title: Tyrannosauroidea

text: Tyrannosauroids varied widely in size, although there was a general trend towards increasing size over time. Early tyrannosauroids were small animals. One specimen of "Dilong", almost fully grown, measured 1.6 meters (5.3 ft) in length, and a fully grown "Guanlong" measured 3 meters (10 ft long). Teeth from lower Lower Cretaceous rocks (140 to 136 million years old) of Hyogo, Japan, appear to have come from an approximately long animal, possibly indicating an early size increase in the lineage. An immature "Eotyrannus" was over 4 meters (13 ft) in length, and a subadult "Appalachiosaurus" was estimated at more than 6 meters (20 ft) long, indicating that both genera reached larger sizes. The Late Cretaceous tyrannosaurids ranged from the 9 meter (30 ft) "Albertosaurus" and "Gorgosaurus" to "Tyrannosaurus", which exceeded 12 meters (39 ft) in length and may have weighed more than 6,400 kilograms (7 short tons). A 2010 review of the literature concluded that tyrannosaurs were "small- to mid-sized" for their first 80 million years but were "some of the largest terrestrial carnivores to ever live" in their last 20 million years.


title: Tyrannosauroidea

text: Skulls of early tyrannosauroids were long, low and lightly constructed, similar to other coelurosaurs, while later forms had taller and more massive skulls. Despite the differences in form, certain skull features are found in all known tyrannosauroids. The premaxillary bone is very tall, blunting the front of the snout, a feature which evolved convergently in abelisaurids. The nasal bones are characteristically fused, arched slightly upwards and often very roughly textured on their upper surface. The premaxillary teeth at the front of the upper jaw are shaped differently from the rest of the teeth, smaller in size and with a "D"-shaped cross section. In the lower jaw, a prominent ridge on the surangular bone extends sideways from just below the jaw joint, except in the basal "Guanlong".


title: Tyrannosauroidea

text: Tyrannosauroids had "S"-shaped necks and long tails, as did most other theropods. Early genera had long forelimbs, about 60% the length of the hindlimb in "Guanlong", with the typical three digits of coelurosaurs. The long forelimb persisted at least through the Early Cretaceous "Eotyrannus", but is unknown in "Appalachiosaurus". Derived tyrannosaurids have forelimbs strongly reduced in size, the most extreme example being "Tarbosaurus" from Mongolia, where the humerus was only one-quarter the length of the femur. The third digit of the forelimb was also reduced over time. This digit was unreduced in the basal "Guanlong", while in "Dilong" it was more slender than the other two digits. "Eotyrannus" also had three functional digits on each hand. Tyrannosaurids had only two, although the vestigial metacarpal of the third are preserved in some well-preserved specimens. As in most coelurosaurs, the second digit of the hand is the largest, even when the third digit is not present.


title: Tyrannosauroidea

text: Characteristic features of the tyrannosauroid pelvis include a concave notch at the upper front end of the ilium, a sharply defined vertical ridge on the outside surface of the ilium, extending upwards from the acetabulum (hip socket), and a huge "boot" on the end of the pubis, more than half as long as the shaft of the pubis itself. These features are found in all known tyrannosauroids, including basal members "Guanlong" and "Dilong". The pubis is not known in "Aviatyrannis" or "Stokesosaurus" but both show typical tyrannosauroid characters in the ilium. The hindlimbs of all tyrannosauroids, like most theropods, had four toes, although the first toe (the hallux) did not contact the ground. Tyrannosauroid hindlimbs are longer relative to body size than almost any other theropods, and show proportions characteristic of fast-running animals, including elongated tibiae and metatarsals. These proportions persist even in the largest adult "Tyrannosaurus", despite its probable inability to run. The third metatarsal of tyrannosaurids was pinched at the top between the second and fourth, forming a structure known as the arctometatarsus. The arctometatarsus was also present in "Appalachiosaurus" but it is unclear whether it was found in "Eotyrannus" or "Dryptosaurus". This structure was shared by derived ornithomimids, troodontids and caenagnathids, but was not present in basal tyrannosauroids like "Dilong paradoxus", indicating convergent evolution.


title: Tyrannosauroidea

text: "Tyrannosaurus" was named by Henry Fairfield Osborn in 1905, along with the family Tyrannosauridae. The name is derived from the Ancient Greek words ' ' ('tyrant') and ' ('lizard'). The superfamily name Tyrannosauroidea was first published in a 1964 paper by the British paleontologist Alick Walker. The suffix "-oidea", commonly used in the name of animal superfamilies, is derived from the Greek "ειδος" ' ('form').


title: Tyrannosauroidea

text: Scientists have commonly understood Tyrannosauroidea to include the tyrannosaurids and their immediate ancestors. With the advent of phylogenetic taxonomy in vertebrate paleontology, however, the clade has received several more explicit definitions. The first was by Paul Sereno in 1998, where Tyrannosauroidea was defined as a stem-based taxon including all species sharing a more recent common ancestor with "Tyrannosaurus rex" than with neornithean birds. To make the family more exclusive, Thomas Holtz redefined it in 2004 to include all species more closely related to "Tyrannosaurus rex" than to "Ornithomimus velox", "Deinonychus antirrhopus" or "Allosaurus fragilis". Sereno published a new definition in 2005, using "Ornithomimus edmontonicus", "Velociraptor mongoliensis" and "Troodon formosus" as external specifiers. The Sereno definition was adopted in a 2010 review.


title: Tyrannosauroidea

text: Some studies have suggested that the clade Megaraptora, usually considered to be allosauroids, are basal tyrannosauroids. However, other authors disputed the placement of megaraptorans within Tyrannosauroidea, and a study of megaraptoran hand anatomy published in 2016 caused even the original scientists suggesting their tyrannosauroid relationships to at least partly reject their prior conclusion.


title: Tyrannosauroidea

text: While paleontologists have long recognized the family Tyrannosauridae, its ancestry has been the subject of much debate. For most of the twentieth century, tyrannosaurids were commonly accepted as members of the Carnosauria, which included almost all large theropods. Within this group, the allosaurids were often considered to be ancestral to tyrannosaurids. In the early 1990s, cladistic analyses instead began to place tyrannosaurids into the Coelurosauria, echoing suggestions first published in the 1920s. Tyrannosaurids are now universally considered to be large coelurosaurs.


title: Tyrannosauroidea

text: In 1994, Holtz grouped tyrannosauroids with elmisaurids, ornithomimosaurs and troodonts into a coelurosaurian clade called Arctometatarsalia based on a common ankle structure where the second and fourth metatarsals meet near the tarsal bones, covering the third metatarsal when viewed from the front. Basal tyrannosauroids like "Dilong", however, were found with non-arctometatarsalian ankles, indicating that this feature evolved convergently. Arctometatarsalia has been dismantled and is no longer used by most paleontologists, with tyrannosauroids usually considered to be basal coelurosaurs outside Maniraptoriformes. While many place tyrannosauroids as basal coelurosaurs, Paul Sereno in his 1990s analysis of theropods would find the Tyrannosaurs to be sister taxa to the Maniraptora with them being closer to birds than Ornithomimosaurs were. He called this group Tyrannoraptora (which in the absence of papers that recover a Tyrannosaur-maniraptoran clade), is a clade which contains most Coelurosaurs. A 2007 analysis found the family Coeluridae, including the Late Jurassic North American genera "Coelurus" and "Tanycolagreus", to be the sister group of Tyrannosauroidea.


title: Tyrannosauroidea

text: The most basal tyrannosauroid known from complete skeletal remains is "Guanlong," a representative of the family Proceratosauridae. Other early taxa include "Stokesosaurus" and "Aviatyrannis", known from far less complete material. The better-known "Dilong" is considered slightly more derived than "Guanlong" and "Stokesosaurus". "Dryptosaurus", long a difficult genus to classify, has turned up in several recent analyses as a basal tyrannosauroid as well, slightly more distantly related to Tyrannosauridae than "Eotyrannus" and "Appalachiosaurus". "Alectrosaurus", a poorly known genus from Mongolia, is definitely a tyrannosauroid but its exact relationships are unclear. Other taxa have been considered possible tyrannosauroids by various authors, including "Bagaraatan" and "Labocania". "Siamotyrannus" from the Early Cretaceous of Thailand was originally described as an early tyrannosaurid, but is usually considered a carnosaur today. "Iliosuchus" has a vertical ridge on the ilium reminiscent of tyrannosauroids and may in fact be the earliest known member of the superfamily, but not enough material is known to be sure.


title: Tyrannosauroidea

text: Below is a cladogram by Loewen "et al." in 2013 that included most tyrannosauroid species known at the time of its publication.


title: Tyrannosauroidea

text: In 2018 authors Rafael Delcourt and Orlando Nelson Grillo published a phylogenetic analysis of Tyrannosauroidea which incorporated taxa from the ancient continent of Gondwana (which today consists of the southern hemisphere), such as "Santanaraptor" and "Timimus", whose placement in the group has been controversial. They have found that not only "Santanaraptor" and "Timimus" were placed as tyrannosaurs more derived than "Dilong", but they have found in their analysis that tyrannosauroids were widespread in Laurasia and Gondwana since the Middle Jurassic. They have proposed new subclade names for Tyrannosaurioidea. The first is Pantyrannosauria referring to all non-proceratosaurid members of the group, while Eutyrannosauria for larger tyrannosaur taxa found in the northern hemisphere such as "Dryptosaurus", "Appalachiosaurus", "Bistahieversor", and Tyrannosauridae. Below is their phylogeographic tree they have recovered, in which displays the phylogenetic relationships of the taxa as well as the continents those taxa have been found.


title: Tyrannosauroidea

text: In 2021, Chase Brownstein published a research article based on more thorough descriptions of tyrannosauroid metatarsals and vertebra from the Merchantville Formation in Delaware. This reanalysis of phylogenetic relationships of tyrannosauroids in Appalachia has brought the rediscovery of the clade Dryptosauridae due to the similarities of the metatarsals II and IV compared to the same bones in Dryptosaurus holotype. However the Merchantville taxon was able to still be different enough to separate it on the genus level from Dryptosaurus. In the phylogentic tree constructed Dryptosauridae is found to be a valid family of non tyrannosaurid eutyrannosaur. It currently sits in a potylomy with the Iren Dabasu taxon and more basal eutryannosaurs.


title: Tyrannosauroidea

text: The tyrannosauroids lived on the supercontinent Laurasia, which split from Gondwana in the Middle Jurassic. The earliest recognized tyrannosauroids lived in the Middle Jurassic, represented by the proceratosaurids "Kileskus" from the Western Siberia and "Proceratosaurus" from Great Britain. Upper Jurassic tyrannosauroids include "Guanlong" from China"," "Stokesosaurus" from the western United States and "Aviatyrannis" and "Juratyrant" from Europe.


