title: Khmelnytskyi, Ukraine

text: Khmelnytskyi has infrastructure for transportation connections with Moscow, Prague, Bratislava, Warsaw, Budapest, Belgrade and all major Ukrainian cities. The distance from Khmelnytskyi to Kyiv by railway is estimated to be , by highway it is estimated to be . The highways Kyiv-Lviv, Odessa-Lviv and Chernivtsi-Kyiv pass through Khmelnytskyi. The city is served by the Khmelnytskyi Ruzhychna Airport. Khmelnytskyi's airport has a concrete runway; at the airport there is a check point for crossing the state border of Ukraine.


title: Khmelnytskyi, Ukraine

text: In January 2016 the Khmelnytskyi city council terminated its twinned relations with the Russian cities Tver and Ivanovo due to the Russian military intervention in Ukraine (2014–present).


title: Craig Burley

text: Craig William Burley (born 24 September 1971) is a Scottish former professional footballer and sports television pundit and co-commentator for ESPN.


title: Craig Burley

text: As a player he was a midfielder from 1989 until 2004, notably playing in the Premier League for Chelsea and Derby County and in the Scottish Premier League for Celtic. He also played for Dundee and finished his career in the Football League with Preston North End and Walsall. He earned 46 caps for Scotland, scoring 3 goals.


title: Craig Burley

text: Since retiring and working as a pundit amongst others he has worked for BBC Sport, ESPN and BT Sport.


title: Craig Burley

text: Burley began his professional career with Chelsea in 1989, however he didn't make his debut until April 1991 when he came on as a substitute for Kerry Dixon in a 7–0 defeat against Nottingham Forest. He made his first appearance in the newly formed Premier League on 5 December 1992 in a 2–1 away win at Tottenham Hotspur.


title: Craig Burley

text: He went on to become a regular under Glenn Hoddle and played in the 1994 FA Cup Final against Manchester United, picking up a runners-up medal following a 4–0 defeat. Two years later, Chelsea got to the FA Cup semi finals where they again faced Manchester United. With the score level at 1–1, Burley hit an errant back pass to set up David Beckham for what proved to be the winning goal. Chelsea won the 1996–97 FA Cup; Burley was left out of the squad for the final but played in the semi-final against Wimbledon. He was sold by Ruud Gullit on 25 July 1997 to Celtic for £2.5 million.


title: Craig Burley

text: He made his Celtic debut on 3 August 1997 against Hibernian, and went on to make 64 appearances scoring 20 goals before transferring back to England with Derby County on 1 December 1999 for £3 million. He played in four seasons for The Rams and suffered his first career relegation when the club lost their Premier League status at the end of the 2001–02 season.


title: Craig Burley

text: On 12 September 2003 he signed with Dundee on a free transfer but only played twice in a two-month spell before being released and eventually signing for Preston North End in January 2004. By March he was a free agent again after only making four appearances for North End. He signed with Walsall on a free transfer for the remainder of the 2003–04 season and played five times before retiring at the end of the season.


title: Craig Burley

text: After making his Scotland debut in 1995, Burley was also in the starting line-up for a fixture against Estonia in Tallinn in October 1996, but a scheduling dispute meant the home team did not adhere to a quickly-rearranged afternoon kick-off time, and the match was abandoned at kick-off with no caps awarded to the Scotland players; the fixture was re-arranged for the following February, but Burley was injured and did not take part.


title: Craig Burley

text: Burley played at UEFA Euro 1996 and in the 1998 FIFA World Cup in France. At France '98 he scored the Scotland goal in a 1–1 draw with Norway in Bordeaux, latching on to a ball played forward by defender David Weir. He was then sent off in the final group game against Morocco as Scotland were eliminated. His goal against Norway was the last scored by a Scotland player at a major tournament, until Callum McGregor scored his goal against Croatia in the final group stage of UEFA Euro 2020, 23 years later (held in 2021).


title: Craig Burley

text: Burley continued to play under Craig Brown until the end of the unsuccessful 2002 FIFA World Cup qualifying campaign, captaining the side in what proved to be his penultimate appearance. After suffering injury problems, Burley won a Scotland recall against Austria in 2003 under new manager Berti Vogts but then announced his international retirement.


title: Craig Burley

text: Burley previously worked as a pundit and commentator for ESPN UK, Absolute Radio, BT Sport and BBC Radio 5 Live. He was ESPN's lead Scottish football co-commentator as well as fill-in for Chris Waddle on Premier League broadcasts and studio pundit for FA Cup. Burley worked the 2010 World Cup and Euro 2012 as a co-commentator for ITV Sport including the 2010 World Cup Final. He then worked the 2014 World Cup and Euro 2016 as a co-commentator and studio pundit for ABC and ESPN. He is currently a pundit on the programme "ESPN FC".


title: Craig Burley

text: He is the nephew of former Scotland manager George Burley. Burley is married to Sheryl (born 1971) and they have three children together. In 2013, Burley moved to the US state of Connecticut to work for ESPN.


title: Hug machine

text: A hug machine, also known as a hug box, a squeeze machine, or a squeeze box, is a deep-pressure device designed to calm hypersensitive persons, usually individuals with autism spectrum disorders. The therapeutic, stress-relieving device was invented by livestock equipment designer Temple Grandin while she was attending college.


title: Hug machine

text: Autistic people often have sensory processing disorder, which entails abnormal levels of stimulation of the senses (such as hypersensitivity). Because of difficulty with social interactions, it can be uncomfortable or impractical to turn to other human beings for comfort, including hugs. Grandin addressed this by designing the hug machine, in part to help her own anxiety and sensory sensitivity.


title: Hug machine

text: The hug machine consists of two hinged side-boards, each four by three feet (120 cm by 90 cm) with thick soft padding, which form a V-shape, with a complex control box at one end and heavy-duty tubes leading to an air compressor. The user lies or squats, between the side-boards, for as long or short a period as desired. Using pressure exerted by the air compressor and controlled by the user, the side-boards apply deep pressure stimulation evenly across the lateral parts of the body. The machine and its development are depicted in the biopic "Temple Grandin".


title: Hug machine

text: As a young child, Grandin realized she would seek out deep pressure stimulation, but she felt over-stimulated when someone hugged or held her. The idea for the hug machine came to her during a visit to her aunt's Arizona ranch, where she noted the way cattle were confined in a squeeze chute for inoculation, and how some of the cattle immediately calmed down after pressure was administered. She realized that the deep pressure from the chute had a calming effect on the cattle, and she decided that something similar might well settle down her own hypersensitivity.


title: Hug machine

text: Initially, Grandin's device met with disapproval as psychologists at her college sought to confiscate her prototype hug machine. Her science teacher, however, encouraged her to determine the reason it helped resolve the anxiety and sensory issues.


title: Hug machine

text: Several therapy programs in the United States now use hug machines, effectively achieving general calming effects among autistic people across the age spectrum. A 1995 study on the efficacy of Grandin's device, conducted by the Center for the Study of Autism, working with Willamette University in Salem, Oregon, involved ten autistic children and found a reduction in tension and anxiety. Other studies, including one by Dr. Margaret Creedon, have yielded similar results. A small pilot study published in the "American Journal of Occupational Therapy" reported that the machine produced a significant reduction in tension, but only a small decrease in anxiety.


title: Hug machine

text: Grandin continued to use her own hug box on a regular basis to provide the deep pressure necessary to relieve symptoms of her anxiety. "I concentrate on how gently I can do it," she has said. A paper Grandin wrote on her hug machine and the effects of deep pressure stimulation was published in the "Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology".


title: Hug machine

text: In a February 2010 "Time" magazine interview, Grandin stated that she no longer uses a hug machine: "It broke two years ago, and I never got around to fixing it. I'm into hugging people now."


title: Hug machine

text: For several years in the 1990s, urban interventionist/artist Wendy Jacob worked with Grandin in developing furniture that squeezes or "hugs" users, inspired by Grandin's hug machine.


title: Gilles Bensimon

text: Gilles Francis Charles Bensimon (; born 29 February 1944) is a French fashion photographer and the former International Creative Director of "Elle" magazine. He has also been the photographer on the reality television series "America's Next Top Model".


title: Gilles Bensimon

text: Bensimon was born in Vic-sur-Cère in Cantal, France. He had advanced dyslexia, hence his mother's suggestion - that if he did something in art, he could express himself better. Living in Paris, France, he joined French "Elle" magazine in 1967. Two years later, Bensimon helped launch American Elle, for which he later photographed Christy Turlington, Cindy Crawford, Bridget Hall, Naomi Campbell, Tyra Banks, Rachel Williams, Honor Fraser, Yasmin Le Bon, Elle Macpherson, and Beverly Peele.


title: Gilles Bensimon

text: During his tenure as an International Creative Director and Head Photographer of "Elle" magazine, the magazine had an estimated 20 million readers worldwide. He is known as a celebrity photographer, with a portfolio consisting of leading models and celebrities, including Claudia Schiffer, Naomi Campbell, Christy Turlington, Linda Evangelista, Nadège du Bospertus, Gisele Bündchen, Bridget Hall, Madonna, Gwyneth Paltrow, Sharon Stone, Keira Knightley, Beyoncé, Jennifer Lopez, Reese Witherspoon, Sarah Jessica Parker, Halle Berry, and Uma Thurman. He's worked with cosmetic brands like Kohl's, Saks Fifth Avenue, Maybelline and Clarins.


title: Gilles Bensimon

text: Gilles Bensimon had a child with his first wife, Pacha. The marriage ended in divorce before a short-lived marriage to the Australian model Elle Macpherson. He wedded a third time in 1997 to Kelly Killoren. They had two children, Thaedus and Sea Bensimon. The marriage ended in divorce 10 years later in 2007.


title: Temporal bone

text: The temporal bones are situated at the sides and base of the skull, and lateral to the temporal lobes of the cerebral cortex.


title: Temporal bone

text: The temporal bones are overlaid by the sides of the head known as the temples, and house the structures of the ears. The lower seven cranial nerves and the major vessels to and from the brain traverse the temporal bone.


title: Temporal bone

text: The temporal bone consists of four parts— the squamous, mastoid, petrous and tympanic parts. The squamous part is the largest and most superiorly positioned relative to the rest of the bone. The zygomatic process is a long, arched process projecting from the lower region of the squamous part and it articulates with the zygomatic bone. Posteroinferior to the squamous is the mastoid part. Fused with the squamous and mastoid parts and between the sphenoid and occipital bones lies the petrous part, which is shaped like a pyramid. The tympanic part is relatively small and lies inferior to the squamous part, anterior to the mastoid part, and superior to the styloid process. The styloid, from the Greek "stylos", is a phallic shaped pillar directed inferiorly and anteromedially between the parotid gland and internal jugular vein. An elongated or deviated styloid process can result from calcification of the stylohyoid ligament in a condition known as "Eagle syndrome".


