title: Equivalence class

text: In abstract algebra, congruence relations on the underlying set of an algebra allow the algebra to induce an algebra on the equivalence classes of the relation, called a quotient algebra. In linear algebra, a quotient space is a vector space formed by taking a quotient group, where the quotient homomorphism is a linear map. By extension, in abstract algebra, the term quotient space may be used for quotient modules, quotient rings, quotient groups, or any quotient algebra. However, the use of the term for the more general cases can as often be by analogy with the orbits of a group action.


title: Equivalence class

text: The orbits of a group action on a set may be called the quotient space of the action on the set, particularly when the orbits of the group action are the right cosets of a subgroup of a group, which arise from the action of the subgroup on the group by left translations, or respectively the left cosets as orbits under right translation.


title: Equivalence class

text: A normal subgroup of a topological group, acting on the group by translation action, is a quotient space in the senses of topology, abstract algebra, and group actions simultaneously.


title: Equivalence class

text: Although the term can be used for any equivalence relation's set of equivalence classes, possibly with further structure, the intent of using the term is generally to compare that type of equivalence relation on a set formula_94 either to an equivalence relation that induces some structure on the set of equivalence classes from a structure of the same kind on formula_94 or to the orbits of a group action. Both the sense of a structure preserved by an equivalence relation, and the study of invariants under group actions, lead to the definition of invariants of equivalence relations given above.


title: Seymour Durst

text: Seymour Bernard Durst (September 7, 1913 – May 15, 1995) was an American real estate investor and developer. He was the creator of the National Debt Clock.


title: Seymour Durst

text: Durst was born in the Washington Heights neighborhood of New York City, a son of Joseph Durst, a Jewish immigrant from Gorlice, Galicia, Austria-Hungary (present-day Poland), and Rose Friedwald.


title: Seymour Durst

text: His father was a tailor who arrived penniless to the United States, eventually becoming a successful dress manufacturer and then expanding into real estate management and development. His father was also active in the Jewish community, serving on the executive committee of the Jewish Education Association and serving as president of the Hebrew Free Loan Society for 27 years. He had four siblings: Roy, Alma, Edwin and David. In 1931, Durst graduated from the Horace Mann School in Riverdale, the Bronx. In 1935, he graduated from the University of Southern California, where he majored in accounting.


title: Seymour Durst

text: In 1940, Durst joined the real estate firm, The Durst Organization, which had been founded by his father. After his father's death in 1974, Seymour became more involved in the company. The company invested in Manhattan real estate, based upon Durst's belief that one should never buy anything one cannot walk to.


title: Seymour Durst

text: While on holiday in Paris, France in the early 1960s, Durst noticed a book on the history of New York City by a German author in a mom and pop bookstore. He later remarked: "I figured if a German wrote a book about NYC that was available in Paris, that this was an interesting subject indeed." Gradually, over time, what started as a hobby resulted in a private collection that came to be known as The Old York Library. Originally housed in a brownstone on East 48th street in midtown Manhattan in the 1970s, the library later moved to another brownstone at 120 East 61st Street. After Durst's death in May 1995, the library was first relocated to the City University of New York in the B. Altman Building across from the Empire State Building. Currently it resides at Columbia University's Avery Architectural And Fine Arts Library where it is open to the public.


title: Seymour Durst

text: Seymour Durst was vocal about his beliefs that the government should not interfere in real estate transactions. However, his son and successor, Douglas Durst, received interest-free, government-issued Liberty Bonds under Governor George Pataki, and also successfully used eminent domain to facilitate the family's growing real estate interests. The former subsidized the cost of building massive projects in both midtown and downtown Manhattan, and the latter enabled the Durst family to take holdout properties on West 42nd Street, where 4 Times Square and 1 Bryant Park were built.


title: Seymour Durst

text: Durst was also concerned with the national debt. In 1989, Durst created and installed the National Debt Clock on a Durst Organization property in order to draw attention to the then $2.7 trillion debt. For a time, the clock had to be temporarily shut down in order to add another digit as the debt continued to climb.


title: Seymour Durst

text: Bernice Herstein Durst (1918–1950) died in 1950 at the age of 32 as a result of falling or jumping off the roof of their family home in Scarsdale. It was never determined if the death was an accident or a suicide. Their son Robert has said that he witnessed the event; his brother, Douglas, has stated that none of the children witnessed the accident. Durst never remarried.


title: Seymour Durst

text: After Durst's death, his son Douglas and nephew Jonathan (the son of his brother David) became more involved in the family business, The Durst Organization.


title: Erin McGathy

text: Erin McGathy is an American podcast host, artist, and comedian. She hosted the podcast "This Feels Terrible", appeared and improvised in "Harmontown", and co-hosted "Human Conversation" with Wayne Federman.


title: Erin McGathy

text: McGathy was born in Japan and was raised in San Diego, California. She is the daughter of a preacher. She started in improvisational comedy in high school.


title: Erin McGathy

text: McGathy began performing at the Upright Citizen's Brigade Theatre in 2007. Her solo show about relationships, "This Feels Terrible", premiered at UCB in 2010. It later became a podcast, with McGathy interviewing comedians and friends about their relationships. Notable guests included comedians Marc Maron, Dan Harmon, Wayne Federman, and director Rob Schrab.


title: Erin McGathy

text: McGathy became a frequent guest and "comptroller" on the "Harmontown" podcast. McGathy was a regular character on the show's "Dungeons & Dragons" segment and subsequently a cast member in the spin-off animated series from Seeso, "HarmonQuest".


title: Erin McGathy

text: Beginning in March 2015, McGathy co-hosts the podcast "Human Conversation" with comedian Wayne Federman, in which the two discuss various, oft-delightful and meandering topics, without the aid of technology.


title: Erin McGathy

text: The co-creator of the Adult Swim series Rick and Morty Dan Harmon and McGathy were married in November 2014. Their relationship was one focus of the "Harmontown" documentary, which detailed the podcast's tour across America. They announced that they were divorcing in October 2015.


title: Rude (song)

text: "Rude" is the debut single by Canadian band Magic! from their debut studio album, "Don't Kill the Magic". It was originally released on October 11, 2013, as a promotional single and then re-released on February 24, 2014, by Sony Music Entertainment. The official remix for the song features Kid Ink and Ty Dolla Sign, with fellow Blink-182 member Travis Barker on the drums.


title: Rude (song)

text: "Rude" was an international commercial success amidst mixed reception from music critics. The song peaked at number six on the Canadian Hot 100 and internationally topped the charts in the United States and the United Kingdom and peaked within the top ten of the charts in Australia, New Zealand, Ireland, Denmark, the Netherlands and Sweden. "Rude" was the ninth best-selling song of 2014, with global sales of 8.6 million units, and won the Juno Award for Single of the Year.


title: Rude (song)

text: "Rude" was written by Nasri, Adam Messinger, Mark Pellizzer, Ben Spivak and Alex Tanas, and produced by Adam Messinger. According to the sheet music published by Sony/ATV Music Publishing at Musicnotes.com, "Rude" is a reggae fusion song set in common time with a tempo of 144 beats per minute. This song is written in the key of B minor.


title: Rude (song)

text: "Rude" was named after the reggae term "rude boy" and originally based on a real-life situation. The lead singer of Magic!, Nasri, had been in an unhealthy relationship with a previous girlfriend. After the two of them got into a fight with each other, the band based the song off that headline. The couple was in a "mean time" when they were both being rude to each other, as Nasri says in what he describes as a "dark vibe".


title: Rude (song)

text: Critical reviews for "Rude" have been mixed. 4Music complimented the song, saying: "One listen and you'll be hooked." An article in "Psychology Today" drew a connection between the lyrics of the song and social attitudes about interracial relationships, while "Time" magazine named "Rude" the tenth-worst song of 2014, criticizing its "sanitized reggae-fusion sound" and lyrics. Renowned for Sound gave "Rude" a 4 out of 5 star rating, calling the track "lighthearted fun."


title: Rude (song)

text: The music video features the band singing the song in a garage while scenes show Nasri in a relationship with a woman played by model Ayla Parker. After this, Nasri asks her conservative father, played by actor Brian Knudson, for her hand in marriage, but the father refuses and won't explain why. The mother, played by actress Mary Kay McCartney, is somewhat softer. Eventually, Nasri secretly proposes to her and together with the rest of the band, try to convince the father, but he still refuses. Nasri marries her anyway and all party in the garage as Parker proclaims her love for Nasri and she abandons her overprotective father's house once and for all. The video was released on the band's YouTube account on December 5, 2013. As of September 2020, the video has over 2 billion views on YouTube, and is one of the top 70 most viewed videos on the site.


title: Rude (song)

text: On December 9, 2013, the band made their Australian television debut on "Sunrise", where they performed "Rude". In June 2014, the band performed an acoustic version of the song on "On Air with Ryan Seacrest". In July, they performed it on "The View" and on "The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon". On August 10, 2014, the band performed the song at the 2014 Teen Choice Awards. Magic! and American singer Marc Anthony performed a Spanglish version of the song at the 15th Latin Grammy Awards ceremony in 2014 with Anthony singing parts of the song in Spanish.


title: Rude (song)

text: In September 2014, 15ECONDS (now Aviwkila) performed the song on Rising Star Indonesia. Their performance got a 94% approval rating from viewers.


title: Rude (song)

text: On July 15, 2015, Postmodern Jukebox released a cover version of the song on YouTube, featuring Von Smith.


title: Rude (song)

text: On 2 September 2014, Russian-German DJ and record producer Zedd released a remix of the song through Sony Music Entertainment lasting 4 minutes and 33 seconds.


title: Rude (song)

text: "Rude" entered the US "Billboard" Hot 100 at number 97 on May 10, 2014. On the issue dated July 26, 2014, the song reached number one, marking their first and only number-one single. "Rude" spent six consecutive weeks at number one. On the chart issue dated September 6, 2014, the song tumbled from number one to number 5 on the Hot 100 as Taylor Swift's "Shake It Off" debuted atop the chart. This is the first time since The Black Eyed Peas' "I Gotta Feeling" that a song fell all the way to the number 5 spot after spending as many as six weeks atop the chart. The song spent 16 weeks in the chart's top 10. Magic! is the sixth Canadian band to top the "Billboard" Hot 100, the first since Nickelback with "How You Remind Me" in 2001. It is also the ninth reggae song to reach the summit, the last being Sean Paul's "Get Busy" in 2003.


title: Rude (song)

text: "Rude" reached number two on the "Billboard" Hot Digital Songs on June 18, 2014, selling 207,000 digital copies. The following week the song peaked at number one, selling 210,000. It is only the second reggae song to top the "Billboard" Hot Digital Songs, after Sean Kingston's "Beautiful Girls" in 2007. The song was certified three-times Platinum by the RIAA in September 2014 and has sold 3 million copies in the US, as of January 2015.