title: Tyrannosauroidea

text: Early Cretaceous tyrannosauroids are known from Laurasia, being represented by "Eotyrannus" from England and "Dilong", "Sinotyrannus", and "Yutyrannus" from northeastern China. Early Cretaceous tyrannosauroid premaxillary teeth are known from the Cedar Mountain Formation in Utah and the Tetori Group of Japan.


title: Tyrannosauroidea

text: The Middle Cretaceous record of Tyrannosauroidea is rather patchy. Teeth and indeterminate postcrania of this interval are known from the Cenomanian-age Dakota Formation of western North America and Potomac Formation of New Jersey, as well as formations in Kazakhstan and Tajikistan; two genera, "Timurlengia" and "Xiongguanlong", have been found in Asia, while the Brazilian "Santanaraptor" may belong to this group. "Suskityrannus" has been found in the Moreno Hill Formation of the Zuni Basin of western New Mexico. The first unquestionable remains of tyrannosaurids occur in the Campanian stage of the Late Cretaceous in North America and Asia. Two subfamilies are recognized. The albertosaurines are only known from North America, while the tyrannosaurines are found on both continents. Tyrannosaurid fossils have been found in Alaska, which may have served as a land bridge allowing dispersal between the two continents. Non-tyrannosaurid tyrannosauroids like "Alectrosaurus" and possibly "Bagaraatan" were contemporaneous with tyrannosaurids in Asia, while they are absent from western North America. Eastern North America was divided by the Western Interior Seaway in the middle of the Cretaceous and isolated from the western portion of the continent. The absence of tyrannosaurids from the eastern part of the continent suggests that the family evolved after the appearance of the seaway, allowing basal tyrannosauroids like "Dryptosaurus" and "Appalachiosaurus" to survive in the east as a relict population until the end of the Cretaceous.


title: Tyrannosauroidea

text: Basal tyrannosauroids have also been suggested to be present in Australia and South America during the Early Cretaceous. NMV P186069, a partial pubis (a hip bone) with a supposed distinctive tyrannosauroid-like form, was discovered in Dinosaur Cove in Victoria. However, a response suggested that critical tyrannosauroid characters were absent from the fossil. The Australian taxon "Timimus", known from a femur, and the Brasilian "Santanaraptor", known from a partial juvenile skeleton, have also been suggested to be tyrannosaurs. However, these placements have been considered questionable, with the supposed tyrannosauroid characters of "Santanaraptor" being widely distributed within Coelurosauria, in other characters having similarities to noasaurids.


title: Tyrannosauroidea

text: A conference paper by Tracy Ford states that there was rough bone texture on the skulls of theropods and higher foramina frequency than lepidosaurs and mammals which would be evidential for a sensitive snout for theropods. A study in 2017 study about a new tyrannosaurid named "Daspletosaurus horneri" was published in the journal Scientific Reports. Paleontologist Thomas Carr analyzed the craniofacial texture of "Daspletosaurus horneri" and observed a hummocky rugosity which compared to crocodilian skulls and suggesting "Daspletosaurus horneri" including all tyrannosaurids have flat sensory scales. The subordinate regions were analyzed to have cornified epidermis. However, a 2018 presentation has an alternative interpretation. Crocodilians don't have flat sensory scales but rather cracked cornified epidermis due to growth. The hummocky rugosity in the skulls of lepidosaurs have correlation with scales which this bone texture is also present in tyrannosaurid skulls. The foramina frequency in theropod skulls does not exceed 50 foramina which shows that theropods had lips. It's been proposed that lips are a primitive trait in tetrapods and the soft tissue present in crocodilians are a derived trait because of aquatic or semiaquatic adaptations.


title: Tyrannosauroidea

text: Long filamentous structures have been preserved along with skeletal remains of numerous coelurosaurs from the Early Cretaceous Yixian Formation and other nearby geological formations from Liaoning, China. These filaments have usually been interpreted as "protofeathers," homologous with the branched feathers found in birds and some non-avian theropods, although other hypotheses have been proposed. A skeleton of "Dilong" was described in 2004 that included the first example of feathers in a tyrannosauroid. Similarly to down feathers of modern birds, the feathers found in "Dilong" were branched but not pennaceous, and may have been used for insulation. Even large tyrannosauroids have been found with evidence of feathers. "Yutyrannus huali", also from the Yixian Formation, is known from three specimens, each preserving traces of feathers on various parts of the body. While not all areas of the body preserve impressions across all three specimens, these fossils demonstrate that even in this medium-sized species, most of the body was covered in feathers.


title: Tyrannosauroidea

text: The presence of feathers in basal tyrannosauroids is not surprising since they are now known to be characteristic of coelurosaurs, found in other basal genera like "Sinosauropteryx", as well as all more derived groups. Rare fossilized skin impressions of some Late Cretaceous tyrannosaurids lack feathers, however, instead showing skin covered in fine, non-overlapping scales. Possibly, feathers were present on other areas of the body: Preserved skin impressions are very small and come primarily from the legs, pelvic region, and underside of the tail, which either lack feathers or only covered in a light down in some modern larger ground-dwelling birds. Alternatively, secondary loss of feathers in large tyrannosaurids may be analogous with the similar loss of hair in the largest modern mammals like elephants, where a low surface area-to-volume ratio slows down heat transfer, making insulation by a coat of hair unnecessary or even detrimental. A scientific publication by Phil Bell and colleagues in 2017 show that tyrannosaurids such as "Gorgosaurus", "Tarbosaurus", "Albertosaurus", "Daspletosaurus", and "Tyrannosaurus" had scales. The Bell et al. 2017 paper notes that the scale-like integument on bird feet were actually secondarily derived feathers according to paleontological and evolutionary developmental evidence so they hypothesize that the scaly skin preserved on some tyrannosaurid specimens might be secondarily derived from filamentous appendages like on Yutyrannus although strong evidence is needed to support this hypothesis. However, other paleontologists argue that taphonomy is the possible cause of the lack of filamentous structures in tyrannosaurid fossils.


title: Tyrannosauroidea

text: Bony crests are found on the skulls of many theropods, including numerous tyrannosauroids. The most elaborate is found in "Guanlong", where the nasal bones support a single, large crest which runs along the midline of the skull from front to back. This crest was penetrated by several large foramina (openings) which reduced its weight. A less prominent crest is found in "Dilong", where low, parallel ridges run along each side of the skull, supported by the nasal and lacrimal bones. These ridges curve inwards and meet just behind the nostrils, making the crest "Y"-shaped. The fused nasals of tyrannosaurids are often very rough-textured. "Alioramus", a possible tyrannosaurid from Mongolia, bears a single row of five prominent bony bumps on the nasal bones; a similar row of much lower bumps is present on the skull of "Appalachiosaurus", as well as some specimens of "Daspletosaurus", "Albertosaurus", and "Tarbosaurus". In "Albertosaurus", "Gorgosaurus" and "Daspletosaurus", there is a prominent horn in front of each eye on the lacrimal bone. The lacrimal horn is absent in "Tarbosaurus" and "Tyrannosaurus", which instead have a crescent-shaped crest behind each eye on the postorbital bone.


title: Tyrannosauroidea

text: These head crests may have been used for display, perhaps for species recognition or courtship behavior. An example of the handicap principle may be the case of "Guanlong", where the large, delicate crest may have been a hindrance to hunting in what was presumably an active predator. If an individual was healthy and successful at hunting despite the fragile crest, it would indicate the superior quality of the individual over others with smaller crests. Similarly to the unwieldy tail of a male peacock or the outsized antlers of an Irish elk, the crest of "Guanlong" may have evolved via sexual selection, providing an advantage in courtship that outweighed any decrease in hunting ability.


title: Butadiene

text: 1,3-Butadiene () is the organic compound with the formula (CH=CH). It is a colorless gas that is easily condensed to a liquid. It is important industrially as a precursor to synthetic rubber. The molecule can be viewed as the union of two vinyl groups. It is the simplest conjugated diene.


title: Butadiene

text: Although butadiene breaks down quickly in the atmosphere, it is nevertheless found in ambient air in urban and suburban areas as a consequence of its constant emission from motor vehicles.


title: Butadiene

text: The name butadiene can also refer to the isomer, 1,2-butadiene, which is a cumulated diene with structure HC=C=CH−CH. This allene has no industrial significance.


title: Butadiene

text: In 1863, the French chemist E. Caventou isolated butadiene from the pyrolysis of amyl alcohol. This hydrocarbon was identified as butadiene in 1886, after Henry Edward Armstrong isolated it from among the pyrolysis products of petroleum. In 1910, the Russian chemist Sergei Lebedev polymerized butadiene and obtained a material with rubber-like properties. This polymer was, however, found to be too soft to replace natural rubber in many applications, notably automobile tires.


title: Butadiene

text: The butadiene industry originated in the years leading up to World War II. Many of the belligerent nations realized that in the event of war, they could be cut off from rubber plantations controlled by the British Empire, and sought to reduce their dependence on natural rubber. In 1929, Eduard Tschunker and Walter Bock, working for IG Farben in Germany, made a copolymer of styrene and butadiene that could be used in automobile tires. Worldwide production quickly ensued, with butadiene being produced from grain alcohol in the Soviet Union and the United States, and from coal-derived acetylene in Germany.


title: Butadiene

text: In the United States, western Europe, and Japan, butadiene is produced as a byproduct of the steam cracking process used to produce ethylene and other alkenes. When mixed with steam and briefly heated to very high temperatures (often over 900 °C), aliphatic hydrocarbons give up hydrogen to produce a complex mixture of unsaturated hydrocarbons, including butadiene. The quantity of butadiene produced depends on the hydrocarbons used as feed. Light feeds, such as ethane, give primarily ethylene when cracked, but heavier feeds favor the formation of heavier olefins, butadiene, and aromatic hydrocarbons.


title: Butadiene

text: Butadiene is typically isolated from the other four-carbon hydrocarbons produced in steam cracking by extractive distillation using a polar aprotic solvent such as acetonitrile, "N"-methyl-2-pyrrolidone, furfural, or dimethylformamide, from which it is then stripped by distillation.


title: Butadiene

text: Butadiene can also be produced by the catalytic dehydrogenation of normal butane ("n"-butane). The first such post-war commercial plant, producing 65,000 tons per year of butadiene, began operations in 1957 in Houston, Texas. Prior to that, in the 1940s the Rubber Reserve Company, a part of the United States government, constructed several plants in Borger, Texas, Toledo, Ohio, and El Segundo, California, to produce synthetic rubber for the war effort as part of the United States Synthetic Rubber Program. Total capacity was 68 KMTA (Kilo Metric Tons per Annum).


