title: Tamu Massif

text: The name "Tamu" is taken from the initials of Texas A&M University. William Sager, a geology professor and one of the lead scientists studying the volcano, previously taught at Texas A&M. A massif, which means "massive" in French, is a large mountain or a section of the planet's crust that is demarcated by faults and flexures.


title: Tamu Massif

text: The Tamu Massif was formed about 145 million years ago during the Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous period over a relatively short period of time (a few million years) and then became extinct. Tamu Massif was formed during a single geologically brief eruptive period, which scientists had previously thought was impossible on Earth. If confirmed, the suggestion that it could be a single volcano would make the Tamu Massif the largest known volcano on Earth, dwarfing the current record-holder, Pūhāhonu, in the Hawaiian Islands. The main part of Tamu's rounded dome extends over an area of , totaling more than , many times larger than Mauna Loa, which has an area of , and about half the area of the Martian volcano Olympus Mons. The entire mass of Tamu consists of basalt. Its slopes are very gradual, ranging from less than half a degree to one degree near its summit. The Shatsky Rise oceanic plateau is comparable in size to California or Japan, but Tamu Massif, which is the plateau's oldest and largest edifice, is comparable in size to New Mexico, or Britain and Ireland together. A study in 2016 found that Tamu Massif likely encompassed the entire Shatsky Rise, meaning that Tamu Massif has an area of about , surpassing Olympus Mons in surface area, though it has not yet been determined which of the two volcanoes has a greater mass.


title: Tamu Massif

text: Using magnetic lineations, researchers discovered that there are three bathymetric highs and a low ridge, a topography that would imply three separate volcanoes; but the plume-head model indicates a single massive volcano. Based on multichannel seismic profiles and rock samples from Integrated Ocean Drilling Program (IODP) core sites, Tamu Massif appears to be a single massive volcano made of lava flows that emanated from the volcano centre and formed its shield shape; however, the profiles have large gaps in them, leaving open the possibility that it may represent the activity of more than one volcano. A subsequent study in 2016 found that the massif was likely generated by a single volcano. In 2015, researchers found that the volcano's structure bore patterns of magnetic striping on either side, indicating that the volcano is likely a hybrid of a mid-ocean ridge and a shield volcano. Geologic data also indicated that Tamu Massif formed at the junction of three mid-ocean ridges, which was a highly unusual occurrence.


title: Tamu Massif

text: A study found that the Moho line, the boundary between the Earth's crust and mantle, extends more than beneath the base of Tamu Massif, meaning that the volcano is unlikely to ever erupt again, since magma is presumably unable to penetrate a barrier that thick.


title: Social Security Death Index

text: The Social Security Death Index (SSDI) was a database of death records created from the United States Social Security Administration's Death Master File until 2014. Since 2014, public access to the updated Death Master File has been via the Limited Access Death Master File certification program instituted under Title 15 Part 1110. Most persons who have died since 1936 who had a Social Security Number (SSN) and whose death has been reported to the Social Security Administration are listed in the SSDI. For most years since 1973, the SSDI includes 93 percent to 96 percent of deaths of individuals aged 65 or older. It was frequently updated; the version of June 22, 2011, contained 89,835,920 records.


title: Social Security Death Index

text: Unlike the Death Master File, the SSDI is available to the public at many online genealogy websites. The SSDI is a popular tool for genealogists and biographers because it contains valuable genealogical data. It is also useful for medical research such as clinical trials and epidemiology, because where survival data is missing from medical records (for reasons such as loss to follow-up), the SSDI can be used to backfill it.


title: Social Security Death Index

text: Once a deceased person is found in the database, the person's application for Social Security card (Form SS-5) can be ordered from the Social Security Administration. The SS-5 may contain additional genealogical data, such as birthplace, father's name, and mother's full maiden name or that information may be blacked out.


title: Social Security Death Index

text: A recent government audit revealed that the Social Security Administration had incorrectly listed 23,000 people as dead in a two-year period. These people have sometimes faced difficulties in convincing government agencies that they are actually alive; a 2008 story in the Nashville area focused on a woman who was incorrectly flagged as dead in the Social Security computers in 2000 and has had difficulties, such as having health insurance canceled and electronically filed tax returns rejected. This story also noted that people in this situation can be highly vulnerable to identity theft because of the release of their Social Security numbers.


title: Social Security Death Index

text: In November 2011, due to privacy and identity theft concerns, the Social Security Administration redacted and no longer included death data derived from State sources. This resulted in an approximately 33% drop in reported deaths.


title: Social Security Death Index

text: On December 18, 2011, Ancestry.com, changed access to the SSDI by moving the SSDI search behind a paywall, and stopped displaying the Social Security information of people who had died within the past 10 years. Some of their originally free information is now available via paid subscription only. However, other sites still provide free access.


title: Social Security Death Index

text: In March 2012, the entire Death Master File, edition of November 30, 2011, was made available for download. A more recent version was made available May 31, 2013. Updates are also available by a subscription service. However, prices for both the full file and the updates are in the business-only range, not what most hobbyists (such as amateur genealogists) would be willing to pay.


title: Social Security Death Index

text: A review by the Government Accountability Office in 2013 found that the Social Security Administration and other federal benefit-paying agencies that use data from the Death Master File are potentially vulnerable to making improper payments due to errors or processes that could lead to errors.


title: Nymph (biology)

text: In biology, a nymph is the immature form of some invertebrates, particularly insects, which undergoes gradual metamorphosis (hemimetabolism) before reaching its adult stage. Unlike a typical larva, a nymph's overall form already resembles that of the adult, except for a lack of wings (in winged species). In addition, while a nymph moults, it never enters a pupal stage. Instead, the final moult results in an adult insect. Nymphs undergo multiple stages of development called instars.


title: Nymph (biology)

text: This is the case, for example, in Orthoptera (crickets, grasshoppers and locusts), Hemiptera (cicadas, shield bugs, whiteflies, aphids, leafhoppers, froghoppers, treehoppers etc.), mayflies, termites, cockroaches, mantises, stoneflies and Odonata (dragonflies and damselflies).


title: Nymph (biology)

text: Nymphs of aquatic insects, as in the Odonata, Ephemeroptera, and Plecoptera, are also called naiads, an Ancient Greek name for mythological water nymphs. Usage of the term 'naiad' is no longer popular among entomologists, who have come to see the distinction between nymph and larva as more of evolutionary grade than a clearly distinct life stage. In older literature, these were sometimes referred to as the heterometabolous insects, as their adult and immature stages live in different environments (terrestrial vs. aquatic).


title: Nymph (biology)

text: In fly fishing with artificial flies, this stage of aquatic insects is the basis for an entire series of representative patterns for trout. They account for over half of the over all patterns regularly fished in the United States.


title: RPG-22

text: The Soviet RPG-22 "Netto" is a one-shot disposable anti-tank rocket launcher first deployed in 1985, based on the RPG-18 rocket launcher, but firing a larger 72.5 mm fin stabilised projectile. The weapon fires an unguided projectile, can be prepared to fire in around 10 seconds, and can penetrate 400 mm of armour, 1.2 metres of brick or 1 metre of reinforced concrete.


title: RPG-22

text: The smoothbore container is made from two fibreglass parts; a main tube containing the rocket, and a telescoping forward extension, which slides over the barrel.


title: RPG-22

text: In transport mode, both ends of the barrel are closed by plastic covers, which open when the weapon is extended. The firing mechanism is manually cocked by raising the rear sight. Lowering the rear sight de-cocks the weapon if there is no target.


title: RPG-22

text: On firing, there is a backblast danger area behind the weapon, of at least 15 metres. The solid propellant motor completely burns out while the rocket is still in the barrel tube, accelerating it to about 133 metres per second. The weapon has simple pop-up sights graduated to ranges of 50, 150 and 250 metres.


title: RPG-22

text: To keep training costs down, a reusable RPG-22 is available that fires a 30 mm subcalibre projectile, weighing 350g, to operational ranges. Handling is identical to that of the full calibre version, with the exception of the discharge noise and backblast.


title: RPG-22

text: On the evening of 20 September 2000, the MI6 Building in London (the headquarters of the British Secret Intelligence Service) was attacked by unapprehended forces using an RPG-22 anti-tank rocket, causing superficial damage.


title: RPG-22

text: A weapons cache destined for the Real IRA, seized in Croatia in August 2000, contained a number of RPG-22s. Prices range from £150 to £220 per launcher. The one used against the MI6 building was Russian-made, while the one found at Dungannon came from Bulgaria.


title: Acmella oleracea

text: Acmella oleracea is a species of flowering herb in the family Asteraceae. Common names include toothache plant, Szechuan buttons, paracress, buzz buttons, tingflowers and electric daisy. Its native distribution is unclear, but it is likely derived from a Brazilian "Acmella" species. A small, erect plant, it grows quickly and bears gold and red inflorescences. It is frost-sensitive but perennial in warmer climates.


title: Acmella oleracea

text: For culinary purposes, small amounts of shredded fresh leaves are said to add a unique flavour to salads. Cooked leaves lose their strong flavour and may be used as leafy greens. Both fresh and cooked leaves are used in dishes such as stews in northern Brazil, especially in the state of Pará. They are combined with chilis and garlic to add flavor and vitamins to other foods.


title: Acmella oleracea

text: The flower bud has a grassy taste followed by a strong tingling or numbing sensation and often excessive salivation, with a cooling sensation in the throat. The buds are known as "buzz buttons", "Sichuan buttons", "sansho buttons", and "electric buttons". In India, they are used as flavoring in chewing tobacco.


title: Acmella oleracea

text: A concentrated extract of the plant, sometimes called jambu oil or jambu extract, is used as a flavoring agent in foods, chewing gum, and chewing tobacco. The oil is traditionally extracted from all parts of the plant. EFSA and JECFA reviewed a feeding study in rats and both authorities recognized that the no adverse effect level for spilanthol was 572 mg/kg b.w./day, yielding a safe dose of spilanthol of 1.9 mg/kg b.w./day, or 133.5 mg/70-kg-male/day, 111 mg/58-kg-female/day, or 38 mg/20-kg-child/day.