title: Rude (song)

text: "Rude" peaked at number six on the Canadian Hot 100 and remained on the chart for 69 weeks. In Australia, "Rude" peaked at number two on the Australian Singles Chart. In New Zealand, the song peaked at number two on the New Zealand Singles Chart. In the United Kingdom, "Rude" debuted at number 50 on the UK Singles Chart on July 20, 2014 ― for the week ending date July 26, 2014 ― before climbing to number two a week later. The song topped the chart on August 3, 2014 ― for the week ending date August 9, 2014 ― becoming Magic!'s first chart-topper in Britain. The song peaked at number two in Ireland.


title: Automobile repair shop

text: An automobile repair shop (also known regionally as a garage or a workshop) is an establishment where automobiles are repaired by auto mechanics and technicians.


title: Charlene White

text: Charlene Denise White (born 22 June 1980) is a British television broadcaster, journalist and presenter, best known for presenting "ITV News" programmes. She has been an anchor on "Loose Women" since 2021 and appeared on the ITV reality show "I’m A Celebrity…Get Me Out Of Here!" in November 2022.


title: Charlene White

text: White was born in Greenwich, London, to West Indian parents. She has a brother and sister. She attended Riverston School and Blackheath High School in southeast London and graduated from the London College of Printing.


title: Charlene White

text: White was a presenter and senior broadcast journalist at "BBC Look East", Radio 5 Live "Morning Reports", BBC Three "60 Seconds" and BBC News. She also had her own late-night talk show on BBC London 94.9.


title: Charlene White

text: In 2002, she joined Radio 1 "Newsbeat" and its sister digital station BBC Radio 1Xtra as a reporter. In 2005 she teamed up with DJ G Money as presenter on 1Xtra's two-hour news, magazine and documentary programme "TX". She has also previously worked as a reporter and producer for "ITV News Meridian" on ITV Meridian in Kent.


title: Charlene White

text: In 2008, she joined ITN, as a newscaster for the "" on ITV. Additionally she would present three short opts which aired as part of GMTV (later "Daybreak") for "ITV News London" on ITV London. She discontinued these roles on 10 October 2012, though remained as a presenter of "ITV News London"s main 6pm programme.


title: Charlene White

text: On 9 April 2014, White became the first black woman to present "ITV News at Ten" and was an occasional relief presenter until October 2015. She also occasionally presented the "ITV Weekend News" until 2019.


title: Charlene White

text: On 12 August 2020, White made her debut as a guest presenter of "Loose Women". She returned on 11 January 2021, where it was announced she was to become a regular presenter, following Andrea McLean's departure from the show.


title: Charlene White

text: In November 2022, White appeared in series 22 of "I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here!". On day 13, White was the first celebrity to be evicted.


title: Charlene White

text: While presenting an ITV News bulletin, she refused to wear a Remembrance Day poppy, stating: "I prefer to be neutral and impartial on screen so that one of those charities doesn't feel less favoured than another." It was reported that following the decision to not wear a poppy, she faced racist and sexist abuse on Twitter.


title: Charlene White

text: In the 2020 and 2021 editions of the "Powerlist", White was listed in the Top 100 of the most influential people in the UK of African/African-Caribbean descent.


title: Harmonic analysis

text: Harmonic analysis is a branch of mathematics concerned with the representation of functions or signals as the superposition of basic waves, and the study of and generalization of the notions of Fourier series and Fourier transforms (i.e. an extended form of Fourier analysis). In the past two centuries, it has become a vast subject with applications in areas as diverse as number theory, representation theory, signal processing, quantum mechanics, tidal analysis and neuroscience.


title: Harmonic analysis

text: The term "harmonics" originated as the Ancient Greek word "harmonikos", meaning "skilled in music". In physical eigenvalue problems, it began to mean waves whose frequencies are integer multiples of one another, as are the frequencies of the harmonics of music notes, but the term has been generalized beyond its original meaning.


title: Harmonic analysis

text: The classical Fourier transform on R is still an area of ongoing research, particularly concerning Fourier transformation on more general objects such as tempered distributions. For instance, if we impose some requirements on a distribution "f", we can attempt to translate these requirements in terms of the Fourier transform of "f". The Paley–Wiener theorem is an example of this. The Paley–Wiener theorem immediately implies that if "f" is a nonzero distribution of compact support (these include functions of compact support), then its Fourier transform is never compactly supported (i.e. if a signal is limited in one domain, it is unlimited in the other). This is a very elementary form of an uncertainty principle in a harmonic-analysis setting.


title: Harmonic analysis

text: Fourier series can be conveniently studied in the context of Hilbert spaces, which provides a connection between harmonic analysis and functional analysis. There are four versions of the Fourier transform, dependent on the spaces that are mapped by the transformation (discrete/periodic–discrete/periodic: discrete Fourier transform, continuous/periodic–discrete/aperiodic: Fourier series, discrete/aperiodic–continuous/periodic: discrete-time Fourier transform, continuous/aperiodic–continuous/aperiodic: Fourier transform).


title: Harmonic analysis

text: One of the most modern branches of harmonic analysis, having its roots in the mid-20th century, is analysis on topological groups. The core motivating ideas are the various Fourier transforms, which can be generalized to a transform of functions defined on Hausdorff locally compact topological groups.


title: Harmonic analysis

text: Harmonic analysis studies the properties of that duality and Fourier transform and attempts to extend those features to different settings, for instance, to the case of non-abelian Lie groups.


title: Harmonic analysis

text: For general non-abelian locally compact groups, harmonic analysis is closely related to the theory of unitary group representations. For compact groups, the Peter–Weyl theorem explains how one may get harmonics by choosing one irreducible representation out of each equivalence class of representations. This choice of harmonics enjoys some of the useful properties of the classical Fourier transform in terms of carrying convolutions to pointwise products, or otherwise showing a certain understanding of the underlying group structure. See also: Non-commutative harmonic analysis.


title: Harmonic analysis

text: If the group is neither abelian nor compact, no general satisfactory theory is currently known ("satisfactory" means at least as strong as the Plancherel theorem). However, many specific cases have been analyzed, for example SL. In this case, representations in infinite dimensions play a crucial role.


title: Harmonic analysis

text: Many applications of harmonic analysis in science and engineering begin with the idea or hypothesis that a phenomenon or signal is composed of a sum of individual oscillatory components. Ocean tides and vibrating strings are common and simple examples. The theoretical approach is often to try to describe the system by a differential equation or system of equations to predict the essential features, including the amplitude, frequency, and phases of the oscillatory components. The specific equations depend on the field, but theories generally try to select equations that represent major principles that are applicable.


title: Harmonic analysis

text: The experimental approach is usually to acquire data that accurately quantifies the phenomenon. For example, in a study of tides, the experimentalist would acquire samples of water depth as a function of time at closely enough spaced intervals to see each oscillation and over a long enough duration that multiple oscillatory periods are likely included. In a study on vibrating strings, it is common for the experimentalist to acquire a sound waveform sampled at a rate at least twice that of the highest frequency expected and for a duration many times the period of the lowest frequency expected.


title: Harmonic analysis

text: For example, the top signal at the right is a sound waveform of a bass guitar playing an open string corresponding to an A note with a fundamental frequency of 55 Hz. The waveform appears oscillatory, but it is more complex than a simple sine wave, indicating the presence of additional waves. The different wave components contributing to the sound can be revealed by applying a mathematical analysis technique known as the Fourier transform, the result of which is shown in the lower figure. Note that there is a prominent peak at 55 Hz, but that there are other peaks at 110 Hz, 165 Hz, and at other frequencies corresponding to integer multiples of 55 Hz. In this case, 55 Hz is identified as the fundamental frequency of the string vibration, and the integer multiples are known as harmonics.


title: Hitler (name)

text: Hitler is a German surname. It is strongly associated with the Nazi leader Adolf Hitler. After World War II, many people born with the surname legally changed their surname. Adolf's family used several varieties of the surname. The form 'Hitler' was relatively new.


title: Ron Leshem

text: Ron Leshem (; born December 20, 1976), is an Israeli-American television producer and writer, best known for serving as executive producer on HBO's "Euphoria", and for the film "Beaufort", which was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film. He co-created and wrote the television series "No Man's Land" ("Hulu"), "Valley of Tears", "Euphoria", "The Gordin Cell", and the film "Incitement", in addition to his career as a television executive. He is also a bestselling author, translated to 20 languages.


title: Ron Leshem

text: As a novelist, he has won some of the top Israeli literary awards, among them the prestigious annual Sapir Prize for Literature in 2006.


title: Ron Leshem

text: Ron Leshem was born December 20, 1976, in Tel Aviv, Israel, to a Jewish family. His parents are Ziva and Gideon Leshem.


title: Ron Leshem

text: Leshem served as a soldier in the Intelligence Corps of the Israel Defense Forces. Subsequently, he spent three years as an Israeli reporter from the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, later on he was promoted as head of the news division at the most widely circulated newspaper in Israel "Yediot Ahronot", for which he also wrote as an analyst for military affairs. By the age of 26, he started serving as deputy chief editor for "Ma'ariv", one of the three major newspapers in Israel. He was the paper's youngest ever deputy editor. Additionally, he wrote short stories for "Le Monde" newspaper (France) as well as various columns in several European newspapers.


title: Ron Leshem

text: Leshem is often invited as a speaker to universities, including: Harvard, Yale, BU, and Berkeley. Leshem has also taken part in more than 60 festivals and book fairs.


title: Ron Leshem

text: In 2005 he left print media and began working in television. From 2006 until 2009, Leshem was head of content and programming for Keshet Broadcasting. He oversaw development and production for Israeli TV series such as "Arab Labor", "the A-word", "Traffic Light", and "Homeland", an adaptation of his show "Prisoners of War".


title: Ron Leshem

text: As a novelist he won the prestigious annual literary award the Sapir Prize for Literature in 2006 for his debut novel "Beaufort", which was published in 2006 in Hebrew. The story is written as the diary of a young army officers, when IDF soldiers were protecting Beaufort Castle in Southern Lebanon b. "Beaufort" was on the Israel bestseller list for 2 years, sold 120,000 copies in Israel, was distributed in 22 countries, and was translated into more than 20 languages. The film version of "Beaufort", which Leshem co-wrote, was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film, and won the Berlin International Film Festival Silver Bear for Best Director.


title: Ron Leshem

text: Leshem's second book "The Underground Bazaar" also reached the bestseller list and was translated into numerous languages.


title: Ron Leshem

text: Leshem created and co-wrote the drama series "The Gordin Cell", which received 11 nominations for the Israeli Academy of Film and Television awards in 2011. The TV series was adapted by NBC as "Allegiance". In 2014, he was commissioned to develop the script for "Crater Lake".