title: Temporal bone

text: The temporal bone is ossified from eight centers, exclusive of those for the internal ear and the tympanic ossicles: one for the squama including the zygomatic process, one for the tympanic part, four for the petrous and mastoid parts, and two for the styloid process. Just before the end of prenatal development [Fig. 6] the temporal bone consists of three principal parts:


title: Temporal bone

text: Apart from size increase, the chief changes from birth through puberty in the temporal bone are as follows:


title: Temporal bone

text: Temporal bone fractures were historically divided into three main categories, "longitudinal", in which the vertical axis of the fracture paralleled the petrous ridge, "horizontal", in which the axis of the fracture was perpendicular to the petrous ridge, and "oblique", a mixed type with both longitudinal and horizontal components. Horizontal fractures were thought to be associated with injuries to the facial nerve, and longitudinal with injuries to the middle ear ossicles.


title: Temporal bone

text: More recently, delineation based on disruption of the otic capsule has been found as more reliable in predicting complications such as facial nerve injury, sensorineural hearing loss, intracerebral hemorrhage, and cerebrospinal fluid otorrhea.


title: Temporal bone

text: In evolutionary terms, the temporal bone is derived from the fusion of many bones that are often separate in non-human mammals:


title: Temporal bone

text: Its exact etymology is unknown. It is thought to be from the Old French "temporal" meaning "earthly," which is directly from the Latin "tempus" meaning "time, proper time or season." Temporal bones are situated on the sides of the skull, where grey hairs usually appear early on. Or it may relate to the pulsations of the underlying superficial temporal artery, marking the time we have left here. There is also a probable connection with the Greek verb "temnion", to wound in battle. The skull is thin in this area and presents a vulnerable area for a blow from a battle axe. Another possible etymology is described at Temple (anatomy).


title: Cyclizine

text: Cyclizine, sold under a number of brand names, is a medication used to treat and prevent nausea, vomiting and dizziness due to motion sickness or vertigo. It may also be used for nausea after general anaesthesia or that which developed from opioid use. It is taken by mouth, in the rectum, or injected into a vein.


title: Cyclizine

text: Common side effects include sleepiness, dry mouth, constipation, and trouble with vision. More serious side effects include low blood pressure and urinary retention. It is not generally recommended in young children or those with glaucoma. Cyclizine appears to be safe during pregnancy but has not been well studied. It is in the anticholinergic and antihistamine family of medications.


title: Cyclizine

text: Cyclizine was discovered in 1947. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. In the United States it is available over the counter.


title: Cyclizine

text: Primary uses include nausea, vomiting and dizziness associated with motion sickness, vertigo and post-operatively following administration of general anesthesia and opioids. It is sometimes given in hyperemesis gravidarum, although the manufacturer advises that it be avoided in pregnancy. Off-license use often occurs with specialists in hospitals to treat inpatients who have become severely dehydrated in pregnancy. An off-label use is as an opioid/opiate potentiator.


title: Cyclizine

text: The drug Diconal is a combination of cyclizine and the opioid dipipanone. Dipipanone is a schedule I controlled substance in the US.


title: Cyclizine

text: Its antimuscarinic action warrants caution in patients with prostatic hypertrophy, urinary retention, or angle-closure glaucoma. Liver disease exacerbates its sedative effects.


title: Cyclizine

text: Uncommon (1% to 10%) — Headache, psychomotor impairment, dermatitis, and antimuscarinic effects such as diplopia (double vision), tachycardia, constipation, urinary retention and gastro-intestinal disturbances.


title: Cyclizine

text: Rare (less than 1%) — Hypersensitivity reactions (bronchospasm, angioedema, anaphylaxis, rashes and photosensitivity reactions), extrapyramidal effects, dizziness, confusion, depression, sleep disturbances, tremor, liver dysfunction, and hallucinations.


title: Cyclizine

text: Cyclizine is a piperazine derivative with histamine H-receptor antagonist (antihistamine) activity. The precise mechanism of action in inhibiting the symptoms of motion sickness is not well understood. It may have effects directly on the vestibular system and on the chemoreceptor trigger zone. Cyclizine exerts a central anticholinergic (antimuscarinic) action.


title: Cyclizine

text: Cyclizine may be prepared by the Eschweiler–Clarke methylation of diphenylmethylpiperazine or by reaction of benzhydryl bromide with 1-methylpiperazine in acetonitrile to form the hydrobromide salt of the drug.


title: Cyclizine

text: Cyclizine was developed in the American division of pharmacy company Burroughs Wellcome (today GlaxoSmithKline) during a research study involving many drugs of the antihistamine group. Cyclizine was quickly clinically found as a potent and long-acting antiemetic. The company named the substance – or more precisely cyclizine's hydrochloride form which it usually appears in – "marezine hydrochloride" and started to sell it in the United States under trade name "Marezine". Selling was begun in France under trade name "Marzine" in 1965.


title: Cyclizine

text: The substance received more credit when NASA chose it as a space antiemetic for the first occupied moon flight. Cyclizine was introduced to many countries as a common antiemetic. It is an over-the-counter drug in many countries because it has been well tolerated, although it has not been studied much.


title: Cyclizine

text: Some people using methadone recreationally combine cyclizine with their methadone dose, a combination that is known to produce strong psychoactive effects.


title: Cyclizine

text: As cyclizine hydrochloride tablets and cyclizine lactate solution for intramuscular or intravenous injection (brand names: Valoid in UK and South Africa and Marezine, Marzine and Emoquil in US). Cyclizine was marketed as Bonine for Kids in the US, but was discontinued in 2012, and replaced with meclizine.


title: Wolfblood

text: Wolfblood is a fantasy teen drama television series targeted at a young audience. Created by Debbie Moon, it is a co-production between CBBC and ZDF/ZDFE. The television series revolves around the life of the species known as wolfbloods. They are creatures that have enhanced senses and look like humans but can turn into wolves at will — reminiscent of werewolves — but can also control their transformation during the day as well. They are distinct from werewolves but just like werewolves, their transformation is uncontrolled during a full moon, and they are at their weakest during "the dark of the moon", at a new moon. The television series focuses on their daily life and the challenges that they face to hide their secret. Each series has new characters and concepts.


title: Wolfblood

text: The television series has won the Royal Television Society Award for the Children's Drama category in 2013. It also won the Banff Rockie Award in the category for 'Best Children's Programme (fiction)' in the same year. In 2015 the television series won the British Screenwriters' Award in the category 'Best British Children's Television'.


title: Wolfblood

text: Jana meets three new wolfblood families - brother and sister Matei and Emilia from Eastern Europe, TJ and his mother Imara who are Afro-Caribbean, and Selina and her parents who are Muslims. They become the catalyst for the formation of a new pack. With the wolfblood secret looking increasingly fragile, the pressures on Jana grow, forcing her to question where she truly belongs and who she can trust. This leads to a cataclysmic decision that will change all of their lives forever.


title: Wolfblood

text: Also between series 4 and 5 ten mini-episodes known as "Wolfblood Secrets" take place. It consisted of scenes set in an office run by an unnamed organisation where members of the series 4 cast were interviewed by 2 mysterious characters - Mr. Smith, and his superior, Ms. Jones - who want to know all they can about Wolfbloods. This was intercut with clips from Wolfblood episodes to illustrate what they are talking about. Jones returns as a character in series 5.


title: Wolfblood

text: "Wolfblood" was created after series creator Debbie Moon, during a visit to a bookshop, saw the words "wolf" in one book title and "blood" in another and blended them together. The series was commissioned after the BBC Writersroom website announced an open call for children's drama scripts. Moon was among eight writers taken to a conference centre in Kent, and, after a few days of intensive development, it became one of two new original children's dramas to be commissioned by CBBC. The series was filmed in the north-east of England by the same crew who filmed "Tracy Beaker Returns". Early series filming locations included Hookergate School and the woods of the surrounding Rowlands Gill countryside, from series 4 onwards the filming moved to at Heworth Grange Comprehensive in East Gateshead (Hawthorn Comprehensive in the series) and the areas around Windy Nook and Newcastle.


title: Wolfblood

text: Production for series 1 began in February 2012 and ran until May 2012. It was shot in 3 production blocks: episodes 1–4, episodes 5–8, and episodes 9–13. A second series was confirmed after the final episode of the first series had aired. Filming for the second series began February 2013 and ended May 2013. All of the directors were new to the series, and it was shot in four production blocks: episodes 1–4, episodes 5–8, episode 9, and episodes 10–13. Filming for the third series began in February 2014 and ended in May 2014 and the series aired from 15 September until 27 October 2014.


title: Wolfblood

text: The first three series are available on DVD in the United Kingdom, United States, Australia, and Germany (the latter has also released the series in Blu-ray format). They are also available in many other countries via Amazon and other online retailers.


title: Wolfblood

text: The second series was accompanied by a 10 part wildlife spin-off series exploring wolves, hosted by Bobby Lockwood. This has been produced by the BBC Natural History Unit, entitled "Wolfblood Uncovered"; it began airing on 9 September 2013. "Wolfblood Uncovered" compares scenes in "Wolfblood" with facts about real wolves, and points out how wolf behavior is reflected in the actions of the characters in the story, such as living in packs, defending territory against rivals, fear of fire and enclosed spaces, reliance on sense of smell and a carnivorous diet.


title: D.A.V. College Managing Committee

text: The D.A.V. College Managing Committee, familiarly known as DAVCMC, is a non-governmental educational organisation in India and overseas with over 900 schools. 75 colleges and a university. It is based on the ideals of Maharishi Dayanand Saraswati. Full Form of DAV is Dayanand Anglo Vedic. The Dayanand Anglo-Vedic education system also comprises colleges offering graduate and post-graduate degrees in areas of study all over India.It holds the record for producing the largest number of CBSE (class Xth and XIIth) toppers as a single institution in the last 10 years


title: D.A.V. College Managing Committee

text: Founded in 1886 in Lahore, these schools are run by the Dayanand Anglo-Vedic College Trust and Management Society, also commonly known as the Dayanand Anglo-Vedic Education Society. Today, institutional records of the D.A.V. College Trust and Management Society are part of the archives at the Nehru Memorial Museum & Library, at Teen Murti House, Delhi.


title: D.A.V. College Managing Committee

text: English is the primary language of instruction, with students also receiving compulsory education in Hindi and Sanskrit or a regional language. The DAV movement has grown to become the single largest non-governmental educational society in the country, managing 750+ educational institutions, apart from D.A.V. Public Schools spread over the country and even in foreign lands, with an annual budget of more than INR ₹2 billion. It employs 50,000+ people and educates more than 20 lakh students every year.


title: D.A.V. College Managing Committee

text: In 2013, the Associated Chambers of Commerce and Industry of India (ASSOCHAM) awarded 40 institutions for its contribution to quality education. ASSOCHAM awarded DAV College Managing Committee with 'Best Chain of Schools in India' award.


title: D.A.V. College Managing Committee

text: Hansraj Ji was the founder of the national D.A.V. College Managing Committee. 1885 the first DAV School was established at Lahore which was subsequently upgraded to become the first DAV College. In 1886 the DAV College Trust and Management Society was established and registered.