title: Acmella oleracea

text: Jambu extract as a flavoring agent is described as having a citrus, herbal, tropical or musty odor, and its taste can be described as pungent, cooling, tingling, numbing, or effervescent. Spilanthol, the major constituent of jambu extract, is responsible for the perception of a mouth-watering flavor sensation, as well as the ability to promote salivation as a sialogogue, perhaps through its astringent action or its pungent taste.


title: Acmella oleracea

text: This plant prefers well-drained, black (high organic content) soil. If starting outdoors, the seeds should not be exposed to cold weather, so start after last frost. Seeds need direct sunlight to germinate, so should not be buried.


title: Acmella oleracea

text: The most important taste-active molecules present are fatty acid amides such as spilanthol, which is responsible for the trigeminal and saliva-inducing effects of the plant. It also contains stigmasteryl-3-"O"-"b"--glucopyranoside and a number of triterpenes. The isolation and total synthesis of the active ingredients have been reported.


title: Acmella oleracea

text: Extracts were bioassayed against yellow fever mosquito ("Aedes aegypti") and corn earworm moth ("Helicoverpa zea") larvae. The spilanthol proved effective at killing mosquitoes, with a 24-hour LD of 12.5 µg/mL, and 50% mortality at 6.25 µg/mL. The mixture of spilanthol isomers produced a 66% weight reduction of corn earworm larvae at 250 µg/mL after 6 days.


title: Athlon

text: Athlon is the brand name applied to a series of x86-compatible microprocessors designed and manufactured by Advanced Micro Devices (AMD). The original Athlon (now called Athlon Classic) was the first seventh-generation x86 processor and the first desktop processor to reach speeds of one gigahertz (GHz). It made its debut as AMD's high-end processor brand on June 23, 1999. Over the years AMD has used the Athlon name with the 64-bit Athlon 64 architecture, the Athlon II, and Accelerated Processing Unit (APU) chips targeting the Socket AM1 desktop SoC architecture, and Socket AM4 Zen microarchitecture. The modern Zen-based Athlon with a Radeon Graphics processor was introduced in 2019 as AMD's highest-performance entry-level processor.


title: Athlon

text: Athlon comes from the Ancient Greek ("athlon"), meaning "(sport) contest", or "prize of a contest", or "place of a contest; arena". With the Athlon name originally used for AMD's high-end processors, AMD currently uses Athlon for budget APUs with integrated graphics. AMD positions the Athlon against its rival, the Intel Pentium.


title: Athlon

text: The first Athlon processor was a result of AMD's development of K7 processors in the 1990s. AMD founder and then-CEO Jerry Sanders aggressively pursued strategic partnerships and engineering talent in the late 1990s, working to build on earlier successes in the PC market with the AMD K6 processor line. One major partnership announced in 1998 paired AMD with semiconductor giant Motorola to co-develop copper-based semiconductor technology, resulting in the K7 project being the first commercial processor to utilize copper fabrication technology. In the announcement, Sanders referred to the partnership as creating a "virtual gorilla" that would enable AMD to compete with Intel on fabrication capacity while limiting AMD's financial outlay for new facilities. The K7 design team was led by Dirk Meyer, who had previously worked as a lead engineer at DEC on multiple Alpha microprocessors. When DEC was sold to Compaq in 1998 and discontinued Alpha processor development, Sanders brought most of the Alpha design team to the K7 project. This added to the previously acquired NexGen K6 team, which already included engineers such as Vinod Dham.


title: Athlon

text: The AMD Athlon processor launched on June 23, 1999, with general availability by August 1999. Subsequently, from August 1999 until January 2002, this initial K7 processor was the fastest x86 chip in the world. Wrote the "Los Angeles Times" on October 5, 1999: "AMD has historically trailed Intel’s fastest processors, but has overtaken the industry leader with the new Athlon. Analysts say the Athlon, which will be used by Compaq, IBM and other manufacturers in their most powerful PCs, is significantly faster than Intel’s flagship Pentium III, which runs at a top speed of 600MHz." A number of features helped the chips compete with Intel. By working with Motorola, AMD had been able to refine copper interconnect manufacturing about one year before Intel, with the revised process permitting 180-nanometer processor production. The accompanying die-shrink resulted in lower power consumption, permitting AMD to increase Athlon clock speeds to the 1 GHz range. The Athlon architecture also used the EV6 bus licensed from DEC as its main system bus, allowing AMD to develop its own products without needing to license Intel's GTL+ bus. By the summer of 2000, AMD was shipping Athlons at high volume, and the chips were being used in systems by Gateway, Hewlett-Packard, and Fujitsu Siemens Computers among others.


title: Athlon

text: The second-generation Athlon, the Thunderbird, debuted in 2000. AMD released the Athlon XP the following year, and the Athlon XP's immediate successor, the Athlon 64, was an AMD64-architecture microprocessor released in 2003. After the 2007 launch of the Phenom processors, the Athlon name was also used for mid-range processors, positioned above brands such as Sempron. The Athlon 64 X2 was released in 2005 as the first native dual-core desktop CPU designed by AMD, and the Athlon X2 was a subsequent family based on the Athlon 64 X2. Introduced in 2009, Athlon II was a dual-core family of Athlon chips.


title: Athlon

text: A USD$55 low-power Athlon 200GE with a Radeon graphics processor was introduced in September 2018, sitting under the Ryzen 3 2200G. This iteration of Athlon used AMD's Zen-based "Raven Ridge" core, which in turn had debuted in Ryzen with Radeon graphics processors. With the release, AMD began using the Athlon brand name to refer to "low-cost, high-volume products", in a situation similar to both Intel's Celeron and Pentium Gold. The modern Athlon 3000G was introduced in 2019 and was positioned as AMD's highest-performance entry-level processor. AMD positions the Athlon against its rival, the Intel Pentium. While CPU processing performance is in the same ballpark, the Athlon 3000G uses Radeon Vega graphics, which are rated as more powerful than the Pentium's Intel UHD Graphics.


title: Athlon

text: The AMD Athlon processor launched on June 23, 1999, with general availability by August 1999. Subsequently, from August 1999 until January 2002, this initial K7 processor was the fastest x86 chip in the world. At launch it was, on average, 10% faster than the Pentium III at the same clock for business applications and 20% faster for gaming workloads. In commercial terms, the Athlon "Classic" was an enormous success.


title: Athlon

text: The Athlon Classic is a cartridge-based processor, named Slot A and similar to Intel's cartridge Slot 1 used for Pentium II and Pentium III. It used the same, commonly available, physical 242-pin connector used by Intel Slot 1 processors but rotated by 180 degrees to connect the processor to the motherboard. The cartridge assembly allowed the use of higher-speed cache memory modules than could be put on (or reasonably bundled with) motherboards at the time. Similar to the Pentium II and the Katmai-based Pentium III, the Athlon Classic contained 512 KB of L2 cache. This high-speed SRAM cache was run at a divisor of the processor clock and was accessed via its own 64-bit back-side bus, allowing the processor to service both front-side bus requests and cache accesses simultaneously, as compared to pushing everything through the front-side bus.


title: Athlon

text: The Argon-based Athlon contained 22 million transistors and measured 184 mm. It was fabricated by AMD in a version of their CS44E process, a 0.25 μm complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) process with six levels of aluminium interconnect. "Pluto" and "Orion" Athlons were fabricated in a 0.18 μm process.


title: Athlon

text: The Athlon's CPU cache consisted of the typical two levels. Athlon was the first x86 processor with a 128 KB split level-1 cache; a 2-way associative cache separated into 2×64 KB for data and instructions (a concept from Harvard architecture). SRAM cache designs at the time were incapable of keeping up with the Athlon's clock scalability, resulting in compromised CPU clock speeds in some computers. With later Athlon models, AMD would integrate the L2 cache onto the processor itself, removing dependence on external cache chips. The Slot-A Athlons were the first multiplier-locked CPUs from AMD, preventing users from setting their own desired clock speed. This was done by AMD in part to hinder CPU remarking and overclocking by resellers, which could result in inconsistent performance. Eventually a product called the "Goldfingers device" was created that could unlock the CPU.


title: Athlon

text: AMD designed the CPU with more robust x86 instruction decoding capabilities than that of K6, to enhance its ability to keep more data in-flight at once. The critical branch-predictor unit was enhanced compared to the K6. Deeper pipelining with more stages allowed higher clock speeds to be attained. Like the AMD K5 and K6, the Athlon dynamically buffered internal micro-instructions at runtime resulting from parallel x86 instruction decoding. The CPU is an out-of-order design, again like previous post-5x86 AMD CPUs. The Athlon utilizes the Alpha 21264's EV6 bus architecture with double data rate (DDR) technology.


title: Athlon

text: AMD ended its long-time handicap with floating point x87 performance by designing a super-pipelined, out-of-order, triple-issue floating-point unit (FPU). Each of its three units could independently calculate an optimal type of instructions with some redundancy, making it possible to operate on more than one floating-point instruction at once. This FPU was a huge step forward for AMD, helping compete with Intel's P6 FPU. The 3DNow! floating-point SIMD technology, again present, received some revisions and was renamed "Enhanced 3DNow!" Additions included DSP instructions and the extended MMX subset of Intel SSE.


title: Athlon

text: The second-generation Athlon, the Thunderbird or T-Bird, debuted on June 4, 2000. This version of the Athlon was available in a traditional pin-grid array (PGA) format that plugged into a socket ("Socket A") on the motherboard, or packaged as a Slot A cartridge. The major difference between it and the Athlon Classic was cache design, with AMD adding in 256 KB of on-chip, full-speed exclusive cache. In moving to an exclusive cache design, the L1 cache's contents were not duplicated in the L2, increasing total cache size and functionally creating a large L1 cache with a slower region (the L2) and a fast region (the L1), making the L2 cache into basically a victim cache. With the new cache design, need for high L2 performance and size was lessened, and the simpler L2 cache was less likely to cause clock scaling and yield issues. Thunderbird also moved to a 16-way associative layout.


