title: Expurgation

text: The term "bowdlerization" is a pejorative term for the practice, particularly the expurgation of lewd material from books. The term derives from Thomas Bowdler's 1818 edition of William Shakespeare's plays, which he reworked in ways that he felt were more suitable for women and children. He similarly edited Edward Gibbon's "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire".


title: Expurgation

text: A "fig-leaf edition" is such a bowdlerized text, deriving from the practice of covering the genitals of nudes in classical and Renaissance statues and paintings with fig leaves.


title: Lucy Pevensie

text: Lucy Pevensie is a fictional character in C. S. Lewis's "The Chronicles of Narnia" series. She is the youngest of the four Pevensie children, and the first to find the Wardrobe entrance to Narnia in "The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe". Of all the Pevensie children, Lucy is the closest to Aslan. Also, of all the humans who have visited Narnia, Lucy is perhaps the one that believes in Narnia the most. She is ultimately crowned Queen Lucy the Valiant, co-ruler of Narnia along with her two brothers and her sister. Lucy is the central character of the four siblings in the novels. Lucy is a principal character in three of the seven books ("The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe", "Prince Caspian", and "The Voyage of the Dawn Treader"), and a minor character in two others ("The Horse and His Boy" and "The Last Battle").


title: Lucy Pevensie

text: Lucy is portrayed by Georgie Henley in the 2005 film "" and she returned to reprise her role in the 2008 film "". Georgie's elder sister, Rachael Henley, portrays the older Queen Lucy at the end of the first film. Georgie Henley also reprised her role in the 2010 film "", which is the third of the film series.


title: Lucy Pevensie

text: The character of Lucy Pevensie was inspired by June Flewett, a devout Catholic London girl evacuated by her convent to The Kilns, Lewis' country home in 1942, and named after Lewis' goddaughter Lucy Barfield, to whom he dedicated "The Lion, The Witch and the Wardrobe". Lucy is described in the book as being fair-haired: "But as for Lucy, she was always gay and golden-haired, and all princes in those parts desired her to be their Queen, and her people called her Queen Lucy the Valiant."


title: Lucy Pevensie

text: Lucy was the most faithful of the four and the closest to Aslan, and never stopped believing in Narnia. She and her brothers Peter and Edmund, after dying in a train crash in England, were transported to Aslan's Country with the other Narnians.


title: Lucy Pevensie

text: Lucy is the most sensitive and faithful out of all her siblings; which is why she is written as seeing Aslan across the gorge in "Prince Caspian" and her brothers and sister written as cynical and less inclined to go on blind faith. As a young child in "The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe" in a strange house without her mother about, she is also extremely vulnerable and is looking for security, wonder and something to believe in. She is teased mercilessly by Edmund about Narnia, being accused of playing "childish games". Once she "knows" he also has visited the land in the wardrobe and he "still" maintains that they were only playing a game, her anguish knows no bounds, as her faith in humanity and the security of her own beliefs about her siblings are now also under threat.


title: Lucy Pevensie

text: Lucy loves animals, and befriends many creatures, and is devastated in "Prince Caspian" to discover that not only has Narnia been invaded by the Telmarines; but that they have suppressed the many creatures and divine and semi-divine beings that made Narnia the extraordinary place it was. Her heartfelt night-time roam through the woods, craving to see the tree spirits dance and share in their communion with nature and life once again is one of the very deep moments of love, hope and disappointment that we share with Lucy in her spiritual journey. Lucy also never stops believing in Narnia and is full of courage because of her faith; and is thus more adventurous than her sister Susan. Lucy has a great desire to help others, which is symbolized by the healing cordial that was given to her by Father Christmas for others in need and only with sparing use. The lesson from Aslan on the battlefield in "The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe" is to use this power impartially and not dwell on the needs of those she loves most.


title: Lucy Pevensie

text: Lucy's siblings, Peter, Susan and Edmund, do not believe her about Narnia at first, but later they all find their way to Narnia.


title: Lucy Pevensie

text: Lucy is the first of the Pevensies to enter Narnia through a magical wardrobe in the Professor's old house, into Narnia in the One Hundred Year Winter, under the rule of the White Witch, the evil self-proclaimed Queen of Narnia. There she meets Mr. Tumnus the Faun and, then later, the Beavers. However, her brother Edmund had also slipped into Narnia on the second occasion Lucy had entered, and encountered the White Witch while she was visiting Mr. Tumnus. Edmund, who had already jeered at Lucy about her "magical" country, continued to be spiteful towards Lucy by denying that either of them had been in Narnia. When the children all enter Narnia, Edmund slips away from the house of the Beavers and defects to the White Witch.


title: Lucy Pevensie

text: While travelling with Peter, Susan and Mr. and Mrs. Beaver to the Stone Table, they meet Father Christmas, who gives them gifts. Lucy is given a vial with magical cordial that can heal almost any injury, and a small dagger with which to defend herself "a great need". Edmund, meanwhile, had tried to betray the Beavers and joined the White Witch; he had first met her and been seduced by promises of power after first entering the wardrobe when trying to follow Lucy on her second entry to Narnia.


title: Lucy Pevensie

text: She and her companions arrive at Aslan's camp, and later that night, she and Susan comfort Aslan as he walks to his death – although they do not know of his fate at the time. Both girls also witness his sacrifice. While their brothers are going to war, Lucy and her sister see Aslan come back to life and help him wake the creatures in the White Witch's castle, which the White Witch had turned to stone. They meet with their brothers at the end of the battle.


title: Lucy Pevensie

text: At Cair Paravel, she is crowned as Her Majesty Queen Lucy by Aslan to the throne as co-ruler of Narnia, this marking the fulfilling of the ancient prophecy and the end of the White Witch's reign. During her reign, she is named Queen Lucy the Valiant. She and her siblings make a Golden Age in Narnia.


title: Lucy Pevensie

text: Years later, while hunting the White Stag through Lantern Waste, she and her siblings notice the lantern where she met Mr. Tumnus. The Pevensies return through the wardrobe into England, where no time has passed and they are children again.


title: Lucy Pevensie

text: The events in "The Horse and His Boy" take place after the siblings are crowned, and before they return to England, in "The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe", and Queen Lucy is a young woman who rides to the aid of Archenland. She is described by Prince Corin as being more like a tomboy, unlike her sister, Queen Susan, who is a "proper lady". She helps King Lune to welcome Aravis to Anvard and helps to get Aravis's room and clothes ready.


title: Lucy Pevensie

text: Lucy (who is now 9) travels to Narnia again with her three siblings. Lucy is the only one to see Aslan at first, and she has a terrible time convincing her brothers and sister as well as Trumpkin the dwarf that he had returned, echoing her trials early in the first book. However, Edmund believes her and backs her up. Aslan tells her to try again and says that she must follow him alone if they refuse to come with her. Lucy comments that Aslan has grown larger, but really she is the one who has grown.


title: Lucy Pevensie

text: While Susan travels with Mr. and Mrs. Pevensie to America and Peter studies with Professor Digory Kirke, Lucy (age 11), Edmund and their cousin Eustace are drawn into Narnia through a magical painting in " The Voyage of the" Dawn Treader. This is very much Lucy's book, written largely from her point of view. However, in the end, Aslan firmly tells her and Edmund that they have become, like Susan and Peter, too old to further experience the wonders of Narnia.