title: Butadiene

text: Today, butadiene from "n"-butane is commercially produced using the Houdry Catadiene process, which was developed during World War II. This entails treating butane over alumina and chromia at high temperatures.


title: Butadiene

text: In other parts of the world, including South America, Eastern Europe, China, and India, butadiene is also produced from ethanol. While not competitive with steam cracking for producing large volumes of butadiene, lower capital costs make production from ethanol a viable option for smaller-capacity plants. Two processes were in use.


title: Butadiene

text: In the single-step process developed by Sergei Lebedev, ethanol is converted to butadiene, hydrogen, and water at 400–450 °C over any of a variety of metal oxide catalysts:


title: Butadiene

text: This process was the basis for the Soviet Union's synthetic rubber industry during and after World War II, and it remained in limited use in Russia and other parts of eastern Europe until the end of the 1970s. At the same time this type of manufacture was canceled in Brazil. As of 2017, no butadiene was produced industrially from ethanol.


title: Butadiene

text: In the other, two-step process, developed by the Russian emigre chemist Ivan Ostromislensky, ethanol is oxidized to acetaldehyde, which reacts with additional ethanol over a tantalum-promoted porous silica catalyst at 325–350 °C to yield butadiene:


title: Butadiene

text: This process was one of the three used in the United States to produce "government rubber" during World War II, although it is less economical than the butane or butene routes for the large volumes. Still, three plants with a total capacity of 200,000 tons per year were constructed in the U.S. (Institute, West Virginia, Louisville, Kentucky, and Kobuta, Pennsylvania) with start-ups completed in 1943, the Louisville plant initially created butadiene from acetylene generated by an associated calcium carbide plant. The process remains in use today in China and India.


title: Butadiene

text: 1,3-Butadiene can also be produced by catalytic dehydrogenation of normal butenes. This method was also used by the U.S. Synthetic Rubber Program (USSRP) during World War II. The process was much more economical than the alcohol or n-butane route but competed with aviation gasoline for available butene molecules (butenes were plentiful thanks to catalytic cracking). The USSRP constructed several plants in Baton Rouge and Lake Charles, Louisiana; Houston, Baytown, and Port Neches, Texas; and Torrance, California. Total annual production was 275 KMTA.


title: Butadiene

text: In the 1960s, a Houston company known as "Petro-Tex" patented a process to produce butadiene from normal butenes by oxidative dehydrogenation using a proprietary catalyst. It is unclear if this technology is practiced commercially.


title: Butadiene

text: 1,3-Butadiene is inconvenient for laboratory use because it is gas. Laboratory procedures have been optimized for its generation from nongaseous precursors. It can be produced by the retro-Diels-Alder reaction of cyclohexene. Sulfolene is a convenient solid storable source for 1,3-butadiene in the laboratory. It releases the diene and sulfur dioxide upon heating.


title: Butadiene

text: Most butadiene is used to make synthetic rubbers for the manufacture of tyres, grommets and elastic bands.


title: Butadiene

text: The conversion of butadiene to synthetic rubbers is called polymerization, a process by which small molecules (monomers) are linked to make large ones (polymers). The mere polymerization of butadiene gives polybutadiene, which is a very soft, almost liquid material. The polymerization of butadiene "and" other monomers gives copolymers, which are more valued. The polymerization of butadiene and styrene and/or acrylonitrile, such as acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), nitrile-butadiene (NBR), and styrene-butadiene (SBR). These copolymers are tough and/or elastic depending on the ratio of the monomers used in their preparation. SBR is the material most commonly used for the production of automobile tyres. Precursors to still other synthetic rubbers are prepared from butadiene. One is chloroprene.


title: Butadiene

text: Smaller amounts of butadiene are used to make adiponitrile, a precursor to some nylons. The conversion of butadiene to adiponitrile entails the addition of hydrogen cyanide to each of the double bonds in butadiene. The process is called hydrocyanation.


title: Butadiene

text: Butadiene is also useful in the synthesis of cycloalkanes and cycloalkenes, as it reacts with double and triple carbon-carbon bonds through Diels-Alder reactions. The most widely used such reactions involve reactions of butadiene with one or two other molecules of butadiene, i.e., dimerization and trimerization respectively. Via dimerizatiion butadiene is converted to 4-vinylcyclohexene and cyclooctadiene. In fact, vinylcyclohexene is a common impurity that accumulates when butadiene is stored. Via trimerization, butadiene is converted to cyclododecatriene. Some of these processes employ nickel- or titanium-containing catalysts.


title: Butadiene

text: The most stable conformer of 1,3-butadiene is the "s"-"trans" conformation, in which the molecule is planar, with the two pairs of double bonds facing opposite directions. This conformation is most stable because orbital overlap between double bonds is maximized, allowing for maximum conjugation, while steric effects are minimized. Conventionally, the "s-trans" conformation is considered to have a C-C dihedral angle of 180°. In contrast, the "s"-"cis" conformation, in which the dihedral angle is 0°, with the pair of double bonds facing the same direction is approximately 16.5 kJ/mol (3.9 kcal/mol) higher in energy, due to steric hindrance. This geometry is a local energy maximum, so in contrast to the "s-trans" geometry, it is not a conformer. The "gauche" geometry, in which the double bonds of the "s-cis" geometry are twisted to give a dihedral angle of around 38°, is a second conformer that is around 12.0 kJ/mol (2.9 kcal/mol) higher in energy than the "s-trans" conformer. Overall, there is a barrier of 24.8 kJ/mol (5.9 kcal/mol) for isomerization between the two conformers. This increased rotational barrier and strong overall preference for a near-planar geometry is evidence for a delocalized π system and a small degree of partial double bond character in the C–C single bond, in accord with resonance theory.


title: Butadiene

text: Despite the high energy of the "s-cis" conformation, 1,3-butadiene needs to assume this conformation (or one very similar) before it can participate as the four-electron component in concerted cycloaddition reactions like the Diels-Alder reaction.


title: Butadiene

text: Similarly, a combined experimental and computational study has found that the double bond of "s-trans-"butadiene has a length of 133.8 pm, while that for ethylene has a length of 133.0 pm. This was taken as evidence of a π-bond weakened and lengthened by delocalization, as depicted by the resonance structures shown below.


title: Butadiene

text: A qualitative picture of the molecular orbitals of 1,3-butadiene is readily obtained by applying Hückel theory. (The article on Hückel theory gives a derivation for the butadiene orbitals.)


title: Butadiene

text: 1,3-Butadiene is also thermodynamically stabilized. While a monosubstituted double bond releases about 30.3 kcal/mol of heat upon hydrogenation, 1,3-butadiene releases slightly less (57.1 kcal/mol) than twice this energy (60.6 kcal/mol), expected for two isolated double bonds. That implies a stabilization energy of 3.5 kcal/mol. Similarly, the hydrogenation of the terminal double bond of 1,4-pentadiene releases 30.1 kcal/mol of heat, while hydrogenation of the terminal double bond of conjugated ("E")-1,3-pentadiene releases only 26.5 kcal/mol, implying a very similar value of 3.6 kcal/mol for the stabilization energy. The ~3.5 kcal/mol difference in these heats of hydrogenation can be taken to be the resonance energy of a conjugated diene.


title: Butadiene

text: The industrial uses illustrate the tendency of butadiene to polymerize. Its susceptibility to 1,4-addition reactions is illustrated by its hydrocyanation. Like many dienes, it undergoes Pd-catalyzed reactions that proceed via allyl complexes. It is a partner in Diels-Alder reactions, e.g. with maleic anhydride to give tetrahydrophthalic anhydride.


title: Butadiene

text: Like other dienes, butadiene is a ligand for low-valent metal complexes, e.g. the derivatives Fe(butadiene)(CO) and Mo(butadiene).


title: Butadiene

text: Long-term exposure has been associated with cardiovascular disease. There is a consistent association with leukemia, as well as a significant association with other cancers.


title: Butadiene

text: IARC has designated 1,3-Butadiene as a Group 1 carcinogen ('carcinogenic to humans'), and the Agency for Toxic Substances Disease Registry and the US EPA also list the chemical as a carcinogen. The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) lists the chemical as a suspected carcinogen. The Natural Resource Defense Council (NRDC) lists some disease clusters that are suspected to be associated with this chemical. Some researchers have concluded it is the most potent carcinogen in cigarette smoke, twice as potent as the runner up acrylonitrile


title: Butadiene

text: 1,3-Butadiene is also a suspected human teratogen. Prolonged and excessive exposure can affect many areas in the human body; blood, brain, eye, heart, kidney, lung, nose and throat have all been shown to react to the presence of excessive 1,3-butadiene. Animal data suggest that women have a higher sensitivity to possible carcinogenic effects of butadiene over men when exposed to the chemical. This may be due to estrogen receptor impacts. While these data reveal important implications to the risks of human exposure to butadiene, more data are necessary to draw conclusive risk assessments. There is also a lack of human data for the effects of butadiene on reproductive and development shown to occur in mice, but animal studies have shown breathing butadiene during pregnancy can increase the number of birth defects, and humans have the same hormone systems as animals.


title: Butadiene

text: 1,3-Butadiene is recognized as a Highly Reactive Volatile Organic Compound (HRVOC) for its potential to readily form ozone, and as such, emissions of the chemical are highly regulated by TCEQ in parts of the Houston-Brazoria-Galveston Ozone Non-Attainment Area.


title: Yesha Rughani

text: Yesha Rughani is an Indian actress. She rose to fame starring as the titular character in Star Bharat's "Muskaan". Rughani is known for portraying Devi/Devika in "Jeet Gayi Toh Piya Morey" and Zara in "Hero – Gayab Mode On". Currently, she is starring as the female lead in "Kabhi Kabhie Ittefaq Sey" as Riddhima "Gungun" Bhatnagar.


title: Yesha Rughani

text: Before pursuing her career in acting, Rughani worked as a stylist for Priyanka Chopra, Esha Gupta, Malaika Arora among others.


title: Yesha Rughani

text: In 2017, Rughani made her television debut with "Jeet Gayi Toh Piya Morey" opposite Krip Suri. She got praise for her dual roles as mother and daughter, and was extremely well received.


title: Yesha Rughani

text: After that from May 2018, she played the titular character of a young woman who was ostracized by society due to her mother's profession in "Muskaan", a role for which she earned critical acclaim and huge fan base.


title: Yesha Rughani

text: In 2020, she started starring as Zara in Sony SAB's fantasy series "Hero Gayab Mode On" opposite Abhishek Nigam.