title: Ron Leshem

text: Furthermore, Leshem co-created and co-wrote the series "Euphoria", for Hot (2012). In 2018, he joined the American production of "Euphoria" as an executive producer. It was released on HBO.


title: Ron Leshem

text: He and Amit Cohen struck a long-term development deal with Red Arrow Studios International in 2018, preparing to create a new scripted drama label.


title: Ron Leshem

text: The Israeli film "Incitement" by Yaron Zilberman, which Leshem co-wrote, premiered at the 2019 Toronto Film Festival. The film received 10 nominations for the Israeli Academy of Film and Television awards. He served as a story editor for the series "Beauty and the Baker". Alongside his long-time writing partner, Amit Cohen, Leshem co-wrote and co-created the Syrian Civil War drama "No Man's Land", an American-French co-production, which Hulu and Arte ordered straight to series in spring 2019.


title: Ron Leshem

text: In the summer of 2019, production began on Israel's "Valley of Tears", an 8-part mini-series set in the Yom Kippur War, which Leshem co-created with Cohen, Daniel Amsel, Yaron Zilberman, Gal Zaid, and Izhar Has-Lev. It was picked up by HBO in 2020 and released as the "biggest-budget TV drama series" in Israel.


title: Ron Leshem

text: In 2019, Leshem published in Israel his novel "When we were beautiful" (), and announced it will be translated to English by Jessica Cohen.


title: Ron Leshem

text: In 2019, he signed with Anonymous Content along with his frequent co-writer Amit Cohen, with whom he'd recently worked on the Hulu series "Fertile Crescent", about the Syrian Civil War starring James Purefoy. Leshem, Cohen, and Xabi Molia wrote the eight episodes of "Fertile Crescent". In November 2020, he was again partnering with WestEnd Films and Cohen on a new TV thriller, along with the company Anton.


title: MultiMediaCard

text: The MultiMediaCard, officially abbreviated as MMC, is a memory card standard used for solid-state storage. Unveiled in 1997 by SanDisk and Siemens, MMC is based on a surface-contact low pin-count serial interface using a single memory stack substrate assembly, and is therefore much smaller than earlier systems based on high pin-count parallel interfaces using traditional surface-mount assembly such as CompactFlash. Both products were initially introduced using SanDisk NOR-based flash technology. MMC is about the size of a postage stamp: 32 mm × 24 mm × 1.4 mm. MMC originally used a 1-bit serial interface, but newer versions of the specification allow transfers of 4 or 8 bits at a time. MMC can be used in many devices that can use Secure Digital (SD) cards.


title: MultiMediaCard

text: Typically, an MMC operates as a storage medium for devices, in a form that can easily be removed for access by a PC via a connected MMC reader. Modern computers, both laptops and desktops, often have SD slots, which can additionally read MMCs if the operating system drivers can.


title: MultiMediaCard

text: MMCs may be available in sizes up to 16 gigabytes (GB). They are used in almost every context in which memory cards are used, like cellular phones, digital audio players, digital cameras, and PDAs. Since the introduction of SD cards, few companies build MMC slots into their devices (an exception is some mobile devices like the Nokia 9300 communicator in 2004, where the smaller size of the MMC is a benefit), but the slightly thinner, pin-compatible MMCs can be used in almost any device that can use SD cards if the software/firmware on the device is capable.


title: MultiMediaCard

text: While few companies build MMC slots into devices , due to SD cards dominating the memory card market, the embedded MMC (e.MMC) is still widely used in consumer electronics as a primary means of integrated storage and boot ROM in portable devices. eMMC provides a low-cost flash-memory system with a built-in controller that can reside inside an Android or Windows phone or in a low-cost PC and can appear to its host as a bootable device, in lieu of a more expensive form of solid-state storage, such as a traditional NVMe solid-state drive, UFS chip, or SD card.


title: MultiMediaCard

text: The latest version of the eMMC standard (JESD84-B51) by JEDEC is version 5.1A, released January 2019, with speeds (250 MB/s read, 125 MB/s write) rivaling discrete SATA-based SSDs (400 MB/s).


title: MultiMediaCard

text: As of 23 September 2008, the MultimediaCard Association (MMCA) turned over all MMC specifications to the JEDEC organization including embedded MMC (e-MMC), SecureMMC, and miCARD assets. JEDEC is an organization devoted to standards for the solid-state industry.


title: MultiMediaCard

text: The latest e.MMC specifications, version 5.1, can be requested from JEDEC, free-of-charge for JEDEC members. Older versions of the standard, as well as some optional enhancements to the standard such as MiCard and SecureMMC, must be purchased separately.


title: MultiMediaCard

text: While there is no royalty charged for devices to host an MMC or e.MMC, a royalty may be necessary in order to manufacture the cards themselves.


title: MultiMediaCard

text: A highly detailed datasheet that contains essential information for writing an MMC host driver is available online.


title: MultiMediaCard

text: The currently implemented embedded MMC (eMMC) architecture puts the MMC components (flash memory and controller) into a small ball grid array (BGA) IC package for use in circuit boards as an embedded non-volatile memory system. This is noticeably different from other versions of MMC as this is not a user-removable card, but rather a permanent attachment to the printed circuit board (PCB). Therefore, in the event of an issue with either the memory or its controller, the e.MMC would need to be replaced or repaired. In e.MMC, the host system simply reads and writes data to and from the logical block addresses. The e.MMC controller hardware and firmware lifts the burden on the host system by performing error correction and data management. e.MMC exists in 100, 153, 169 ball packages and is based on an 8-bit parallel interface.


title: MultiMediaCard

text: Almost all mobile phones and tablets used this form of flash for main storage until 2016, when Universal Flash Storage (UFS) started to take control of the market.


title: MultiMediaCard

text: In 2004, the Reduced-Size MultiMediaCard (RS-MMC) was introduced as a smaller form factor of the MMC, with about half the size: 24 mm × 18 mm × 1.4 mm. The RS-MMC uses a simple mechanical adapter to elongate the card so it can be used in any MMC (or SD) slot. RS-MMCs are currently available in sizes up to and including 2 GB.


title: MultiMediaCard

text: The modern continuation of an RS-MMC is commonly known as MiniDrive (MD-MMC). A MiniDrive is generally a microSD card adapter in the RS-MMC form factor. This allows a user to take advantage of the wider range of modern MMCs available to exceed the historic 2 GB limitations of older chip technology.


title: MultiMediaCard

text: Implementations of RS-MMCs include Nokia and Siemens, who used RS-MMC in their Series 60 Symbian smartphones, the Nokia 770 Internet Tablet, and generations 65 and 75 (Siemens). However, since 2006, all of Nokia's new devices with card slots have used miniSD or microSD cards, with the company dropping support for the MMC standard in its products. While Siemens exited the mobile phone business completely in 2006, the company continues to use MMC for some PLC storage leveraging MD-MMC advances.


title: MultiMediaCard

text: The Dual-Voltage MultimediaCard (DV-MMC) was one of the first changes in MMC. These cards can operate at 1.8 V in addition to 3.3 V. Running at lower voltages reduces the card's energy consumption, which is important in mobile devices. However, simple dual-voltage parts quickly went out of production in favor of MMCplus and MMCmobile, which offer capabilities in addition to dual-voltage capability.


title: MultiMediaCard

text: The version 4.x of the MMC standard, introduced in 2005, introduced two significant changes to compete against SD cards: (1) the ability to run at higher speeds (26 MHz and 52 MHz) than the original MMC (20 MHz) or SD (25 MHz, 50 MHz), and (2) a four- or eight-bit-wide data bus.


title: MultiMediaCard

text: Version 4.x full-size cards and reduced-size cards can be marketed as MMCplus and MMCmobile, respectively.


title: MultiMediaCard

text: Version 4.x cards are fully backward compatible with existing readers but require updated hardware and software to use their new capabilities. Even though the four-bit-wide bus and high-speed modes of operation are deliberately electrically compatible with SD, the initialization protocol is different, so firmware and software updates are required to use these features in an SD reader.


title: MultiMediaCard

text: MMCmicro is a smaller version of MMC. With dimensions of 14 mm × 12 mm × 1.1 mm, it is smaller and thinner than RS-MMC. Like MMCmobile, MMCmicro allows dual voltage, is backward compatible with MMC, and can be used in full-size MMC and SD slots with a mechanical adapter. MMCmicro cards have the high-speed and four-bit-bus features of the 4.x spec, but not the eight-bit bus, due to the absence of the extra pins.


title: MultiMediaCard

text: This variant was formerly known as "S-card" when introduced by Samsung on 13 December 2004. It was later adapted and introduced in 2005 by the MultiMediaCard Association (MMCA) as the third form factor memory card in the "MultiMediaCard" family.


title: MultiMediaCard

text: MMCmicro appears very similar to microSD, but the two formats are not physically compatible and have incompatible pinouts.


title: MultiMediaCard

text: The MiCard is a backward-compatible extension of the MMC standard with a theoretical maximum size of 2048 GB (2 tebibytes) announced on 2 June 2007. The card is composed of two detachable parts, much like a microSD card with an SD adapter. The small memory card fits directly in a USB port and has MMC-compatible electrical contacts. With an included electromechanical adapter, it can also fit in traditional MMC and SD card readers. To date, only one manufacturer (Pretec) has produced cards in this format.


title: MultiMediaCard

text: The MiCard was developed by the Industrial Technology Research Institute in Taiwan. At the time of the announcement, twelve Taiwanese companies (including ADATA Technology, Asustek, BenQ, Carry Computer Eng. Co., C-One Technology, DBTel, Power Digital Card Co., and RiCHIP) had signed on to manufacture the new memory card. However, as of June 2011, none of the listed companies had released any such cards, nor had any further announcements been made about plans for the format.


title: MultiMediaCard

text: The card was announced to be available starting in the third quarter of 2007. It was expected to save the 12 Taiwanese companies who planned to manufacture the product and related hardware up to US$40 million in licensing fees, which presumably would otherwise be paid to owners of competing flash memory formats. The initial card was to have a capacity of 8 GB, while the standard would allow sizes up to 2048 GB. It was stated to have data transfer speeds of 480 Mbit/s (60 Mbyte/s), with plans to increase data over time.


title: MultiMediaCard

text: An additional, optional part of the MMC 4.x specification is a digital rights management (DRM) mechanism intended to enable MMC to compete with SD or Memory Stick. Very little information is known about how SecureMMC works or how its DRM characteristics compare with its competitors.


title: MultiMediaCard

text: In 2004, a group of companies—including Seagate and Hitachi—introduced an interface called CE-ATA for small form factor hard disk drives. This interface was electrically and physically compatible with the MMC specification. However, support for further development of the standard ended in 2008.