title: Lucy Pevensie

text: In "The Last Battle", she plays a minor part as she returns to Narnia again with her brothers, High King Peter and King Edmund, along with Eustace Scrubb, Jill Pole, Polly Plummer, and Digory Kirke. There, she witnesses the destruction of Narnia and lives in the new Narnia created by Aslan. In the new Narnia, all the people and animals who lived in the previous Narnia during its existence return and join together. Lucy also meets her old friend Mr. Tumnus the Faun again, and Aslan tells her about a railway accident that occurs in England in which she, her brothers, her parents, Polly, Digory, Eustace and Jill die. She and Digory, Polly, Peter, Edmund, Eustace and Jill stay in Aslan's homeland for eternity, however, Susan remains living on Earth, her final fate undetermined.


title: Lucy Pevensie

text: Although reviews of "The Oz/Wonderland Chronicles" issue 0 indicated that Alice, Wendy Darling and Dorothy Gale shared their dorm with Susan Pevensie, a recent review of the now-released issue 1 indicates many fans are believing this is actually meant to be Lucy and not Susan.


title: Mount Ruapehu

text: Mount Ruapehu (; ) is an active stratovolcano at the southern end of the Taupō Volcanic Zone and North Island volcanic plateau in New Zealand. It is northeast of Ohakune and southwest of the southern shore of Lake Taupō, within the Tongariro National Park. The North Island's major ski resorts and only glaciers are on its slopes.


title: Mount Ruapehu

text: Ruapehu, the largest active volcano in New Zealand, has the highest point in the North Island and has three major peaks: Tahurangi (2,797 m), Te Heuheu (2,755 m) and Paretetaitonga (2,751 m). The deep, active crater is between the peaks and fills with water between major eruptions, being known as Crater Lake (). The name "Ruapehu" means "pit of noise" or "exploding pit" in Māori.


title: Mount Ruapehu

text: Ruapehu is located in the center of the North Island of New Zealand, northeast of Ohakune, New Zealand and southwest of the southern shore of Lake Taupō, within Tongariro National Park. Ruapehu is the largest and southernmost volcano in the national park, with an estimated volume of 110 km. The volcano is surrounded by a ring plain of volcanic material, made from lahar deposits, ash fall, and landslide debris.


title: Mount Ruapehu

text: There are three access routes to Ruapehu, and each access route leads to one of the three skifields that are found on its slopes. State Highway 48 leads to Whakapapa Village at the base of the mountain, and from there an access road leads up the mountain to Iwikau Village at the base of the Whakapapa skifield on the northwestern slopes. An access road from Ohakune leads to Turoa skifield on the southwestern slopes, and a four-wheel drive track leads from the Desert Road (State Highway 1) to the Tukino skifield on the eastern slopes.


title: Mount Ruapehu

text: Ruapehu's active crater, dubbed Crater Lake (Te Wai ā-moe), is situated at the southern end of the Summit Plateau, and as the name suggests, is filled with a warm, acidic lake. The lake's outlet is at the head of the Whangaehu Valley, where the Whangaehu River arises. The Whangaehu River is notorious for destructive lahars caused by Ruapehu's eruptions. In historic times, eruptions have built tephra dams across the outlet on several occasions, most recently in 1945 and 1996. These dams failed in 1953 and 2007 respectively, causing an outburst of Crater Lake each time, which sent destructive lahars down the river. The 1953 lahar was the cause of the Tangiwai disaster, in which 151 people died. Even larger lahars occurred in 1862 and 1895.


title: Mount Ruapehu

text: A total of 18 glaciers have been recognized on Ruapehu, of which six are named. Two glaciers are found in the active crater: one on the north side of the crater under Paretetaitonga Peak and another one to the south, and these are New Zealand's only crater glaciers. Most of the ice on Ruapehu is contained in only three of its glaciers: the Whangaehu, Summit Plateau, and Mangatoetoenui glaciers. The Summit Plateau glacier is not a glacier in the true sense, but rather an ice field that fills an extinct volcanic crater, and the ice there reaches more than 130 m thick. The Whangaehu glacier feeds the Whangaehu River, and the Mangatoetoenui glacier is one of the principal sources of the Waikato River, which arises as a series of streams on Ruapehu's eastern slopes. On the western side of the mountain, many of the streams that arise there, such as the Whakapapa and Manganui o te Ao rivers, feed the Whanganui River.


title: Mount Ruapehu

text: Ruapehu's glaciers are situated at the northern limit for the formation of permanent ice in New Zealand, and thus they are extremely sensitive to changes in climate. Surveys of the glaciers undertaken since 1955 have found that the glaciers have all been thinning and retreating, with the exception of the northern crater glacier, which thickened and lengthened after the 1953 outburst of Crater Lake lowered the lake water level.


title: Mount Ruapehu

text: Ruapehu has a polar tundra climate (Köppen: "ET") on the upper slopes, with average temperatures ranging from −4–15 °C in summer and −7–7 °C in winter, depending on elevation and cloudiness. On the lower slopes, Ruapehu has a subpolar oceanic climate (Köppen: "Cfc").


title: Mount Ruapehu

text: The prevalent wind direction in the region is westerly or northwesterly, and gale force conditions (i.e. wind speeds higher than ) are common on the mountain. Rainfall is higher on the western flanks of Ruapehu than the eastern flanks due to the rain shadow effect. Whakapapa Village receives an average of 2,200 mm of rain per year, whereas the Rangipo Desert to the east of Ruapehu receives slightly more than 1,500 mm of rain annually. Snow falls on average as low as 1,500 m elevation.


title: Mount Ruapehu

text: Weather conditions can be changeable over the day, and mountain visitors are advised to be prepared and carry basic survival equipment. Severe weather has claimed several lives over the years, including a party of five NZ Army soldiers and one RNZN naval rating, caught in a week-long storm while undergoing winter survival training in 1990. The same storm also trapped an experienced Japanese mountaineer when the weather unexpectedly closed in on him, but he built a snow cave and sheltered in it until he was rescued days later.


title: Mount Ruapehu

text: Extreme weather conditions have caused visitors to be trapped on the mountain in the past. In 2003, about 350 visitors to Whakapapa skifield and 70 staff had to stay overnight in various lodges at Iwikau village (small village at the top of mountain road) after a snow storm made the road too dangerous to descend. In 2008 extreme weather resulted in about 2000 visitors being evacuated from Whakapapa skifield, with cars being led down the mountain in groups of five. About 100 cars were left at the skifield overnight.


title: Mount Ruapehu

text: Ruapehu is a composite andesitic stratovolcano located at the southern end of the Taupō Volcanic Zone and forming part of the Tongariro Volcanic Center. Volcanism at Ruapehu is caused by the subduction of the Pacific Plate under the Australian Plate at the Hikurangi Trench to the east of the North Island. Ruapehu has erupted from multiple craters over its lifetime, however, only one crater is presently active, a deep crater at the southern end of the summit plateau which is filled with hot, acidic water, dubbed Crater Lake (Te Wai ā-moe).