title: Yesha Rughani

text: Since January 2022, Rughani has been playing Gungun in Star Plus's "Kabhi Kabhie Ittefaq Sey" opposite Manan Joshi.


title: Allan Border

text: Allan Robert Border (born 27 July 1955) is an Australian cricket commentator and former international cricketer. A batsman, Border was for many years the captain of the Australian team. His playing nickname was "A.B.". He played 156 Test matches in his career, a record until it was passed by fellow Australian Steve Waugh. Border formerly held the world record for the number of consecutive Test appearances of 153, before it was surpassed in June 2018 by Alastair Cook, and is second on the list of number of Tests as captain.


title: Allan Border

text: He was primarily a left hand batsman, but also had occasional success as a part-time left arm orthodox spinner. Border amassed 11,174 Test runs (a world record until it was passed by Brian Lara in 2006). He hit 27 centuries in his Test career. He retired as Australia's most capped player and leading run-scorer in both Tests and ODIs. His Australian record for Test Match runs stood for 15 years before Ricky Ponting overtook him during the Third Ashes Test against England in July 2009.


title: Allan Border

text: In 2009 as part of the Q150 celebrations, Allan Border was announced as one of the Q150 Icons of Queensland for his role as a "sports legend".


title: Allan Border

text: In 2016, Border was a recipient of the Queensland Greats Awards. In a fan poll conducted by the CA in 2017, he was named in the country's best Ashes XI in the last 40 years.


title: Allan Border

text: Born in Cremorne, a North Shore suburb of Sydney, New South Wales, Border grew up with three brothers in the nearby suburb of Mosman. His father John, from Coonamble in rural New South Wales, was a wool classer and his mother Sheila was the proprietor of a corner store. The family had a spacious backyard for playing games, and Mosman Oval, the home of district cricket, footy, hockey and baseball clubs, was across the street. Border attended North Sydney Boys High School, and earned his leaving certificate in 1972.


title: Allan Border

text: Throughout his early years, Border played in cricket teams two or three years older than his age group. He also played for Mosman Baseball Club, where he developed his fielding and horizontal-bat shots. Aged sixteen, he made his début for Mosman in Sydney Grade Cricket as a left arm orthodox spinner and batted at number nine. He won selection for the 1972–73 Combined High Schools team in the intrastate carnival. During this time, he was coached by Barry Knight, a former England international.


title: Allan Border

text: Border accumulated more than 600 runs in grade cricket in 1975–76, and at the start of the following season, he made two consecutive centuries to earn selection for NSW. In the absence of a number of Test players, Border made his debut against Queensland at the SCG in January 1977. He compiled 36 and took the last three catches of the match, as his team claimed victory. Border resigned from his job as a clerk in the film library of BHP to spend the 1977 English season playing for Downend in the Gloucestershire Western League. The highlight of his stay was 159 not out in an invitational match against Cambridge University. In Australia, Border compiled 617 runs at 36.29 average during the 1977–78 Sheffield Shield season. He then returned to England and played for East Lancashire Cricket Club in the Lancashire League, scoring 1191 runs at 56.71 and taking 54 wickets at 18.60.


title: Allan Border

text: In 1977, the breakaway professional competition World Series Cricket (WSC) signed many players who were then banned from first-class and Test cricket, thus leaving many vacancies in the Australian team. Border started the 1978–79 season with his maiden first-class century, 135 against Western Australia at Perth, and followed up with 114 against Victoria at the SCG. After Australia lost the first two Tests in the Ashes series, Border was selected for his Test debut at the MCG. Making a nervous start, he took more than half an hour to score three runs. He made 29 and was run out for a duck in the second innings while attempting a single. In the following Test at Sydney, he was in a "lonely class of his own" by top-scoring in both innings with 60 not out and 45 not out as Australia lost the match and the Ashes. He used his feet to the spinners as his teammates struggled to cope with the turn. However, after scores of 11 and 1 in the Fifth Test at Adelaide he was dropped for the Sixth Test. This was the only test he missed in his entire career; he played in all of Australia's next 153 tests.


title: Allan Border

text: Recalled for the First Test against Pakistan at the MCG, Border batted at No. 3 and hit his maiden Test century as Australia reached 3/305, chasing 382 for victory. Border's dismissal for 105 triggered a major collapse of seven wickets for five runs as the other batsmen were unable to cope with the swing of Sarfraz Nawaz. Australia lost by 71 runs. Border made 85 and 66 not out as Australia squared the series with a victory in Perth. In his second Test series, he had topped the batting aggregates and averages with 276 runs at 92.00.


title: Allan Border

text: In May 1979, the ACB announced an agreement with WSC, which allowed the WSC players to return to international cricket at the start of the 1979–80 Australian season. In the meantime, Australia made two tours, giving the incumbent players an opportunity to press for places in a reunited team. The first tour, to England for the 1979 Cricket World Cup, ended with Australia being eliminated in the first round. Border scored 59 runs in two innings.


title: Allan Border

text: This was followed by a three-month-long, six-Test tour of India, on which Australia failed to win a single match. Border scored 521 runs at 43.42 in the Test series, including 162 in the First Test at Madras, where he displayed excellent footwork and handled the Indian spinners much more effectively than his teammates. As a result of his performances in India, he was one of only three players to retain their places for the 1st Test against West Indies at Brisbane in December 1979, and the 1st Test when the WSC players returned to the official Australian team. In the next test against England at Perth Border scored 115 in the second innings to secure victory and in doing so passed 1,000 Test runs. He had done so in only 354 days, the fastest ever by an Australian, and made more runs (1,070) in his first year as a Test cricketer than anyone before. He was unable to maintain this form, however, and ended the season with 317 runs at 31.70 in six Tests against England and the West Indies.


title: Allan Border

text: On the tour of Pakistan that followed, Border hit 150 not out and 153 in the Third Test at Lahore against spinners of the calibre of Iqbal Qasim and Tauseef Ahmed to become the first, and so far only batsman in Test history to pass 150 in both innings of a Test. In the off-season, Border married Jane Hiscox, and moved to Brisbane to begin playing for Queensland. During the 1980–81 season, he scored 328 runs at 36.44 in six Tests against New Zealand and India, a modest return boosted by a score of 124 against the latter at Melbourne in the final Test of the summer.


title: Allan Border

text: In 1981, Border made his first Ashes tour and scored a half-century in each of the first two Tests. "Border alone of the established players came through with reputation enhanced"; in the Fifth Test at Old Trafford when he batted with a fractured left finger. He reached a century in 377 minutes, the slowest Test hundred by an Australian, and remained unbeaten on 123 as Australia lost the match. In the final Test at The Oval, Border scored 106 not out and 84. During this latter sequence, he defied the English bowlers for more than 15 hours to score 313 runs before he was dismissed. Overall, he totalled 533 (at 59.22); this prompted Sir Leonard Hutton to call him the best left-handed batsman in the world and resulted in his selection as one of the Wisden Cricketers of the Year in 1982.


title: Allan Border

text: Border's 1981–82 season was mixed. Against Pakistan, he made only 84 runs in three Tests, but against the West Indies, he scored a century and three half-centuries in 336 runs (at 67.20) to help Australia draw the series. On the tour of New Zealand, his three Tests brought only 44 runs at 14.67. After having the winter off, Border returned to Pakistan but was unable to repeat his performances of two years earlier. He scored 118 runs at 23.60 as Pakistan won all three Tests.


title: Allan Border

text: After failing in the first three Tests of the 1982–83 Ashes series, Border's place in the Australian team was in jeopardy as Australia led the series 2–0. Border's effort in Australia's loss in the Fourth Test at the MCG is one of his best remembered Test innings. Australia had lost nine wickets and required 74 runs to win when Jeff Thomson joined Border at the crease. Border, batting at 6, came in at 4-141, with Australia chasing 292, and took 40 minutes to get off the mark, before finishing the fourth day on 44 not out, with last man Thomson on 8 not out. The chances of what would have been an extraordinary victory grew during the final session of the fourth day, by the end of which Border and Thomson had put on 37 - exactly half of the runs required. 18,000 spectators attended the final day's play (the MCG opening the ground to spectators free of charge, and the spectators turning up despite knowing that they might see no more than a single ball bowled) as the pair slowly accumulated runs, before a juggling catch (Geoff Miller at second slip taking a chance fumbled by Chris Tavare at first) dismissed Thomson when Australia were three runs short of the target. Border was left on 62 not out. Border then scored 89 and 83 in the Fifth Test at Sydney to secure a drawn match and Australia regained the Ashes. His series figures were 317 runs at 45.28 average.


title: Allan Border

text: Australia hosted Pakistan for a five-Test series in 1983–84. Border scored 118 and 117 not out in the Second and Third Tests respectively, and averaged just under 86 as Australia won the series comfortably. It was the end of an era for Australian cricket as Rod Marsh, Dennis Lillee and Greg Chappell retired at the end of the season, leaving the Australian team short on experience. At the time, Lillee and Marsh held the world records for the most Test wickets and wicket-keeping catches respectively, while Chappell was Australia's highest-ever runscorer. Consequently, Border, who was now captain of Queensland, became Australian vice-captain to Kim Hughes for the tour of the West Indies in the northern spring of 1984.


title: Allan Border

text: After a drawn First Test, Border played two classic innings in the Second Test at Queen's Park Oval in Trinidad. In poor light and on a bouncy wicket, Australia had slumped to three for sixteen when Border came to the crease. He finished unbeaten on 98 in a total of 255. The West Indies took a 213-run lead and then reduced Australia to three for 55 late on the fourth day. Border again resisted, but Australia slumped to nine for 238, just 25 runs in front, when Terry Alderman joined Border. Together, they batted for 105 minutes to save Australia from defeat and, in the words of journalist Malcolm Knox, "earn the most miraculous draw." Border struck the final ball of the match for a boundary to reach 100 not out, having resisted the bowling for 634 minutes in the match. "He'd proved himself as the one man who could stand up to them," wrote Knox.


title: Allan Border

text: Australia lost the final three Tests, but Border ended the series with 521 runs at 74.73. This was twice as many runs as the next best Australian.


title: Allan Border

text: After a short successful tour of India, Australia faced the West Indies again in the 1984–85 season. After suffering heavy losses in the first two Tests, Hughes was unable to fight back tears as he resigned as captain during a press conference. Despite Border's limited captaincy experience and stated indifference to taking the position, he replaced Hughes for the Third Test at Adelaide, which the Australians also lost: it was their sixth consecutive defeat to the West Indies. The tide turned somewhat when Border led the team to a draw and then a win in the final two Tests, but his own form suffered, and he averaged only 27.33 for his 246 runs. He distinguished himself in the one-dayers, though, by savaging an attack comprising Michael Holding, Joel Garner, Malcolm Marshall, Winston Davis and Viv Richards for 127 not out off 140 balls at the SCG. Knox, who was present that day, described him as "the finest all-round one-day cricketer of his time, alongside Viv Richards", in spite of the fact that "his reputation is built on stodge and defiance".