title: MultiMediaCard

text: The game card format used on the PlayStation Vita was found to be based on the MMC standard, but with a different pinout and support for custom initialization commands as well as copy protection.


title: Kat Foster

text: Foster was born in Oakland, California and graduated from The College Preparatory School. A classically-trained dramatic actress, Foster studied acting at the New York University Tisch School of the Arts.


title: Kat Foster

text: She later performed in many off-Broadway and regional productions, including "The Democracy Project" with Naked Angels and was awarded Best Actress for her performance in "Final Countdown" at the 2003 New York International Fringe Festival. An active member of the New York City theater community, she participated in extensive readings and workshops at the Manhattan Theater Club, MCC Theater, New York Theatre Workshop, and The Public Theater, among others.


title: Kat Foster

text: Past TV appearances include roles on "Weeds", "Family Guy", "The Book of Daniel", "Law & Order", "'Til Death", "", "Royal Pains", and "." In addition, she starred with Bobby Cannavale and Donnie Wahlberg in the NBC pilot "NY-70", a stylized police show set in the 1970s, and in the CBS pilot "Webster Report", about a reluctant New York detective with Cannavale and Stanley Tucci.


title: Kat Foster

text: Foster's father managed bands. As a child, she danced "The Nutcracker" with the San Francisco Ballet. She is married to Jim Hustead and has one child, August Emilia Hustead, born in 2018.


title: Beta-Hydroxybutyric acid

text: β-Hydroxybutyric acid, also known as 3-hydroxybutyric acid or BHB, is an organic compound and a beta hydroxy acid with the chemical formula CHCH(OH)CHCOH; its conjugate base is β-hydroxybutyrate, also known as 3-hydroxybutyrate. β-Hydroxybutyric acid is a chiral compound with two enantiomers: -β-hydroxybutyric acid and -β-hydroxybutyric acid. Its oxidized and polymeric derivatives occur widely in nature. In humans, -β-hydroxybutyric acid is one of two primary endogenous agonists of hydroxycarboxylic acid receptor 2 (HCA), a G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR).


title: Beta-Hydroxybutyric acid

text: In humans, can be synthesized in the liver via the metabolism of fatty acids (e.g., butyrate), , and ketogenic amino acids through a series of reactions that metabolize these compounds into acetoacetate, which is the first ketone body that is produced in the fasting state. The biosynthesis of from acetoacetate is catalyzed by the β-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase enzyme.


title: Beta-Hydroxybutyric acid

text: Butyrate can also be metabolized into via a second metabolic pathway that does not involve acetoacetate as a metabolic intermediate. This metabolic pathway is as follows:


title: Beta-Hydroxybutyric acid

text: The last reaction in this metabolic pathway, which involves the conversion of () into , is catalyzed by the hydroxybutyrate-dimer hydrolase enzyme.


title: Beta-Hydroxybutyric acid

text: The concentration of β-hydroxybutyrate in human blood plasma, as with other ketone bodies, increases through ketosis. This elevated β-hydroxybutyrate level is naturally expected, as β-hydroxybutyrate is formed from acetoacetate. The compound can be used as an energy source by the brain when blood glucose is low. Diabetic patients can have their ketone levels tested via urine or blood to indicate diabetic ketoacidosis. In alcoholic ketoacidosis, this ketone body is produced in greatest concentration. Ketogenesis occurs if oxaloacetate in the liver cells is depleted, a circumstance created by reduced carbohydrate intake (through diet or starvation); prolonged, excessive alcohol consumption; and/or insulin deficiency. Because oxaloacetate is crucial for entry of acetyl-CoA into the TCA cycle, the rapid production of acetyl-CoA from fatty acid oxidation in the absence of ample oxaloacetate overwhelms the decreased capacity of the TCA cycle, and the resultant excess of acetyl-CoA is shunted towards ketone body production.


title: Beta-Hydroxybutyric acid

text: -β-Hydroxybutyric acid, along with butyric acid, are the two primary endogenous agonists of hydroxycarboxylic acid receptor 2 (HCA), a GPCR.


title: Beta-Hydroxybutyric acid

text: β-Hydroxybutyric acid is able to cross the blood-brain-barrier into the central nervous system. Levels of β-hydroxybutyric acid increase in the liver, heart, muscle, brain, and other tissues with exercise, calorie restriction, fasting, and ketogenic diets. The compound has been found to act as a histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitor. Through inhibition of the HDAC class I isoenzymes HDAC2 and HDAC3, β-hydroxybutyric acid has been found to increase brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels and TrkB signaling in the hippocampus. Moreover, a rodent study found that prolonged exercise increases plasma β-hydroxybutyrate concentrations, which induces promoters of the BDNF gene in the hippocampus. These findings may have clinical relevance in the treatment of depression, anxiety, and cognitive impairment.


title: Beta-Hydroxybutyric acid

text: In epilepsy patients on the ketogenic diet, blood β-hydroxybutyrate levels correlate best with degree of seizure control. The threshold for optimal anticonvulsant effect appears to be approximately 4 mmol/L.


title: Beta-Hydroxybutyric acid

text: β-Hydroxybutyric acid is the precursor to polyesters, which are biodegradable plastics. This polymer, poly(3-hydroxybutyrate), is also naturally produced by the bacteria "Alcaligenes eutrophus".


title: Beta-Hydroxybutyric acid

text: The concentration of in blood plasma is measured through a test that uses β-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase, with NAD as an electron-accepting cofactor. The conversion of to acetoacetate, which is catalyzed by this enzyme, reduces the NAD to NADH, generating an electrical change; the magnitude of this change can then be used to extrapolate the amount of in the sample.


title: Exotica (film)

text: Exotica is a 1994 Canadian psychological drama film written and directed by Atom Egoyan, and starring Bruce Greenwood, Mia Kirshner, Elias Koteas, Sarah Polley, and Don McKellar. Set primarily in the fictional Exotica strip club in Toronto, the film concerns a father grieving over the loss of a child and obsessed with a young stripper. It was inspired by Egoyan's curiosity about the role strip clubs play in sex-obsessed societies. "Exotica" was filmed in Toronto in 1993.


title: Exotica (film)

text: Marketed as an erotic thriller on its release in Canada and the United States, the film proved to be a major box office success for English Canadian cinema, and received positive reviews. It won numerous awards, including the FIPRESCI Prize at the Cannes Film Festival and eight Genie Awards, including Best Motion Picture.


title: Exotica (film)

text: Francis Brown, a tax auditor for Revenue Canada, is a regular visitor to a Toronto strip club called Exotica. He always has Christina, an exotic dancer dressed in a schoolgirl uniform, give him a private dance. This inspires the jealousy of the club's DJ, Eric, Christina's former boyfriend who has also impregnated the club's owner, Zoe. While at the club, Francis pays his brother Harold's teenage daughter, Tracey, to "babysit". However, Francis has no children and the girl merely practices music alone on his piano until Francis returns and drives her home. Francis' friendship with Harold is strained, as Francis found out that Harold and Francis' wife were having an affair after she died in a car accident, which also left Harold a paraplegic. Francis' daughter Lisa was kidnapped and murdered a few months before the accident, and he was one of the suspects but was later exonerated. These events have left a huge psychological scar on Francis.


title: Exotica (film)

text: In his professional life, Francis is sent to audit an exotic pet store owned and operated by Thomas Pinto, an introverted gay man profiting from the illegal import of a rare bird species. Thomas has been smuggling hyacinth macaw eggs, and his operation has afforded him hundreds of thousands of dollars a year, spurring suspicion from Canadian authorities. Francis soon discovers these illegal activities in Thomas' financial records.


title: Exotica (film)

text: Francis is eventually banned from Exotica when Eric manipulates him into touching Christina during one of her dances, violating the club's rules. Having realized that Eric intentionally set out to get Francis banned from the club, he vows to murder him. Armed with the knowledge of Thomas's tax evasion, Francis blackmails Thomas into visiting Exotica, and instructs him to touch Christina during one of her dances, so that Thomas too will be kicked out of the club; Francis intends to use this as an opportunity to infiltrate the club and murder Eric.


title: Exotica (film)

text: Francis affixes Thomas with a wiretap so that he can listen in on Thomas's visit to Exotica. While Christina gives Thomas a lap dance, he attempts to glean information from her, and the two have a conversation which Francis listens to from his parked car. Christina explains to Thomas that she and Francis share a relationship of mutual dependency, and reveals to Thomas personal details about Francis's life, specifically his daughter's murder. A distraught Francis exits his car and waits for Eric outside the club. Confronting Eric with a gun, Francis is defused when Eric reveals he and Christina, who met each other while volunteering in a search party for the missing Lisa, were the ones who discovered Lisa's dead body. Francis embraces Eric.


title: Exotica (film)

text: In a flashback, Francis drives a teenage Christina—who, at that time, worked for Francis and his wife as Lisa's babysitter—to her parents' home. During these routine drives, Francis would often comfort Christina over her troubled home life. As Francis drops Christina off at her house, he assures her that she can always confide in him.


title: Exotica (film)

text: Director Atom Egoyan, who wrote the screenplay, first conceived of the story in the fall of 1992, intrigued by the ritualistic nature of table dances and the rule that clients can not touch the dancers, envisioning a story of a dancer having a main customer. He believed a strip club could be an important setting for a film because of society's sexual obsessions, and the roles of such clubs as "a collective sexual outlet". While wanting to portray the clubs accurately, he also believed he could bring a skeptical perspective.


title: Exotica (film)

text: He began working on the screenplay in February 1993. In writing it, he "wanted to structure the story like a striptease, gradually revealing an emotionally loaded history". He also cited thriller films as an influence. Although the city in the film is not named, Egoyan stated "Exotica" and his other films portray "different areas of Toronto".


title: Exotica (film)

text: The film had a $2 million budget, with $900,000 coming from Telefilm Canada and the Ontario Film Development Corporation pledging $700,000. To save money, Egoyan's own 1990 Volvo 240 station wagon was used as Francis's car.


title: Exotica (film)

text: With the script completed in April, Egoyan began casting the film and choosing his crew, a process that took two months.


title: Exotica (film)

text: Egoyan's wife Arsinée Khanjian played the club owner Zoe, having appeared in all of his previous films. Zoe is pregnant with Eric's child, and in reality, Khanjian was pregnant during filming, with Egoyan's son Arshile. Egoyan later expressed regret for surrounding Khanjian with nude women when she was unsure how her own body would change during her first pregnancy.


title: Exotica (film)

text: Bruce Greenwood was cast in the film after he met Egoyan through a mutual friend in a bar, before the director had raised his international profile. Greenwood had previously appeared in "St. Elsewhere" and "Knots Landing", and the two became friends.