title: Mount Ruapehu

text: Ruapehu sits on a basement of Mesozoic greywacke overlain by a thin layer of sediments of the Wanganui Basin, composed of sands, silts, shell beds, and limestone. It has not been clearly established when Ruapehu first began erupting, only that eruptions began at least 250,000 years ago and possibly as early as 340,000 years ago. Ruapehu has been built in four distinct stages of relatively intense eruptive activity followed by periods of relative quiet. Each of these four stages of activity has left behind distinct rock formations, named the Te Herenga Formation (erupted 250,000–180,000 years ago), the Wahianoa Formation (erupted 160,000–115,000 years ago), the Mangawhero Formation (erupted 55,000–15,000 years ago), and the Whakapapa Formation (erupted 15,000–2,000 years ago). Each of these rock formations is composed of lava flows and tuff breccias, and studies of these formations has revealed how volcanic activity at Ruapehu has developed over time. During the Te Herenga stage of activity, magma rose quickly through the crust during eruptions. However, by 160,000 years ago a complex network of magma dikes and sills had formed in the crust under the volcano, and lava erupted since that time shows signs of extensive mixing between different magma chambers prior to eruptions.


title: Mount Ruapehu

text: In modern times, volcanic activity has been centered on Crater Lake. There are two active vents under the lake, dubbed North Vent and Central Vent. Activity is characterized by cyclic heating and cooling of the lake over periods of 6–12 months. Each heating cycle is marked by increased seismic activity under the crater and is accompanied by increased emission of volcanic gases, indicating that the vents under Crater Lake are open to gas escape. Evidence suggests that an open-vent system such as this has been in place throughout Ruapehu's 250,000 year history. This prevents build-up of pressure and results in relatively small, frequent eruptions (every 20–30 years on average) at Ruapehu compared to other andesitic volcanoes around the world.


title: Mount Ruapehu

text: Crater Lake is emptied by major eruptions, such as the ones in 1945 and 1995–1996, but refills after eruptions subside, fed by melting snow and vented steam. In historic times, major eruptions have deposited a tephra dam across the lake's outlet, preventing lake overflow into the Whangaehu valley. The dam collapses after several years causing a large lahar down the valley. The tephra dam created by the 1945 eruptions collapsed on 24 December 1953, sending a lahar down the Whangaehu River and causing the Tangiwai disaster. 151 people died when the lahar swept away the Tangiwai railway bridge just before an express train crossed it. Another dam was deposited by the 1995–1996 eruptions, which collapsed on 18 March 2007. A warning system, the Eastern Ruapehu Lahar Alarm and Warning System (ERLAWS) system was installed on the mountain in 2000 to detect such a collapse and alert the relevant authorities. The ERLAWS system detected the 2007 lahar, and roads were closed and railway traffic stopped until the lahar had subsided.


title: Mount Ruapehu

text: The earliest known volcanic activity in Tongariro National Park was approximately 933,000 ± 46,000 years ago at Hauhungatahi, northwest of Ruapehu. Subsequently, andesitic clasts found 100 km southwest of Ruapehu, near Whanganui, demonstrate that volcanism was likely present in the Ruapehu area 340,000 years ago. However, the oldest rocks on Ruapehu itself are approximately 250,000 years old. Eruptions during this period are believed to have built a steep volcanic cone around a central crater, which would have been located somewhere near the present-day upper Pinnacle Ridge. Cone-building eruptions ceased about 180,000 years ago, and the cone began to be eroded away by glacial action. Rock formations that date to this period are collectively named the Te Herenga Formation, and today these formations be seen at Pinnacle Ridge, Te Herenga Ridge, and Whakapapanui Valley, all on the northwestern slopes of Ruapehu.


title: Mount Ruapehu

text: Approximately 160,000 years ago, cone-building eruptions began again, this time from a crater that is thought to have lain northwest of present-day Mitre Peak (Ringatoto)—southeast of the original Te Herenga vent. Eruptions continued until approximately 115,000 years ago, and the lava erupted during this period is known as the Wahianoa Formation. This formation has also been heavily eroded by glacial activity, and it now forms the southeastern flanks of modern Ruapehu. The formation consists of lava flows and tuff breccias.


title: Mount Ruapehu

text: Beginning approximately 55,000 years ago, a third phase of cone-building eruptions began, creating the Mangawhero Formation. This formation was erupted onto the eroded Wahianoa Formation in two phases: the first occurring 55,000–45,000 years ago and the second 30,000–15,000 years ago. Multiple summit craters were active during this period, all lying between Tahurangi and the northern summit plateau. Parasitic eruptions also occurred at Pukeonake, a scoria cone to the northwest of Ruapehu, and at several isolated craters near Ohakune. The Mangawhero Formation can be found over most of modern Ruapehu, and it forms most of the mountain's high peaks as well as the Turoa skifield.


title: Mount Ruapehu

text: Lava flows that have been erupted from Ruapehu since the last glacial maximum are called the Whakapapa Formation. These flows all erupted between 15,000 and 2,000 years ago from a number of different craters on the summit of Ruapehu as well as from craters on the northern and southern flanks of the mountain.


title: Mount Ruapehu

text: Approximately 10,000 years ago, a series of major eruptions occurred, not just on Ruapehu, but also at the Tama Lakes between Ruapehu and Tongariro volcanoes. This period of intense eruptions is called the Pahoka-Mangamate event and is thought to have lasted between 200 and 400 years. On Ruapehu, lava was erupted from Saddle Cone—a flank crater on the northern slopes—and from another crater on the southern slopes. This southern crater erupted three times, and lava flows from this crater travelled nearly 14 km to the south.


title: Mount Ruapehu

text: There is evidence that a sector collapse on the northwestern slopes about 9,400 years ago formed the amphitheatre that now comprises the Whakapapa skifield and left an extensive avalanche deposit on the northwestern ring plain that can still be seen today. Since then eruptions have been an order of magnitude lower in intensity and volume. Accordingly, most of the cone and ring-plain is older than 10,000 years. Eruptions between 10,000 and 2,500 years ago generated lava flows that all flowed into the Whakapapa amphitheatre and created the slopes of the modern skifield.


title: Mount Ruapehu

text: For the past 2,000 years, activity at Ruapehu has been largely focused through a crater lake at the summit. Eruptive activity has typically consisted of relatively small but explosive phreatomagmatic eruptions occurring every few decades and lasting several months each. In recorded history, these eruptions have occurred about 50 years apart, in 1895, 1945 and 1995–1996. Minor phreatic or hydrothermal eruptions occur every few years on average, with notable minor eruptions occurring in 1969, 1975, and 2007. More than 600 eruptive events of various sizes have been documented since 1830.


title: Mount Ruapehu

text: Ruapehu entered an eruptive phase in March 1945 after several weeks of volcanic tremors. The first indication of an eruption was reported on 8 March, with ashfall seen on the eastern slopes. A lava dome was observed in Crater Lake on 19 March but was destroyed in a series of explosive eruptions over the following week. A second, larger lava dome appeared in May, which continued to grow over the following months and had emptied Crater Lake of water by July.