title: Allan Border

text: In April 1985, Australia's prospects were weakened when plans were announced for a team of Australians to tour South Africa, in defiance of the Gleneagles Agreement. Seven players, originally selected for the 1985 Ashes tour, had signed for the Hughes-led "rebel" team and withdrew from the squad. The disloyalty of the players affected Border deeply: journalist Mike Coward described his going into a "depression" and noted that, while he eventually forgave the players involved, he never forgot.


title: Allan Border

text: Australia was defeated three-one by England, with the team's only success coming in the Second Test at Lord's, where Border hit 196. His unbeaten 146 in the second innings of the Fourth Test at Manchester saved Australia from another defeat. In all, he amassed 597 runs at 66.33 in the series, and 1,355 first-class runs at 71.31 for the tour, including eight centuries, making him easily Australia's best batsman.


title: Allan Border

text: Australia continued to struggle during the 1985–86 season, when New Zealand defeated them in a Test series for the first time. Despite Border's unbeaten 152 in the second innings, Australia fell to a heavy defeat in the First Test at Brisbane. Although they bounced back to win the Second Test, New Zealand took the Third to take a two-one series victory.


title: Allan Border

text: During the subsequent three-Test series against India, the tourists dominated but failed to force a result, and the series was drawn. In the Second Test it took a last-wicket partnership of 77 between Border (who scored 163) and David Gilbert to deny India victory. Border expressed his dismay at Australia's inability to perform under pressure.


title: Allan Border

text: On the subsequent tour of New Zealand, Border's form remained good: he scored 140 and 114 not out in the Second Test, before Australia lost the Third in Auckland, thus losing another series. Over the course of the extended summer, Border scored four Test centuries, but the continued poor form of the team pushed him to breaking point. After another loss in an ODI on the tour, he threatened to quit as captain if performances failed to improve.


title: Allan Border

text: The ACB recognised that a lack of support had caused the downfall of Kim Hughes as captain. The process of rebuilding the Australian team was complicated by the unavailability of the players who had gone to South Africa. Furthermore, there was no obvious replacement if Border quit (or was dropped) as captain. In an attempt to share Border's workload, and guide the rebuilding of the team, the ACB decided to appoint a permanent coach for the team. Former Australian captain Bob Simpson was sounded out, and he accompanied the team on the 1986 tour of New Zealand as an observer. He accepted the position and his first tour with the team was to India later in the same year.


title: Allan Border

text: During the First Test of the tour at Madras, Border scored 106 and the match ended in a historic tie, only the second such result in history. The other two Tests were drawn, and Border finished the tour with 245 runs at 81.66. The 1986–87 Australian season brought another Ashes series, and another series loss. After England won the First Test, consecutive centuries by Border at Perth and Adelaide enabled Australia to secure consecutive draws. However, Australia were defeated by an innings in the Boxing Day Test at Melbourne and the team had won only two of their last 22 Tests, and none of their last 14. Despite a consolation victory in the Fifth Test dead rubber, "Wisden" thought that Border, "lacked spark and the ability to inspire a young team much in need of it. Hard task as he had, he did not look the man to lead the Test team from its troubled run."


title: Allan Border

text: Australia's unexpected victory in the 1987 Cricket World Cup proved to be a turning point and heralded the start of more prosperous times. In 1987–88, Australia defeated New Zealand for its first Test series victory in four years. Border hit 205 in the drawn Second Test at Adelaide, his highest Test score which took him past Greg Chappell as Australia's highest run-scorer. The Bicentennial Test against England at Sydney was drawn, then Australia won its inaugural home Test match against Sri Lanka. Border's contribution for the five Tests was 426 runs at 71.00 average.


title: Allan Border

text: Winning overseas still proved elusive for Australia, which lost the 1988 series in Pakistan. Border compiled 230 runs at 57.50, with one century.


title: Allan Border

text: In 1988–89, Australia again lost a test series to the West Indies, and Border's form suffered; the West Indies routinely applied a tactic of targeting the opposition captain when he batted, thus undermining his confidence and that of the team. It worked to the extent that Border compiled 258 runs at 32.25 and his best performance was with the ball. He celebrated becoming the first Australian to play 100 Tests by taking 7/46 and 4/50, backed with an innings of 75, in Australia's only victory for the series, in the Fourth Test at Sydney. His bowling figures are the best for a match (and second best for an innings) by an Australian captain. Previously, he had taken 16 wickets in 99 Tests. Receiving the player of the match award, Border said, "there will be batsmen all around the world shaking their heads in disbelief when they see the result".


title: Allan Border

text: I made a personal choice to have a harder edge as captain, be more stand-offish towards them [the English] ... It was a hard thing to do and they all got the shits, but it was all part and parcel of what I wanted to achieve.


title: Allan Border

text: The 1989 Ashes tour was Border's first major series win as Test captain. He had consciously fashioned a more aggressive approach to the captaincy. Australia won 4–0, its first victory in a Test series abroad since 1977 (apart from a one-off Test in Sri Lanka) and Australia's best result in England since The Invincibles tour of 1948. Border set the tone for the series with attacking innings of 66 and 60 not out in the First Test. In all, he made six half-centuries to end with 442 runs at 73.66. He was subsequently named the 1989 Australian of the Year for his part in helping Australia regain the Ashes.


title: Allan Border

text: In the 1989–90 season, Australia played Tests against New Zealand (1), Sri Lanka (2) and Pakistan (3). Australia won twice, against Sri Lanka and Pakistan. It was the first home season in six years that Australia went undefeated. The season ended with a one-off Test in New Zealand, which Australia lost by nine wickets to concede the Trans-Tasman Trophy. Border ended the season with 328 runs at 41, with five half-centuries.


title: Allan Border

text: Australia reinforced its superiority over England with a convincing 3–0 win in the 1990–91 Ashes series: the three victories were by eight, nine and ten wickets respectively, and Border compiled 281 runs at 46.83.


title: Allan Border

text: Going into the 1991 tour of the Caribbean, Australia was optimistic that its improved team was good enough to inflict the first series defeat on the West Indies for more than a decade. However, after a good start, Australia's performances tailed off, and the West Indies won two-one. Border scored 275 runs at 34.37.


title: Allan Border

text: In 1991–92 Australia defeated India four-nil, but criticism arose that the team had stagnated since the 1989 Ashes series and needed to turn over players. To that end, the Australian selectors made changes to the team for the Fifth Test, which upset Border. Feeling loyal to the discarded vice-captain Geoff Marsh, Border generated controversy when he refused to travel to Perth with the team after the decision was announced. He maintained his consistency with the bat, however, by scoring 275 runs at 55.00, although he again failed to make a century. His last had been in Pakistan in 1988, a statistic that drew comment from those who criticised his leadership of the team.


title: Allan Border

text: Australia, the pre-tournament favourite, was knocked out of the group stage of the 1992 Cricket World Cup and finished fifth. On the 1992 tour of Sri Lanka, which Australia won one-nil, Border recorded his only series victory on the subcontinent as captain. His 106 in the Third Test at Moratuwa ended his four-year spell without a century.


title: Allan Border

text: In 1992–93, the West Indies, undergoing a rebuilding phase, toured Australia without the retired Malcolm Marshall, Viv Richards and Gordon Greenidge. Australia had the upper hand in the First Test, but failed to force a victory. Border scored 110 in the Second Test before Shane Warne produced his first great Test bowling performance by taking seven for 52 in the second innings to win the match for Australia. The Third Test was a high-scoring draw, and Border's innings of 74 made him the second player after Sunil Gavaskar to pass 10,000 Test runs.


title: Allan Border

text: The Fourth Test in Adelaide produced the closest definite result in Test-Match history. Australia slumped to eight for 102 in pursuit of the 186 runs needed to give them a series victory, but the lower-order batsmen rallied and took the side to within one run when Craig McDermott was given out by a controversial decision. Knox recorded Border's reaction:


title: Allan Border

text: Sitting in the dressing room he clutched a lucky cricket ball in his hands. Finally we were going to beat them. Finally Border was going to beat them. Two runs short, Walsh got Craig McDermott with a lifter. The keeper caught the ball, but the cameras caught Border. He sprang to his feet and hurled his ball into the floor. An entire career's worth of frustration captured in a single gesture.


title: Allan Border

text: The one-run loss made the Fifth Test at Perth the decider: Australia was unable to regroup after its Adelaide disappointment and succumbed to the pace of the West Indies attack on a traditionally fast and bouncy wicket. Australia was crushed by an innings within three days, Border recording the first pair of his first-class career. It was a poor end to a modest season in which he scored 298 runs at 33.11. His failure to defeat the West Indies was the biggest disappointment of his career: he retired one year before it was finally done.


title: Allan Border

text: Australia then made a brief tour of New Zealand, drawing the Test series one-all. In the First Test at Christchurch, Border scored 88, passing Gavaskar's record for the most Test runs.


title: Allan Border

text: In 1993, Border became the first player since Joe Darling to lead Australia in England on three Ashes tours. Australia won 4–1, losing only the Sixth Test to end Border's streak of 18 Tests against England without defeat. The series was sealed at Headingley in the Fourth Test when Border made 200 not out. His 533 runs for the series came at an average of 54.12. The Australians then claimed the Trans-Tasman Trophy with a comfortable 2–0 victory over New Zealand at home in late 1993. Border scored 105 in the Third Test on his home ground at Brisbane. It was the last of his 27 Test centuries.


title: Allan Border

text: Border ended his career by leading the first Australian team to play a Test series against South Africa in 1994 after their return to international cricket. Three Tests were played in each country, and both series ended 1–1. Border's final Test innings was an obdurate 42 not out that helped secure a draw in the Third Test at Durban. Border had a modest time with the bat, accumulating 298 runs at 33.11.


title: Allan Border

text: Border is commonly agreed not to have been an especially attractive or flamboyant cricketer, and accordingly he is remembered more for his rugged graft and admirable fight than for any aesthetic depth. He also became a less aggressive player because in his early days as a captain, he had next to no supporting cast with any experience in international cricket. His batting style has been faithfully described by Malcolm Knox:


title: Allan Border

text: Border stood in a baseballer's crouch, bat raised, ready to hop backwards and pull or cut the short ball. The Trinidad innings of 1984 were full of twitching jabs at balls aimed into his armpits. As he aged, he became a plainly unattractive batsman to watch, all punch, no grace.