title: Exotica (film)

text: Art directors Richard Paris and Linda Del Rosario built the Exotica strip club set in an unused room in the Party Centre, a Toronto building, with construction commencing in May 1993. During production, several people arrived at the set believing it was a real club. For the outside of the club, the filmmakers used a shop on Mutual Street which has since been torn down, outside Metropolitan United Church. Osgoode Hall is used for the opera house.


title: Exotica (film)

text: The cinematography was done by Paul Sarossy, with Egoyan saying the goal of the camerawork was to capture the perspective of a missing character, in this case Francis' dead daughter. Principal photography was completed by July. Composer Mychael Danna recorded his score for the film from India, with influences from classical music in India.


title: Exotica (film)

text: "Exotica" was invited to compete in the Cannes Film Festival in May 1994, the first invitation for a Canadian film in several years. The film was released on 3 screens in Toronto by Alliance Communications on September 29, 1994. In the United States, the film was initially released by Miramax Films in six cities; its distributors were impressed when "Exotica" grossed $14,379 per screen, allowing for a broader release to 433 screens. Miramax Films marketed the film as an erotic thriller. The film played in Toronto for 25 weeks, at one point in an IMAX theatre. In the United States, it was initially released in 500 theatres. In the Philippines, the film was released on July 27, 1995, with ads containing the tagline, "After "Schindler's List" and "Belle Époque" comes another controversial and multi-awarded hot film."


title: Exotica (film)

text: The film grossed $32,856 in its opening weekend in Toronto. The film's initial box office performance in its limited release was considered "huge" by distributors. In March 1995, U.S. critic Roger Ebert reported "Exotica" was breaking box office records in Canada.


title: Exotica (film)

text: By 1995, "Exotica" had grossed $1.75 million in Canada, a substantial sum for English Canadian cinema. The film ended its run after grossing $5.13 million in the United States and Canada. "Exotica" was Egoyan's biggest financial success, and has been called his box-office breakthrough.


title: Exotica (film)

text: "Exotica" received positive reviews from critics. Rotten Tomatoes retrospectively collected 37 reviews and gave the film an approval rating of 95%, as well as an average rating of 8.3/10. The website's critical consensus reads, ""Exotica" simmers with sex and obsession, while successfully doubling as an extreme character study." Roger Ebert gave the film four stars upon the film's initial release, calling it "a movie labyrinth, winding seductively into the darkest secrets of a group of people who should have no connection with one another, but do". He judged it Egoyan's best film to date and said Mia Kirshner "combines sexual allure with a kindness that makes her all the more appealing". In 2009, Ebert added the film to his Great Movies list, calling it a "deep, painful film about those closed worlds of stage-managed lust". Jonathan Rosenbaum called it "A must-see" and "lush and affecting", praising the score, the set and the camera movements. Leonard Klady, writing for "Variety", called it "a haunting, chilling experience", albeit with an ending that was "anticlimactic, fuzzy and considerably less than a knockout emotional punch". "Entertainment Weekly" gave the film a B+, concluding "Like Christina's dance, the movie is a gorgeous tease, an artful promise of something that never quite arrives". Desson Howe, writing for "The Washington Post", said it "starts off promisingly, but eventually sinks into its own convoluted oblivion". Peter Travers of "Rolling Stone" wrote ""Exotica" is Egoyan's most accomplished and seductive film to date", and less flashy than the upcoming "Showgirls" (1995) promised to be. B. Ruby Rich of "The Advocate" wrote the film is "a jigsaw puzzle of the emotions in which sex spells out whole language of human behavior", and said the cast, including Kirshner and Don McKellar, "rivet our attention on these characters". Critics complimented use of the song "Everybody Knows" by Leonard Cohen.


title: Exotica (film)

text: In 2001, Girish Shambu, writing for "Senses of Cinema", said "Atom Egoyan's sad, elegant "Exotica" (1994) is at once intimate and remote, concrete and abstract", praising Bruce Greenwood for "quiet gravity" and Sarah Polley as "precociously perfect". In 2002, readers of "Playback" voted it the seventh greatest Canadian film ever made. In 2012, Jeff Heinrich of the "Montreal Gazette" gave the film five stars, calling it "An utterly hypnotic, X-rated art film" with a "haunting score". Mike D'Angelo of "The A.V. Club" stated ""Exotica" —much like Egoyan’s subsequent film, "The Sweet Hereafter"— proves to be a devastatingly cathartic exploration of tragedy's aftermath and the ways that people attempt to cope with inexpressible grief". In 2015, "The Daily Telegraph" named "Exotica" as one of "the 10 best (and worst) stripper movies", calling Egoyan "a then-wunderkind of Canadian cinema" and noting the film won awards at both Cannes and the AVN Awards, which are for pornography.


title: Exotica (film)

text: At the 1994 Cannes Film Festival, "Exotica" won the FIPRESCI Prize, the first time an English Canadian film had won the honour. At the 1994 Genie Awards, the film won eight prizes, including Best Motion Picture and Best Director and Best Original Screenplay for Egoyan.


title: Exotica (film)

text: On home video, "Exotica" went out of print in Canada for years, but was available on DVD in England through the company Network. In 2012, Alliance Films released the film on DVD and Blu-ray in Canada, with commentary from Egoyan and Danna. The Criterion Collection released the film on Blu-ray and DVD on September 20, 2022 in the United States.


title: Reductio ad Hitlerum

text: Coined by Leo Strauss in 1953, borrows its name from the term used in logic called ("reduction to the absurd"). According to Strauss, is a form of , , or a fallacy of irrelevance. The suggested rationale is one of guilt by association. It is a tactic often used to derail arguments because such comparisons tend to distract and anger the opponent.


title: Reductio ad Hitlerum

text: is a form of association fallacy. The argument is that a policy leads to—or is the same as—one advocated or implemented by Adolf Hitler or Nazi Germany and so "proves" that the original policy is undesirable. Another form of is asking a question of the form "You know who else...?" with the deliberate intent of impugning a certain idea or action by implying Hitler held that idea or performed such an action.


title: Reductio ad Hitlerum

text: A comparison to Hitler or Nazism is not a if it illuminates an argument instead of causing distraction from it. Straightforward comparisons can be used to criticize fascist components of Nazism like führerprinzip. However, one could fallaciously argue that because Hitler abstained from eating meat or was against smoking, anyone else who does so is a Nazi.


title: Reductio ad Hitlerum

text: The phrase is first known to have been used in an article written by University of Chicago professor Leo Strauss for "Measure: A Critical Journal" in spring 1951, although it was made famous in a book by Strauss published in 1953 "Natural Right and History", Chapter II:


title: Reductio ad Hitlerum

text: In following this movement towards its end we shall inevitably reach a point beyond which the scene is darkened by the shadow of Hitler. Unfortunately, it does not go without saying that in our examination we must avoid the fallacy that in the last decades has frequently been used as a substitute for the : the . A view is not refuted by the fact that it happens to have been shared by Hitler.


title: Reductio ad Hitlerum

text: The phrase was derived from the logical argument called Reductio ad absurdum. The variant takes its form from the names of many classic fallacies such as . The variant may be further humorously derived from .


title: Reductio ad Hitlerum

text: Historian Daniel Goldhagen, who had written about the Holocaust, argues that not all comparisons to Hitler and Nazism are logical fallacies since if they all were, there would be nothing to learn from the events that led to the Holocaust. He argues in his book "Hitler's Willing Executioners" that many people who were complicit or active participants in the Holocaust and subsequently in fascist and neo-Nazi movements have manipulated the historical narrative to escape blame or to deny aspects of the Holocaust. Claims that allegations of antisemitism are "reductio ad Hitlerum" have also been employed by David Irving, a British Holocaust denier.


title: Reductio ad Hitlerum

text: In 2000, Thomas Fleming claimed that "reductio ad Hitlerum" was being used by his opponents against his values:


title: Reductio ad Hitlerum

text: Leo Strauss called it the . If Hitler liked neoclassical art, that means that classicism in every form is Nazi; if Hitler wanted to strengthen the German family, that makes the traditional family (and its defenders) Nazi; if Hitler spoke of the "nation" or the "folk", then any invocation of nationality, ethnicity, or even folkishness is Nazi ...


title: Reductio ad Hitlerum

text: Although named for and formalized around Hitler, the logical fallacy existed prior to the Second World War. There were other individuals from history who were used as stand-ins for pure evil. In the 18th, 19th and early 20th centuries, the Pharaoh of the Book of Exodus was commonly seen as the most villainous person in history. In the years prior to the American Civil War, abolitionists referred to slaveholders as modern-day Pharaohs. After VE Day, Pharaoh continued to appear in the speeches of social reformers like Martin Luther King Jr. Judas Iscariot and Pontius Pilate were also commonly held up as pure evil. However, there was no universal Hitler-like person and different regions and times used different stand-ins. In the years after the American Revolution, King George III was often vilified in the United States. Andrew Jackson was also called King Andrew the First. During the American Civil War, some Confederates called Lincoln a "modern Pharaoh".


title: Reductio ad Hitlerum

text: In 1991, Michael André Bernstein alleged over a full-page advertisement placed in "The New York Times" by the Lubavitch community following the Crown Heights riot under the heading "This Year "Kristallnacht" Took Place on August 19th Right Here in Crown Heights". Henry Schwarzschild, who had witnessed "Kristallnacht", wrote to "The New York Times" that "however ugly were the anti-Semitic slogans and the assaultive behavior of people in the streets [during the Crown Heights riots] ... one thing that clearly did not take place was a "Kristallnacht"".


title: Reductio ad Hitlerum

text: "The American Conservative" accused Jonah Goldberg's book "Liberal Fascism" of employing the fallacy:


title: Reductio ad Hitlerum

text: That Nazism and contemporary liberalism both promote healthy living is as meaningless a finding as that bloody marys and martinis may both be made with gin. Repeatedly, Goldberg fails to recognize a . ... In no case does Goldberg uncover anything more ominous than a coincidence.


title: Reductio ad Hitlerum

text: Since Hitler was against smoking, some have invoked the argument to compare those who are against smoking to Nazis.


title: Wonderwall Music

text: Wonderwall Music is the debut solo album by English musician George Harrison and the soundtrack to the 1968 film "Wonderwall", directed by Joe Massot. Released in November 1968, it was the first solo album by a member of the Beatles, and the first album issued on the band's Apple record label. The songs are all instrumental pieces, except for occasional non-English language vocals, and mostly comprise short musical vignettes. Following his Indian-styled compositions for the Beatles since 1966, he used the film score to further promote Indian classical music by introducing rock audiences to instruments that were relatively little-known in the West – including shehnai, sarod, tar shehnai and santoor. The Indian pieces are contrasted by Western musical selections, in the psychedelic rock, experimental, country and ragtime styles.