title: Mount Ruapehu

text: Eruptions increased from August through November. A particularly powerful eruption in the early hours of 21 August was heard in Hawkes Bay and the Tararua District, loud enough to awaken people from sleep and cause alarm. Eruptions began declining in December and had ended by January.


title: Mount Ruapehu

text: The eruptions dispersed ash across most of the North Island, and eruption columns could be seen from as far afield as Palmerston North, Whanganui, and Hawkes Bay. Ash caused disruption to several North Island communities, entering houses, causing eye and throat irritation, and damaging paintwork on cars. Crop damage was reported in Ohakune, and the water supply at Taumarunui was disrupted.


title: Mount Ruapehu

text: After eruptions subsided in late December, Crater Lake slowly began refilling, with a "boiling lake" already filling the bottom of the crater by mid-January. A tephra dam had formed at the lake's normal outlet during the eruptions, which eventually collapsed on 24 December 1953 causing a lahar that led to the Tangiwai disaster with the loss of 151 lives when the Tangiwai railway bridge across the Whangaehu River collapsed while the lahar was in full flood, just before an express train crossed it.


title: Mount Ruapehu

text: Ruapehu saw a period of heightened activity between 1966 and 1982, with multiple small eruptions occurring in Crater Lake and two larger eruptions in 1969 and 1975, which ejected rocks across the summit region and produced significant lahars.


title: Mount Ruapehu

text: The eruption in 1969 occurred in the early hours of 22 June. It was a moderate phreatic eruption, which blasted rocks up to 1 km northwest of the crater and sent lahars down several valleys. The Whakapapa skifield was left covered in mud. This was the largest eruption since 1945.


title: Mount Ruapehu

text: A larger phreatic eruption occurred at 3:59 a.m. on 24 April 1975, blasting rocks up to 1.6 km northwest of the crater, against the wind, and depositing ash more than 100 km to the southeast. Nine minutes of seismic activity preceded the eruption, but crater dilation had been measured two weeks earlier. Nearly half of the water in Crater Lake was erupted into the air, which subsequently rained down onto the summit, generating lahars down several river valleys. Lahars which travelled down the Whakapapa and Manganui o te Ao rivers entered the Whanganui River and poisoned it, which affected much of the aquatic life downstream. Additionally, the lahars damaged ski installations on the Whakapapa ski field, several bridges and hydroelectric tunnel intakes, but no loss of life occurred.


title: Mount Ruapehu

text: Three days later, on the morning of 27 April, Ruapehu erupted again. A series of five eruptions occurred between 7:10 a.m. and 10:18 a.m., sending surges of mud, rocks, and ash northwards across the summit plateau and producing eruption columns up to 500 m high.


title: Mount Ruapehu

text: Earthquake swarms to the west of Ruapehu between November 1994 and September 1995 marked the beginning of renewed heightened activity at the volcano. Bursts of earthquake activity immediately preceded rapid rises in the temperature of Crater Lake, with the surface temperature reaching 51.4 °C in January 1995—one of the highest temperatures recorded in 30 years and about 10 °C higher than its usual peak temperature. A minor eruption occurred on 26 April, which sent waves against the walls of the crater and damaged some monitoring equipment there. A second eruption on 29 June destroyed the equipment and produced a lahar. Chemical analysis showed that magma was interacting with water under the lake.


title: Mount Ruapehu

text: The first significant eruption took place at 8:05 a.m. on 18 September 1995, raining tephra onto the summit region and sending lahars down the mountain. On 23 September, an even larger eruption blasted rocks up to 1.5 km from the crater, sent lahars down three valleys, and generated an eruption column 12 km high. Phreatomagmatic eruptions occurred through the rest of the month and throughout October, with some eruptions continuing for hours at a time. Ash fell up to 250 km downwind. Explosive eruptions on 11 October emptied Crater Lake of water.


title: Mount Ruapehu

text: Following this, activity died off until 15 June 1996 when renewed seismic activity was recorded. This was followed by eruptions on 17 and 18 June which once again emptied the partially refilled Crater Lake of water. Strombolian eruptions occurred on 27 June and throughout July and August, producing eruption columns more than 10 km high and shooting rocks 1.4 km from the crater.


title: Mount Ruapehu

text: These eruptions produced more than 7 million tonnes of ash, which contaminated water supplies, destroyed crops, and lead to the deaths of livestock. Ash in the Tongariro River also damaged the intake turbines at the Rangipo power station, and ash clouds caused airport closures as far away as Auckland and Wellington. The eruptions also caused closures to the three ski fields on the mountain, costing the region an estimated $100 million in lost revenue.


title: Mount Ruapehu

text: After the 1996 eruption it was recognised that a catastrophic lahar could again occur when Crater Lake burst the volcanic ash dam blocking the lake outlet as it did in 1953. In 2000, the Eastern Ruapehu Lahar Alarm and Warning System (ERLAWS) system was installed on the mountain to detect such a collapse and alert the relevant authorities. The lake gradually filled with snowmelt and had reached the level of the hard rock rim by January 2005. The lahar finally occurred on 18 March 2007 (see below).


title: Mount Ruapehu

text: Ruapehu erupted at 10:24 p.m. on 4 October 2006. The small eruption was marked by a magnitude 2.9 volcanic earthquake and sent waves 4– tall crashing into the wall of the crater. No ash was erupted into the atmosphere, and the eruption is presumed to have occurred entirely underwater.


title: Mount Ruapehu

text: At 11:22 a.m. 18 March 2007, the tephra dam which had been holding back Crater Lake burst, sending a lahar down the mountain. An estimated 1.9–3.8 million cubic metres of mud, rock, and water travelled down the Whangaehu river. ERLAWS activated, sending an alarm to pagers at 11:25 a.m. and automatically activating warning lights and barrier arms to close roads and stop trains. There was no serious damage and no injuries. A toilet block at the Tangiwai memorial was destroyed, but the memorial had already been closed due to the lahar threat. One family was trapped for around 24 hours after the lahar swept away the access route to their home.


title: Mount Ruapehu

text: At 8:16 p.m. on 25 September 2007, volcanic tremor was detected underneath Ruapehu, which was followed at 8:26 p.m. by an explosive surtseyan eruption. The explosive phase of the eruption lasted for less than a minute and blasted ash, mud, and rocks northward, reaching to about 2 km from Crater Lake. Two climbers were caught in the eruption at Dome Shelter, an alpine hut approximately 600 m from the crater, when the hut was struck by the surge. The climbers nearly drowned before the hut floor gave way and the water drained into the basement seismometer vault. One of them, a 22-year-old primary school teacher, had a leg pinned and crushed by a boulder as the water subsided. A rescue operation was mounted after his companion, who was unable to free him, went down the mountain for help.


title: Mount Ruapehu

text: The eruption initiated lahars down the Whangaehu valley and the Whakapapa skifield. ERLAWS detected the lahars in the Whangaehu valley. A snow groomer on the Whakapapa skifield narrowly avoided being caught in the lahar there.


title: Mount Ruapehu

text: Only one eruptive event has been recorded at Ruapehu since the 2007 eruption—a minor event on 13 July 2009 when a small volcanic earthquake beneath Crater Lake caused the lake water level to rise 15 cm and triggered a snow slurry lahar in the upper Whangaehu valley. Since then, Crater Lake has continued its regular cycle of heating and increased gas emissions, although with periods of sustained high temperatures that occurred in 2011, 2016 and 2019.