title: D.A.V. College Managing Committee

text: The first inaugural holder for the post of President was Rai Bahadur Lal Chand whose term was from 1886 till 1894, from 1896 till 1899 and from 1900 till 1902. Other office holders were Bhagat Ishwar Dass, Lala Dwarka Dass, Mahatma Hansraj, Justice Mehr Chand Mahajan, Padma Bhushan Suraj Bhan, Prof. Ved Vyasa, Darbari Lal, T. R. Tuli, G. P. Chopra and other. The current office holder is Padma Shri Dr. Punam Suri whose term is from 2011.


title: D.A.V. College Managing Committee

text: There are over 62 government-aided DAV schools across the country which are run by DAVCMC in co-operation with six state (Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Maharashtra, New Delhi, Orissa and Punjab) and the Chandigarh union territory governments.


title: D.A.V. College Managing Committee

text: There are more than 900 Not-for-profit Charitable trust run unaided DAV schools across India and several other countries for studies up to the higher secondary level. In India, they are more in the states of Bihar, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Odisha.


title: Major Grom: Plague Doctor

text: Major Grom: Plague Doctor () is a 2021 Russian action film directed by Oleg Trofim, based on the comic book series of the same name by the Russian publisher Bubble Comics, created by Artyom Gabrelyanov. It is the second film adapted from Bubble Comics, as well as the first feature-length film based on a Russian comic. Prior to that, the studio had released the short film "Major Grom". It stars Tikhon Zhiznevsky in the lead role, alongside Lyubov Aksyonova, Aleksei Maklakov, Aleksandr Seteykin, Sergei Goroshko, and Dmitry Chebotaryov. The film is set in Saint Petersburg and tells the story of police major Igor Grom, an honest and skilled cop with unconventional methods, who pursues a vigilante murderer in the mask of a plague doctor.


title: Major Grom: Plague Doctor

text: A teaser for the film was first screened on 30 September 2017 at the IgroMir / Comic-Con Russia 2017, after which the project faced difficulties in production for some time—the team was disbanded and reassembled, and the concept of the film was redone from scratch. Three years later, a full-fledged trailer was presented at the Comic Con Russia 2020, with a tentative release date.


title: Major Grom: Plague Doctor

text: "Major Grom: Plague Doctor" had its premiere on 25 March 2021 in St. Petersburg. The online premiere took place on 5 May 2021 on KinoPoisk HD and Netflix.


title: Major Grom: Plague Doctor

text: "Major Grom: Plague Doctor" was generally assessed by critics moderately positively: the general high quality of the work was noted, but at the same time, it was scolded for the clichéd and unoriginal plot. Some observers have claimed that the film aims a reproachful message towards the Russian opposition and praise for the police, but not all reviewers agreed with this opinion; the authors themselves have denied these allegations in several interviews. The film failed at the box office, collecting only 328 million rubles in the CIS, with a budget of 640 million rubles, but it proved popular on Netflix and Kinopoisk HD.


title: Major Grom: Plague Doctor

text: Saint Petersburg police major Igor Grom is chasing three bank robbers dressed in red sports suits and disguised as villainous hockey players from the popular Soviet cartoon "Puck! Puck!" He catches them, while causing significant property damage, and gets reprimanded by his superior, colonel General Fedor Prokopenko.


title: Major Grom: Plague Doctor

text: Soon after, the trial of "rich boy" Kirill Grechkin begins; he is accused of fatally hitting a girl with his car. Despite the evidence against him, Grechkin is acquitted and the brother of the deceased, Lyosha Makarov, suspects the court of corruption. IT millionaire Sergei Razumovsky, founder of the social network Vmeste, and his friend Oleg Volkov, who grew up in the same orphanage as the deceased girl, are also outraged by the court's decision. At the same time, videos of the Plague Doctor appear on the internet—an avenger in a mask and a combat suit, armed with bombs and flamethrowers, who promises to "cleanse" the city of scoundrels. The Doctor burns Kirill Grechkin to death in his car. After the murder, Oleg comes to Razumovsky and confesses that he was the Doctor. Razumovsky is upset by this, but hesitates to turn his friend in to the authorities.


title: Major Grom: Plague Doctor

text: Grom, who witnessed the murder, is trying to investigate it and find the Doctor, who is now considered by many to be a hero. FSB officer Evgeny Strelkov, who arrives from Moscow to capture the Doctor, removes the major from the case. Instead, Grom and his new trainee, Dima Dubin, are sent to deal with the theft of twelve refrigerators. However, contrary to their official assignment, the two continue to investigate the Doctor's case, having received a tip from Grom's informant and unsuccessfully trying to knock information out of people associated with the criminal underworld. In the meantime, Grom saves a young woman from thugs, but she turns out to be journalist and blogger Yulia Pchyolkina, who staged the attack in order to get close to Grom and obtain information about the Plague Doctor case for her blog.


title: Major Grom: Plague Doctor

text: Meanwhile, the Doctor accumulates new victims: the head of a bank that defrauded depositors and the owner of a polluting landfill, along with the latter's entire family. Dubin puts forward the theory that the next appearance of the Doctor should be expected at the opening of a casino, where all of St. Petersburg "cream of society" will gather. Grom infiltrates the opening party, where he meets Pchyolkina and Razumovsky. Instead of the real Doctor, however, only his followers appear, wanting to rob the rich. Sergei Razumovsky tries to prevent the violence and dissuade them with money, but a fight ensues, in which Grom and a number of FSB officers capture the bandits. Grom is subsequently forced to resign from the police by Strelkov.


title: Major Grom: Plague Doctor

text: Despite his dismissal, he continues his investigation and learns about Razumovsky's childhood in the orphanage, and that he used to draw birds that looked like the Doctor's mask. Back at the casino, Pchyolkina had told Grom about Razumovsky's contract with Holt International, a company engaged in high-tech weapons development. It was Holt International that created the Plague Doctor's costume and equipment. Grom directly accuses Razumovsky of being the Plague Doctor. By this point, Sergei has realized that the accusation is true: "Oleg" was his secondary personality (Grom points out that according to official documents, the real Oleg Volkov died in the war in Syria a year before). His dark side takes over; he knocks Grom out with a blow to the head, puts the Doctor's suit on him, and tosses him near the site of his next murder. The police grab Grom, and Strelkov now believes that Igor is the Doctor.


title: Major Grom: Plague Doctor

text: Dubin and Pchyolkina help Grom escape from custody and he goes on the hunt for the Doctor. Meanwhile, the vigilante publishes a new video: he calls on all his followers to fill the streets and lynch anyone they consider to be a villain. Spontaneous pogroms begin in the city. Razumovsky confesses to Igor that in this way, he wants to get rid of not only corrupt officials and rich people, but also his followers, whom he considers to be immoral imitators and misfits; in his opinion, the state will be forced to send troops and kill them, and Razumovsky will subsequently be able to create a "new Petersburg". A fight breaks out between Grom and Razumovsky, in which the Doctor almost wins, but Dubin and Pchyolkina come to Grom's rescue. Razumovsky is neutralized, and Pchyolkina reveals that she recorded his boasting speech, including his nefarious plans. Grom declares to the Doctor that he also sees problems in the country, but considers it unacceptable to solve them by means of murder.


title: Major Grom: Plague Doctor

text: Meanwhile, the pogroms quickly subside when a gang led by one of Grom's informants acts against the rioters. Lyosha Makarov, who participated in them, is planning to kill the corrupt judge who released Grechkin. When his grandchildren visit him, however, Lyosha realizes that he is incapable of committing the murder, and spares him. FSB officer Strelkov claims all credit for the apprehension of the Plague Doctor, while Grom is content to spend time with his new friends, Dubin and Pchyolkina.


title: Major Grom: Plague Doctor

text: In a mid-credits scene, Razumovsky is shown in a mental institution. His "dark side" speaks to him, telling him that "they" will soon be free. In a post-credits scene, Oleg Volkov is shown in a militant camp in Syria: it turns out that he is still alive, and he watches his friend Razumovsky's capture on television.


title: Major Grom: Plague Doctor

text: The filmmakers tried to use less famous actors as they were dissatisfied with the same few actors playing in many different films. Bubble had difficulties with the casting—in particular, with the selection of a lead actor to portray Igor Grom. Alexander Gorbatov, who played Grom in the short film, did not return to the role due to lack of interest in the project. The search for a new actor took a whole year. According to screenwriter and producer Roman Kotkov, "...we could not even imagine that it was so difficult to find a tall handsome man with intelligence in his eyes in Russia". Eventually, Tikhon Zhiznevsky was selected for the role. Zhiznevsky had to lose ten kilograms for the part, as well as undergo serious physical training in order to look more athletic. For this, he worked with coaches in Moscow and St. Petersburg. Dmitry Chebotaryov, another actor who took part in the film and who had known Zhiznevsky for a long time, recalls that he and many of Zhiznevsky's other acquaintances would never have thought that their friend would fit the part he was about to play, as he was mainly known for playing romantic roles.


title: Major Grom: Plague Doctor

text: For the role of Sergei Razumovsky, theatre actor Sergei Goroshko was chosen. In order to convincingly play the character, Goroshko compiled a complete biography of the character, from his birth until the events after the film, partly sourcing this from the comics as well as from the film's scriptwriters. Goroshko also had to lose weight for the role, in his case fifteen kilograms. The voice of the Plague Doctor in the mask is an overlap of the voices of Goroshko and Dmitry Chebotaryov.


title: Major Grom: Plague Doctor

text: Actor Dmitry Chebotaryov auditioned for both the roles of Igor Grom and Oleg, and, according to the producers, both auditions were successful, but he was eventually selected to play Oleg Volkov. Chebotaryov was the only actor among the main cast who did not have to change his appearance in any way for filming. Ukrainian rapper Kyivstoner was approved for the role of Booster Ignat, Grom's informant, due to his flamboyant personality. Almost all of his lines were improvised.


title: Major Grom: Plague Doctor

text: Politician Vitaly Milonov was invited to appear in a cameo as himself, since the studio needed a character who would condemn the actions of the Plague Doctor on the in-film television. Director Oleg Trofim was opposed to Milonov becoming this character since he did not want the film to have unnecessary allusions to real life, but Gabrelyanov insisted, and Milonov appeared in a short scene in which he committed to a ban of the Plague Doctor masks.


title: Major Grom: Plague Doctor

text: Representatives of Bubble Studios repeatedly stated that the short film "Major Grom" would be a test project before filming a full-length movie, which, if successful, would be followed by adaptations of other Bubble comics. It was also stated that Bubble Studios plans to attract American actors to the project, film it in English, and launch it internationally, with a focus on Western markets. The full-length "Major Grom" was to be produced by the same team as the short one. The planned budget at that time was at least five million US dollars.


title: Major Grom: Plague Doctor

text: The filmmakers also said that the look of Saint Petersburg in the film would differ from the real one, and, in addition, the geography of the city would undergo changes. Bubble Studios director and "Major Grom" screenwriter, Artyom Gabrelyanov, commented, "There are certain things that make the character look organic. If you take a camera and just shoot what is outside the window, then any superhero in a Russian context will look funny". The filmmakers planned to stick to a 12+ rating, although they did not deny that scenes of violence could increase the rating to 16+. According to Gabrelyanov, the studio did not set itself the goal of giving "a [Russian] answer" to Hollywood, and that it is more important for it to prove its merits by deeds, not by words. In November 2017, Bubble Studios announced an open casting for the film. Vladimir Besedin, who was the director at the time, mentioned that there would be several after-credits scenes related to the story.