title: Wonderwall Music

text: Harrison recorded the album between November 1967 and February 1968, with sessions taking place in London and Bombay. One of his collaborators on the project was classical pianist and orchestral arranger John Barham, while other contributors include Indian classical musicians Aashish Khan, Shivkumar Sharma, Shankar Ghosh and Mahapurush Misra. The Western music features contributions from Tony Ashton and his band the Remo Four, as well as guest appearances by Eric Clapton and Ringo Starr. Harrison recorded many other pieces that appeared in "Wonderwall" but not on the soundtrack album, and the Beatles' 1968 B-side "The Inner Light" also originated from his time in Bombay. Although the "Wonderwall" project marked the end of Harrison's direct involvement with Indian music as a musician and songwriter, it inspired his later collaborations with Ravi Shankar, including the 1974 Music Festival from India.


title: Wonderwall Music

text: The album cover consists of a painting by American artist Bob Gill in which, as in Massot's film, two contrasting worlds are separated by a wall, with only a small gap allowing visual access between them. Harrison omitted his name from the list of performing musicians, leading to an assumption that he had merely produced and arranged the music. The 2014 reissue of "Wonderwall Music" recognises his contributions on keyboards and guitar. The album was first remastered for CD release in 1992, for which former Apple executive Derek Taylor supplied a liner-note essay.


title: Wonderwall Music

text: While viewed as a curiosity by some rock music critics, "Wonderwall Music" is recognised for its inventiveness in fusing Western and Eastern sounds, and as being a precursor to the 1980s world music trend. The album's title inspired that of Oasis' 1995 hit song "Wonderwall". Harrison's full soundtrack for the film was made available on DVD in early 2014, as part of the two-disc "Wonderwall Collector's Edition". In September that year, the album was reissued in remastered form as part of Harrison's "Apple Years 1968–75" box set, with the addition of three bonus tracks.


title: Wonderwall Music

text: George Harrison first met Joe Massot while the Beatles were filming "Help!" in early 1965. He agreed to write the musical score for Massot's film "Wonderwall" in October 1967, after the Bee Gees had become unavailable. It was Harrison's first formal music project outside the Beatles and coincided with his continued immersion in Indian classical music. Since 1966, this association with India had given Harrison a distinct musical identity beside the band's primary songwriters, John Lennon and Paul McCartney. While he had minimal interest in the Beatles' main projects during 1967 – the album "Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band" and their television film "Magical Mystery Tour" – Harrison led the group in terms of their shared philosophical direction, as his bandmates followed him in embracing Transcendental Meditation under the guidance of Maharishi Mahesh Yogi.<ref name="Rabey/HuffPost">Steve Rabey, "George Harrison, 'Living in the Material World'", "The Huffington Post", 9 October 2011 (archived version retrieved 12 May 2017).</ref>


title: Wonderwall Music

text: Harrison viewed "Wonderwall" at Twickenham Film Studios with Massot and was intrigued by the storyline. The film's premise concerns a lonely professor (played by Irish actor Jack MacGowran) and his increasing obsession with his female neighbour, a fashion model named Penny Lane (played by Jane Birkin), whose life he spies on via a hole in the wall separating their apartments. In the context of 1960s Swinging London, the contrast between their existences symbolised the division between traditional norms and the younger generation's progressive thinking. In his soundtrack for the film, Harrison conveyed this contrast further in terms of the duality between psychedelia and his Hindu-aligned spiritual convictions. According to author Simon Leng: "The lack of dialogue left acres of room for music to speak, and a soupçon of cosmic apotheosis also helped ... "Wonderwall" touched on themes that would come to preoccupy George Harrison – critically, the objectification of celebrities and the shallowness of fame."


title: Wonderwall Music

text: Given full artistic control by Massot, Harrison approached the project as an opportunity to further educate rock and pop audiences in aspects of Indian music.<ref name="GH/Anthol">George Harrison, in The Beatles, p. 280.</ref> Having incorporated sitar, tambura, swarmandal, dilruba and tabla in his work with the Beatles, Harrison sought to include less well-known Indian musical instruments.<ref name="White/Musician p 56">Timothy White, "George Harrison – Reconsidered", "Musician", November 1987, p. 56.</ref> Among these, the oboe-like shehnai, traditionally used in religious ceremonies, was an instrument that Harrison had enthused about after seeing Bismillah Khan perform at the Hollywood Bowl in August 1967. Also prominent on the soundtrack is the tar shehnai, a bow-played string instrument that is similar to an esraj. Other instrumentation introduced on "Wonderwall Music" includes the sarod, similar to a lute, and the santoor, a type of hammered dulcimer with up to 100 strings. Having used personnel from the Asian Music Circle in north London on his Beatles songs "Love You To" and "Within You Without You", in addition to his own sitar playing, Harrison decided to record part of the soundtrack in Bombay, the centre of India's film industry, in order to work with some of the country's best musicians.


title: Wonderwall Music

text: The "Wonderwall" score was Harrison's first opportunity to compose extensively for a single project. He later described how he went about preparing the music: "I had a regular wind-up stopwatch and I watched the film to 'spot-in' the music with the watch. I wrote the timings down in my book, then I'd go to [the recording studio], make up a piece, record it." As with his songs for the Beatles over this period, including "Within You Without You" and "Blue Jay Way", he composed mainly on keyboard instruments such as piano or organ, rather than guitar. In addition to the Indian pieces, Harrison wrote and arranged selections in Western musical styles. In some cases, these pieces were outlined to the musicians at the recording session by Harrison, on guitar, and they then improvised on his ideas. With other selections, he first made a demo, which the musicians followed.


title: Wonderwall Music

text: Harrison collaborated on much of the project with John Barham,<ref name="Snow/Mojo">Mat Snow, "George Harrison: Quiet Storm", "Mojo", November 2014, p. 69.</ref> who had studied composition under Harrison's sitar teacher, Ravi Shankar. A classically trained pianist and musical arranger, Barham annotated some of the melodies that Harrison sang to him and transcribed them onto staves. Leng describes Barham as Harrison's "fellow traveler", due to the two musicians' shared appreciation of Indian classical music. He adds that their musical compatibility made Barham a natural choice over George Martin, the Beatles' producer and orchestral arranger.


title: Wonderwall Music

text: The first session for the "Wonderwall" soundtrack took place on 22 November 1967 at EMI Studios (now Abbey Road Studios) in London. That day, Harrison recorded with a tabla player and flautists Richard Adeney and Jack Ellory, taping the pieces "Swordfencing", "India", "Backwards Tabla" and "Backwards Tones". On 23 November, he carried out further work on some of these selections, with two oboe players, a trumpeter and two flautists. Authors Chip Madinger and Mark Easter state that some of these recordings may have been used as musical cues in the film but excluded from the soundtrack album, while "Swordfencing" was a piece that Harrison incorporated into "Dream Scene" on the album. Over this period, Harrison also worked at a second London location, De Lane Lea Studios. According to a contemporary issue of "Beatles Monthly" magazine, the sessions continued at Abbey Road on 11, 20 and 31 December.


title: Wonderwall Music

text: The contributing musicians included Indian sarodya Aashish Khan and tablist Mahapurush Misra, the last of whom was the regular accompanist to Khan's father, Ali Akbar Khan. Aashish Khan and Misra's contributions were recorded at Abbey Road, rather than later in India, since the pair were performing in London in December 1967. Barham attended this session and also contributed to some of the Western recordings for "Wonderwall", playing piano, harmonium and flugelhorn, and providing orchestral arrangements for flutes, oboes and trumpet. Another session with some unnamed Indian musicians took place on 5 January 1968.


title: Wonderwall Music

text: The main participants on the Western pieces were the Remo Four, whose first session with Harrison was on 22 December. The band were an instrumental group from Liverpool that had toured with the Beatles in 1964 and comprised Colin Manley (guitar), Tony Ashton (keyboards), Phillip Rogers (bass) and Roy Dyke (drums). Ashton contributed on tack (or jangle) piano and organ, and played the majority of the Mellotron parts that are prominent on the album.


title: Wonderwall Music

text: Ringo Starr and Eric Clapton joined Harrison to record "Ski-ing" on 2–3 January. Credited only on the US release, under the pseudonym "Eddie Clayton", Clapton's appearance marked the first of several collaborations between him and Harrison over 1968–71. Peter Tork of the Monkees played banjo, although his contribution, recorded in December 1967, was to a track that only appeared in the film.<ref name="Thomson/Guardian">Graeme Thomson, "Macca's banjo, Mellotron and a Monkee: The story of George Harrison's Wonderwall Music", "The Guardian", 24 March 2017 (archived version retrieved 26 May 2017).</ref>


title: Wonderwall Music

text: Harrison recorded the rest of the Indian selections between 9 and 13 January at HMV Studios in Bombay. In contrast to the multitrack recording carried out at Abbey Road, the music was captured on a two-track tape machine, which replaced the studio's usual mono equipment. Harrison recalled that EMI India's managing director, Bhaskar Menon, personally delivered this machine, a STEEDS stereo recorder, by train from Calcutta. The Bombay studio's soundproofing was similarly inadequate, resulting in traffic noise from the street below appearing on pieces such as "In the Park".


title: Wonderwall Music

text: On 10 January, Reuters and BBC News filmed Harrison working with three of the Indian musicians at HMV. A brief portion of this footage was broadcast in Britain on 11 January. In Menon's recollection, following each day's recording session, Harrison returned to his rooms at the Taj Mahal Hotel and studiously documented his observations on the sounds and nuances of the various Indian instruments. Menon described the process as "a kind of immersion for him into the folk music of India".


title: Wonderwall Music

text: According to author Alan Clayson, the Indian players were "fascinated" to be following Western rules of harmony for the first time. The musicians were recruited by Shambhu Das, who ran Shankar's Kinnara School of Music in Bombay, and Vijay Dubey, the head of A&R for HMV Records in India. The shehnai players were Sharad Kumar and Hanuman Jadev, while the tar shehnaist was Vinayak Vora. Shambhu Das and Indranil Bhattacharya were the sitarists, and Chandrashekhar Naringrekar played surbahar (a low-register version of the sitar). The tablist was Shankar Ghosh, although the original album credits listed him on sitar.


title: Wonderwall Music

text: Rijram Desad, a multi-instrumentalist whose past work included film scores and ballets with vocalists such as Lata Mangeshkar, played Indian harmonium and tabla tarang. Shivkumar Sharma contributed on santoor, and the bansuri (bamboo flute) was played by S.R. Kenkare. Hariprasad Chaurasia also contributed on bansuri, but only after the soundtrack pieces had been completed, and the efficient progress of the sessions allowed Harrison to record some other compositions.