title: Mount Ruapehu

text: Eruptions at Ruapehu are expected to continue much as they have for the past 2,000 years, with frequent minor eruptions and more significant events every 20–30 years, although the possibility of larger events like the Pahoka-Mangamate event cannot be ruled out. The previous activity trend until 10,000 years ago was about erupted each 10,000 years. Minor eruptions, such as the one in 2007, especially if they are hydrothermal, can occur at any time without warning. However, in historic times, major eruptions such as the ones in 1995–96 have only occurred within periods of enhanced activity.


title: Mount Ruapehu

text: The main recent volcanic hazard at Ruapehu is from lahars. Two major lahar paths run through the Whakapapa skifield, and in recent times, lahars have travelled through the ski field in 1969, 1975, 1995, and 2007. An eruption warning system operates in the ski field to warn skiers in the event of another eruption. Lahars also represent a significant hazard to surrounding river valleys, particularly the Whangaehu River, which is crossed by national highways, the North Island Main Trunk railway line, and electricity transmission lines. Large, destructive lahars have been observed in the Whangaehu River in 1862, 1895, 1953, 1975, and 2007.


title: Mount Ruapehu

text: GNS Science continuously monitors Ruapehu using a network of seismographs, GPS stations, microphones and webcams. Chemical analysis of the water in Crater Lake is regularly undertaken along with airborne gas measurements. Live data can be viewed on the GeoNet website.


title: Mount Ruapehu

text: Ruapehu has two commercial ski fields, Whakapapa on the northern side and Turoa on the southern slope. They are the two largest ski fields in New Zealand, with Whakapapa the larger. The club Tukino field is on the east of the mountain and is open to the public. The season is generally from June to October but depends on snow and weather conditions.


title: Mount Ruapehu

text: Both ski fields are accessible by car and chairlifts, with beginners' to advanced skiing slopes. Whakapapa has five chair lifts with limited accommodation and refreshments available at Top o' the Bruce (the car park at the top of Bruce Road) and at the entry to Whakapapa, and elsewhere on the mountain. Alpine huts are provided for trampers and climbers. These are mainly owned by private clubs.


title: Mount Ruapehu

text: Some scenes of the fictional Mordor and Mount Doom in Peter Jackson's "The Lord of the Rings" film trilogy were filmed on the slopes of Mount Ruapehu.


title: 2021–22 Supercopa de España

text: The 2021–22 Supercopa de España was the 38th edition of the Supercopa de España, an annual football competition for clubs in the Spanish football league system that were successful in its major competitions in the preceding season.


title: 2021–22 Supercopa de España

text: After last season's edition was held in Spain due to travel restrictions related the COVID-19 pandemic, this year the tournament returned to Saudi Arabia as per the deal with the Royal Spanish Football Federation.


title: Hit and Run (2012 film)

text: Hit and Run is a 2012 American action comedy film written by Dax Shepard, with David Palmer and Shepard co-directing (their second collaboration after "Brother's Justice" in 2010). The film stars Shepard and Kristen Bell, with Kristin Chenoweth, Tom Arnold, and Bradley Cooper, and follows a man who has been placed in Federal Witness Protection going on the run with his girlfriend to escape a mobster. It was released on August 22, 2012, received mixed reviews from critics, and grossed $16 million.


title: Hit and Run (2012 film)

text: Charlie Bronson is enrolled in Witness Protection, living in Milton, California under the supervision of incompetent U.S. Marshal Randy Anderson. Charlie's girlfriend Annie Bean is a professor with a doctorate in Non-Violent Conflict Resolution. Her supervisor Debby Kreeger promises to fire her if she does not make it to a job interview at UCLA.


title: Hit and Run (2012 film)

text: Charlie, unable to return to Los Angeles since enrolling in Witness Protection, insists Annie take the interview without him. Instead, Annie returns to work to beg to keep her job, but Charlie picks her up in his souped-up, restored Lincoln Continental to take her to the interview.


title: Hit and Run (2012 film)

text: Annie's ex-boyfriend Gil Rathbinn, believing Charlie is in Witness Protection as a murderous criminal, urges her not to go; undeterred, she leaves with Charlie. Gil's brother Terry, a police officer, finds that Charlie's vehicle is registered to "Yul Clint Perrkins" — Charlie's real name. Gil discovers Charlie is a former getaway driver who testified in an unsuccessful case against his fellow bank robbers. Gil messages one of the defendants, Alexander Dmitri, on Facebook, that he knows Yul Perrkins' location.


title: Hit and Run (2012 film)

text: Randy pursues Charlie to L.A. Charlie and Annie confront Gil, who is following them, and Charlie tries to resolve the situation non-violently at her insistence. Unmoved, Gil reveals that he knows Charlie's real name and has Alex Dmitri as a "Facebook friend". Charlie and Annie flee, running Randy off the road as he arrives. Alex sees Gil's message and gathers his fellow bank robbers Neve and Allen to find him.


title: Hit and Run (2012 film)

text: While Annie and Charlie stop for gas, the Continental's engine is admired by a redneck named Sanders. He follows them to a motel, and they discover in the morning that the engine has been stolen. Ambushed by Gil, Charlie knocks him out and realizes he was accompanied by Alex's crew. He grabs the VIN of a Chevrolet Corvette in the parking lot and duplicates a keyless entry using the tools of his former trade; he and Annie flee in the Corvette, with Gil, Alex's crew, and Randy in hot pursuit. The pair argue over his past, and he reveals that he was a getaway driver for 13 bank robberies and was engaged to Neve.


title: Hit and Run (2012 film)

text: After escaping their pursuers, Annie confronts Charlie for lying to her and proceeds without him. Gil agrees to take her the rest of the way, but they are run off the road by Alex, who takes her hostage and calls Charlie, telling him to meet at a nearby diner. There, he demands money in exchange for Annie; they argue about Charlie's betrayal, cut short when Alex reveals that he was raped in prison and blames Charlie. Charlie agrees to take Alex to his stash of money hidden at his estranged father Clint's home; en route, he calls Randy, now in the company of Terry (who is attracted to him) and his partner Angela with his father's address. The three pick up Gil along the way.


title: Hit and Run (2012 film)

text: At Clint's, Charlie and his father reconcile as they dig up his bag of money. His father mentions his Class 1 Off-Road racing vehicle, and attacks Alex’s crew as Charlie and Annie escape in the racer, just as Gil, Randy, Terry and Angela arrive. Randy manages to shoot Alex and arrests the thieves. Two other Marshals take Alex's crew into custody, complimenting Randy and Terry's work.


title: Hit and Run (2012 film)

text: Charlie and Annie reconcile and arrive in time for her interview; He offers to spend the rest of his life with her, and she accepts. Some months later, Randy and Terry, now in a relationship, take the Marshals' exam.


title: Hit and Run (2012 film)

text: A stinger segment reveals Annie's interview with Professor Sandy Osterman. She interrupts him hotboxing his office and is surprised he is not a woman as Debby had described. Osterman reveals Debby is his sister, and Annie sympathizes with him, earning his approval and an immediate job offer, which she accepts.