title: Athlon

text: The Thunderbird was "cherished by many for its overclockability" and proved commercially successful, as AMD's most successful product since the Am386DX-40 ten years earlier. AMD's new fab facility in Dresden increased production for AMD overall and put out Thunderbirds at a fast rate, with the process technology improved by a switch to copper interconnects. After several versions were released in 2000 and 2001 of the Thunderbird, the last Athlon processor using the Thunderbird core was released in 2001 in the summer, at which point speeds were at 1.4 GHz.


title: Athlon

text: The locked multipliers of Socket A Thunderbirds could often be disabled through adding conductive bridges on the surface on the chip, a practice widely known as "the pencil trick".


title: Athlon

text: Overall, there are four main variants of the Athlon XP desktop CPU: the "Palomino", the "Thoroughbred", the "Thorton", and the "Barton". A number of mobile processors were also released, including the "Corvette" models, and the "Dublin" model among others.


title: Athlon

text: On May 14, 2001, AMD released the Athlon XP processor. It debuted as the Mobile Athlon 4, a mobile version codenamed "Corvette", with the desktop Athlon XP released in the fall. The third-generation Athlon, code-named "Palomino", came out on October 9, 2001, as the Athlon XP, with the suffix signifying "extended performance" and unofficially referencing Windows XP. "Palomino's" design used 180 nm fabrication process size. The Athlon XP was marketed using a performance rating (PR) system comparing it to the Thunderbird predecessor core. Among other changes, "Palomino" consumed 20% less power than the Thunderbird, comparatively reducing heat output, and was roughly 10% faster than Thunderbird. "Palomino" also had enhanced K7's TLB architecture and included a hardware data prefetch mechanism to take better advantage of memory bandwidth. "Palomino" was the first K7 core to include the full SSE instruction set from the Intel Pentium III, as well as AMD's 3DNow! Professional. "Palomino" was also the first socketed Athlon officially supporting dual processing, with chips certified for that purpose branded as the Athlon MP (multi processing), which had different specifications. According to HardwareZone, it was possible to modify the Athlon XP to function as an MP.


title: Athlon

text: The fourth-generation of Athlon was introduced with the "Thoroughbred" core, or "T-Bred", on April 17, 2002. The "Thoroughbred" core marked AMD's first production 130 nm silicon, with smaller die size than its predecessor. There came to be two steppings (revisions) of this core commonly referred to as "Tbred-A" and "Tbred-B". Introduced in June 2002, the initial A version was mostly a direct die shrink of the preceding "Palomino" core, but did not significantly increase clock speeds over the "Palomino". A revised "Thoroughbred" core, "Thoroughbred-B", added a ninth "metal layer" to the eight-layered "Thoroughbred-A", offering improvement in headroom over the A and making it popular for overclocking.


title: Athlon

text: Fifth-generation Athlon "Barton"-core processors were released in early 2003. While not operating at higher clock rates than "Thoroughbred"-core processors, they featured an increased L2 cache, and later models had an increased 200 MHz (400 MT/s) front side bus. The "Thorton" core, a blend of "thoroughbred" and "Barton", was a later variant of the "Barton" with half of the L2 cache disabled. The "Barton" was used to officially introduce a higher 400 MT/s bus clock for the Socket A platform, which was used to gain some "Barton" models more efficiency. By this point with the "Barton", the four-year-old Athlon EV6 bus architecture had scaled to its limit and required a redesign to exceed the performance of newer Intel processors. By 2003, the Pentium 4 had become more than competitive with AMD's processors, and "Barton" only saw a small performance increase over the "Thoroughbred-B" it derived from, insufficient to outperform the Pentium 4. The K7-derived Athlons such as "Barton" were replaced in September 2003 by the Athlon 64 family, which featured an on-chip memory controller and a new HyperTransport bus.


title: Athlon

text: Notably, the 2500+ Barton with 11× multiplier was effectively identical to the 3200+ part other than the FSB speed it was binned for, meaning that seamless overclocking was possible more often than not. Early Thortons could be restored to the full Barton specification with the enabling of the other half of the L2 cache from a slight CPU surface modification, but the result was not always reliable.


title: Athlon

text: The "Palomino" core debuted in the mobile market before the PC market, where it was branded as Mobile Athlon 4 with the codename "Corvette". It distinctively used a ceramic interposer much like the "Thunderbird" instead of the organic pin grid array package used on all later "Palomino" processors. In November 2001, AMD released a 1.2 GHz Athlon 4 and a 950 MHz Duron. The Mobile Athlon 4 processors included the PowerNow! function, which controlled a laptop's "level of processor performance by dynamically adjusting its operating frequency and voltage according to the task at hand", thus extending "battery life by reducing processor power when it isn't needed by applications". Duron chips also included PowerNow! In 2002, AMD released a version of PowerNow! called Cool'n'Quiet, implemented on the Athlon XP but only adjusting clock speed instead of voltage.


title: Athlon

text: In 2002 the Athlon XP-M (Mobile Athlon XP) replaced the Mobile Athlon 4 using the newer "Thoroughbred" core, with "Barton" cores for full-size notebooks. The Athlon XP-M was also offered in a compact microPGA socket 563 version. Mobile XPs were not multiplier-locked, making them popular with desktop overclockers.


title: Athlon

text: The immediate successor to the Athlon XP, the Athlon 64 is an AMD64-architecture microprocessor produced by AMD, released on September 23, 2003. A number of variations, all named after cities, were released with 90 nm architecture in 2004 and 2005. Versions released in 2007 and 2009 utilized 65 nm architecture.


title: Athlon

text: The Athlon 64 X2 was released in 2005 as the first native dual-core desktop CPU designed by AMD using an Athlon 64. The Athlon X2 was a subsequent family of microprocessors based on the Athlon 64 X2. The original "Brisbane" Athlon X2 models used 65 nm architecture and were released in 2007.


title: Athlon

text: Athlon II is a family of central processing units. Initially a dual-core version of the Athlon II, the K-10-based "Regor" was released in June 2009 with 45-nanometer architecture. This was followed by a single-core version "Sargas", followed by the quad-core "Propus", the triple-core "Rana" in November 2009, and the "Llano" 32 nm version released in 2011.


title: Athlon

text: The Zen-based Athlon with Radeon graphics processors was launched in September 2018 with the Athlon 200GE. Based on AMD's "Raven Ridge" core previously used in variants of the Ryzen 3 and Ryzen 5, the Athlon 200GE had half of the cores but left SMT enabled. It also kept the same 4 MiB L3 cache, but the L2 cache was halved to 1 MiB.


title: Athlon

text: In addition, the number of graphics compute units was limited to 3 in the Athlon 200GE, and the chip was multiplier-locked. Despite its limitations, the Athlon 200GE performed competitively against the 5000-series Intel Pentium-G, displaying similar CPU performance but an advantage in GPU performance.


title: Athlon

text: On November 19, 2019, AMD released the Athlon 3000G, with a higher 3.5 GHz core clock and 1100 MHz graphics clock compared to the Athlon 200GE, also with two cores. The main functional difference between the 200GE was the Athlon 3000G's unlocked multiplier, allowing the latter to be overclocked on B450 and X470 motherboards.


title: Allahyar Sayyadmanesh

text: Allahyar Sayyadmanesh (, born 29 June 2001) is an Iranian professional footballer who plays as a forward for Hull City and the Iran national team.


title: Allahyar Sayyadmanesh

text: Sayyadmanesh started to play club football when he was 8. He began his career at Arash Amol, where he was top goalscorer in Iran's under-10 league. After 4 years, he joined Padideh Sari, where he spent two years. He later spent a year in Saipa's youth academy.


title: Allahyar Sayyadmanesh

text: On 12 June 2018, Sayyadmanesh signed a five-year contract with Esteghlal. He was assigned the number 16 shirt, previously worn by Mehdi Ghaedi, who decided to change his number.


title: Allahyar Sayyadmanesh

text: On 3 May 2019, Sayyadmanesh signed a five-year contract with Turkish club Fenerbahçe in a $850,000 transfer. He was loaned to TFF 1. League club İstanbulspor on 2 September 2019 on a season-long loan. Sayyadmanesh left Fenerbahçe on 9 July 2022 to join English Club Hull City.


title: Allahyar Sayyadmanesh

text: On 6 October 2020, Sayyadmanesh was loaned to Ukrainian club Zorya Luhansk on a year-and-a-half long deal, with an option to buy him for €3.5 million. On 25 October 2020, Sayyadmanesh scored on his league debut for Zorya in a 4–0 win against Rukh Lviv. On 3 December 2020, he scored the winning goal in a 1–0 win against English Premier League club Leicester City in the group stage of the Europa League. Sayyadmanesh was selected to be among the UPL's best eleven players of the 2020–21 season.


title: Allahyar Sayyadmanesh

text: On 31 January 2022, Sayyadmanesh was loaned to English club Hull City on a half-year deal until the end of the 2021–22 season. He made his debut on 5 February 2022 in the home match against Preston North End when he came on as an 84th-minute substitute for Richie Smallwood.


title: Allahyar Sayyadmanesh

text: On 15 April 2022, Sayyadmanesh scored on his league debut for Hull City in a 2–1 win against Cardiff City.


title: Allahyar Sayyadmanesh

text: On 9 July 2022, Sayyadmanesh signed permanently for the English Club Hull City from Turkish side Fenerbahçe with transfer fee €4.5 million. He signed a four year contract with an option of a further year.


title: Allahyar Sayyadmanesh

text: Sayyadmanesh was a member of Iran U-17 football team who qualified for the 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup quarter-final in India.