title: Wonderwall Music

text: After returning to England on 18 January, Harrison recorded the majority of the Western music for "Wonderwall" with the Remo Four, again at Abbey Road. Author Bruce Spizer writes that Harrison played piano, guitar and Mellotron on some of the Western tracks. In addition, according to Manley, Harrison provided the steel guitar part on "Cowboy Music", even though Manley is credited on the album sleeve. Also present at the sessions were Dutch designers the Fool – Simon Posthuma, Marijke Koger and Josje Leeger – who had created the psychedelic-themed sets for Massot's film. Well known for his theme tune to BBC television's "Dixon of Dock Green", Tommy Reilly played on the soundtrack after Harrison had asked Martin to suggest a good harmonica player.


title: Wonderwall Music

text: At various stages while working on the project, Harrison returned to Twickenham to ensure that each musical piece married up with its scene in the film; he later recalled: "it always worked. It was always right." Final mixing began on 31 January, and a late overdubbing session took place on 11 February, when extra sound effects were added to "Dream Scene". Harrison mixed the recordings with Ken Scott, completing stereo and mono versions of the album. Harrison then went back to India on 15 February, with Lennon and their wives, to study meditation with the Maharishi in Rishikesh.


title: Wonderwall Music

text: Having been allocated a budget of £600, Harrison eventually spent £15,000 on recording the film soundtrack, paying the difference himself. One of the non-soundtrack pieces taped at the end of the Bombay sessions was "The Inner Light", which he completed at Abbey Road in early February. This song became the first Harrison composition to appear on a Beatles single when it was issued as the B-side to "Lady Madonna" in March 1968, a release that served to cover the band's absence in Rishikesh. The Remo Four song "In the First Place" was another product of the "Wonderwall" sessions,<ref name="Unterberger/First Place">Richie Unterberger, "The Remo Four 'In the First Place'", AllMusic (archived version retrieved 20 November 2016).</ref> although the track remained unreleased until the late 1990s. In 1993, Harrison told "Simpsons" creator Matt Groening that "Wonderwall Music" had been his most enjoyable album to make.


title: Wonderwall Music

text: The nineteen tracks on "Wonderwall Music" range from just over a minute in length to five-and-a-half minutes. On some pressings of the 1968 LP, various pieces lacked mastering rills between them; with these selections instead presented as medleys, the number of distinct album tracks was reduced to twelve. On many of the Indian selections, instruments such as sitar, surbahar and harmonium provide a drone-like backing, over which Harrison's chosen instrument plays the main musical theme.


title: Wonderwall Music

text: In the original album credits, Harrison was listed as producer, writer and arranger but was not included among the performers, leading to an assumption that he did not play on the recordings.<ref name="Fritsche/Huff">Tom Fritsche, "The Wild World of WONDERWALL's Music", "The Huffington Post", 20 October 2016 (archived version retrieved 6 July 2017).</ref> After consulting Barham in 2002 for his book "While My Guitar Gently Weeps", Leng credited Harrison as a performing musician, and Spizer also recognised him in his track-by-track list, published in 2005. The performer credits in the 2014 reissue of "Wonderwall Music" rectified the situation, and list Harrison on piano and guitar.


title: Wonderwall Music

text: The album opens with "Microbes", which consists of call-and-response shehnai parts and was partly based on the raga Darbari Kanada. The waltz-time "Red Lady Too" includes what musicologist Walter Everett describes as "'Moonlight' Sonata-like suspensions on piano, honky-tonk piano, Mellotron, and drums". Ashton performed the tack piano part, with Barham supplying the lower-register piano accompaniment. On "Tabla and Pakavaj", Mahapurush Misra played the two types of hand drums named in the title, the barrel-shaped pakhavaj being another mainstay of Hindustani classical music. "In the Park" includes Sharma's santoor alternating solos with surbahar and tabla tarang. Neither of these last two tracks appears in the film.


title: Wonderwall Music

text: Author Peter Lavezzoli recognises "Harrison's dry humor" in "the honky-tonk, piano-driven" "Drilling a Home". The song is subject to dramatic changing of pitch, from the key of G up to B, through the tape being sped up. In the film, only the portion up to the sound of a rainstorm is used. The ragtime feel of the track is accentuated by an arrangement that includes tack piano, horns and banjo, with the last two sounds created through Ashton's use of different settings on the Mellotron. Author Ian Inglis writes of the effectiveness of "Drilling a Home": "its jangle piano instantly recreates the mood of a crowded saloon in a frontier town, or a Laurel and Hardy or Keystone Cops pursuit." The track segues into "Guru Vandana", another Bombay-recorded piece featuring multiple shehnais. The title references Guru Vandana, a Hindu prayer in honour of God and one's teacher. "Greasy Legs" consists of harmonium and Mellotron, including parts played on the latter instrument's flute, organ and cello settings.


title: Wonderwall Music

text: On "Ski-ing", Clapton plays a blues-based guitar riff treated with a fuzz-tone effect, over a rock rhythm and heavy tambura drone. While Spizer and Everett credit all four electric guitar parts (two of which were taped backwards) to Clapton alone, he recalls that "we put down this thing [on tape] and George then put backwards guitar on it." The seagull-like sounds of the guitars segue into "Gat Kirwani", a fast-paced Indian piece with Aashish Khan on sarod, backed by sitar and Misra's tabla. The performance is based on the similarly named raga, which Harrison had suggested that Khan play.


title: Wonderwall Music

text: "Dream Scene" is a combination of segments that Harrison edited together. Along with "Ski-ing", it is the only track on the album that combines Indian and Western music. The song consists of three distinct pieces, the first of which is a meditative section containing phase-shifted instrumentation such as tabla tarang, harp (swarmandal) and sitar,<ref name="Pangburn/D&T">D.J. Pangburn, "George Harrison: Forgotten Solo Gems", "Death and Taxes", 25 February 2011 (archive version retrieved 17 November 2017).</ref> and singing. The music is delivered via backwards-played tape loops as the vocals pan from one side to the other across the stereo image. The other two pieces include a section comprising Barham's piano and flutes, followed by a trumpet solo, harmonica interspersed with a police siren, and more backwards tape loops. The song fades out with a slowed-down spoken voice over the sound of church bells. Leng notes that "Dream Scene" was recorded several months before Lennon's experimental sound collage "Revolution 9", released on the double album "The Beatles".


title: Wonderwall Music

text: "Party Seacombe" includes a rock accompaniment that Clayson likens to the style of Pink Floyd, and the song equally recalls the Beatles' instrumental "Flying", with which it shares a twenty-bar blues structure. Recorded with the Remo Four, it includes wah-effected lead guitars, one of which resembles the sound of a human voice; phase-shifted treatment on the acoustic rhythm guitar; and additional drums and percussion, possibly played by Starr. Writing for "NME Originals" in 2005, Adrian Thrills described the track as "Whimsical '60s psychedelia from George's experimental dabblings".


title: Wonderwall Music

text: The two Indian pieces "Love Scene" and "Crying" form another medley, with the first track featuring Khan's call-and-response sarod parts. Overdubbing was unprecedented in Indian music until this time, and Khan later said he was "thrilled" with the effect on "Love Scene", where the sarods "[play] to each other like two lovers in a romantic mood". The piece resulted from Barham's suggestion that Khan play Mauj-Khamaj, a raga created by his grandfather, Allauddin Khan. Described by Madinger and Easter as "aptly titled", "Crying" contains the mournful tones of a tar shehnai.


title: Wonderwall Music

text: "Cowboy Music" is a country-and-western piece that Inglis likens to the incidental music typically heard in American westerns from the 1940s. The performance includes steel guitar and contributions from the Remo Four, along with Reilly on harmonica. Returning to the Indian style, "Fantasy Sequins" combines tar shehnai with harmonium, played by Desad, and bell-like percussion known as khas. This track segues into "On the Bed", although Madinger and Easter say that the correct title, as it appeared on early US copies of the album, should be "Glass Box", which is the name given instead to the Indian piece that follows it. "On the Bed" opens with a piano riff from Harrison, which, in Leng's description, is complemented by "spacey steel guitar, and a fugue of flugelhorn countermelodies, added by Barham". The song includes backing from the Remo Four, and Big Jim Sullivan on bass. Harrison overdubbed the sitar-like steel guitar part.


title: Wonderwall Music

text: "Glass Box" is "a high-speed Indian raga", according to Spizer, with Indranil Bhattacharya on sitar. Everett describes "Wonderwall to Be Here" as a tune "based on a minor-mode I-VII-VI-V progression, styled like Liberacian variations on 'While My Guitar Gently Weeps'". The performance is led by Ashton, on piano, and also includes instrumentation such as organ, acoustic guitar, drums and percussion. Leng views the piece as the soundtrack's "best collective work", adding: "This moving music was a close fit with the scene it covered – a mute passage in which the implied lust of the aging academic turns to compassion for Jane Birkin['s character], whose suicide attempt he witnesses ... Harrison's melody was strongly empathetic to the first appearance of human feeling in the film."


title: Wonderwall Music

text: The album closes with "Singing Om", in which a male Indian voice chants the sacred term Om over a musical backing of harmonium and bansuri. The piece is an early example of Harrison blending Vedic chanting with Western harmony, a concept that he explored further in his 1969–70 productions for the Radha Krishna Temple, and also in his post-Beatles songs such as "My Sweet Lord" and "Awaiting on You All".


title: Wonderwall Music

text: Harrison attended the world premiere of "Wonderwall", held at the Cannes Film Festival on 17 May 1968, accompanied by his wife Pattie Boyd, Starr and Birkin. Although he had expected the film's producers to purchase the soundtrack rights and issue the album independently, they declined to do so, leading Massot to suggest that Harrison release it on the Beatles' new label, Apple Records. "Wonderwall Music" therefore became Apple's first album release, as well as the first solo album by a member of the Beatles.


title: Wonderwall Music

text: Inglis writes that Massot was impressed with "the accuracy with which [Harrison's music] illustrated and enhanced the images on screen". Massot asked Harrison to provide the soundtrack for a new film he had written, "Zachariah", a western that was eventually made by director George Englund and released in 1970. Although Harrison declined, he later supplied incidental music for "Little Malcolm" (1974), a film he produced under the aegis of Apple Films, before going on to contribute to soundtracks for his HandMade Films productions in the 1980s, including "Time Bandits" and "Shanghai Surprise".


title: Wonderwall Music

text: Together with "The Inner Light", the "Wonderwall" project marked the end of Harrison's overtly Indian musical phase. After filming his scenes for the Shankar documentary "Raga" in Los Angeles, in June 1968, he decided to abandon his sitar studies and return to his first instrument, the guitar. In an interview to promote his Apple signing Jackie Lomax, in September, Harrison said that, although "Wonderwall Music" represented a style of music he had moved on from in recent months, "I still like [the album]. I still think it's very good." He later cited the Bombay sessions for "Wonderwall" as the inspiration for his 1974 collaborations with Shankar – namely, the Music Festival from India and their subsequent North American tour. Both of these projects featured Indian musicians that Harrison first worked with in January 1968.