title: Hit and Run (2012 film)

text: On December 21, 2011, Open Road Films picked up the U.S distribution rights. Open Road changed the name of the film from "Outrun" to "Hit and Run".


title: Hit and Run (2012 film)

text: One of the chase scenes was filmed at the former MCAS Tustin base in Tustin, California, with the distinctive blimp hangars prominently visible. The final scene was filmed in front of Oviatt Library, California State University, Northridge. The film was also filmed in Fillmore, California and Piru, California. To keep the production budget low, most of the cast did their own stunts and driving.


title: Hit and Run (2012 film)

text: Distributed by Open Road, the film opened in theaters on August 22, 2012. The first official trailer was released on May 16, 2012.


title: Hit and Run (2012 film)

text: On review aggregator site Rotten Tomatoes, "Hit and Run" holds an approval rating of 48% based on 137 reviews, with an average rating of 5.3/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Though "Hit & Run" has some surprisingly oft-kilter filmmaking, the action doesn't add to much and the writing's a bit smug." Metacritic gives the film a weighted average score of 50 out of 100, based on 31 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "C+" on an A+ to F scale.


title: Hit and Run (2012 film)

text: Roger Ebert gave it 3.5 of 4 stars, writing, "With its off-the-shelf title, I had worked up less than a white-hot enthusiasm to see "Hit & Run," but it's a lot more fun than the title suggests. How many chase comedies have you seen where the hero's sexy girlfriend has a doctorate in nonviolent conflict resolution? Her counseling would have been invaluable to the U.S. marshal (Tom Arnold) in an early scene where he attempts to shoot his own van." Film critic Richard Roeper gave the film an "F", calling it an unfunny comedy movie from start to finish.


title: Hit and Run (2012 film)

text: The film soundtrack was commercially released as the "Hit and Run (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack)" on August 21, 2012.


title: Garnish (food)

text: A garnish is an item or substance used as a decoration or embellishment accompanying a prepared food dish or drink. In many cases, it may give added or contrasting flavor. Some garnishes are selected mainly to augment the visual impact of the plate, while others are selected specifically for the flavor they may impart. This is in contrast to a condiment, a prepared sauce added to another food item primarily for its flavor. A food item which is served with garnish may be described as being garni, the French term for "garnished."


title: Garnish (food)

text: Many garnishes are not intended to be eaten, though for some it is fine to do so. Parsley is an example of a traditional garnish; this pungent green herb has small distinctly shaped leaves, firm stems, and is easy to trim into a garnish.


title: Garnish (food)

text: A garnish makes food or drink items more visually appealing. They may, for example, enhance their color, such as when paprika is sprinkled on a salmon salad. They may provide a color contrast, for example when chives are sprinkled on potatoes. They may make a cocktail more visually appealing, such as when a cocktail umbrella is added to an exotic drink, or when a Mai Tai is topped with any number of tropical fruit pieces. Sushi may be garnished with "baran", a type of plastic grass or leaf. Sometimes a garnish and a condiment will be used together to finish the presentation of a dish; for example, an entrée could be topped with a sauce, as the condiment, along with a sprig of parsley as a garnish.


title: Garnish (food)

text: A garnish may be so readily identified with a specific dish that the dish may appear incomplete without the garnish. Examples include a banana split sundae with cherries on top or buffalo wings served with celery stick garnish and blue cheese dressing.


title: Garnish (food)

text: In Korean cuisine, decorative garnishes are referred to as "gomyeong" (), means to decorate or embellish food.


title: Garnish (food)

text: Tools often used for creating food garnishes include skewers, knives, graters, toothpicks, and parchment cones.


title: Crème de menthe

text: Crème de menthe (, French for "mint cream") is a sweet, mint-flavored alcoholic beverage. It is available commercially in a colorless version (called "white") and a green version (colored by the mint leaves or by added coloring if made from extract instead of leaves). Both varieties have similar flavor and are interchangeable in recipes, except where color is important. It is usually made with Corsican mint or peppermint, which is steeped in grain alcohol for several weeks before it is filtered and sweetened to create the final product. It typically has 25% alcohol by volume.


title: Crème de menthe

text: Crème de menthe is an ingredient in several cocktails, such as the Grasshopper and the Stinger. It is also served as a digestif and used in cooking as a flavoring (see Mint chocolate). It is also a primary component of the popular South African shooter known as the Springbokkie.


title: Crème de menthe

text: Sergei Rachmaninoff, although otherwise a teetotaler, found that a glass of crème de menthe steadied his nerves when playing the technically demanding piano score in the twenty-fourth variation of his "Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini". He nicknamed the twenty-fourth the "Crème de Menthe Variation".


title: Country Joe and the Fish

text: Country Joe and the Fish was an American psychedelic rock band formed in Berkeley, California, in 1965. The band was among the influential groups in the San Francisco music scene during the mid- to late 1960s. Much of the band's music was written by founding members Country Joe McDonald and Barry "The Fish" Melton, with lyrics pointedly addressing issues of importance to the counterculture, such as anti-war protests, free love, and recreational drug use. Through a combination of psychedelia and electronic music, the band's sound was marked by innovative guitar melodies and distorted organ-driven instrumentals which were significant to the development of acid rock.


title: Country Joe and the Fish

text: The band self-produced two EPs that drew attention on the underground circuit before signing to Vanguard Records in 1966. Their debut album, "Electric Music for the Mind and Body", followed in 1967. It contained their only nationally charting single, "Not So Sweet Martha Lorraine", and their most experimental arrangements. Their second album, "I-Feel-Like-I'm-Fixin'-to-Die", was released in late 1967; its title track, with its dark humor and satire, became their signature tune and is among the era's most recognizable protest songs. Further success followed, including McDonald's appearance at Woodstock, but the group's lineup underwent changes until its disbandment in 1970. Members of the band continue in the music industry as solo recording artists and sporadically reconvene.


title: Country Joe and the Fish

text: The first lineup of Country Joe and the Fish formed in mid-1965, when Country Joe McDonald (vocals, acoustic guitar) and Barry "The Fish" Melton (lead guitar, vocals) came together as a duo. The two musicians had a background rooted in folk music, were enamored with the recordings of Woody Guthrie, and worked on the local acoustic coffeehouse circuit in the early 1960s. Melton honed his political protest prowess as a guitarist in Los Angeles, at venues such as the Ash Grove, before relocating to Berkeley, California, where he was a regular at the Jabberwock cafe. Prior to the group, McDonald set up two folk and jug bands, the Berkeley String Quartet and the Instant Jug Band, both of which served as outlets for his original material, and with the latter group including Melton. In addition, McDonald was a publisher of the left-wing underground magazine "Et Tu Brute", which later became "Rag Baby", containing poetry, drawings, and political messages. By early 1965, McDonald had become involved in the burgeoning folk scene in Berkeley, and the Free Speech Movement that was organizing demonstrations in University of California, Berkeley, which opposed the war in Vietnam. Not long afterwards, McDonald was inspired to record a "talking issue" of his magazine, and organized Country Joe and the Fish with Melton and fellow musicians Carl Schrager (washboard, kazoo), Bill Steele (bass guitar), and Mike Beardslee (vocals), out of both necessity of a recording alias and political device, to self-produce an extended play.