title: Allahyar Sayyadmanesh

text: He made his Iran national football team debut on 6 June 2019, in a friendly against Syria, as an 80th-minute substitute for Karim Ansarifard. Nine minutes after coming on, he scored the last goal of the game in a 5–0 victory. The goal broke Saeid Ezatolahi's record of the youngest goalscorer in Iran national team's history by almost two years.


title: Volvox

text: Volvox is a polyphyletic genus of chlorophyte green algae in the family Volvocaceae. It forms spherical colonies of up to 50,000 cells. They live in a variety of freshwater habitats, and were first reported by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek in 1700. "Volvox" diverged from unicellular ancestors approximately .


title: Volvox

text: "Volvox" is a polyphyletic genus in the volvocine green algae clade. Each mature "Volvox" colony is composed of up to thousands of cells from two differentiated cell types: numerous flagellate somatic cells and a smaller number of germ cells lacking in soma that are embedded in the surface of a hollow sphere or coenobium containing an extracellular matrix made of glycoproteins.


title: Volvox

text: Adult somatic cells comprise a single layer with the flagella facing outward. The cells swim in a coordinated fashion, with distinct anterior and posterior poles. The cells have anterior eyespots that enable the colony to swim toward light. The cells of colonies in the more basal Euvolvox clade are interconnected by thin strands of cytoplasm, called protoplasmates. Cell number is specified during development and is dependent on the number of rounds of division.


title: Volvox

text: "Volvox" is facultatively sexual and can reproduce both sexually and asexually. In the lab, asexual reproduction is most commonly observed; the relative frequencies of sexual and asexual reproduction in the wild is unknown. The switch from asexual to sexual reproduction can be triggered by environmental conditions and by the production of a sex-inducing pheromone. Desiccation-resistant diploid zygotes are produced following successful fertilization.


title: Volvox

text: An asexual colony includes both somatic (vegetative) cells, which do not reproduce, and large, non-motile "gonidia" in the interior, which produce new colonies asexually through repeated division. In sexual reproduction two types of gametes are produced. "Volvox" species can be monoecious or dioecious. Male colonies release numerous sperm packets, while in female colonies single cells enlarge to become oogametes, or eggs.


title: Volvox

text: Kirk and Kirk showed that sex-inducing pheromone production can be triggered in somatic cells by a short heat shock given to asexually growing organisms. The induction of sex by heat shock is mediated by oxidative stress that likely also causes oxidative DNA damage. It has been suggested that switching to the sexual pathway is the key to surviving environmental stresses that include heat and drought. Consistent with this idea, the induction of sex involves a signal transduction pathway that is also induced in "Volvox" by wounding.


title: Volvox

text: Colony inversion is a special characteristic during development in the order Volvocaceae that results in new colonies having their flagella facing outwards. During this process the asexual reproductive cells (gonidia) first undergo successive cell divisions to form a concave-to-cup-shaped embryo or plakea composed of a single cell layer. Immediately after, the cell layer is inside out compared with the adult configuration—the apical ends of the embryo protoplasts from which flagella are formed, are oriented toward the interior of the plakea. Then the embryo undergoes inversion, during which the cell layer inverts to form a spheroidal daughter colony with the apical ends and flagella of daughter protoplasts positioned outside. This process enables appropriate locomotion of spheroidal colonies of the Volvocaceae. The mechanism of inversion has been investigated extensively at the cellular and molecular levels using the model species, "Volvox carteri".


title: Volvox

text: "Volvox" is a genus of freshwater algae found in ponds and ditches, even in shallow puddles. According to Charles Joseph Chamberlain,


title: Volvox

text: "The most favorable place to look for it is in the deeper ponds, lagoons, and ditches which receive an abundance of rain water. It has been said that where you find "Lemna", you are likely to find "Volvox"; and it is true that such water is favorable, but the shading is unfavorable. Look where you find "Sphagnum", "Vaucheria", "Alisma", "Equisetum fluviatile", "Utricularia", "Typha", and "Chara". Dr. Nieuwland reports that "Pandorina", "Eudorina" and "Gonium" are commonly found as constituents of the green scum on wallows in fields where pigs are kept. The flagellate, "Euglena", is often associated with these forms."


title: Volvox

text: After some drawings of Henry Baker (1753), Linnaeus (1758) would describe the genus "Volvox", with two species: "V. globator" and "V. chaos". "Volvox chaos" is an amoeba now known as Chaos (genus) sp.


title: Volvox

text: Ancestors of "Volvox" transitioned from single cells to form multicellular colonies at least , during the Triassic period. An estimate using DNA sequences from about 45 different species of volvocine green algae, including "Volvox", suggests that the transition from single cells to undifferentiated multicellular colonies took about 35 million years.


title: 220 Central Park South

text: 220 Central Park South is a residential skyscraper in Midtown Manhattan in New York City, situated along Billionaires' Row on the south side of Central Park South between Broadway and Seventh Avenue. 220 Central Park South was designed by Robert A.M. Stern Architects and SLCE Architects, with interiors designed by Thierry Despont. It is composed of two sections: a 70-story, tower on 58th Street, which is the 17th-tallest building in New York City, as well as an 18-story section on Central Park South, both of which contain a limestone facade. Most of the 118 apartments are duplex apartments, although some of the units have been combined to create larger units. The building has a porte-cochère, a wine cellar, private dining rooms, and various recreational facilities.


title: 220 Central Park South

text: Vornado Realty Trust developed the building on the site of a rent-stabilized apartment complex constructed in 1954. While Vornado acquired the existing apartment building in 2005, a lawsuit from the existing building's tenants forced the demolition of the existing structure to be delayed to 2012. Additionally, Vornado had to settle a dispute with Extell, which owned a garage on the site and had expressed concern that Vornado's structure would block northward views of Extell's adjacent Central Park Tower. Robert A. M. Stern's designs were released in early 2014, and the plans were approved that March. Work on the base started in 2015 and most exterior work was done by the time the first residents moved into the building in 2018.


title: 220 Central Park South

text: 220 Central Park South contains some of the most expensive apartments in New York City, with a secretive purchasing process and many anonymous buyers. Two of the building's units have sold for over $100 million, including a $238 million unit purchased by billionaire hedge fund manager Kenneth C. Griffin in 2019, the most expensive home ever sold in the United States at the time.


title: 220 Central Park South

text: 220 Central Park South is in the Midtown Manhattan neighborhood of New York City, just east of Columbus Circle and south of Central Park. It has frontage on 58th Street to the south and Central Park South to the north, in the middle of a city block bounded by Seventh Avenue to the east and Broadway to the west. The building carries the alternate addresses of 225-231 West 58th Street. The building sits on an "L"-shaped site covering four land lots: three on West 58th Street measuring a combined , and a fourth lot between Central Park South and 58th Street measuring . The site has frontage of along 58th Street and along Central Park South, with the Central Park South wing on the far eastern portion of the site.


title: 220 Central Park South

text: Nearby buildings on the same block include Gainsborough Studios and 240 Central Park South to the west, as well as 200 Central Park South, the Helen Miller Gould Stable, and the firehouse of Engine Company 23 to the east. 220 Central Park South is across from the Central Park Tower, the American Fine Arts Society (also known as the Art Students League of New York building), the Saint Thomas Choir School, and the Osborne Apartments to the south. The building is close to two New York City Subway stations: the 57th Street–Seventh Avenue station of the , and the 59th Street–Columbus Circle station of the . 220 Central Park South is one of several major developments around 57th Street and Central Park that are collectively dubbed Billionaires' Row by the media. Other buildings along Billionaires' Row include 432 Park Avenue five blocks southeast, 111 West 57th Street and One57 one block southeast, and the adjacent Central Park Tower.


title: 220 Central Park South

text: The previous building at the address 220 Central Park South was a 20-story structure with 125 apartments, constructed in 1954. It was developed by the J. H. Taylor Management Corporation and designed by Albert Mayer and Julian Whittlesey, all of whom had been involved with the earlier 240 Central Park South. The old 220 Central Park South was erected with a concrete frame and white-brick framework, and consisted of two "towers" connected by a promenade and garden. Real estate investor Sarah Korein ultimately came to own the old 220 Central Park South. The old building was demolished between 2012 and 2013.


title: 220 Central Park South

text: Robert A.M. Stern Architects designed the massing and exterior of 220 Central Park South, although SLCE Architects is listed in building documents as the architect of record. The building is one of several skyscrapers designed by Stern in Manhattan, which include 15 Central Park West, a few blocks to the north; 30 Park Place in the Financial District; and 520 Park Avenue, east of Central Park. Thierry Despont designed the interior spaces. Other firms involved in construction included structural engineer DeSimone Consulting Engineers and general contractor Lendlease.


title: 220 Central Park South

text: The structure is composed of two sections: a 70-story tower on 58th Street and a shorter 18-story section on Central Park South. The massing of the building is influenced by the two zoning districts that the building occupies; different height restrictions were determined by the floor area ratios for each respective zoning district. One quarter of the site is on Central Park South, while the remaining three-quarters of the lot are on 58th Street.


title: 220 Central Park South

text: The main structure, on 58th Street, is tall, rising 70 stories above the ground. The floor slabs of the upper floors measure , with the longer dimension extending west to east, and each of the upper floors contains an area of about , giving the upper floors a slenderness ratio of 18:1. Due to its slenderness, the building has been characterized as part of a new breed of New York City "pencil towers". The upper floors rise above the southern section of the site, both because of the light restriction and because the position of the floor slabs would enable all the residential units to face north toward Central Park. During construction, three alternatives for the massing and twenty-three alternatives for the floor slabs were studied.


title: 220 Central Park South

text: The base of the building includes a smaller section on Central Park South, called "The Villas". This section is 18 stories tall, with a deep setback above the sixth floor and several smaller setbacks on upper floors. Portions of the Villas' facade contain metal balconies in front of the windows. According to Emporis, The Villas stands tall. Both sections of the building share a lobby and a three-story basement.