title: Allan Border

text: Even so, as Knox acknowledged, he was by no measure a negative player; in fact, he was "a wonderful attacker" and "arguably the best player of spin Australia has produced in 50 years."


title: Allan Border

text: Border was a capable bowler, but, as captain, he underused himself, but he does have a tendency to bowl around the wicket, aiming outside off stump and bowling short. He also distinguished himself as a fielder, especially in his early days as a catcher at what Knox rated "the hardest position, the wide third-to-fifth slips."


title: Allan Border

text: Despite his team's poor performances before and in his early reign as a captain, his individual test batting averages had been consistently around 50 before and during captaincy, and across most splits (including home/away tests, and across each individual test grounds).


title: Allan Border

text: Ultimately, Border left his successor Mark Taylor with a side that went on to be the best in the world. Border's chief regret as captain is said to be his failure to beat the West Indies, something Taylor did the following year. Mike Coward wrote of Border's legacy,


title: Allan Border

text: [... He] committed the greater part of a long and distinguished career to re-establishing the credibility and image of Australian cricket. A self-effacing man of simple tastes and pleasures, Border served at the most tempestuous time in cricket history, and came to represent the indomitable spirit of the Australian game. As it grappled with two schisms, the first over World Series Cricket, the second over the provocative actions of the mercenaries in South Africa, it was debilitated and destabilised as never before and cried out for a figure of Bradman-esque dimensions to return it to its rightful and influential position on the world stage [... Border] was able to expunge many of the prejudices and preconceptions amongst his team-mates about playing cricket in the Third World [which] was another of the outstanding legacies of his captaincy.


title: Allan Border

text: my appreciation of Allan Border has increased over time. As it should. I feel that Border's legacy will grow and grow over the years, as will Brian Lara's for similar reasons. Yet while Border developed, under duress, personal leadership skills, which Lara never did, he was never as glamorous as the man who took his world record.


title: Allan Border

text: Border continued playing first-class cricket after his international retirement. In 1994–95, he was a member of the Queensland team that won the Sheffield Shield for the first time. He served as an Australian selector from 1998 until his resignation from the panel in 2005. Border once again became a selector in 2006 only to step down four months later due to his growing business commitments. The Australian cricketer of the year now receives the Allan Border Medal, with the inaugural award having been won by Glenn McGrath in 2000. The India–Australia test series has been named the Border Gavaskar Trophy.


title: Allan Border

text: Two cricket grounds have been renamed in Border's honour. The oval in Mosman, which was directly across from the Border family home and where Border played his early grade cricket, was renamed the Allan Border Oval and remains the home ground of the Mosman District Cricket Club. The Neumann Oval in Brisbane has been renamed Allan Border Field and is occasionally used by Queensland as an alternative home ground to The Gabba.


title: Allan Border

text: Border wrote an autobiography entitled "Beyond Ten Thousand: My Life Story", published in 1993. In 2000, he was inducted into the Australian Cricket Hall of Fame and named twelfth man in Australia's "Greatest ever ODI Team", selected from the votes of each of Australia's ODI representatives. "He was," wrote Knox, "the only one to make it into that Team of the Century who had spent most of his career surrounded by strugglers."


title: Allan Border

text: Border became a Member of the Order of Australia (AM) in 1986, and an Officer of the Order of Australia (AO) in 1989. He was inducted into the Sport Australia Hall of Fame in 1990, was named Queenslander of the Year in 1994, and received an Australian Sports Medal in 2000. He was named an Australia Post Legend of Cricket in 2021.


title: Heterodyne

text: A heterodyne is a signal frequency that is created by combining or mixing two other frequencies using a signal processing technique called "heterodyning", which was invented by Canadian inventor-engineer Reginald Fessenden. Heterodyning is used to shift signals from one frequency range into another, and is also involved in the processes of modulation and demodulation. The two input frequencies are combined in a nonlinear signal-processing device such as a vacuum tube, transistor, or diode, usually called a "mixer".


title: Heterodyne

text: In the most common application, two signals at frequencies and are mixed, creating two new signals, one at the sum of the two frequencies , and the other at the difference between the two frequencies . The new signal frequencies are called "heterodynes". Typically, only one of the heterodynes is required and the other signal is filtered out of the output of the mixer. Heterodyne frequencies are related to the phenomenon of "beats" in acoustics.


title: Heterodyne

text: A major application of the heterodyne process is in the superheterodyne radio receiver circuit, which is used in virtually all modern radio receivers.


title: Heterodyne

text: In 1901, Reginald Fessenden demonstrated a direct-conversion heterodyne receiver or beat receiver as a method of making continuous wave radiotelegraphy signals audible. Fessenden's receiver did not see much application because of its local oscillator's stability problem. A stable yet inexpensive local oscillator was not available until Lee de Forest invented the triode vacuum tube oscillator. In a 1905 patent, Fessenden stated that the frequency stability of his local oscillator was one part per thousand.


title: Heterodyne

text: In radio telegraphy, the characters of text messages are translated into the short duration dots and long duration dashes of Morse code that are broadcast as radio signals. Radio telegraphy was much like ordinary telegraphy. One of the problems was building high power transmitters with the technology of the day. Early transmitters were spark gap transmitters. A mechanical device would make sparks at a fixed but audible rate; the sparks would put energy into a resonant circuit that would then ring at the desired transmission frequency (which might be 100 kHz). This ringing would quickly decay, so the output of the transmitter would be a succession of damped waves. When these damped waves were received by a simple detector, the operator would hear an audible buzzing sound that could be transcribed back into alpha-numeric characters.


title: Heterodyne

text: With the development of the arc converter radio transmitter in 1904, continuous wave (CW) modulation began to be used for radiotelegraphy. CW Morse code signals are not amplitude modulated, but rather consist of bursts of sinusoidal carrier frequency. When CW signals are received by an AM receiver, the operator does not hear a sound. The direct-conversion (heterodyne) detector was invented to make continuous wave radio-frequency signals audible.


title: Heterodyne

text: The "heterodyne" or "beat" receiver has a local oscillator that produces a radio signal adjusted to be close in frequency to the incoming signal being received. When the two signals are mixed, a "beat" frequency equal to the difference between the two frequencies is created. Adjusting the local oscillator frequency correctly puts the beat frequency in the audio range, where it can be heard as a tone in the receiver's earphones whenever the transmitter signal is present. Thus the Morse code "dots" and "dashes" are audible as beeping sounds. This technique is still used in radio telegraphy, the local oscillator now being called the beat frequency oscillator or BFO. Fessenden coined the word "heterodyne" from the Greek roots "hetero-" "different", and "dyn-" "power" (cf. ).


title: Heterodyne

text: An important and widely used application of the heterodyne technique is in the superheterodyne receiver (superhet), which was invented by U.S. engineer Edwin Howard Armstrong in 1918. In the typical superhet, the incoming radio frequency signal from the antenna is mixed (heterodyned) with a signal from a local oscillator (LO) to produce a lower fixed frequency signal called the intermediate frequency (IF) signal. The IF signal is amplified and filtered and then applied to a detector that extracts the audio signal; the audio is ultimately sent to the receiver's loudspeaker.


title: Heterodyne

text: The superheterodyne receiver has several advantages over previous receiver designs. One advantage is easier tuning; only the RF filter and the LO are tuned by the operator; the fixed-frequency IF is tuned ("aligned") at the factory and is not adjusted. In older designs such as the tuned radio frequency receiver (TRF), all of the receiver stages had to be simultaneously tuned. In addition, since the IF filters are fixed-tuned, the receiver's selectivity is the same across the receiver's entire frequency band. Another advantage is that the IF signal can be at a much lower frequency than the incoming radio signal, and that allows each stage of the IF amplifier to provide more gain. To first order, an amplifying device has a fixed gain-bandwidth product. If the device has a gain-bandwidth product of 60 MHz, then it can provide a voltage gain of 3 at an RF of 20 MHz or a voltage gain of 30 at an IF of 2 MHz. At a lower IF, it would take fewer gain devices to achieve the same gain. The regenerative radio receiver obtained more gain out of one gain device by using positive feedback, but it required careful adjustment by the operator; that adjustment also changed the selectivity of the regenerative receiver. The superheterodyne provides a large, stable gain and constant selectivity without troublesome adjustment.


title: Heterodyne

text: The superior superheterodyne system replaced the earlier TRF and regenerative receiver designs, and since the 1930s most commercial radio receivers have been superheterodynes.


title: Heterodyne

text: Heterodyning, also called "frequency conversion", is used very widely in communications engineering to generate new frequencies and move information from one frequency channel to another. Besides its use in the superheterodyne circuit found in almost all radio and television receivers, it is used in radio transmitters, modems, satellite communications and set-top boxes, radar, radio telescopes, telemetry systems, cell phones, cable television converter boxes and headends, microwave relays, metal detectors, atomic clocks, and military electronic countermeasure (jamming) systems.


title: Heterodyne

text: In large scale telecommunication networks such as telephone network trunks, microwave relay networks, cable television systems, and communication satellite links, large bandwidth capacity links are shared by many individual communication channels by using heterodyning to move the frequency of the individual signals up to different frequencies, which share the channel. This is called frequency division multiplexing (FDM).


title: Heterodyne

text: For example, a coaxial cable used by a cable television system can carry 500 television channels at the same time because each one is given a different frequency, so they do not interfere with one another. At the cable source or headend, electronic upconverters convert each incoming television channel to a new, higher frequency. They do this by mixing the television signal frequency, "f" with a local oscillator at a much higher frequency , creating a heterodyne at the sum , which is added to the cable. At the consumer's home, the cable set top box has a downconverter that mixes the incoming signal at frequency with the same local oscillator frequency creating the difference heterodyne frequency, converting the television channel back to its original frequency: . Each channel is moved to a different higher frequency. The original lower basic frequency of the signal is called the baseband, while the higher channel it is moved to is called the passband.


title: Heterodyne

text: Many analog videotape systems rely on a downconverted color subcarrier to record color information in their limited bandwidth. These systems are referred to as "heterodyne systems" or "color-under systems". For instance, for NTSC video systems, the VHS (and S-VHS) recording system converts the color subcarrier from the NTSC standard 3.58 MHz to ~629 kHz. PAL VHS color subcarrier is similarly downconverted (but from 4.43 MHz). The now-obsolete 3/4" U-matic systems use a heterodyned ~688 kHz subcarrier for NTSC recordings (as does Sony's Betamax, which is at its basis a 1/2″ consumer version of U-matic), while PAL U-matic decks came in two mutually incompatible varieties, with different subcarrier frequencies, known as Hi-Band and Low-Band. Other videotape formats with heterodyne color systems include Video-8 and Hi8.