title: Major Grom: Plague Doctor

text: A teaser for the film was first shown on 30 September 2017 at IgroMir / Comic-Con Russia 2017. The clip shows a young restless skateboarder, played by Oleg Chugunov, who watches a video of the Plague Doctor and begins to believe in his ideas, before joining a flash mob in which everyone who wants to protest against government corruption must release a paper airplane from a window. Igor Grom himself appears in the video only from the back, in passing, at a shawarma kiosk. The scenery of Saint Petersburg is made to look like New York City, and the actors speak English; the audio was later dubbed into Russian.


title: Major Grom: Plague Doctor

text: Responses to the teaser included accusations by Alexander Strepetilov, editor of "Mir Fantastiki" magazine, that the Plague Doctor was a satire on popular Russian opposition politician Alexei Navalny (while in the comics he was an allusion to Pavel Durov, a creator of the Russian social network VKontakte). Popular video blogger and film reviewer Evgeny Bazhenov, known as BadComedian, to the contrary, stated that any parallels in the film with existing reality were the right move on the studio's part: "In their first film, I did not relate myself to anyone. Here at least it is clear that this is a modern world, modern people".


title: Major Grom: Plague Doctor

text: According to the filmmakers, the short film was well received by Western audiences, and therefore the teaser was filmed in English. Artyom Gabrelyanov stated that Hollywood producers were very interested in the project. One of these was Harvey Weinstein, but the meeting with him was cancelled at the very last moment due to allegations of sexual harassment against him. Foreign producers insisted on the participation of English-speaking actors and an Americanization of the film, so as to better cater to English-speaking audiences. Examples of this included changing Saint Petersburg to New York City and renaming Igor Grom to Harry Thunder. However, Bubble felt that this contradicted their concept for the project. As a result, they decided to refuse the help of foreign producers and shoot the film primarily for a Russian-speaking audience. Subsequently, the first teaser, as well as the original 2017 short film, were deemed non-canonical to the events of "Major Grom: Plague Doctor".


title: Major Grom: Plague Doctor

text: During development, the production team had creative disagreements that prevented the work from continuing. The creative team wanted the film to be more story-driven, while the director of the short film, Vladimir Besedin, as well as the crew, wanted it to be more action-packed. This changed when Artyom Gabrelyanov met producer Mikhail Kitaev, who became interested in the film and at the same time had experience in grand-scale projects, such as "Invasion", "Sputnik", "Chernobyl", and "T-34". He helped make connections, select actors, and create scenery. Kitaev saw the "Major Grom" short film while on the set of the 2018 film "Ice", together with Oleg Trofim, and both liked it. According to the plan, filming was supposed to begin a month and a half after Kitaev joined the project, but in fact, Bubble only had a script and concept art, and they were not ready for filming. Kitaev immediately noted the inexperience of the team and the lack of skillful management, and he felt that the script was decent but needed improvement.


title: Major Grom: Plague Doctor

text: The first weeks of working on the film were extremely difficult, as the team did not understand what to do. In the end, the project was frozen, all deadlines were cancelled, and Gabrelyanov and Kitaev turned to Artyom's father, , founder of Life news agency, who had invested in the movie, for approval of a further work plan. A personnel reshuffle occurred, the new team worked for three weeks, but conflicts continued to arise, and the project was frozen again—this time for a week and a half, resulting in the entire team being disbanded. Vladimir Besedin, director of the short film, resigned, and Gabrelyanov, Kitaev, and Kotkov made a list of directors who could cope with the project, eventually selecting Oleg Trofim.


title: Major Grom: Plague Doctor

text: The film's plot is based on the first story arc of the original comic series, which recounts the struggle of Major Grom with a serial killer hiding under the mask of a plague doctor. In the scenario itself, Bubble Studios planned to leave about 80% of the plot of the original story and add 20% of new content. After the teaser was released, the filmmakers received many unflattering comments related to its political content, both from Russian pro-government structures and from members of the public opposed to the government. As a result, it was decided to remove all the politics that were present in the original comic, leaving only the problem of "uncontrolled crimes of rich people who can get away from the law with their money" and focusing on social inequality instead. Gabrelyanov noted that the problem of inequality would also be more understandable to foreign viewers than allusions to Russian politics.


title: Major Grom: Plague Doctor

text: Initial drafts of the script had scenes with helicopters and skyscrapers, but when producer Maxim Kitaev joined the project, he advised the scriptwriters to remove them, as they would require too much money, due to their scale. The plot before the restart of production was too large, and it would have been impossible to film, even if the team had a budget 2–3 times bigger, so the writers had to shorten it. When asked why the plot of "Major Grom" is so unoriginal and clichéd, Oleg Trofim replied that comics adaptations hadn't previously been filmed in Russia, and local filmmakers needed to master the genre and its basics first. Only once this happened would it be possible to deconstruct the genre and create something more original.


title: Major Grom: Plague Doctor

text: During adaptation, the plot of the original comic underwent significant changes. For example, in the film, the character of Yulia Pchyolkina is not only the protagonist's love interest and damsel in distress, but also a full-fledged participant in the story line. Oleg Trofim commented: "It is not relevant anymore to show the heroine as a girl who does not want to decide anything, but wants a dress". In the film, the personality of Igor Grom also changed: in the comics, he is very noble and strictly follows a moral code, whereas in the film, he is more antiheroic and less scrupulous. The writers deliberately didn't show Grom's origin story, opting to only offer hints throughout the film. Roman Kotkov explained this by saying that superhero origin stories have became boring to audiences.


title: Major Grom: Plague Doctor

text: The character of Razumovsky also underwent some changes, especially his motivation: in the film, the Plague Doctor sincerely, albeit using radical methods, wants to make the world a better place, whereas in the comics, he only uses justice as an excuse, while committing murders for his personal gain.


title: Major Grom: Plague Doctor

text: The film contains a number of references to other Bubble comics, which are considered to be a setup for a potential Bubble cinematic universe. There is mention of a "hitman with rat" in the film—the nickname of Demonslayer, one of the key characters in the Bubble comic universe and the protagonist of the comic series of the same name. Holt International, a corporation that designed the Plague Doctor's suit, appears in the "Red Fury" comic series as a main antagonist.


title: Major Grom: Plague Doctor

text: If Besedin wanted St. Petersburg to appear Americanized, Oleg Trofim made the city look closer to reality. Trofim lived in St. Petersburg for five years, and art director Dmitry Onishchenko is from there and knows the city well, and this helped when choosing locations. For over two months, Trofim and Onishchenko explored St. Petersburg to find streets that would best be suited for specific moments of the film. Oleg Trofim explained:


title: Major Grom: Plague Doctor

text: "We know classical Petersburg, which is full of Baroque architecture and Art Nouveau. This is the city in which there was a revolution, and Soviet architecture has strongly settled there. We are also familiar with the gangster Petersburg from the 1990s, with its endless networks of courtyards. We were faced with the task of determining which Petersburg to show. As a result, we completely abandoned the Soviet legacy and that of the 1990s and concentrated on the historical part, the one that is timeless, the one that creates the image of St. Petersburg as a majestic palace city".


title: Major Grom: Plague Doctor

text: In addition, the filmmakers decided to alter the layout of the city, as compared to the real St. Petersburg. To do this, they sketched a rough plan, marking the main locations in the film: the poor neighborhoods Grom visits, a police station, Razumovsky's office, and Grom's apartment. As a result, it turned out that Bolshaya Morskaya Street leads to Radishchev Street, Zhukov Street becomes Galernaya Street, and Nevsky Prospect does not seem to exist at all. Oleg Trofim complained that the logistics in St. Petersburg were inconvenient for filming, and that was why they had to create their own scenery.


title: Major Grom: Plague Doctor

text: After the initial publicity in 2017, there was no new information about the film for two years. On 5 October 2019, continuation of work on the project was announced at IgroMir / Comic-Con Russia. It was announced that the director had been replaced, and instead of Vladimir Besedin, Oleg Trofim was at the helm of the production. The role of Major Grom also changed from Aleksander Gorbatov () to Tikhon Zhiznevsky (). Additionally, significant changes had been made to the script.


title: Major Grom: Plague Doctor

text: Filming resumed in Saint Petersburg and the film was initially planned to go on screen in 2019. However, in October of that year, it was announced that it would not be released on the due date. Filming was completed in December 2019. The official first trailer was released on 27 May 2020, a day after Saint Petersburg's anniversary celebrations.


title: Major Grom: Plague Doctor

text: The music for the film was written by composer Roman Seliverstov. The film features symphonic music themes written by Seliverstov specifically for the production, as well as additional licensed songs. The symphonic portion of the soundtrack was recorded by the London Symphony Orchestra at Abbey Road Studios, in the United Kingdom. Seliverstov insisted that the music be recorded in this particular studio, since, in his opinion, audiences were accustomed to the sound of Hollywood films, and something similar had to be achieved in "Major Grom". For the Plague Doctor's theme song, a special musical instrument was created, the "space cello", which resembles a cello but has only two strings, attached to sound boxes by long steel springs. This musical instrument produces an aggressive, metallic sound, which, according to the composer's plan, should emphasize the fearsome character of the antagonist.


title: Major Grom: Plague Doctor

text: The creators decided to use only Russian-language songs for the soundtrack. Oleg Trofim tried to use songs that were "not yet spoiled by their popularity", to help audiences discover new music. During the opening credits of the film, a cover of the song "Peremen!" plays, performed by 15-year-old Taisia Ashmarova. The song heard during the end credits, "", is performed by Levan Gorozia.


title: Major Grom: Plague Doctor

text: At the 2020 Comic-Con Russia on 4 October, an official trailer was presented and it was announced that the film would be released in April 2021.


title: Major Grom: Plague Doctor

text: "Major Grom: Plague Doctor" had a special screening on 26 March at the Aurora cinema in St. Petersburg. Its world premiere took place on 29 March at the Karo 11 October cinema centre in Moscow.


title: Major Grom: Plague Doctor

text: "Major Grom: Plague Doctor" received mixed to positive reviews from Russian critics with review aggregator "Kritikanstvo" rating it 6,4/10 based on 39 reviews, while "KinoPoisk" reported a 71% critical approval rating based on 34 reviews. The movie was praised by "Kanobu", "Mir Fantastiki", "Igromania", "Rossiyskaya Gazeta", TASS, "TJournal", DTF.ru, "Elle Girl", and "RBK Daily". Others, like "Afisha", Film.ru, and "TimeOut Russia" published mixed reviews, while "Nezavisimaya Gazeta", Kino Mail.ru, InterMedia, and "Meduza" were critical of the movie, and "Kommersant" published two conflicting reviews.