title: 220 Central Park South

text: 220 Central Park South has a limestone facade similar to other buildings by Stern such as 15 Central Park West. 220 CPS's facade of Alabama "Silver Shadow" limestone has a "marbled" appearance (in contrast to 15 CPW's more uniform Indiana limestone). The usage of limestone was intended to blend with the more traditional facades of other buildings on Central Park's perimeter. According to Stern, 220 Central Park South's design was to "belong to the family of buildings that have framed Central Park for generations". Because of 220 Central Park South's height, it was infeasible to use hand-set or precast limestone sections, so the facade was instead designed as a curtain wall with window openings. The facade contains windows with detailed designs as well as a decorative rooftop crown. The Villa is also clad with the same Alabama limestone.


title: 220 Central Park South

text: 220 Central Park South's foundation consists of three concrete "mats", each measuring thick and collectively containing over of concrete. The foundation "mats" sit on a layer of bedrock over deep, and 142 rock anchors were drilled into the bedrock and foundations to prevent overturning within the tower.


title: 220 Central Park South

text: 220 Central Park South's superstructure is concealed within its curtain walls. To maximize floor area, four large columns were installed along the northern side, a structural core on the southern side, and three smaller columns each on the western and eastern sides. This design was chosen over an alternative that would have placed several smaller columns on each side, but which was rejected because the developer did not want columns to be so closely spaced along the facade.


title: 220 Central Park South

text: To maximize usable space on the upper floors, and thus maximize revenue from apartment sales, the mechanical equipment was placed at the base of the main tower on 58th Street. The mechanical equipment occupies six stories, each with ceiling heights of , taking advantage of a zoning provision to maximize the tower's height. Accordingly, the mechanical equipment takes up of the tower's height, and the lowest condominiums in the main tower are above ground level. The roof of the main tower contains a slosh damper, which uses a huge tank of water to reduce vibrations. The damper weighs .


title: 220 Central Park South

text: There are 118 apartments, most of which are duplex apartments. The apartments contain features such as oak flooring, custom millwork, and marble cladding of the kitchen islands and restrooms. Sources disagree on how many apartments are within the Villas section of the building. According to 6sqft, the Villas contains 13 condominium units, while according to "The New York Times", the Villas has 10 condos.


title: 220 Central Park South

text: Details of interior designs are scarce; "The Wall Street Journal" reported in late 2018 that the building's developer, Vornado, refused to publish renderings of apartment interiors. Some of the upper floors are designed so that they contain a single unit on each floor, or units spanning multiple floors. Some of the units have been combined to create larger penthouse or duplex apartments. For example, Vornado created a four-story "mega condo" by combining the duplex on the 50th and 51st floors with three units on the 52nd and 53rd floors.


title: 220 Central Park South

text: The two wings of 220 Central Park South abut a motor court with a porte-cochere, where vehicles could drop off and pick up residents and their guests. The building also has a wine cellar, an saltwater swimming pool, private dining rooms, an athletic club, a juice bar, a library, a basketball court, a golf simulator and a children's play area. In 2019, Jean-Georges Vongerichten was selected to operate a residents-only, 54-seat restaurant at the second floor.


title: 220 Central Park South

text: In early 2005, Korein's estate placed the old building for sale. Because of the valuable air rights involved, one uninvolved broker estimated that the property would sell for as much as $160–175 million. At the time, the building had 47 tenants in rent-stabilized apartments, and 40% of the units were vacant. The Clarett Group was interested in purchasing the old 220 Central Park South, but did not have enough money to pay for the building up front. Warren Fink, the chief investment officer of the Clarett Group, contacted Vornado CEO Steven Roth and Vornado president Michael D. Fascitelli to join in the purchase.


title: 220 Central Park South

text: The old building was purchased in August 2005 by Vornado for $136.6 million. Vornado intended to demolish the building and erect a 41-story glass tower, and served eviction notices to the building's eighty tenants in 2006. However, some of the rent-stabilized tenants refused to vacate, filing a lawsuit against Vornado. Although the New York Supreme Court initially ruled in favor of the tenants in 2008 under the grounds that a proper environmental review had not been conducted, this was overturned upon appeal in 2009. The developer ultimately settled with tenants the following year, paying between $1.3 million and $1.56 million each to those remaining in the building. Demolition of the existing structure began in 2012 and was completed in early 2013.


title: 220 Central Park South

text: Meanwhile, Extell Development had leased the parking garage under part of the old building's site in 2006. Extell's CEO, Gary Barnett, stated that he leased the garage so that he would have enough parking for his own nearby developments. However, Extell repeatedly refused Vornado's attempts at a buyout or settlement. The dispute likely originated from the fact that Vornado's proposed building would block the views of Extell's proposed Central Park Tower development directly to the south, for which Extell had started acquiring land in 2005. The New York City Department of Buildings (DOB) fined Extell in May 2012, after Vornado claimed that Extell had violated the terms of the lease because residents of the empty rental building were not the main patrons of the garage. Vornado alleged that Extell had defaulted on the lease, having supposedly violated the lease terms, even though Extell's lease ran through 2018. Extell then sued Vornado that August, claiming that Vornado had intentionally created the violation by first emptying the building of tenants. A court enjoined the eviction in July 2013, permitting Extell to continue holding the garage.


title: 220 Central Park South

text: In October 2013, the two companies reached a settlement in which Vornado would give Extell $194 million for the garage and some air rights. As part of the deal, 220 Central Park South would be shifted slightly westward and Central Park Tower would be cantilevered slightly eastward, giving the latter a direct view of Central Park. Without Central Park Tower's cantilever, 220 Central Park South would have blocked the first of Central Park Tower. Vornado reported the total land cost for the new building to be over $515.4 million, or .


title: 220 Central Park South

text: In early 2014, the Bank of China gave Vornado a $600 million loan for the building's construction. Robert A. M. Stern was hired to create updated designs for the building, which were approved by the New York City Department of Buildings. in March 2014. The plans called for 83 apartments to be built inside a new 69-story, tower at the site, and an additional 10 apartments in an adjoining 10-story "Villa". Site excavation was underway by May 2014. Construction of the foundations involved manual hammering and controlled blasts to reduce damage to several nearby buildings, including some New York City designated landmarks.


title: 220 Central Park South

text: As late as April 2015, there was little information on the project and the building was still planned to have 93 total apartments. However, by May 2015, the building was proposed to contain 118 apartments. By that time, about a third of the units were already in contract, representing a combined $1.1 billion, even though public offerings had not yet started. That September, Vornado increased its Bank of China loan by $350 million and terminated a commitment for a $500 million mezzanine loan. Two months later, Vornado received an additional loan for the project, a $750 million unsecured term loan from multiple lenders.


title: 220 Central Park South

text: The base of the tower was under construction by late 2015. Aboveground work reached 15 stories in February 2016 and 25 stories by that May. In November 2016, Justin Casquejo, a thrill-seeking teenage free solo climber and stunt performer, hung from the not-yet-completed tower. The construction process was generally secretive, leading real estate magazine "The Real Deal" to report in July 2018, "It has now been two years, eight months and 28 days since Vornado Realty Trust deigned to update Wall Street on sales at 220 Central Park South." According to Roth, the lack of updates was an intentional move for "competitive reasons". Brokers and lawyers uncovered floor plans and proposed prices by reviewing an offering plan filed with the Attorney General of New York, while reporters filed Freedom of Information Act requests to recover data from the offering plan.


title: 220 Central Park South

text: Facade work was finished by September 2018. By the end of that month, approximately 83% of the condominium units were under sales contracts, and closings were scheduled through 2020. The first residents started moving into the building in late 2018, and Vornado extended its $750 million unsecured term loan at that time, with the loan's maturity being pushed from 2020 to 2024.


title: 220 Central Park South

text: By July 2019, exterior finishes were being placed on 220 Central Park South, and Vornado had repaid its full $950 million loan to the Bank of China. Later the same year, "The Wall Street Journal" wrote of the building's success as a "positive sign" for an otherwise unfavorable luxury real estate market. Vornado planned to use sales income from 220 Central Park South to finance capital expenditures of its other properties. By September 2020, the last exterior pieces were put on the building. In total, 220 Central Park South cost $1.5 billion to construct. Including hard construction costs, the building was estimated to cost .


title: 220 Central Park South

text: Despite a general decrease in real estate sales in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic in New York City, other units at 220 Central Park South were among the most expensive sold in New York City during that time. Only thirty condominiums remained to be sold by September 2020. Although Vornado lost hundreds of millions of dollars during 2020, because of a commercial real estate downturn caused by the pandemic, the company was able to lessen the loss with revenue from the sales of units at 220 Central Park South. The building accounted for $592 million in condominium sales in the third quarter of 2020, out of $1.85 billion in sales in the entire borough of Manhattan during that time.


title: 220 Central Park South

text: Many of the buyers at 220 Central Park South chose to remain anonymous, purchasing units at the building through limited liability companies. According to a 2018 "The Wall Street Journal" article, neither Vornado nor the building's selling agent Corcoran Group were willing to divulge buyers' identities. In addition, "The Real Deal" reported in 2016 that the building did not have a public website, in contrast to other condominiums. Prospective buyers had to be represented by a real estate broker, who would request a questionnaire with personal questions about the buyer. If a prospective buyer's responses were deemed satisfactory, they would view a sales office, and Roth would personally interview the buyer, an unusual move for luxury condominiums. Richard Steinberg of the brokerage Douglas Elliman said, "Even if you had the money, it wasn’t guaranteed you could get a visit."