title: Heterodyne

text: The heterodyne system in these cases is used to convert quadrature phase-encoded and amplitude modulated sine waves from the broadcast frequencies to frequencies recordable in less than 1 MHz bandwidth. On playback, the recorded color information is heterodyned back to the standard subcarrier frequencies for display on televisions and for interchange with other standard video equipment.


title: Heterodyne

text: Some U-matic (3/4″) decks feature 7-pin mini-DIN connectors to allow dubbing of tapes without conversion, as do some industrial VHS, S-VHS, and Hi8 recorders.


title: Heterodyne

text: The theremin, an electronic musical instrument, traditionally uses the heterodyne principle to produce a variable audio frequency in response to the movement of the musician's hands in the vicinity of one or more antennae, which act as capacitor plates. The output of a fixed radio frequency oscillator is mixed with that of an oscillator whose frequency is affected by the variable capacitance between the antenna and the musician's hand as it is moved near the pitch control antenna. The difference between the two oscillator frequencies produces a tone in the audio range.


title: Heterodyne

text: The ring modulator is a type of frequency mixer incorporated into some synthesizers or used as a stand-alone audio effect.


title: Heterodyne

text: Optical heterodyne detection (an area of active research) is an extension of the heterodyning technique to higher (visible) frequencies. Guerra (1995) first published the results of what he called a "form of optical heterodyning" in which light patterned by a 50 nm pitch grating illuminated a second grating of pitch 50 nm, with the gratings rotated with respect to each other by the angular amount needed to achieve magnification. Although the illuminating wavelength was 650 nm, the 50 nm grating was easily resolved. This showed a nearly 5-fold improvement over the Abbe resolution limit of 232 nm that should have been the smallest obtained for the numerical aperture and wavelength used. This super-resolution microscopic imaging through optical heterodyning later came to be know by many as "structured illumination microscopy".


title: Heterodyne

text: In addition to super-resolution optical microscopy, optical heterodyning could greatly improve optical modulators, increasing the density of information carried by optical fibers. It is also being applied in the creation of more accurate atomic clocks based on directly measuring the frequency of a laser beam. See NIST subtopic 9.07.9-4.R for a description of research on one system to do this.


title: Heterodyne

text: Since optical frequencies are far beyond the manipulation capacity of any feasible electronic circuit, all visible frequency photon detectors are inherently energy detectors not oscillating electric field detectors. However, since energy detection is inherently "square-law" detection, it intrinsically mixes any optical frequencies present on the detector. Thus, sensitive detection of specific optical frequencies necessitates optical heterodyne detection, in which two different (close-by) wavelengths of light illuminate the detector so that the oscillating electrical output corresponds to the difference between their frequencies. This allows extremely narrow band detection (much narrower than any possible color filter can achieve) as well as precision measurements of phase and frequency of a light signal relative to a reference light source, as in a laser Doppler vibrometer.


title: Heterodyne

text: This phase sensitive detection has been applied for Doppler measurements of wind speed, and imaging through dense media. The high sensitivity against background light is especially useful for lidar.


title: Heterodyne

text: In optical Kerr effect (OKE) spectroscopy, optical heterodyning of the OKE signal and a small part of the probe signal produces a mixed signal consisting of probe, heterodyne OKE-probe and homodyne OKE signal. The probe and homodyne OKE signals can be filtered out, leaving the heterodyne frequency signal for detection.


title: Heterodyne

text: Heterodyne detection is often used in interferometry but usually confined to single point detection rather than widefield interferometry, however, widefield heterodyne interferometry is possible using a special camera. Using this technique which a reference signal extracted from a single pixel it is possible to build a highly stable widefield heterodyne interferometer by removing the piston phase component


title: Heterodyne

text: The product on the left hand side represents the multiplication ("mixing") of a sine wave with another sine wave. The right hand side shows that the resulting signal is the difference of two sinusoidal terms, one at the sum of the two original frequencies, and one at the difference, which can be considered to be separate signals.


title: Heterodyne

text: Using this trigonometric identity, the result of multiplying two sine wave signals formula_2 and formula_3 at different frequencies formula_4 and formula_5 can be calculated:


title: Heterodyne

text: The result is the sum of two sinusoidal signals, one at the sum and one at the difference of the original frequencies.


title: Heterodyne

text: The two signals are combined in a device called a "mixer". As seen in the previous section, an ideal mixer would be a device that multiplies the two signals. Some widely used mixer circuits, such as the Gilbert cell, operate in this way, but they are limited to lower frequencies. However, any "nonlinear" electronic component also multiplies signals applied to it, producing heterodyne frequencies in its output—so a variety of nonlinear components serve as mixers. A nonlinear component is one in which the output current or voltage is a nonlinear function of its input. Most circuit elements in communications circuits are designed to be linear. This means they obey the superposition principle; if formula_7 is the output of a linear element with an input of formula_8:


title: Heterodyne

text: So if two sine wave signals at frequencies and are applied to a linear device, the output is simply the sum of the outputs when the two signals are applied separately with no product terms. Thus, the function formula_10 must be nonlinear to create mixer products. A perfect multiplier only produces mixer products at the sum and difference frequencies , but more general nonlinear functions produce higher order mixer products: for integers and . Some mixer designs, such as double-balanced mixers, suppress some high order undesired products, while other designs, such as harmonic mixers exploit high order differences.


title: Heterodyne

text: Examples of nonlinear components that are used as mixers are vacuum tubes and transistors biased near cutoff (class C), and diodes. Ferromagnetic core inductors driven into saturation can also be used at lower frequencies. In nonlinear optics, crystals that have nonlinear characteristics are used to mix laser light beams to create optical heterodyne frequencies.


title: Heterodyne

text: To demonstrate mathematically how a nonlinear component can multiply signals and generate heterodyne frequencies, the nonlinear function formula_10 can be expanded in a power series (MacLaurin series):


title: Heterodyne

text: To simplify the math, the higher order terms above are indicated by an ellipsis (". . .") and only the first terms are shown. Applying the two sine waves at frequencies and to this device:


title: Heterodyne

text: It can be seen that the second term above contains a product of the two sine waves. Simplifying with trigonometric identities:


title: Heterodyne

text: So the output contains sinusoidal terms with frequencies at the sum and difference of the two original frequencies. It also contains terms at the original frequencies and at multiples of the original frequencies , , , , etc.; the latter are called harmonics, as well as more complicated terms at frequencies of , called intermodulation products. These unwanted frequencies, along with the unwanted heterodyne frequency, must be filtered out of the mixer output by an electronic filter to leave the desired frequency.


title: Dork Diaries

text: The series, written in a diary format, uses drawings, doodles, and comic strips to chronicle the daily life of its 15-year-old adolescent protagonist, Nikki Maxwell.


title: Dork Diaries

text: Over 5 million copies of the "Dork Diaries" books are in print in the United States, and publishing rights have been sold in 42 countries with translation into 38 different languages.


title: Dork Diaries

text: This spin-off series focuses on Maxwell "Max" Crumbly, the character introduced in "Tales from a Not-So-Perfect Pet Sitter" and, also written in diary format, his life in middle school.


title: Dork Diaries

text: "Kirkus Reviews"' review of "Tales from a Not-So-Fabulous Life" praises the humor and ability to reflect upon early adolescence experiences well, saying "Nikki’s journey of self-discovery will appeal to preadolescent readers struggling to find their places in the world."


title: Dork Diaries

text: As of August 2012, the "Dork Diaries" series has spent 43 weeks on "The New York Times" Best Seller list in the Children's Series category.


title: Dork Diaries

text: The eighth book, "Tales of a Not-So-Happily Ever After", won the 2015 NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Literary Work – Children award.


title: Dork Diaries

text: In March 2014, Summit Entertainment acquired the movie rights to the series. Karen Rosenfelt is in negotiations to produce.


title: Dolichocephaly

text: Dolichocephaly (derived from the Ancient Greek δολιχός 'long' and κεφαλή 'head') is a condition where the head is longer than would be expected, relative to its width. In humans, scaphocephaly is a form of dolichocephaly.


title: Dolichocephaly

text: Dolichocephalic dogs (such as German Shepherds) have elongated noses. This makes them vulnerable to fungal diseases of the nose such as aspergillosis. In humans the anterior–posterior diameter (length) of dolichocephaly head is more than the transverse diameter (width).


title: Dolichocephaly

text: It can be present in cases of Sensenbrenner syndrome, Crouzon syndrome, Sotos syndrome, CMFTD as well as Marfan syndrome.


title: Sylvanian Families

text: At the beginning of production, on March 20, 1985, Sylvanian Families were created and released in Japan by Epoch, which uses the concept of dollhouses and anthropomorphic animal figures. The first releases of the dollhouses and other playsets were made of porcelain and the furniture was made of wood. However, later releases replaced the materials with plastic and metal in the production. The toys were later released in North America the same year, but with different packaging and minor differences to the characters themselves. The toyline was originally titled , but was changed to its current name. "Sylvanian" means "of the forest", from the Roman god Silvanus.


title: Sylvanian Families

text: In October 1987, the series spawned an animated series produced by DIC Animation City and TMS Entertainment, which ran for 13 episodes. The series was popular in the UK and Spain. The name of the television series based on Sylvanian Families was adapted in different countries. It was also shown in the US in the late 1980s on The CBN Family Channel and in the late 1990s on PAX TV. Later that same year, the success in these markets led to expansion into Western Europe, beginning with the UK subsidiary of Tomy acquiring exclusive rights for the brand in the UK. Tomy introduced Sylvanian Families into the UK market in 1987, and it quickly became a bestseller.


title: Sylvanian Families

text: By 1988, Sylvanian Families had become a major success around the world, winning the British Association of Toy Retailers award for "Toy of the Year" three years consecutively, in 1987, 1988 and 1989.


title: Sylvanian Families

text: In 1993, Tomy, who had been distributing the toys worldwide, lost the rights to the name "Sylvanian Families" in Canada and the USA. Tomy reintroduced the line under the new name "Calico Critters of Cloverleaf Corners", now simply just called "Calico Critters". The Calico Critters line is currently distributed in the US and Canada by Epoch Everlasting Play, LLC.


title: Sylvanian Families

text: By the late 1990s, Sylvanian Families had been discontinued in the UK, although since 1999, they have been reintroduced by Flair. Subsequently, Sylvanian families have been reintroduced in Australia and are becoming more widely available there. Tomy stopped selling Calico Critters, but a new company, International Playthings, now called Epoch Everlasting Play, picked up the line.


title: Sylvanian Families

text: In 1999, the toyline celebrated its 15th anniversary in Japan, with the opening of the themed restaurant , which was operated and managed by Epoch. The restaurant not only served food, but also sold merchandise and toys based on the franchise. The restaurant closed in February 2011.