title: Major Grom: Plague Doctor

text: Many critics praised the film for impressive visuals and the portrayal of a fictionalized version of Saint Petersburg, with an emphasis on the city's atmosphere. The acting, especially by Zhiznevsky and Aksyonova, was also met positively. However, many authors were uncomfortable with the movie's underlying message, which some believed to be anti-liberal and pro-police.


title: Major Grom: Plague Doctor

text: After Roskomnadzor, Russia's media oversight agency, blocked the Telegram messaging service nationwide in 2018, Pavel Durov organized a flash mob, urging protesters to release paper airplanes on the streets on 22 April 2018 at 19:00. A very similar flash mob, including a mass release of paper airplanes, was organized in the first "Major Grom" teaser by the Plague Doctor, whose character in the comic is loosely based on Durov.


title: Major Grom: Plague Doctor

text: Before the premiere, the website Byulleten Kinoprokatchika predicted that first-weekend box office receipts would amount to 200 million rubles. However, the film received half the box office and earned only 105 million in the first weekend. In the second weekend, about 66 million rubles were collected, and the total amount reached, taking into account the day of the premiere, rose to 222 million. The media suggested that the film could hardly recoup the announced budget of 640 million rubles by the end of its run. As a result, box office receipts amounted to only 317 million rubles in Russia and about 11 million in the CIS.


title: Major Grom: Plague Doctor

text: To support "Major Grom" by word of mouth, Bubble comics fans organized a series of flash mobs on social media to draw attention to the film. Some fans bought up all the seats in cinemas to increase ticket sales, and an unknown person even rented a billboard on New Arbat Avenue, in the center of Moscow, where "Major Grom" fan tweets were shown.


title: Major Grom: Plague Doctor

text: Nevertheless, despite low box office returns, the film gained popularity on streaming services: in May, it topped views on Kinopoisk HD, second only to "Zack Snyder's Justice League". On Netflix, the film reached the top in a day, an extremely rare outcome for Russian cinema on this platform. By 8 July, the film entered the top ten on Netflix in 64 countries around the world, and took first place in fourteen countries.


title: Gelug

text: The Gelug (, also Geluk; "virtuous") is the newest of the four major schools of Tibetan Buddhism. It was founded by Je Tsongkhapa (1357–1419), a Tibetan philosopher, tantric yogi and lama and further expanded and developed by his disciples (such as Khedrup Je, Gyaltsap Je and Gendün Drubpa).


title: Gelug

text: The Gelug school is alternatively known as New Kadam ("bKa’-gdams gsar-pa"), since it sees itself as a continuation of the Kadam tradition of Atisha (c. 11th century). Furthermore, it is also called the Ganden school, after the first monastery established by Tsongkhapa. The Ganden Tripa ("Ganden Throne Holder") is the official head of the school, though its most influential figure is the Dalai Lama ("Ocean Teacher"). Allying themselves with the Mongol Khans, the Gelug school emerged as the dominant Buddhist school in Tibet and Mongolia since the end of the 16th century (religiously and politically). Another alternative name for this tradition is the Yellow Hat school or sect.


title: Gelug

text: Doctrinally, the Gelug school promotes a unique form of prasangika Madhyamaka based on the works of Tsongkhapa. According to John Powers, Tsongkhapa's work "contains a comprehensive view of Buddhist philosophy and practice that integrates sutra and tantra, analytical reasoning, and yogic meditation."


title: Gelug

text: "Ganden" is the Tibetan rendition of the Sanskrit name "Tushita", the Pure land associated with Maitreya Buddha. At first, Tsongkhapa's school was called "Ganden Choluk" meaning "the Spiritual Lineage of Ganden". By taking the first syllable of 'Ganden' and the second of 'Choluk', this was abbreviated to "Galuk" and then modified to the more easily pronounced "Gelug".


title: Gelug

text: The Gelug school was also called the "New Kadam", because it saw itself a revival of the Kadam school founded by Atisha.


title: Gelug

text: The Gelug school was founded by Je Tsongkhapa, an eclectic Buddhist monk and yogi who traveled Tibet studying under Kadam, Sakya, Drikung Kagyu, Jonang and Nyingma teachers. These include the Sakya scholar Rendawa (1349–1412), the Drikung Thil scholar Chenga Chokyi Gyalpo, the Kadam mystic Lama Umapa, the Jonang master Bodong Chokley Namgyal and the Dzogchen master Drupchen Lekyi Dorje.


title: Gelug

text: A great admirer of the Kadam school, Tsongkhapa merged the Kadam teachings of lojong (mind training) and lamrim (stages of the path) with the Vajrayana teachings of the Sakya, Kaygu and Jonang schools. He also emphasized monasticism and a strict adherence to vinaya (monastic discipline). He combined this with extensive and unique writings on madhyamaka, Buddhist epistemology, and Buddhist practice. Tsongkhapa's numerous works on philosophy and tantric practice were widely influential and they marked a turning point in the history of Tibetan Buddhist philosophy.


title: Gelug

text: Tsongkhapa and his disciples founded Ganden monastery in 1409, which was followed by the founding of Drepung (1416) and Sera (in 1419), which became the "great three" Gelug monasteries (and eventually they would become some of the largest monasteries in the world). According to Sam van Schaik these Gelug centers "came to form a triumvirate of massive Gelug monasteries that would dominate the religious and political life of Central Tibet for centuries."


title: Gelug

text: After the death of Tsongkhapa in 1419 (who at the time was already famous and had attracted numerous disciples) the Gelug (a.k.a. Ganden) order grew extremely quickly through the efforts of Tsongkhapa's disciples who founded numerous new monasteries and spread the doctrine throughout Tibet. The Gelug school developed a reputation for strict adherence to monastic discipline (vinaya) and rigorous scholarship as well as for tantric practice. According to Sam van Schaik, while Tsongkhapa himself did not work to establish a brand new school per se, it was Tsongkhapa's disciples who took up the project of formally constructing a new school of Buddhism. Furthermore, van Schaik writes that "much of the credit for defining and defending the new school must go to Tsongkhapa’s student Khedrup."


title: Gelug

text: Tsongkhapa's three principal disciples were Khedrup Gelek Palsang, Gyaltsap Darma Rinchen and Dülzin Drakpa Gyaltsen. Other important students of Tsongkhapa were Tokden Jampel Gyatso; Jamyang Chöjé and Jamchen Chöjé (the founders of Drepung and Sera monasteries, respectively); and Gendün Drup the First Dalai Lama." Several major monastic centers were founded in Tsang, including Tashi Lhünpo, Segyü, Gyümé and Gyütö college. By the end of the fifteenth century, the collected works of Tsongkhapa had been set on woodblock prints. His works would later be collected together with the works of Gyaltsap and Khedrup (who wrote numerous commentaries on Indian classics and on the works of Tsongkhapa) to become the main unique canonical collection of the Gelug school which is known as the “Father and Sons Collected Works” ("jé yapsé ungbum").


title: Gelug

text: According to Thupten Jinpa, by the end of the fifteenth century, the "new Ganden tradition had spread through the entire Tibetan cultural area, with monasteries upholding the tradition located in western Tibet, in Tsang, in central and southern Tibet, and in Kham and Amdo in the east." John Powers also notes that during the following centuries the Gelug school "continued to produce an impressive number of eminent scholars and tantric adepts."


title: Gelug

text: By the end of the fifteenth century, Tsongkhapa had come to be seen as a second Buddha among in the Gelug tradition, and various hagiographies were written by his disciples (like Khedrup Je and Tokden Jampel Gyatso). These texts developed the great myths of the Buddha Tsongkhapa (including stories of his previous births and his various mystical visions) and helped established the new identity of the Gelug school as an authentic lineage (traced back to Manjushri). Meanwhile, among the other Tibetan schools, Tsongkhapa now came to be considered "a force to be reckoned with, someone whose vision, ideas, and writings had to be understood in relation to their own cherished lineage and tradition."


title: Gelug

text: This initial period of growth also saw scholastic debates and exchanges between the new Gelug tradition and the earlier sects like the Sakya school, who wrote critiques of Tsongkhapa's philosophy, such as Rongton Shakya Gyaltsen (1367-1449) (and his work led to a response by Khedrup Je). This debate over Tsongkhapa's madhyamaka interpretation was then taken up by a trio of Sakya school thinkers: Taktsang Lotsawa, Gorampa, and Shākya Chokden. Their critique would be countered by the works of numerous Gelug scholars, such as Lekpa Chöjor (a.k.a. Jamyang Galo, 1429–1503), the first Panchen Lama Lozang Chökyi Gyaltsen (1507-1662), Jetsun Chökyi Gyaltsen (1469-1544/46), Sera Jetsun Chökyi Gyaltsen, Panchen Delek Nyima and Jamyang Zhepa (1648-1751).


title: Gelug

text: In 1577 Sönam Gyatso, who was considered to be the third incarnation of Gendün Drup, formed an alliance with the then most powerful Mongol leader, Altan Khan. As a result, Sönam Gyatso was designated as the 3rd Dalai Lama. "Dalai" is a translation into Mongolian of the Tibetan name "Gyatso" (ocean). Gendün Drup and Gendun Gyatso were posthumously recognized as the 1st and 2nd Dalai Lamas respectively.


title: Gelug

text: Sönam Gyatso was very active in proselytizing among the Mongols, and the Gelug tradition was to become the main religion of the Mongols in the ensuing centuries. Sönam Gyatso traveled to Mongolia, and supported the establishment of monasteries and the translation of Buddhist texts to Mongolian. He also worked against certain shamanistic practices such as animal sacrifice and blood sacrifices.


title: Gelug

text: This turn of events provided the Gelug school with powerful patrons who were to propel them to political pre-eminence in Tibet. The Gelug-Mongol alliance was further strengthened as after Sonam Gyatso's death, his incarnation was found to be Altan Khan's great-grandson, who became the 4th Dalai Lama. The influence of the Gelug school on Mongolian Buddhism remains strong today. According to Thupten Jinpa "an important legacy of this relationship has been the tradition of young Mongols studying at the great Geluk centers of learning in Amdo and central Tibet."


title: Gelug

text: Following violent strife among the sects of Tibetan Buddhism, the Gelug school emerged as the dominant one, with the military help of the Mongol Güshri Khan who invaded Tibet in 1642 in order to defeat the king of Tsang. According to Tibetan historian Samten Karmay, Sonam Chophel (1595–1657), treasurer of the Ganden Palace, was the prime architect of the Gelug's rise to political power. Later he received the title "Desi" [Wylie: "sde-sris"], meaning "Regent", which he would earn through his efforts to establish Gelugpa power.


title: Gelug

text: The 5th Dalai Lama, Ngawang Lobsang Gyatso (1617–1682), was the first in his line to hold full political and spiritual power in Tibet. He established a formal theocratic system of government, opened diplomatic relations with Qing Dynasty China, built the Potala Palace in Lhasa, institutionalized the Tibetan state Nechung Oracle, and spurred a major renaissance in art and book printing. From the period of the 5th Dalai Lama in the 17th century, the Dalai Lamas held political control over central Tibet. The core leadership of this government was also referred to as the Ganden Phodrang. According to Thupten Jinpa, the 5th Dalai Lama's rule "would bring Tibet into a semblance of political unity for the first time since the collapse of the Tibetan empire some seven hundred years earlier."