title: Wonderwall Music

text: Apple commissioned American artist Bob Gill to produce a painting for the front cover of "Wonderwall Music". Gill recalls that he first attended a meeting at the company's headquarters, where the four Beatles emphasised the importance of the album for their new record label and outlined the concept behind the film. Gill painted a picture in the style of Belgian surrealist René Magritte, showing a formally dressed man "separated by a huge red brick wall from a group of happy bathing Indian maidens", Spizer writes. Apple executive Derek Taylor, whom Harrison had invited to help run the Beatles' label in early 1968, later wrote of Gill's submission: "It was a nice painting but missed the essence of hope." To Gill's chagrin, Harrison requested that a brick be removed from the wall, because he deemed it important to "give the fellow on the other side a chance, just as the Jack MacGowran character had a chance [in the film]".<ref name="Taylor/Wonderwall CD">Derek Taylor's liner notes, "Wonderwall Music" CD (Apple Records/EMI, 1992; produced by George Harrison).</ref>


title: Wonderwall Music

text: Along with Gill, John Kelly and Alan Aldridge were credited for designing the album's artwork. For the back cover of the LP, Harrison chose a photo of part of the Berlin Wall – a stock image from the Camera Press picture agency – which Kelly and Aldridge then manipulated and mirrored to represent a corner. Taylor describes the result as innovative for its time, with the wall made to look "proud and sharp as the prow of a liner". The sleeve was designed so that the rear face appeared upside down relative to the front. In America, some copies of the LP had the Berlin Wall image mistakenly printed on the front, which made for "a less than exciting cover to be sure", in Madinger and Easter's opinion.


title: Wonderwall Music

text: The LP's sleeve insert included a black-and-white photograph of Harrison taken by Astrid Kirchherr, a friend since the Beatles' first residency in Hamburg, Germany, in 1960. Clayson cites Kirchherr's involvement as an example of Harrison's efforts to ensure that friends from the Beatles' pre-fame years were included in the Apple enterprise.


title: Wonderwall Music

text: Apple Records originally scheduled the release for late August 1968 to coincide with the label's launch, which was marked by the highly publicised release of its "First Four" singles. As a result, parts of "Ski-ing", "Cowboy Music" and "Wonderwall to Be Here" were included in "Apple", a ten-minute film designed to promote the new label at distributor EMI's international sales conferences. Delayed from this scheduled date, "Wonderwall Music" instead appeared in November, a few weeks before "The Beatles". The release date was 1 November 1968 in Britain (with Apple catalogue number SAPCOR 1) and 2 December in America (as Apple ST 3350). The mono version of the album was available only in the UK.


title: Wonderwall Music

text: Promotion for "Wonderwall Music" consisted of print advertising, including a full-page advertisement in the 14 December issue of "Billboard" magazine, and an Apple-prepared poster that superimposed details from Gill's painting onto a photo of Harrison. The album's commercial impact was lessened by its unusual position of being the soundtrack to a film that had yet to receive a general release. The album failed to chart in the United Kingdom, but performed surprisingly well in the United States. On "Billboard"s pop LPs listings, it had a sixteen-week chart run, peaking at number 49 for two weeks in March 1969. On the US "Cash Box" and "Record World" charts, the album peaked at numbers 39 and 33, respectively. "Wonderwall Music" also placed in the top 30 on Canada's "RPM" albums chart and in West Germany, where it peaked at number 22.


title: Wonderwall Music

text: Having been out of print since the 1970s, "Wonderwall Music" was remastered and issued on CD in June 1992, as part of Apple's campaign to reissue its entire catalogue. The CD booklet contained liner notes by Taylor, as well as stills from "Wonderwall" and a photo of Harrison working with some of the Indian musicians in 1968.


title: Wonderwall Music

text: In November 1997, Massot began preparing a director's cut of "Wonderwall", which omitted many of the musical cues that had appeared in the original film but not on the soundtrack album, and instead repeated tracks such as "Ski-ing" and "Cowboy Music" at different points in the film. Harrison supplied Massot with a tape containing various pieces recorded for "Wonderwall", which led to the unearthing of the Remo Four's "In the First Place". A Manley–Ashton composition, "In the First Place" was released as a single in January 1999 with Harrison credited as producer, after Massot had incorporated the song into his new audio for the film. Harrison had played on the recording,<ref name="Harry/ColinManley">Bill Harry, "Colin Manley", triumphpc.com/Mersey Beat (archived version retrieved 30 June 2014).</ref> but according to an article by Martin Lewis, he eschewed any credit as a performer.<ref name="Lewis/First Place">Martin Lewis, "The Story of 'In the First Place'", Abbeyrd's Beatle Page (archived version from 16 July 2012; retrieved 30 May 2017).</ref> In March 2014, Harrison's full soundtrack was made available on DVD when the original cut of the film was included in the two-disc set "Wonderwall Collector's Edition".


title: Wonderwall Music

text: The album was remastered again and reissued in September 2014, as part of the Harrison box set "The Apple Years 1968–75".<ref name="Marchese/Review">Joe Marchese, "Review: The George Harrison Remasters – 'The Apple Years 1968–1975'", "The Second Disc", 23 September 2014 (archived version retrieved 4 April 2016).</ref> The CD booklet includes a liner-note essay by author Kevin Howlett and an introduction by Indian composer Nitin Sawhney.<ref name="AppleYears/GH.com">"Announcing The Apple Years 1968–75 Box set – Released 22nd September", georgeharrison.com, 2 September 2014 (archived version retrieved 29 September 2014).</ref> The reissue added three bonus tracks: the previously unreleased "Almost Shankara", titled after an epithet for the Hindu deity Shiva and based on a traditional Indian raga; an alternate instrumental take of "The Inner Light", which opens with Harrison's instructions to the musicians at HMV Studios;<ref name="DeRiso/SomethingElse">Nick DeRiso, "One Track Mind: George Harrison, 'The Inner Light (alt. take)' from "The Apple Years" (2014)", "Something Else!", 19 September 2014 (archived version retrieved 26 June 2017).</ref> and "In the First Place" by the Remo Four".<ref name="Grow/RSonline">Kory Grow, "George Harrison's First Six Studio Albums to Get Lavish Reissues", rollingstone.com, 2 September 2014 (archived version retrieved 23 October 2017).</ref> The reissue series was overseen by Harrison's son Dhani, also a film-score composer. In an interview with music journalist David Fricke, he described "Wonderwall Music" as his personal favourite of his father's Apple solo albums and "a cross of spaghetti-western music, the "Chants of India" things my Dad [did] with Ravi, and the Beatles' best freakouts".<ref name="Fricke/RS">David Fricke, "Inside George Harrison's Archives: Dhani on His Father's Incredible Vaults", rollingstone.com, 16 October 2014 (archived version retrieved 21 June 2017).</ref> Coinciding with this reissue, the "Wonderwall" film and soundtrack was the subject of an event held at the Grammy Museum in Los Angeles, partly hosted by music journalist and television writer David Wild.


title: Wonderwall Music

text: "Record World"s reviewer said that "Wonderwall Music" was an example of the Beatles beginning to "stretch out on their own separate tethers" and described the mix of Indian and Western music as "moody and pretty". According to Clayson, "Films and Filming" gave it a "glowing review".<ref name="Clayson/OffTheWall">Alan Clayson, "Off the Wall", in "Mojo Special Limited Edition: 1000 Days of Revolution", p. 50.</ref> The magazine's writer, Gordon Gow, said that "the Harrison music replaces dialogue, waxing almost vocal like a cinema organist from the silent days." In his review for "International Times", Barry Miles wrote:


title: Wonderwall Music

text: A genius description and interpretation of how someone else is feeling. Their moods, loves, wants. A delicate light cobweb of music, Indian, Chinese, French Impressionist, Jingle-jangle piano, hot horn. The music of the '20s occurs throughout in evocative snatches … Like Spike Jones and his City Slickers, only seen through the curtains of memories, parts of themes, incomplete lines. Then a '60s theme, a moving pattern of colours, bobbing the lilies on the pond.


title: Wonderwall Music

text: Miles concluded by describing it as a "gentle human record".<ref name="Miles/IT">Barry Miles, "Magic Music, Nova Music, & Pink ...", "International Times", 15–28 November 1968, p. 5.</ref> By contrast, "Melody Maker"s review read: "Heavily Indian-influenced music written, arranged and produced by George for the film. Much of the music fails to have much point away from the pictures."


title: Wonderwall Music

text: Writing in February 1969, Geoffrey Cannon of "The Guardian" cited "Wonderwall Music" and recent individual projects by Lennon and McCartney for Apple as evidence that the three bandmates had "musical ideas which cannot be related to the Beatles". He added: "Playing these albums again and again, the threat of the Beatles' dissolution has become increasingly apparent to me." In his review of Harrison's 1969 experimental album, "Electronic Sound", Ed Ward of "Rolling Stone" said that "Wonderwall Music" "clearly shows" Harrison to be a "consummate musician".


title: Wonderwall Music

text: "Musician" magazine said of the 1992 CD release: "Of all the Beatles-related esoterica, this 1968 soundtrack album is one of the choicest treasures ... a freewheeling tapestry of music and sound ... [and] a pastiche-like head trip with a mind all its own." "Billboard"s reviewer rated it a "Vital Reissue" (signifying a re-release or compilation that merits "special artistic, archival, and commercial interest") and described the album as an "often enchanting sequence of 19 harmonious themes and tone poems" and an "intriguing treat".


title: Wonderwall Music

text: Writing for "Rolling Stone" in 2002, Mikal Gilmore described "Wonderwall Music" as "a soundtrack to a rarely seen film, though Harrison's music was inventive and the album remains among his best works". In the 2004 edition of "The Rolling Stone Album Guide", however, Mac Randall gave the release two-and-a-half stars (out of five) and grouped it with "Electronic Sound" as being "interesting, though only for established fans". In a 2011 assessment for "Mojo", John Harris said it was "As subtly inventive as you'd expect, though hardly compulsory."


title: Wonderwall Music

text: In January 2012, Bryan Bierman of "Magnet" presented "Wonderwall Music" in the magazine's "Hidden Gems" series, lamenting that "the album has become an obscure piece of Beatles trivia instead of what it is: a fascinating experiment from one of popular music's most interesting figures." Bierman wrote that, while the Beatles held a familiar role as pioneers in rock music's new developments, the album showed Harrison breaking away and "creating fresh and unique sounds" of his own.<ref name="Bierman/Magnet">Bryan Bierman, "Hidden Gems: George Harrison's 'Wonderwall Music'", "Magnet", 5 January 2012 (archived version retrieved 25 May 2017).</ref> In February 2011, the website "Death and Taxes" similarly identified the album as one of Harrison's two "Forgotten Solo Gems", along with "Electronic Sound".