title: Country Joe and the Fish

text: ED Denson, the co-publisher of "Rag Baby", introduced McDonald to Chris Strachwitz, who owned Arhoolie Recording Studios, to self-produce the EP. Sensing the band's potential, Denson assumed management control, and was responsible for coining the group's name—a reference to Josef Stalin and to Mao Zedong's description of revolutionaries as "the fish who swim in the sea of the people". McDonald, who had recording experience, began utilizing Arhoolie Recording Studios to record four songs split equally between the band and a local folk musician, Peter Krug. It was during this time at Arhoolie Records that Country Joe and the Fish's folk sound and political protest prowess—an amalgam of their own Guthrie-influenced material and their folk music roots—began to emerge. The band's side of the EP featured two originals by McDonald, an acoustic version of "I Feel Like I'm Fixin' to Die Rag", and "Superbird". According to McDonald, "The Fish Cheer" was written in 30 minutes, with a purpose of expressing satiric and dark commentary on the US's involvement in the Vietnam War. In October 1965, 100 copies of the EP, titled "Rag Baby Talking Issue No. 1", were distributed on McDonald's independent label at a Teach-in in UC Berkeley and underground shops selling "Rag Baby" magazine.


title: Country Joe and the Fish

text: For a brief period, McDonald and Melton performed together as a duo at college campuses in the Northwest on behalf of Students for a Democratic Society before returning as regulars at the Jabberwock cafe. The two were joined by local jug band musicians, including Melton's roommates, bass player Bruce Barthol and guitarist Paul Armstrong, and blues guitarist David Bennett Cohen, with whom Melton played in another jug band. The addition of drummer John Francis-Gunning rounded out the six-piece ensemble. It was during their residency at the Jabberwock that Country Joe and the Fish learned to play as a group and expand their repertoire. Within months, based on McDonald and Melton's interest in the live performances of the Paul Butterfield Blues Band, the recordings on Bob Dylan's album, "Highway 61 Revisited", and their use of the mind-altering drug LSD, the group began equipping themselves with electric instruments and delving more into psychedelia. As a result, Cohen was moved over to the organ. Cohen's experience with keyboards was limited to having played piano at a semiprofessional capacity at the Jabberwock, but, nonetheless, he quickly adapted to the qualities of the instrument. Melton describes the change of the group: "Once we hit into the electric medium and into the rock medium, we were pandering to the public taste. We became extraordinarily popular. The little folk club where we used to play once every two weeks, we played every single night for a month, or something like that, and filled it. And after a while we filled "two" shows every single night".


title: Country Joe and the Fish

text: Incidentally, the song "Who Am I" was written by McDonald for a play called "Change Over", written by Fred Hayden. Each of the three verses was to be considered as sung by a different character.


title: Country Joe and the Fish

text: As Country Joe and the Fish's popularity grew, the band relocated to San Francisco in early 1966 and became popular fixtures at the Avalon and the Filmore Auditorium. On June 6, 1966, the band recorded a second self-produced EP, which was packaged separately from the "Rag Baby" magazine and, upon its release, debuted the new psychedelic rock incarnation of the group. The EP fulfilled the band's ambitions to incorporate electric instruments into their music, effectively melding the instrumentals and pioneering an early template for the musical subgenre of acid rock. It included McDonald's compositions "(Thing Called) Love" and "Bass Strings" on the A-side and the six-minute "Section 43" on the B-side. Music historian Richie Unterberger praised "Section 43", saying its "Asiatic guitar, tribal maracas, devious organ, floating harmonica, and ethereal mid-sections of delicate koto-like guitar picking rivaled the Paul Butterfield Blues Band's "East West" as the finest psychedelic instrumental ever". Within three months, airplay of the EP spread across the new so-called progressive radio stations, reaching as far as New York City, and establishing Country Joe and the Fish as a nationally relevant musical act.


title: Country Joe and the Fish

text: Through connections that Cohen had with record producer Samuel Charters, the group signed a recording contract with Vanguard Records in December 1966, just as the label, which had primarily released folk music, was attempting to branch out into the growing psychedelic rock scene. While the band waited to record their debut album, they were present at the Human Be-In, along with other influential San Francisco musical acts, including Jefferson Airplane, Big Brother and the Holding Company, and Quicksilver Messenger Service. The event was a prelude to the Summer of Love and helped publicize counterculture ideals such as ecology, free-love and the use of illicit drugs.


title: Country Joe and the Fish

text: In February 1967, Country Joe and the Fish entered Sierra Sound Laboratories to record their debut album, "Electric Music for the Mind and Body", with Charters and Denson overseeing the process. Prior to their studio work, Armstrong left the group and began a two-year alternative assignment as a conscientious objector, driving a truck for Goodwill Industries. Francis-Gunning was involved in the beginnings of the album's development but left when the rest of the band complained about his drumming technique. He was replaced by Gary "Chicken" Hirsh. The next recording session was postponed for three days as the most recognizable lineup of Country Joe and the Fish rehearsed with their new drummer at the Barn, in Santa Cruz. Hirsh's abilities were immediately distinguishable on the album, as he demonstrated an acute and articulate drum beat that music critic Bruce Eder praised as "some of the best drumming on a psychedelic record this side of the late Spencer Dryden".


title: Country Joe and the Fish

text: "Electric Music for the Mind and Body" was released on May 11, 1967. Much of the album's material continued to expand upon the band's new psychedelic medium, with it embracing all facets of the members' influences, which ranged from their folk roots, blues, raga rock and hard rock. The album also saw Cohen coming forward in a larger role with inventive distorted-organ melodies. In addition, McDonald's lyrical content, which brazenly pronounced topics of political protest, recreational drug use, and love, augmented by satirical humor, clearly introduced the band's orientation and message. The compositional structures followed discrete movement patterns emulating the style of John Fahey, whom McDonald admired. Though "Electric Music for the Mind and Body" was among the most complex works to date, it possessed the quality that several other San Francisco acts shared of being recorded mostly live, with only the vocals being overdubbed after the instrumentals were completed.


title: Country Joe and the Fish

text: "Electric Music for the Mind and Body" was a success upon release, charting at number 39 on the "Billboard" 200, and remains one of the most enduring psychedelic works of the counterculture era. A single, "Not So Sweet Martha Lorraine", was distributed a month prior to the release of the album and became the only Country Joe and the Fish single to chart, peaking at number 98 on the "Billboard" Hot 100, in large part a culmination of its airplay on FM broadcasting and college stations. A reworked version of "The Fish Cheer" was intended to be released as a track on the album. However, Charters vetoed the decision to see whether the controversial song "Superbird" would face a radio ban. Nonetheless, the band was considered a forerunner in the emerging music scene in San Francisco, exhibiting one of the more polished debuts, just as its contemporaries were still refining their own sound. Melton attributes the album's success, particularly in San Francisco, to the band's appearance at the Monterey Pop Festival in June 1967. Subsequently, the group toured the East Coast with an elaborate psychedelic light show.