title: Gelug

text: The Fifth Dalai Lama was a prolific author and scholar. According to Jinpa "the Fifth Dalai Lama was personally an ecumenist who revered Tibet’s other major Buddhist traditions, especially the Nyingma." In this he was influenced by his teacher Paljor Lhundrup who was a Gelug monk and master of the Nyingma Great Perfection (Dzogchen) tradition. The "Great Fifth" wrote numerous works and revealed a cycle of Dzogchen teachings. One of his students (and political successor as regent), Desi Sangye Gyatso was also known as a great scholar who wrote various works on topics like Tibetan medicine, astrology, biography and calligraphy. He is the author of the important Tibetan medical text, "The Mirror of Beryl," commissioned a set of medical paintings and wrote a biography of the Fifth Dalai Lama.


title: Gelug

text: During the rule of the Fifth Dalai Lama that his teacher Lobsang Chökyi Gyaltsen received the title "Panchen Bogd" from Altan Khan and the Dalai Lama in 1645. This is the beginning of the Panchen Lama tulku line, who traditionally rules Shigatse and the Tsang region from his base at Tashilhunpo Monastery. The institutions of the Dalai Lama and Panchen Lama each participate in the process of recognizing each other's reincarnations. Lobsang Chökyi Gyaltsen was a prolific scholar and a great yogi who is particularly known for his writings on Gelug Mahamudra (mainly his root text "Highway of the Conquerors" and its auto-commentary "Lamp re-illuminating Mahamudra").


title: Gelug

text: The Fifth Dalai Lama is also known for having recognized Zanabazar (1635-1723) as the first official Jebtsundamba Khutuktu, the spiritual leader ("Bogd Gegeen") of the Mongolian Gelug tradition. Zanabazar was a great Mongolian polymath who excelled in painting, sculpture, poetry, scholarship and languages. He is credited with having launched a renaissance of Mongolian culture in the seventeenth century, with having created the Soyombo script and with widely promoting Buddhism among the Mongols. Zanabazar also oversaw the construction of numerous major Gelug monasteries in Mongolia, such as Shankh Monastery, Tövkhön Monastery and Erdene Zuu Monastery.


title: Gelug

text: The rule of the 5th Dalai Lama also oversaw the repression of the schools of Tibetan Buddhism who were political enemies of the Gelug school and had supported the Tsang dynasty. After the war, many Kagyu and Jonang monasteries were forcefully converted to Gelug monasteries. The writings of the Jonang school as well any literature from the Sakya masters who had attacked Tsongkhapa were also banned and their woodblock prints were locked away. The Dalai Lama's attitude towards Nyingma was different, and he supported the collection and preservation of Nyingma texts, as well as personally patronizing the Mindroling monastery and their leaders Terdag Lingpa and Lochen Dharmashri.


title: Gelug

text: The Sixth Dalai Lama (1683–1706) was an unconventional figure who liked to live as a layperson, refused monastic vows, drank alcohol, slept with women and write love poems and erotic poems. His verses are an important part of Tibetan poetry. His successor, the 7th Dalai Lama, was also a noted poet, but he wrote mainly on Buddhist and spiritual themes. The 7th Dalai Lama Kelzang Gyatso was a highly learned Buddhist scholar and wrote hundreds of titles on various Buddhist topics. During the time of the 7th, Tibet also became a protectorate of the Qing Empire under the Kangxi Emperor (r. 1661–1722).


title: Gelug

text: The 8th, 9th, 10th. 11th and 12th Dalai Lamas all died young and were not significant figures. Tibet was ruled by a series of regents during this period and experienced much political instability.


title: Gelug

text: During the 17th and 18th centuries, Gelug figures continued to produce new scholastic works. The development of the "tenets" (Tib. "grub mtha"', Skt. "siddhanta") genre (a form of doxography) became a particularly important element of Gelug education and scholarship. Perhaps the most influential Gelug doxographer was the great scholar Jamyang Shéba (1648– 1721), who wrote "Roar of the Five-Faced [Lion]," a series of verses on tenets"," and a huge commentary to this root text (around 530 folios), called "Great Exposition on Tenets". According to Daniel Cozort, Jamyang's works "are the most comprehensive of the tenets texts" (in Tibetan Buddhism). His reincarnation, Gönchok Jikmé Ongpo (1728–1791), is also known for his shorter tenets text called "Precious Garland of Tenets" as well as other works on the bodhisattva path.


title: Gelug

text: Other key Gelug scholars of this period include Changkya Rölpé Dorjé (1717-1786), who wrote "Presentation of Tenets", and Ngawang Belden (b. 1797), who wrote a major commentary on Jamyang’s "Great Exposition".


title: Gelug

text: Changkya Rölpé Dorjé is also known for his knowledge of languages and translation work and for being the main teacher in the Qing court of the Qianlong Emperor. Changkya oversaw the translation of the Tibetan Buddhist canon into Mongolian and Manchu, compiled a collection of the canon in four languages (Chinese, Manchurian, Mongolian and Tibetan) and also supervised the translation of the Śūraṅgama Sūtra into Tibetan.


title: Gelug

text: During the 18th century, Thuken Losang Chökyi Nyima (1737–1802), a student of Changkya, took the tenets genre one step further with his "Crystal Mirror of Philosophical Systems." According to Roger R. Jackson, this text is "arguably the widest-ranging account of religious philosophies ever written in pre-modern Tibet." This work of comparative philosophy and comparative religion discusses all schools of Tibetan Buddhism, Chinese Buddhism and Chinese religions as well as Indian, Mongolian and Khotanese religious systems.


title: Gelug

text: The 19th century saw the great figure of Shabkar Tsokdruk Rangdrol (1781-1851) who was an influential Gelug monk, poet and Dzogchen yogi who is particularly known for his non-sectarian study of various Tibetan Buddhist traditions, especially the Gelug and Nyingma traditions. His writings on non-sectarianism prefigure the rise of the Rime movement by about three decades. His autobiography and other works integrate the teachings of the Gelug tradition with that of the Nyingma school. Another Gelug master who was associated with non-sectarian activity was Minyak Kunzang Sonam (1823 - 1905). He was a Dzogchen practitioner and one of the four great Dharma heirs of the Nyingma master Patrul Rinpoche.


title: Gelug

text: During the era of the 13th Dalai Lama (1876 – 1933) Tibet reclaimed its independence from China and went through some reforms and modernization activities. The 13th focused on centralizing and modernizing the Tibetan state through developing a modern tax system, military, police and administration. These changes brought about some conflict from the elite Gelug institutions who were used to running their own finances, the most shocking of which was when the 9th Panchen Lama fled for China after losing a power struggle with the Dalai lama. The 13th Dalai Lama also launched a new modern printing of the Tibetan Buddhist canon.


title: Gelug

text: The 20th century saw several influential figures emerge from Gelug institutions, including Gendün Chöphel (1903–1951) and Pabongkha Déchen Nyingpo (1878–1941). During the reign of the 13th Dalai Lama, the so-called "Dorje Shugden controversy" began, spearheaded by the sectarian tendencies of Pabongkha. This division within the Gelug order was based on the worship of a protector deity named Dorje Shugden who was said to punish Gelugs who entered into practices from other Buddhist schools. 13th Dalai Lama (who himself practiced Nyingma Dzogchen and the deity Vajrakilaya) opposed this sectarianism.


title: Gelug

text: After the Annexation of Tibet by the People's Republic of China and thousands of Tibetan monasteries were destroyed or damaged (mainly during the 1959 Tibetan uprising and the Cultural Revolution of 1966–1976), and many Gelug monks, including the 14th Dalai Lama fled the country to India as part of the Tibetan diaspora. The three major Gelug monastic colleges (Sera, Drepung and Ganden) were recreated in India. The Dalai Lama's current seat is Namgyal Monastery at Dharamshala, this monastery also maintains a branch monastery in Ithaca, New York.


title: Gelug

text: The 14th Dalai Lama is a central leader of the modern Tibetan diaspora and continues to advocate for Tibetan autonomy and human rights as well as continuing to teach Tibetan Buddhism throughout the world. The Dalai Lama has met with numerous political and religious leaders, as well as scientists and philosophers and promotes nonviolence, interfaith dialogue, and the dialogue between Buddhism and science. The Dalai Lama has become one of the world's most admired religious figures.


title: Gelug

text: Numerous other Gelug teachers now teach in the West and Gelug centers have become a regular part of Western Buddhism. Perhaps the largest religious organization associated with the Gelug tradition is the Foundation for the Preservation of the Mahayana Tradition, founded in 1975 by Thubten Yeshe and Thubten Zopa Rinpoche. The organization runs numerous meditation centers, several monasteries such as Nalanda monastery in France and as well Maitripa College. Other influential Gelug lamas who have taught western Buddhists include Ngawang Wangyal, Lhundub Sopa (who founded Deer Park Buddhist Center and Monastery), Geshe Rabten, Choden Rinpoche, Kyabje Yongzin Ling Rinpoche, Geshe Lhakdor, and Dhardo Rinpoche. Some Gelug lamas also went on to receive a modern western university education and became published academics, such as Gelek Rinpoche, Geshe Thupten Jinpa, Geshe Gyeltsen, and Sonam Thakchoe.


title: Gelug

text: Some western students of diaspora Gelug lamas (some of which spent time as monastics) have also become scholars of Buddhism as well as translators and teachers, including Alexander Berzin, B. Alan Wallace, Robert Thurman, Robina Courtin, Jeffrey Hopkins, Donald S. Lopez Jr., José Cabezón, Guy Martin Newland, Nicholas Vreeland, Barry Kerzin, Glenn H. Mullin, and Gareth Sparham.


title: Gelug

text: An American Gelug bhiksuni, Thubten Chodron, is the founder and abbess of Sravasti Abbey, the only Tibetan Buddhist training monastery for Western bhiksunis (fully ordained female monastics) in the United States.


title: Gelug

text: After the brutal repression of Buddhism during the Maoist period, three Gelug scholars became important figures in the revival of Tibetan studies in the People's Republic of China. These were known as the “Three Polymaths”, which were Tséten Zhabdrung (1910–1985), Mugé Samten (1914–1993), and Dungkar Lozang Trinlé (1927–1997).


title: Gelug

text: The Mongolian Gelug school under by the 9th Jebtsundamba Khutughtu, led the revival of Mongolian Buddhism after the fall of communist rule in Mongolia in 1990. The Gelug tradition also has a strong traditional presence in modern Russian Republics like Buryatia, Kalmykia and Tuva.


title: Gelug

text: Tsongkhapa's works contain a systematic synthesis of Buddhist doctrine which provides a comprehensive vision of the Buddhist path, based on classical Indian Mahayana and Vajrayana. The main Mahayana teachings are found in various texts such as Tsongkhapa's the "Great Exposition of the Graded Path" ("Lam rim chen mo"), the "Middling Graded Path (Lam rim ‘bring ba)," and the "Small Graded Path" ("Lam rim chung ngu")"." Other related works include "The Three Principles of the Path, The Foundation of All Good Qualities." There are also various other expositions of the Lamrim by other figures such as the 3rd Dalai Lama's "Essence of Refined Gold" and Panchen Losang Chökyi Gyaltsen's "Easy Path" ("de lam").