title: Sylvanian Families

text: In 2004, the franchise celebrated its 20th anniversary in Japan with the release of the Walnut Squirrel Family. That July, Epoch announced a new attraction in Grinpa, a theme park managed by Fuji Kyuko. The attraction, originally called before it was renamed to , began its construction with Epoch's supervision. In 2005, the franchise hosted its very first live event titled which was hosted at the Gekidan Kogumaza Theatre. It was later released on DVD in 2006.


title: Sylvanian Families

text: In 2006, the characters in the toy line were chosen to be the mascots for the "National Federation of Workers and Consumers Insurance Cooperatives"s national mutual aid. By the end of the year, the toys sold a total of 78 million units.


title: Sylvanian Families

text: In 2007, Epoch teamed up with Itochu, Nippon Columbia and Shogakukan to produce a 3D CGI Original Video Animation series based on the toy line produced by Kōji Kawaguchi and Yumiko Muriai and directed by Akira Takamura. All 3 episodes were released on June 20, 2007. According to Epoch, more episodes were planned, but these were never produced for unknown reasons. In the UK, Flair celebrated the franchise's 20th anniversary with a selected number of new items. The best selling was an Otter boat, and a reintroduced Dalmatian Family who now wore party hats that read "Happy 20th!".


title: Sylvanian Families

text: In March 2009, the series celebrated its 25th anniversary in Japan with the opening of the "Sylvanian Gardens" attraction in Grinpa. Managed by Epoch, the attraction features real-life replicas of the houses and buildings from the toy line as well as a museum featuring an exhibition about the history of the toys. The attraction also has a shop which sells items exclusive to the park. In 2010, the franchise again hosted two musicals, and , which both became a staple on promoting the toys in conventions.


title: Sylvanian Families

text: In 2013, the rights for the toys in the UK were transferred to the newly formed Epoch UK, and they began distributing the toys from January 1, 2014 onwards. Flair stopped distributing the toys on December 31 the same year.


title: Sylvanian Families

text: In 2015, a series of tableaux by the British artist Mimsy featuring Sylvanian Families being threatened by "MICIS" terrorists was banned from the "Passion for Freedom" exhibition.


title: Sylvanian Families

text: In 2020 to celebrate the 35th anniversary customers were asked to participate in a poll to choose their favourite character with the winner being reintroduced. The sheep family came third, beaver family second and the duck family were announced as the winners.


title: Sylvanian Families

text: The entire franchise is set in , a fictional village somewhere in North America, later revised to Great Nature. The majority of the families are all rural middle-class, with many of them owning localized but successful family businesses, or having jobs, such as doctor, teacher, artist, news reporter, carpenter or bus driver. They are designed wearing 1950s-like fashion. They can live in large, multistory houses, or own dwellings based on the premise of a kind of holiday home. The houses are designed very realistically and can be decorated and redesigned. They can also participate in leisure activities such as sailing or horse-riding, and often host garden parties or go on short camping holidays.


title: Sylvanian Families

text: The characters, grouped into families, originally depicted typical woodland creatures such as rabbits, squirrels, bears, beavers, hedgehogs, foxes, deer, owls, raccoons, otters, skunks and mice, and later expanded to other animals such as cats, dogs, hamsters, guinea pigs, penguins, monkeys, cows, sheep, pigs, elephants, pandas, kangaroos, koalas and meerkats. Most families consist of a father, mother, sister and brother, and continue to add family members from there on such as grandparents, babies, and older siblings.


title: Sylvanian Families

text: There are several animated series based on the Sylvanian Families world: "Sylvanian Families", a syndicated series that premiered in 1987; "Stories of the Sylvanian Families" (1988), a British series animated in stop motion; and a 2007 original video animation series also called "Sylvanian Families". A new OVA was then produced in 2015 with another in 2017, promoting the Sylvanian Families Town sub-line. Both OVAs were produced by Shogakukan Music and Digital Entertainment and were also released outside Japan through YouTube and Netflix.


title: Sylvanian Families

text: In 2017, a 12-episode animated television short series titled "Sylvanian Families Mini Stories" was also produced by Shogakukan Music and Digital Entertainment and aired on TV Tokyo in Japan from October 7 to December 23. A second season aired on Tokyo MX and TV Kanagawa in Japan from October 3 to December 19, 2018. A third season aired on October 3, 2019. Netflix holds the streaming rights to the first season of the series while Amazon has the streaming rights to the second season.


title: Mercedes-Benz M176/M177/M178 engine

text: The M176/M177/M178 is a V8 petrol engine range designed by Mercedes-AMG, replacing Mercedes-Benz M278 engine and Mercedes-Benz M157 engine, and is based on the Mercedes-Benz M133 engine.


title: Mercedes-Benz M176/M177/M178 engine

text: The engine has two BorgWarner turbochargers positioned between the two cylinder heads in a "hot-V" configuration. The fuel injection system uses Bosch's new piezo-electric direct fuel injectors that deliver five squirts of fuel per combustion cycle.


title: Mercedes-Benz M176/M177/M178 engine

text: The M176 engines are mostly assembled by machine with some components assembled by technicians at Untertürkheim manufacturing centre outside Stuttgart. The M177 and M178 are individually assembled by the technicians in "one man, one engine" principle at AMG manufacturing centre in Affalterbach.


title: Mercedes-Benz M176/M177/M178 engine

text: The M176 version debuted in 2015 for the Mercedes-Benz G 500/G 550 and G 500 4x4. In 2019, M176 was equipped with EQ Boost mild hybrid 48V electrical system, producing additional output and of torque. This mild hybrid system was fitted to GLE 580 4MATIC and GLS 580 4MATIC. The M176 engine with EQ Boost has been upgraded in 2021 for S 580 4MATIC with increased output for petrol engine () and decreased output for EQ Boost ().


title: Mercedes-Benz M176/M177/M178 engine

text: The M177 was the first variation released in the Mercedes-AMG C63. In contrast to the M178, this version of the engine uses wet-sump lubrication. In the C63 and GLC63 applications, the turbos are single-scrolled, whereas in E63 and S63 are twin-scrolled and different exhaust manifold. The twin-scroll application also features cylinder deactivation.


title: Mercedes-Benz M176/M177/M178 engine

text: As part of the agreement with Mercedes-AMG since 2013, Aston Martin installs the M177 engines in DB11 V8 and DB Volante(2017–), Vantage (2018–), and DBX (2021–).


title: Mercedes-Benz M176/M177/M178 engine

text: In late 2019, the 48V system used in the M176 was added to the M177 engines for extra performance, improved fuel consumption, and reduced emission output.


title: Mercedes-Benz M176/M177/M178 engine

text: The M178 is the second variation in the family, geared toward higher performance and motorsport. The versions were introduced in Mercedes-AMG GT (C190). The power has been upgraded several times. Brabus offers PowerXtra B40S-800, a performance upgrade kit for AMG GT. The kit increases the output to at 6,500 rpm and at 1,750-4,500 rpm.


title: The World Is Too Much with Us

text: "The World Is Too Much with Us" is a sonnet by the English Romantic poet William Wordsworth. In it, Wordsworth criticises the world of the First Industrial Revolution for being absorbed in materialism and distancing itself from nature. Composed circa 1802, the poem was first published in "Poems, in Two Volumes" (1807). Like most Italian sonnets, its 14 lines are written in iambic pentameter.


title: The World Is Too Much with Us

text: In the early 19th century, Wordsworth wrote several sonnets blasting what he perceived as "the decadent material cynicism of the time." "The World Is Too Much with Us" is one of those works. It reflects his view that humanity must get in touch with people to progress spiritually. The rhyme scheme of this poem is "a-b-b-a", "a-b-b-a", "c-d-c-d", "c-d". This Italian or Petrarchan sonnet uses the last six lines (sestet) to answer the first eight lines (octave).


title: The World Is Too Much with Us

text: The poem expresses a revolt against the industrial revolution and criticizes the materialistic approach of man. It also criticizes ignoring nature 'little we see in nature that is ours'.


title: Special Group (India)

text: The Special Group (SG) is the special forces unit of Research and Analysis Wing, India's foreign intelligence agency. It is also known as 4 Vikas, 22 SF and 22 SG. The unit is considered to be composed of the most elite soldiers of India and its responsibilities include conducting those operations with which the Indian government may not wish to be overtly associated.


title: Special Group (India)

text: Established in 1981, the SG was raised in the following year under Project Sunray. The unit is extremely secretive; its existence was previously unknown to the public. SG has reportedly undertaken black operations outside India. There are a total of 4 SG squadrons, with each squadron consisting of four troops. Each troop has a specialized skill-set. SG draws its personnel from all the branches of the Indian military, primarily from the Special Forces.


title: Special Group (India)

text: The Special Group was created in 1981 as a classified unit of the Research and Analysis Wing (RAW) tasked for undertaking covert operations. The Directorate General of Security, which was a confidential organisation created with assistance from the CIA after the Sino-Indian War of 1962, was put under the control of RAW in 1968. In 1982, "Project Sunray" was initiated by the Directorate, under which an officer from the Para SF of the Indian Army was tasked to raise a unit comprising 250 personnel. In early 1983, a group of six personnel were sent to a confidential military base in Israel. There they received training from a specialist team of Mossad for a few weeks. This team, which had earlier rescued hostages from Uganda's Entebbe airport with some assistance from RAW, was composed of commandos from the Sayeret Matkal.


title: Special Group (India)

text: The original mandate of the SG was similar to that of the British Special Air Service and included counterterrorism and hostage rescue. However, this mandate was later transferred to the National Security Guard. The current mandate of the SG is not fully known.


title: Special Group (India)

text: The Non-Aligned Movement summit and Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting in 1983 was conducted under the direct vigil of the SG to prevent any untoward event. The Non-Aligned summit was particularly important since it would cement India's position as the leader of the movement.


title: Special Group (India)

text: "Operation Sundown" was the code name of a covert plan in which the Special Group was to abduct Sikh extremist leader Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale from Guru Nanak Niwas in the Golden Temple complex, Amritsar. A unit was formed to prepare for Operation Sundown in the Sarsawa Air Force Base in Uttar Pradesh. In December 1983, an officer from the Counter-Revolutionary Warfare Wing of the British Special Air Service arrived in India to provide advice regarding the plan. Extensive rehearsals were also carried out.


title: Special Group (India)

text: The operation was never started due to the then Prime Minister of India Indira Gandhi's rejection on religious grounds; the operation may have hurt the religious sentiments of the Sikh people. In addition there was a risk of numerous civilian casualties as a collateral damage of the operation.