title: Country Joe and the Fish

text: The band returned to the studio, this time at Vanguard Studios in New York City, between July and September 1967. When "Superbird", a tune mocking President Lyndon Johnson, was not banned from radio promotion, the band was given the go-ahead to record "The Fish Cheer", which saw the group moving away from the original folk composition toward electric instrumentals more synthesized toward psychedelia. The song became the title track of the band's second album, "I-Feel-Like-I'm-Fixin'-to-Die", released in November 1967. The album was not as successful as its predecessor, but still charted at number 67. The composition represented growing anti-war sentiment expressed by those opposing the Vietnam War, and is often considered one of the most recognized and celebrated protest songs of the era. "The Fish Cheer" was also pivotal in communicating the attitude against the war, but was set apart from other anti-war songs for its use of sarcastic humor and satire on the controversial conflict. Writer Lee Andresen reflects on the song's meaning, saying, "the happy beat and insouciance of the vocalist are in odd juxtaposition to the lyrics that reinforce the sad fact that the American public was being forced into realizing that Vietnam was no longer a remote place on the other side of the world, and the damage it was doing to the country could no longer be considered collateral, involving someone else."


title: Country Joe and the Fish

text: The song met unprecedented exposure among the band's young audience after a performance at the Schaefer Music Festival in New York City, in the summer of 1968. Hirsh suggested that instead of the opening chorus spelling "fish", it would spell "fuck", giving birth to the infamous "Fuck Cheer". The crowd of young teenagers and college students applauded the act; however executives from "The Ed Sullivan Show" barred Country Joe and the Fish from their scheduled appearance on the program, and any other possible events. Hirsh has never explained why he recommended the change in lyrics, but the act is seen as a social and political statement advocating free speech. The recorded version of "The Fish Cheer" received airplay, even on mainstream radio stations, which contributed to the success of the band's third album, "Together", its most commercially successful. The album, released in August 1968, featured songwriting by all of the band members and charted at number 23 nationally.


title: Country Joe and the Fish

text: In September 1968, Barthol left the band, just prior to their fourth album. His departure was due to the rest of the band's unwillingness to partake in the Festival for Life, an event established by the Youth International Party in Chicago that was intended to have the participation of several well-known musicians attract thousands of spectators for the 1968 Democratic National Convention. However, the city refused to issue any permits, and the band members, by majority vote, decided to withdraw out of fear that their equipment would be damaged. After the festival resulted in riots and violent clashes between demonstrators and the police, Barthol's conviction that Country Joe and the Fish should have held a larger role precipitated his departure from the group and move to England.


title: Country Joe and the Fish

text: Between January 9 and 11, 1969, the band performed at the Fillmore West as a farewell to the group's most famous lineup, with Jack Casady of Jefferson Airplane standing in as the bass player. The band was joined by Jerry Garcia, Jorma Kaukonen, Steve Miller, and Mickey Hart for the 38-minute finale, "Donovan's Reef Jam". Recordings from the concerts were later assembled on the live album "Live! Fillmore West 1969", released on March 12, 1996. Hirsh and Cohen left soon after recording the group's next album, "Here We Are Again", and a new lineup was configured with Casady and David Getz, who formerly played drums with Big Brother and the Holding Company. The group released "Here We Are Again" in July 1969. It charted at number 48, and saw Country Joe and the Fish moving to a pop-oriented approach. Country Joe and the Fish's personnel remained relatively stable for the next six months, though Peter S. Albin, also an alumnus of Big Brother and the Holding Company, replaced Casady at bass.


title: Country Joe and the Fish

text: However, when McDonald reassembled the band for a last-minute scheduling at the Woodstock Festival, another personnel change resulted in the group's final lineup, which included recruits Mark Kapner on keyboards, Doug Metzler on bass, and Greg Dewey on drums. Among the festival's most memorable moments was McDonald's unexpected solo performance on August 16, 1969, which included "The Fuck Cheer" as a finale. The audience receptively responded by chanting along with McDonald. McDonald's rendition of "The Fuck Cheer" propelled the song into the mainstream culture in the U.S., and was featured on the "Woodstock" film, which was released on March 26, 1970. Radio stations regularly played both versions of the cheer, though the opposition to "The Fuck Cheer" limited its exposure to underground stations. In December 1969, McDonald began his own career outside the band, releasing cover versions of Guthrie-penned songs on "Thinking of Woody Guthrie", and country standards on "Tonight I'm Singing Just For You". All the while, the group looked to capitalize on the momentum from Woodstock and their appearance in the film, "Zachariah", by releasing their fifth album, "CJ Fish", in May 1970. The album was a moderate success, reaching number 111 nationally. However the band members lacked the motivation for touring and recording, which led to their disbandment in mid-1970.


title: Country Joe and the Fish

text: McDonald pursued his solo recording career, which spans over 30 albums, and remains an active anti-war campaigner. He has also appeared in every Woodstock reunion festival since 1979. Melton performed solo as well, under the moniker "The Fish", and later became a member of the Bay Area supergroup, Dinosaurs, in the 1980s. Since 1982, Melton was able to practice law in California and became a Public Defender of Yolo County, California until his retirement in June 2009. Country Joe and the Fish members sporadically reconvene, most notably when the classic 1967 lineup recorded "Reunion" in 1977. The lineup, except Melton, came together again as the Country Joe Band in 2004. In the same year, the group resumed touring, released the Barthol-penned single, "Cakewalk to Baghdad", and the live album "Live in Berkeley". Though the Country Joe Band disbanded in 2006, some of the members still occasionally tour together.


title: Yessongs

text: Yessongs is the first live album by the English progressive rock band Yes, released as a triple album in May 1973 on Atlantic Records. After completing their Close to the Edge Tour in April 1973, the band selected live recordings between February and December 1972 on their tours supporting "Fragile" (1971) and "Close to the Edge" (1972) for a live album release. They were then edited and remixed with their producer and live sound mixer Eddy Offord. Three tracks feature original Yes drummer Bill Bruford while the remaining tracks feature his replacement, Alan White.


title: Yessongs

text: "Yessongs" received a mostly positive reception from music critics, though much of its criticism was directed at its sound quality. However, the album was a commercial success for the band, reaching number 7 on the UK Albums Chart and number 12 on the US "Billboard" 200. In 1998, the album was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for selling over one million copies in the United States. In 2015, recordings of seven shows from late 1972, including ones that were used in the original album, were released in their entirety as "".


title: Yessongs

text: In September 1971, the Yes line-up of singer Jon Anderson, bassist Chris Squire, drummer Bill Bruford, guitarist Steve Howe, and newcomer keyboardist Rick Wakeman embarked on their Fragile Tour in support of the band's fourth studio album, "Fragile" (1971). The tour saw the band play across the United Kingdom, the United States, and Europe until March 1972. Following the recording of their fifth studio album, "Close to the Edge" (1972), the band resumed as a live act on 30 July 1972 to support the album. The tour saw the debut of drummer Alan White in the band after Bruford left when recording for the album had finished. His departure came eleven days prior to the tour's start, leaving White to learn the band's repertoire in three days. The tour ended in April 1973, by which time Yes had made additional live recordings. Yes manager Brian Lane said that people had started to think that the group were a "studio band" and were unable to reproduce what they recorded in the studio on stage, which became a reason for putting out a live album.