title: Gelug

text: These Lamrim works are based on the teachings of the Indian master Atiśa (c. 11th century) in "A Lamp for the Path to Awakening" as well on the works of Shantideva and other Indian Madhyamaka authors. According to Gelug scholastics, Tsongkhapa's presentation of the stages of the path is traced through Atisha back to Nagarjuna (who received it from Manjushri). Tsongkhapa is also said to have incorporated elements from Asanga's presentation of the path (as taught to him by Maitreya).


title: Gelug

text: The presentation of samatha and vipaśyanā in Tsongkhapa's "Lamrim" is also based on eighth-century Indian teacher Kamalaśīla's "Bhāvanākrama" (Stages of Meditation). Another important text in Gelug is the "Book of Kadam" also known as the "Kadam Emanation Scripture" which includes teachings from Kadam masters like Atisha and Dromton.


title: Gelug

text: As the name indicates, this is a gradual path model in which the practitioner accomplishes varying stages of contemplation and training based on classical Indian Mahayana Buddhism. The presentation of the Buddhist path begins with beings on the lowest level (those who have wrong view and are filled with afflictions) and provides a gradual, step by step path out of this state through diligent training, ethical action and contemplation. According to Powers "the path is envisioned as proceeding in hierarchically arranged stages, and trainees are expected to complete each level before moving on to the next one."


title: Gelug

text: The highest scope of "Lamrim" culminates in the Vajrayana methods to aid in the speedy attainment of Buddhahood. Higher motivations are said to build on, but not to subvert the foundation of the earlier ones.


title: Gelug

text: In his "The Three Principles of the Path", Tsongkhapa outlines the three main elements of the path to awakening as follows:


title: Gelug

text: According to Tsongkhapa, these three elements contain the essence of all Buddhist teachings and practices and are the common goal of all scriptures, treatises and tantras. Furthermore, according to Tsongkhapa, these are not just introductory or partial elements, but essential foundations for all Buddhist practices, sutric (i.e. non-tantric Mahayana) or tantric.


title: Gelug

text: In Gelug, the achievement of the perfection of wisdom ("prajñaparamita") requires a proper understanding of the view of emptiness. In the "Lamrim chenmo," Tsongkhapa rejects the idea that all intellectual effort, concepts, and mental activity are obstacles to spiritual understanding. He also rejects certain views of emptiness, particularly the "shentong" (other emptiness) view, which is seen as a kind of eternalism or essentialism. The proper view of emptiness in the Gelug school is considered to be the prāsangika mādhyamika philosophy of Nagarjuna and Chandrakirti as interpreted by Tsongkhapa. According to Jay Garfield, Tsongkhapa's view is "a synthesis of the epistemology and logic of Dharmakirti with the metaphysics of Nagarjuna."


title: Gelug

text: The correct view of emptiness is initially established through study and reasoning in order to ascertain if phenomena are the way they appear. Gelug texts contain many explanations to help one obtain a conceptual understanding of emptiness and to practice insight meditation ("vipasyana"). Gelug meditation includes an analytical kind of insight practice which is "the point-by-point contemplation of the logical arguments of the teachings, culminating in those for the voidness of self and all phenomena."


title: Gelug

text: According to John Powers:The initial use of reasoning enables the meditator to recognize that all phenomena are empty of inherent existence, and the fact that one is able to demonstrate this through reasoned proofs makes the conviction unshakable. Merely gaining a conceptual apprehension, however, is not enough: one must deepen the understanding of emptiness through repeated familiarization. The more one trains in emptiness, the deeper one’s discernment becomes, until one transcends the need for conceptual thought, and one’s awareness of emptiness reaches the level of direct perception, such that when one considers a phenomenon in meditation, one immediately apprehends its absence of inherent existence.For Tsongkhapa, the training in insight and wisdom is closely associated with training in compassion. Training in insight into emptiness deepens compassion and vice verse. Both reinforce and strengthen each other.


title: Gelug

text: The Gelug school focuses on ethics and monastic discipline of the "vinaya" as the central plank of spiritual practice. In particular, the need to pursue spiritual practice in a graded, sequential manner is emphasized. Arguably, Gelug is the only school of vajrayāna Buddhism that prescribes monastic ordination as a necessary qualification and basis in its teachers (lamas / gurus). Lay people are usually not permitted to give initiations if there are teachers with monastic vows within close proximity.


title: Gelug

text: The tantric practices of the Gelug school are also integrated into the stages of the path model by Tsongkhapa's "The Great Exposition of Secret Mantra". This is combined with the tantric deity yogas of Anuttarayoga Tantras such as the "Guhyasamāja, Cakrasaṃvara, Yamāntaka" and "Kālacakra" tantras.


title: Gelug

text: For Tsongkhapa, Vajrayana practice requires bodhicitta and insight into emptiness (through "vipaśyanā" meditation) as a foundation, and thus, non-tantric Mahayana (and its three principal aspects of renunciation, bodhicitta and insight into emptiness) is seen as indispensable for Vajrayana in Gelug. Indeed, according to Tsongkhapa, without having ascertained emptiness, one cannot practice the tantric yogas of Vajrayana.


title: Gelug

text: The Gelug school also follows Tsongkhapa's view that Vajrayana is only differentiated from sutra by its special method, the esoteric practice of deity yoga, which is considered to be a much faster method than the practice of the six perfections alone.


title: Gelug

text: Tsongkhapa's tantric practice and theory focuses on the "Guhyasamāja tantra", a text which he considered to be the "king of tantras". Tsongkhapa referred to himself as a ""Guhyasamāja" yogi" and saw himself as a reviver and reformer of the tradition. As such, the "Guhyasamāja tantra" is the principal tantra for the Gelug school. As the Dalai Lama remarks:


title: Gelug

text: Tsongkhapa also incorporated the tantric practice of the Six Yogas of Naropa, and Mahamudra, from the Dagpo Kagyu lineages. This tradition was continued by the first Panchen Lama, who composed "A Root Text for the Precious Gelug/Kagyü Tradition of Mahamudra".


title: Gelug

text: The Gelug tradition also maintains Dzogchen teachings; Lozang Gyatso, 5th Dalai Lama (1617-1682), Thubten Gyatso, 13th Dalai Lama ( 1876–1933), and Tenzin Gyatso, 14th Dalai Lama are some Gelug-pa Dzogchen masters. Likewise the practice of Chöd was taught by Gelug-pas such as Kyabje Zong Rinpoche.


title: Gelug

text: The Gelug tradition also has a unique lineage of oral instructions which is traced back to the teachings received by Tsongkhapa from the bodhisattva Mañjuśrī (Tib. "Jampalyang"). There are two main linages of this Ganden Mañjuśrī cycle of oral instructions, these are the Ensa tradition (stemming from Gyalwa Ensapa Losang Dondrup) and the Segyu lineage (stemming from Je Sherab Sengye). The teachings of the popular Lama Chöpa practice come down through the Ensa lineage.


title: Gelug

text: According to David Gonsalez:Manjushri instructed Tsongkhapa to combine the teachings on the clear light and illusory body from the "Guhyasamāja" Tantra, the teachings on inner fire and the use of an action mudra from the "Cakrasaṃvara" Tantra, and the practice of Vajrabhairava, using these as a means of increasing wisdom and overcoming obstacles. With this as the foundation for his tantric practice he should establish a basis of lamrim and lojong that is centered on the practice of guru yoga. Manjushri proceeded to give Tsongkhapa detailed teachings on all aspects of the aforementioned teachings and advised him to consolidate them all into a single practice. This was the impetus for the origins of Lama Chöpa. From these instructions there arose a very secret system of guru yoga that was transmitted orally from guru to disciple.


title: Gelug

text: The Gelug school developed a highly structured system of scholastic study which was based on the memorization and study of key texts as well as formal debate. The primary topics and texts used in study are:


title: Gelug

text: All Gelug colleges study commentaries to these texts written by Tsongkhapa, Gyaltsab Je and Kedrub Je.


title: Gelug

text: Each Gelug monastery also uses its own set of commentarial textbooks ("yig-cha") which were written to explain further scholastic details and interpretative issues. The various sets of Gelug textbooks differ on numerous fine points of interpretation. Major textbook sets include:


title: Gelug

text: For each topic studied, the procedure is similar. The process starts with the heuristic memorization of the root text and sometimes of its commentaries. It continues with the interpretation of the root text through commentaries, and culminates in dialectical debate.


title: Gelug

text: After the study of the exoteric texts, a monk may then enter the esoteric study and practice of tantric texts, particularly the Guhyasamāja, Yamāntaka, and Cakrasamvara tantras.


title: Gelug

text: A monk who has completed all his studies may then attempt a geshe degree, a title rare and difficult to obtain which can take 15 to 25 years to complete. According to John Powers, "although the Gélukpa tradition recognizes some people as tülkus—beings who are reincarnations of great lamas—the various levels of scholarly achievement are open to any male who is able to complete the program successfully." There are no major restrictions on a monk's ability to attain the various scholastic ranks and geshe degrees other than skill, and they may come from any social class, family or region. Several Westerners have completed the degree in the modern era.


title: Gelug

text: Powers also writes that: "the primary method of examination is oral debate, in which a monk must be able quickly to evaluate a wide range of philosophical positions, defend any of them against any other, and triumph (or at least hold his own) in a no-holds-barred intellectual contest. The debates are generally very lively...The stated purpose of the exercise is to develop the intellects of the monks, and it is felt that direct dialectical confrontation accomplishes this goal by training them to defend philosophical positions, to think on their feet, and to critically examine their doctrines and positions."Alexander Berzin notes that in Tibet, there used to only be two examinations (rgyugs-sprod): memorization exam (blo-rgyugs) and debate exams (rtsod-rgyugs). However, according to Berzin, "since the reforms of the Fourteenth Dalai Lama in India, they must also pass each year a written exam (bri-rgyugs), a poetry composition exam (rtsom-bri), and a Tibetan culture and religious history exam (rgyal-rabs chos-byung)."


title: Gelug

text: After attaining a monastic degree, it is common to enter a long meditation retreat, often lasting three years or proceed to tantric (Vajrayana) studies. According to Powers "the logic behind this system is based on the idea that one should first gain a thorough grounding in Buddhist scriptures, philosophy, doctrines, and practice before engaging in full-time meditation. Trainees who thoroughly understand what they are meditating on will be less likely to go astray in meditation than those whose understanding is merely superficial."


title: Gelug

text: Tsongkhapa founded the monastery of Ganden in 1409 as his main seat. Drepung Monastery was founded by Jamyang Choje, Sera Monastery was founded by Chöje Shakya Yeshe, and Tashi Lhunpo Monastery was founded by Gyalwa Gendün Drup, the 1st Dalai Lama. These four were the largest and most powerful Gelug monasteries in Tibet. Before the Chinese occupation Ganden and Sera each had about 5,000 monks, while Drepung housed over 7,000.