title: 220 Central Park South

text: Notable confirmed buyers include executives such as Renata de Camargo Nascimento, co-owner of Brazilian construction company Camargo Correa; Albert Behler, CEO of Paramount Group; Byron Allen, CEO of Entertainment Studios; Eric Smidt, CEO of Harbor Freight Tools; finance executive Andrew Zaro; and real estate executives Ofer Yardeniand and Richard Leibovitch. Other buyers have included billionaire hedge fund managers Daniel Och and Kenneth C. Griffin; real estate developer David Mandelbaum; musician Sting and his wife, producer and actor Trudie Styler; and billionaire pharmaceutical businessman Ge Li.


title: 220 Central Park South

text: The first sales contract closed on October 24, 2018, on a unit selling for $16.4 million. The first apartment in the Villas was sold the following year, in May 2019. The first listing for an apartment resale in the building occurred in January 2020, when Leibovitch listed his four-bedroom apartment for $36 million, a $10 million markup from the price at which he had purchased it. He subsequently lowered the price to $33 million, and the unit was sold at that price in September 2021.


title: 220 Central Park South

text: 220 Central Park South has had some of the most expensive residential real estate transactions in New York City's history. Griffin had agreed to purchase three floors in 2015 for $200 million, representing the city's costliest real estate purchase at the time. When Griffin finalized his purchase of a four-floor "mega condo" for $238 million in January 2019, it became the most expensive home ever sold in the United States, despite being valued at only $9.4 million. That December, an anonymous individual's $100 million purchase of a duplex atop the building became the third costliest residential purchase in New York City; the deal was finalized in July 2020. In June 2021, two full-floor units at floors 60 and 61 were sold for a combined $157.5 million to Joe Tsai, making it among the most expensive residential sales in New York City history; both units had increased significantly in price from 2020, when the units had traded for a combined $100 million. The popularity of 220 Central Park South, compared with other Billionaires' Row buildings, was attributed to the fact that it was the only Billionaires' Row development that was directly on Central Park. In January 2022, Joe Tsai bought Daniel Och's penthouse at floor 73 for $188 million, the second-most-expensive residential unit in the United States.


title: Dewi Sukarno

text: , complete name , widely known in Japan as Dewi Fujin (デヴィ夫人, "Lady Dewi", "Madame Dewi"), is a Japanese-born Indonesian businesswoman, socialite, television personality and philanthropist. She was one of the wives of the first President of Indonesia, Sukarno.


title: Dewi Sukarno

text: Naoko Nemoto was born on February 6, 1940 in Tokyo. Nemoto had a younger brother, and a mother who was constantly sick. Her father was a carpenter, who passed away when she was 16. To make ends meet, Nemoto worked at a famous club named "Copacabana".


title: Dewi Sukarno

text: In 1959, Nemoto, who was 19, met Sukarno, who was 39 years her senior, at the Ginza hostess bar in Tokyo, near the Imperial Hotel. Nemoto was an arts student and entertainer, while the latter was on a state visit to Japan.


title: Dewi Sukarno

text: Naoko married Sukarno in Indonesia in 1962 and converted to Islam. Sukarno gave her the Indonesian name "Ratna Sari Dewi Sukarno"; derived from Javanese-Sanskrit which means "the jewel essence of a goddess". They had one daughter, Kartika (born March 11, 1967 and is now going by the name "Carina"), who was Sukarno's eighth child. Sukarno was eventually overthrown by General Suharto in 1967 and died three years later.


title: Dewi Sukarno

text: The widowed Dewi Sukarno moved to Europe after Sukarno's ousting and has since lived in different countries, including France, Switzerland, and the United States. As of 2008, she has returned to Japan and lives in Shibuya, Tokyo, where she lives in her memorabilia-filled residence.


title: Dewi Sukarno

text: Dewi Sukarno is known for her outspoken personality. In Japan, she is commonly referred to simply as rather than her full name. She made appearances in the news media after the January 2008 death of her husband's successor, Suharto, blaming him for instituting a repressive regime and likening him to Cambodian despot Pol Pot.


title: Dewi Sukarno

text: As of 2012, Dewi Sukarno enjoys caring for her 16 dogs and her cosmetics business. She has her own charity business that is often scrutinized by the National Tax Agency. She now makes a living doing part-time jobs, appearing on Japanese television and has served as a judge for a beauty contest, as in the 2005 Miss International pageant held in Tokyo. She is well known for her sculpted beauty and often claims to have not had the facelifts and plastic surgery that her doctor has rumored performing.


title: Dewi Sukarno

text: She remains an Indonesian citizen, being registered on the Permanent Elector's Roll ("Daftar Pemilih Tetap") of the Indonesian Embassy at Tokyo as of 2008. However, she has not exercised her right to vote. In an interview with Desi Anwar of CNN Indonesia, she had reservations about being known solely as Sukarno's widow 40 years after his death. However, she expressed the intention to keep her Indonesian nationality - stating that an Indonesian passport was the only way she could freely travel to and from e.g. Blitar (where Sukarno's resting place is), i.e. as an Indonesian citizen.


title: Dewi Sukarno

text: In January 1992, Dewi became involved in a much-publicised altercation at a party in Aspen, Colorado, United States with fellow international socialite and heiress, Minnie Osmeña. A granddaughter of a former President of the Philippines, Osmeña reportedly commented on Dewi's past, and the spat culminated in Dewi hitting Osmeña's face with a wine glass. Osmeña needed 37 stitches to seal the gash, while Dewi was later detained for 34 days in Aspen for disorderly conduct. Dewi and Osmeña had already been hostile to each other after an exchange at an earlier party months before, where Dewi was heard to laugh at Osmeña's political plans (among which was to run for Vice-President of the Philippines).


title: Dewi Sukarno

text: Two years later, she posed for a book of photographs that was published in her native Japan (well known as ""Madame de Syuga""). Some of the images featured her partially naked, and others showed what appeared to be tattoo-like body art. The book, while not distributed in Indonesia, was immediately banned, and many Indonesians felt offended by what was perceived to be a disgrace of Sukarno's name and legacy.


title: Dewi Sukarno

text: Since the overthrow of Sukarno, Dewi has had little involvement with Indonesian politics. She has worked with the United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP), and has expressed the wish to help refugees as well as people living under regimes like North Korea. When asked to comment about the reign of her stepdaughter, Megawati, all she replied was, "I think Megawati is gradually doing whatever she can. It's not easy being a Muslim woman president."


title: Terminal emulator

text: A terminal emulator, or terminal application, is a computer program that emulates a video terminal within some other display architecture. Though typically synonymous with a shell or text terminal, the term "terminal" covers all remote terminals, including graphical interfaces. A terminal emulator inside a graphical user interface is often called a terminal window.


title: Terminal emulator

text: A terminal window allows the user access to a text terminal and all its applications such as command-line interfaces (CLI) and text user interface (TUI) applications. These may be running either on the same machine or on a different one via telnet, ssh, dial-up, or over a direct serial connection. On Unix-like operating systems, it is common to have one or more terminal windows connected to the local machine.


title: Terminal emulator

text: Terminals usually support a set of escape sequences for controlling color, cursor position, etc. Examples include the family of terminal control sequence standards known as ECMA-48, ANSI X3.64 or ISO/IEC 6429.


title: Terminal emulator

text: Terminal emulators may implement a local echo function, which may be named "half-duplex", or still slightly incorrectly "echoplex" (which is formally an error detection mechanism rather than an input display option).


title: Terminal emulator

text: Terminal emulators may implement local editing, also known as "line-at-a-time mode". This is also mistakenly referred to as "half-duplex". In this mode, the terminal emulator only sends complete lines of input to the host system. The user enters and edits a line, but it is held locally within the terminal emulator as it is being edited. It is not transmitted until the user signals its completion, usually with the key on the keyboard or a "send" button of some sort in the user interface. At that point, the entire line is transmitted. Line-at-a-time mode implies local echo, since otherwise the user will not be able to see the line as it is being edited and constructed. However, line-at-a-time mode is independent of echo mode and does not "require" local echo. When entering a password, for example, line-at-a-time entry with local editing is possible, but local echo is turned off (otherwise the password would be displayed).


title: Terminal emulator

text: The complexities of line-at-a-time mode are exemplified by the line-at-a-time mode option in the telnet protocol. To implement it correctly, the "Network Virtual Terminal" implementation provided by the terminal emulator program must be capable of recognizing and properly dealing with "interrupt" and "abort" events that arrive in the middle of locally editing a line.


title: Terminal emulator

text: In asynchronous terminals data can flow in any direction at any time. In synchronous terminals a protocol controls who may send data when. IBM 3270-based terminals used with IBM mainframe computers are an example of synchronous terminals. They operate in an essentially "screen-at-a-time" mode (also known as block mode). Users can make numerous changes to a page, before submitting the updated screen to the remote machine as a single action.


title: Terminal emulator

text: Terminal emulators that simulate the 3270 protocol are available for most operating systems, for use both by those administering systems such as the z9, as well as those using the corresponding applications such as CICS.


title: Terminal emulator

text: Other examples of synchronous terminals include the IBM 5250, ICL 7561, Honeywell Bull VIP7800 and Hewlett-Packard 700/92.


title: Terminal emulator

text: Virtual consoles, also called virtual terminals, are emulated text terminals, using the keyboard and monitor of a personal computer or workstation. The word "text" is key since virtual consoles are not GUI terminals and they do not run inside a graphical interface. Virtual consoles are found on most Unix-like systems. They are primarily used to access and interact with servers, without using a graphical desktop environment.


title: Terminal emulator

text: Many terminal emulators have been developed for terminals such as VT52, VT100, VT220, VT320, IBM 3270/8/9/E, IBM 5250, IBM 3179G, Data General D211, Hewlett Packard HP700/92, Sperry/Unisys 2000-series UTS60, Burroughs/Unisys A-series T27/TD830/ET1100, ADDS ViewPoint, Sun console, QNX, AT386, SCO-ANSI, SNI 97801, Televideo, and Wyse 50/60. Additionally, programs have been developed to emulate other terminal emulators such as xterm and assorted console terminals (e.g., for Linux). Finally, some emulators simply refer to a standard, such as ANSI. Such programs are available on many platforms ranging from DOS and Unix to Windows and macOS to embedded operating systems found in cellphones and industrial hardware.