title: Gelug

text: Labrang Monastery, in Xiahe County in Gansu province (and in the traditional Tibetan province of Amdo), was founded in 1709 by the first Jamyang Zhaypa, Ngawang Tsondru. Many Gelug monasteries and temples were also built throughout Tibet as well as in China and Mongolia.


title: Gelug

text: After Tsongkhapa's passing, his teachings were held and spread by Gyaltsab Je and Khedrup Gelek Pelzang, who were his successors as abbots of Ganden Monastery. These were the first "Ganden Tripa" ("dGa’-ldan khri-pa", Ganden Throne Holder), an office which became the official head of the entire Gelug school. The lineage is still held by the present holder is Thubten Nyima Lungtok Tenzin Norbu, the 102nd Ganden Tripa (and not, as often misunderstood, by the Dalai Lama).


title: Gelug

text: Ganden Tripa is an elected position held by the most senior ex-abbots of Gyume and Gyuto Upper and Lower Tantric Colleges. The office lasts for seven years only. This is in contrast to the other Tibetan schools, who are led either by specific tulkus (reincarnation lineages like the Karmapas) or by a specific clan (like the Sakya school, led by the Khön family).


title: Jean Vander Pyl

text: Jean Thurston Vander Pyl (October 11, 1919 – April 10, 1999) was an American voice actress. Although her career spanned many decades, she is best known as the voice of Wilma Flintstone for the Hanna-Barbera cartoon "The Flintstones". In addition to Wilma Flintstone, she also provided the voices of Pebbles Flintstone, Rosie the robot maid on the animated series "The Jetsons", Goldie, Lola Glamour, Nurse LaRue, and other characters in "Top Cat", Winsome Witch on "The Secret Squirrel Show", and Ogee on "The Magilla Gorilla Show".


title: Jean Vander Pyl

text: Vander Pyl was born in Philadelphia to John Howard and Kathleen Hale Vander Pyl. Her grandfather had come from the Netherlands. Her father was the district manager for Knit Underwear; her mother was a Southerner from Tennessee. The two died within six months of each other in the early 1950s. By 1939, she was already working as a radio actress.


title: Jean Vander Pyl

text: On radio, she was heard on such programs as "The Halls of Ivy" (1950–52) and on "Father Knows Best" during the early 1950s, where she portrayed Margaret Anderson; the role was played on television by Jane Wyatt. Her husband, Carroll G. O'Meara, was a graduate of Stanford University who worked as a copywriter at KHJ radio in the mid-1930s and later became an advertising executive.


title: Jean Vander Pyl

text: Vander Pyl made numerous TV appearances as an actress in programs such as "Leave It to Beaver", "The Donna Reed Show", "Father Knows Best", "The Beverly Hillbillies", "That Girl", and "Petticoat Junction". One of her final TV appearances was in the opening scene of the season-two "Murder, She Wrote" episode, "One Good Bid Deserves a Murder". Vander Pyl also had a cameo appearance in the 1994 live-action film version of "The Flintstones" as Mrs. Feldspar, an elderly woman in a conga line right behind Dino.


title: Jean Vander Pyl

text: Vander Pyl was the voice of Wilma Flintstone, her best-known character, in the original "Flintstones" series. She told an interviewer in 1995 that she received $250 per episode for making "The Flintstones", and in 1966, when the series ended, she rushed to accept $15,000 in lieu of residual payments from syndication. "The Flintstones" ran in syndication across the globe for decades. At the time, Vander Pyl lived in San Clemente, California, and remarked: "If I got residuals, I wouldn't live in San Clemente. I'd "own" San Clemente."


title: Jean Vander Pyl

text: Most of her other voice acting work was also for the Hanna-Barbera studio, where she played her first voice role in 1958 on an episode of "The Huckleberry Hound Show", voicing an actress in the "Yogi Bear" episode, "Show Biz Bear". She did additional voices, the Narrator and Southern belles and beautiful girls, on "The Quick Draw McGraw Show", "Snagglepuss", and "The Yogi Bear Show". In 1961–62, Vander Pyl played Nurse Larue, Charlie the baby, Goldie, Lola Glamour, and additional voices on multiple episodes of "Top Cat" and in 1962, she did another memorable role, as Rosie, the Jetsons' robotic maid, and 23 years later in 1985 she reprised the character on the returning series.


title: Jean Vander Pyl

text: Later, she did the voices of Maw Rugg and her daughter Floral Rugg on a rural cartoon, "The Hillbilly Bears" and "Winsome Witch"; both shows were part of "The Atom Ant/Secret Squirrel Show" (1965–1967). Jean Vander Pyl was also the voice of Little Ogee on "The Magilla Gorilla Show". In 1969, Vander Pyl guest-starred on the "Scooby-Doo, Where Are You!" episode "Foul Play in Funland", playing Sarah Jenkins.


title: Jean Vander Pyl

text: In the 1970s, she was the voice of Marge Huddles, the main character's wife on "Where's Huddles?", in which she played a role similar to that of Wilma Flintstone and was reunited with her "Flintstones" cast members Alan Reed and Mel Blanc. She went on to voice Mrs. Finkerton on "Inch High, Private Eye", and several female characters on "Hong Kong Phooey", "The Tom and Jerry Show", and "Captain Caveman and the Teen Angels".


title: Jean Vander Pyl

text: In the 1980s and 1990s, she did voices on "Mister T", "Snorks", and "Yogi's Treasure Hunt", and also on "The Flintstone Kids" as Mrs. Slaghoople. She mostly reprised Wilma Flintstone on spin-off series and films such as "The Flintstone Comedy Hour", "The New Fred and Barney Show", "The Flintstone Comedy Show", "The Jetsons Meet the Flintstones", "I Yabba-Dabba Do!", "Hollyrock-a-Bye Baby", and "A Flintstones Christmas Carol".


title: Jean Vander Pyl

text: Her last roles were again as Wilma Flintstone on "What a Cartoon!" episode "" in 1995, "A Flintstone Family Christmas" in 1996 and on "The Weird Al Show" in 1997.


title: Jean Vander Pyl

text: Vander Pyl was married twice and was a widow twice over. First to Carroll G. O'Meara on March 9, 1939; together they had three children, O'Meara died on February 18, 1962, at the age of 53. She then married her second husband Roger Wells DeWitt in 1963; the couple had one son, they remained married until DeWitt's death in 1992.


title: Jean Vander Pyl

text: On April 10, 1999, Vander Pyl, the last surviving original cast member of "The Flintstones", died of lung cancer at her home in Dana Point, California, at the age of 79. Vander Pyl was interred in Ascension Cemetery in Lake Forest, California.


title: FGM-172 SRAW

text: The FGM-172 SRAW (Short-Range Assault Weapon), also known as the Predator SRAW, was a lightweight, close range missile system produced by Lockheed Martin, developed by Lockheed Martin and Israel Military Industries. It is designed to complement the FGM-148 Javelin anti-tank missile. The Predator had a longer range and was more powerful than the AT4 that it was designed to replace, but had a shorter range than the Javelin.


title: FGM-172 SRAW

text: The missile system received the "FGM-172" designation from the United States Department of Defense in 2006. Before that it was known as the "SRAW MK 40 MOD 0".


title: FGM-172 SRAW

text: The Predator was a fire-and-forget weapon utilizing a system called predicted line of sight (PLOS). In this system, the operator tracks the target for a short time (at least 2 seconds and no more than 12) before launch. This data is then combined with known missile flight performance to predict a flight path that will intercept the target's course, and program the missile's autopilot system. An inertial guidance unit is incorporated into the autopilot to compensate for crosswind and other factors encountered in flight. The original FGM-172A was an "overfly top attack" (OTA) type and used a downward-facing dual laser and magnetic sensor to detect a target and trigger detonation of the warhead. The laser sensor would locate the positions of the leading and trailing edges of a vehicle, and the magnetic sensor would confirm the position of the vehicle. Once a target is detected, the FGM-172A would fire an explosively formed penetrator downward, into what was intended to be the thinner armor of a tank turret roof. The missile does not "lock on" to a specific target, rather, the FGM-172A would attack the first potential target it encountered during flight. For this reason, TM 10687A OR/C directs operators to avoid firing the weapon over destroyed vehicles.


title: FGM-172 SRAW

text: The FGM-172B altered the flight control systems for a direct intercept rather than an overfly course, and featured a dual-mode impact fuze with an automatic time delay if the missile struck a soft target.


title: FGM-172 SRAW

text: The "FGM-172A" had a downward-firing top attack warhead activated by a dual sensor fuse, intended for use as an anti-armor weapon.


title: FGM-172 SRAW

text: The "FGM-172B" had a multi-purpose blast-fragmentation warhead, intended for use as an assault weapon. Also known as the FGM-172B SRAW-MPV.


title: FGM-172 SRAW

text: The Short-Range Assault Weapon (SRAW) program was begun by the U.S. Marine Corps in 1987 as a replacement for existing unguided M72 LAW and AT4 anti-armor rockets. A demonstration and validation phase was conducted by several companies between February 1990 and mid-1993, with the first test firings occurring in 1991. In July 1994, the Predator design of Loral (now Lockheed Martin) was selected for the "engineering and manufacturing development" (EMD) phase. EMD Phase I was completed in March 1998, followed by Phase II; 230 missiles were produced during EMD. In February 2002, the Marine Corps signed a contract with Lockheed Martin for the "low-rate initial production" (LRIP) of 330 Predator systems, with a second LRIP contract for 400 systems signed in January 2003. In October 2003, the Marine Corps announced a decision to cancel further procurement of the system following completion of low-rate production. The system successfully completed first article and lot 1 testing at the Naval Air Warfare Center, China Lake, California in December 2003. In June 2004, Lockheed Martin received a contract to refit all 700 remaining SRAW rounds to the FGM-172B SRAW-MPV (Multi-Purpose Variant) configuration with a new multi-purpose blast-fragmentation warhead, converting the system from an anti-armor to a direct-fire urban assault weapon effective against buildings and bunkers, which better fulfilled the needs of the Marines in response to requirements identified during Operation Iraqi Freedom; delivery of the first 400 rounds was completed in May 2005. As of 2005, all the FGM-172A missiles supplied formerly to the USMC had been retrofitted with the FGM-172B multi-purpose blast warhead to replace the top attack anti-armor warhead.


title: FGM-172 SRAW

text: The "Kestrel" was a derivative of the Predator for the British Army's Next-generation Light Anti-tank Weapon (NLAW) programme. In 2000, the UK Ministry of Defence carried out trials of 13 Kestrels. In May 2002, Saab Bofors Dynamics' MBT-LAW was chosen for the UK NLAW requirement. In 2003, the U.S. Army decided not to adopt a version of the Predator as its "Multipurpose Individual Munition – Short Range Assault Weapon" (MPIM/SRAW) candidate.


title: Trolltunga

text: Trolltunga ("Troll tongue") is a rock formation situated about above sea level in Ullensvang Municipality in Vestland county, Norway. The cliff juts horizontally out from the mountain, about above the north side of the lake Ringedalsvatnet.