title: Terminal emulator

text: In the past, Unix and Unix-like systems used serial port devices such as RS-232 ports, and provided device files for them.


title: Terminal emulator

text: With terminal emulators those device files are emulated by using a pair of pseudoterminal devices. This pair is used to emulate a physical port/connection to the host computing endpoint - computer's hardware provided by operating system APIs, some other software like rlogin, telnet or SSH or else. For example, in Linux systems these would be (for the master side) and (for the slave side) pseudoterminal devices respectively.


title: Terminal emulator

text: There are also special virtual console files like codice_1. In text mode, writing to the file displays text on the virtual console and reading from the file returns text the user writes to the virtual console. As with other text terminals, there are also special escape sequences, control characters and functions that a program can use, most easily via a library such as "ncurses". For more complex operations, the programs can use console and terminal special "ioctl" system calls. One can compare devices using the patterns vcs ("virtual console screen") and vcsa ("virtual console screen with attributes") such as codice_2 and codice_3.


title: Terminal emulator

text: Some terminal emulators also include escape sequences for configuring the behavior of the terminal to facilitate good interoperation between the terminal and programs running inside of it, for example to configure paste bracketing.


title: Terminal emulator

text: The virtual consoles can be configured in the file codice_4 read by "init" -- typically it starts the text mode login process "getty" for several virtual consoles. X Window System can be configured in codice_4 or by an X display manager. A number of Linux distributions use systemd instead of init, which also allows virtual console configuration.


title: Terminal emulator

text: The program "startx" starts the X Window System on a new virtual console. There are also other graphical programs that can start from the console (e.g. LinuxTV and MPlayer etc.)


title: Natalie and Nadiya Anderson

text: Natalie Anderson and Nadiya Anderson (born April 11, 1986) are American television personalities and twins, most commonly known as "The Twinnies". They appeared on "The Amazing Race" and "". Nadiya was the first contestant to be voted out, while Natalie was crowned Sole Survivor, winning the show's $1 million prize. Natalie also competed on "", an all winners season. After being voted out first, she battled her way back into the game from the Edge of Extinction and finished runner-up on the season.


title: Natalie and Nadiya Anderson

text: The Anderson twins were born in New York City to a Tamil father and a Sinhalese mother, but they moved to Sri Lanka when they were three and were there during the Sri Lankan Civil War. They moved to West Hartford, Connecticut when they were thirteen years old, attending Hall High School, where both sisters ran track and Natalie was captain of the swim team, and Fordham University's Gabelli School of Business, where Natalie played rugby. Before participating in their first season on "The Amazing Race", both had moved to Edgewater, New Jersey. Natalie was studying physical therapy while Nadiya was a project coordinator for Bridge2Peace, which is an American educational charity operating in Sri Lanka.


title: Natalie and Nadiya Anderson

text: Natalie and Nadiya first participated in the 21st season of "The Amazing Race", where they called each other "Twinnie". The Andersons won two legs during the season but were eliminated in 4th place in the penultimate leg. They returned in the 24th season "All-Stars" competition, but were eliminated in the first leg of the season.


title: Natalie and Nadiya Anderson

text: Natalie and Nadiya appeared as contestants on "". The twins appeared on a season that used the Blood vs. Water theme, which pitted nine pairs of loved ones against each other. Natalie was placed on the Hunahpu tribe, while Nadiya was on the Coyopa tribe, as the season's theme was pairs of loved ones competing against each other on opposing tribes. Nadiya was the first contestant eliminated from the competition. Natalie remained in the game, making it into the merged Huyopa tribe, and won three reward challenges, one individual immunity, and was sent to Exile Island twice. Natalie ultimately made it into the Final Three and was voted by the jury in a 5–2–1 vote as the Sole Survivor, winning the season's $1,000,000 grand prize.


title: Natalie and Nadiya Anderson

text: Natalie was slated to return for "" as a member of the Nuku tribe, but she suffered a concussion and was replaced by Sierra Dawn Thomas.


title: Natalie and Nadiya Anderson

text: For winning "", Natalie returned to compete on "". She was the first person voted out, but inhabited the “Edge of Extinction” island. She spent 33 days on the Edge of Extinction, where she accumulated 16 Fire Tokens, the most any player in the game received. On day 35, Anderson used her 16 tokens to purchase three advantages in the re-entry competition, which helped her win and re-enter the main game. On day 36, she played an idol (purchased on Extinction Island) on herself, which voided 4 votes against her. On day 37, she found an idol and played it on herself, but received no votes. She won the Final Immunity Challenge on day 38, making it to the Final Tribal Council once again. However her gameplay was seen as safe compared to Tony's dominant gameplay, and she finished as the runner up to him in a 12-4-0 vote. Nadiya came to visit her on the loved ones' visit during episode ten.


title: Natalie and Nadiya Anderson

text: Natalie competed on the of "The Challenge". She was initially paired with Wes Bergmann and was voted into elimination in episode one, where she defeated opponent Ashley Mitchell. She was deemed medically unable to continue in the competition, withdrawing in episode 5, after learning that she was pregnant.


title: Natalie and Nadiya Anderson

text: In 2016, Natalie appeared in a special episode of "The Price Is Right" which featured multiple former "Survivor" contestants competing on the show. The episode aired on May 23, 2016.


title: Fashoda Incident

text: The Fashoda Incident, also known as the Fashoda Crisis (French: "Crise de Fachoda"), was an international incident and the climax of imperialist territorial disputes between Britain and France in East Africa, occurring in 1898. A French expedition to Fashoda on the White Nile river sought to gain control of the Upper Nile river basin and thereby exclude Britain from the Sudan. The French party and a British-Egyptian force (outnumbering the French by 10 to 1) met on friendly terms, but back in Europe, it became a war scare. The British held firm as both empires stood on the verge of war with heated rhetoric on both sides. Under heavy pressure, the French withdrew, ensuring Anglo-Egyptian control over the area.


title: Fashoda Incident

text: During the late-19th century, Africa was rapidly being claimed and colonised by European colonial powers. After the 1885 Berlin Conference regarding West Africa, Europe's great powers went after any remaining lands in Africa that were not already under another European nation's influence. This period in African history is usually termed the Scramble for Africa by modern historiography. The principal powers involved in this scramble were Britain, France, Germany, Belgium, Italy, Portugal, and Spain.


title: Fashoda Incident

text: The French thrust into the African interior was mainly from the continent's Atlantic coast (modern-day Senegal) eastward, through the Sahel along the southern border of the Sahara, a territory covering modern-day Senegal, Mali, Niger, and Chad. Their ultimate goal was to have an uninterrupted link between the Niger River and the Nile, hence controlling all trade to and from the Sahel region, by virtue of their existing control over the caravan routes through the Sahara. France also had an outpost near the mouth of the Red Sea in Djibouti (French Somaliland), which could serve as an eastern anchor to an east–west belt of French territory across the continent.


title: Fashoda Incident

text: The British, on the other hand, wanted to link their possessions in Southern Africa (South Africa, Bechuanaland and Rhodesia), with their territories in East Africa (modern-day Kenya), and these two areas with the Nile basin. Sudan, which then included modern-day South Sudan and Uganda, was the key to the fulfilment of these ambitions, especially since Egypt was already under British control. This 'red line' (i.e. a proposed railway or road, see Cape to Cairo Railway) through Africa was made most famous by the British diamond magnate and politician Cecil Rhodes, who wanted Africa "painted Red" (meaning under British control, since territories which were part of Britain were often painted red on maps).


title: Fashoda Incident

text: If one draws a line from Cape Town to Cairo (Rhodes' dream) and another line from Dakar to French Somaliland (now Djibouti) by the Red Sea in the Horn (the French ambition), these two lines intersect in eastern South Sudan near the town of Fashoda (present-day Kodok), explaining its strategic importance. The French east–west axis and the British north–south axis could not co-exist; the nation that could occupy and hold the crossing of the two axes would be the only one able to proceed with its plan.


title: Fashoda Incident

text: Fashoda had been founded by the Egyptian army in 1855 as base from which to combat the East African slave trade. It was located on high ground along of marshy shoreline at one of the few places where a boat could unload. The surrounding area, although swampy, was populated by Shilluk people, and by the mid-1870s, Fashoda was a bustling market and administrative town. The first Europeans to arrive in the region were explorers Georg Schweinfurth in 1869 and Wilhelm Junker in 1876. Junker described the town as "a considerable trading place ... the last outpost of civilization, where travelers plunging into or returning from the wilds of equatorial Africa could procure a few indispensable European wares from the local Greek traders." By the time Jean-Baptiste Marchand arrived, however, the deserted fort was in ruins.


title: Fashoda Incident

text: Fashoda was also bound up in the Egyptian Question, a long running dispute between the United Kingdom and France over the British occupation of Egypt. Since 1882 many French politicians, particularly those of the "parti colonial", had come to regret France's decision not to join with Britain in occupying the country. They hoped to force Britain to leave, and thought that a colonial outpost on the Upper Nile could serve as a base for French gunboats. These in turn were expected to make the British abandon Egypt. Another proposed scheme involved a massive dam, cutting off the Nile's water supply and forcing the British out. These ideas were highly impractical, but they succeeded in alarming many British officials.


title: Fashoda Incident

text: Other European nations were also interested in controlling the upper Nile valley. The Italians got a head start from their Eritrean outpost at Massawa on the Red Sea, but their defeat by the Ethiopians at Adowa in March 1896 ended their attempt. In September 1896, King Leopold, the official leader of the Congo Free State, dispatched a column of 5,000 Congolese troops, with artillery, towards the White Nile River from Stanleyville on the Upper Congo River. They took five months to reach Lake Albert on the White Nile, about from Fashoda, but by then, their soldiers were so angry at their treatment that they mutinied on 18 March 1897. Many of the Belgian officers were killed and the rest were forced to flee.


title: Fashoda Incident

text: France made its move by sending Captain Jean-Baptiste Marchand, a veteran of the conquest of French Sudan, back to West Africa. He embarked a force composed mostly of West African colonial troops from Senegal on a ship for central Africa. On 20 June 1896, he reached Libreville in the colony of Gabon with a force of only 120 "tirailleurs" plus 12 French officers, non-commissioned officers and support staff—Captain Marcel Joseph Germain, Captain Albert Baratier, Captain Charles Mangin, Captain Victor Emmanuel Largeau, Lieutenant Félix Fouqué, teacher Dyé, doctor Jules Emily Major, Warrant Officer De Prat, Sergeant George Dat, Sergeant Bernard, Sergeant Venail and the military interpreter Landerouin.


title: Fashoda Incident

text: Marchand's force set out from Brazzaville in a borrowed Belgian steamer with orders to secure the area around Fashoda, and make it a French protectorate. They steamed up the Ubangi River to its head of navigation and then marched overland (carrying 100 tons of supplies, including a collapsible steel steamboat with a one-ton boiler) through jungle and scrub to the deserts of Sudan. They travelled across Sudan to the Nile River. They were to be met there by two expeditions coming from the east across Ethiopia, one of which, from Djibouti, was led by Christian de Bonchamps, veteran of the Stairs Expedition to Katanga.


title: Fashoda Incident

text: Following a difficult 14-month trek across the heart of Africa, the Marchand Expedition arrived on 10 July 1898, but the de Bonchamps Expedition failed to make it after being ordered by the Ethiopians to halt, and then suffering accidents in the Baro Gorge. Marchand's small force thus became isolated and alone. The British, meanwhile, were engaged in the Anglo-Egyptian conquest of Sudan, moving upriver from Egypt. On 18 September a flotilla of five British gunboats arrived at the isolated Fashoda fort. They carried 1,500 British, Egyptian and Sudanese soldiers, led by Sir Herbert Kitchener and including Lieutenant-Colonel Horace Smith-Dorrien. Marchand had received incorrect reports that the approaching force consisted of Dervishes but now found himself facing a diplomatic rather than a military crisis.


title: Fashoda Incident

text: Both sides insisted on their right to Fashoda but agreed to wait for further instructions from home. The two commanders behaved with restraint and even a certain humour. Kitchener toasted Marchand with whisky, the drinking of which the French officer described as "one of the greatest sacrifices I ever made for my country". Kitchener inspected a French garden commenting "Flowers at Fashoda. Oh these Frenchmen!" More seriously the British distributed French newspapers detailing the political chaos caused by the Dreyfus affair, warning that France was in no condition to provide serious support for Marchand and his party. News of the meeting was relayed to Paris and London, where it inflamed the pride of both nations. Widespread popular outrage followed, each side accusing the other of naked expansionism and aggression. The crisis continued throughout September and October 1898. The Royal Navy drafted war orders and mobilized its reserves.


title: Fashoda Incident

text: As the commander of the Anglo-Egyptian army that had just defeated the forces of the Mahdi at the Battle of Omdurman, Kitchener was in the process of reconquering the Sudan in the name of the Egyptian Khedive, and after the battle he opened sealed orders to investigate the French expedition. Kitchener landed at Fashoda wearing an Egyptian Army uniform and insisted in raising the Egyptian flag at some distance from the French flag.


title: Fashoda Incident

text: In naval terms, the situation was heavily in Britain's favour, a fact that French deputies acknowledged in the aftermath of the crisis. Several historians have given credit to Marchand for remaining calm. The military facts were undoubtedly important to Théophile Delcassé, the newly appointed French foreign minister. "They have soldiers. We only have arguments," he said resignedly. In addition, he saw no advantage in a war with the British, especially since he was keen to gain their friendship in case of any future conflict with Germany. He therefore pressed hard for a peaceful resolution of the crisis although it encouraged a tide of nationalism and anglophobia. In an editorial published in "L'Intransigeant" on 13 October Victor Henri Rochefort wrote, "Germany keeps slapping us in the face. Let's not offer our cheek to England." As Professor P. H. Bell writes,


title: Fashoda Incident

text: According to French nationalists, France's capitulation was clear evidence that the French army had been severely weakened by the traitors who supported Dreyfus. Yet the reopening of the Dreyfus affair in January had done much to distract French public opinion from events in the Sudan and with people increasingly questioning the wisdom of a war over such a remote part of Africa, the French government quietly ordered its soldiers to withdraw on 3 November and the crisis ended peacefully. Marchand chose to withdraw his small force by way of Abyssinia and Djibouti, rather than cross Egyptian territory by taking the relatively quick journey by steamer down the Nile.


title: Fashoda Incident

text: It was a diplomatic victory for the British as the French realized that in the long run they needed the friendship of Britain in case of a war between France and Germany.


title: Fashoda Incident

text: In March 1899, the Anglo-French Convention of 1898 was signed and it was agreed that the source of the Nile and the Congo rivers should mark the frontier between their spheres of influence.


title: Fashoda Incident

text: The Fashoda incident was the last serious colonial dispute between Britain and France, and its classic diplomatic solution is considered by most historians to be the precursor of the Entente Cordiale of 1904. The two main individuals involved in the incident are commemorated in the Pont Kitchener-Marchand, a road bridge over the Saône, completed in 1959 in the French city of Lyon. In 1904, Fashoda was officially renamed Kodok. It is located in modern-day South Sudan.


title: Fashoda Incident

text: The incident gave rise to the 'Fashoda syndrome' in French foreign policy, or seeking to assert French influence in areas which might be becoming susceptible to British influence. As such it was used as a comparison to other later crises or conflicts such as the Levant Crisis of 1945, the Nigerian Civil War in Biafra in the 1970s and the Rwandan Civil War in 1994.


title: Robert Hotung

text: Sir Robert Ho Tung Bosman, (22 December 1862 – 26 April 1956), also known as Sir Robert Ho Tung, was a businessman and philanthropist in British Hong Kong. Known as "the grand old man of Hong Kong" (), he was knighted in 1915 (Knight Bachelor) and 1955 (KBE).


title: Robert Hotung

text: Ho Tung was Eurasian. His father, Charles Henry Maurice Bosman (1839–1892), was of Dutch Jewish ancestry, while his mother was Sze Tai (施娣), a Chinese woman of Poon (Bao'an) County (present-day Hong Kong and Shenzhen) heritage. His father was a merchant who owned Bosman and Co., was part-owner of the Hong Kong Hotel that opened in 1868, and was a director of the Hong Kong and Whampoa Dock Company. By 1869, Charles Bosman was also the Dutch consul, running his own marine insurance business with important clients that included the British-owned trading conglomerate Jardine, Matheson & Co.


title: Robert Hotung

text: He later left for England, where he became naturalised in 1888. In Cantonese, Bosman was pronounced Bo-se-man, which transliterated into Cantonese to become Ho Sze Man. When Robert Ho Tung Bosman travelled, he carried a certificate from the Governor of Hong Kong stating that his father was Dutch. He was educated at Queen's College, Hong Kong (previously known as the Central School).


title: Robert Hotung

text: After graduating from Queen's College in 1878, Ho Tung went to Canton, where he worked as a clerk for the Chinese Imperial Maritime Customs. In 1880, he returned to Hong Kong and joined Jardine Matheson as an assistant in the compradore department. His bilingual skills and business acumen eventually propelled him to become Head Compradore in 1894. Although he was of mixed parentage, Ho Tung considered himself Chinese, a fact reflected in his sartorial preference. By the age of 35, he was believed to be the richest man in Hong Kong. He was awarded an honorary Doctorate of Laws by the University of Hong Kong in 1916.


title: Robert Hotung

text: In 1927, his wife Clara expanded "The Falls", one of the four Peak houses owned by Ho Tung, into a sumptuous residence now known as Ho Tung Gardens at 75 Peak Road.


title: Robert Hotung

text: Ho Tung himself lived in a nearby house named The Neuk, although he did entertain visiting notables such as US vice-president John Nance Garner and playwright George Bernard Shaw at Ho Tung Gardens.


title: Robert Hotung

text: Ho Tung identified himself both as Chinese and as a permanent resident of British Hong Kong. He gave generously to Dr. Sun Yat-sen's campaigns to establish the Republic of China, but saw no contradiction in civic participation in British Hong Kong. As a millionaire with significant influence in the colony, he heavily emphasised to the British colonial administration that no part of the Chinese demographic were "purely indigenous". Many were "birds of passage" on their way to Southeast Asia, but many, like himself, became permanent residents, a testimony to their "faith in the permanent prosperity of the colony and the safety of domicile under the folds of the British flag". Ho Tung was a director of many Hong Kong companies, including Hong Kong Land, and served on the boards of influential charitable organisations, including the Tung Wah Hospital. He was founder and first chairman of The Chinese Club, which was created in response to the Hong Kong Club's unofficial policy of excluding any non-Europeans from joining. He was knighted in 1915 and 1955. His second wife, Clara, was a devout Buddhist. Through her educational charity, to which Sir Robert gave HK$100,000 on their 50th wedding anniversary in 1931, the Po Kok Day and Evening School and the Tung Lin Kok Yuen in Happy Valley were founded.


title: Robert Hotung

text: At age 15, Robert was informally engaged to the Eurasian daughter of Hector Coll Maclean of Jardines, Margaret Mak (aka Maclean, 麥秀英; 1865–1944). They married when he was 18, and she was 16. Since she was unable to bear children, Robert adopted Ho Fook's first son, Ho Wing, following Chinese tradition, and took Chau Yee Man (周綺文) as a concubine in 1891. Still childless after three years (Chau Yee Man later gave birth to Mary Hotung 何純姿), Margaret persuaded her maternal cousin Clara Cheung Lin-kok (張靜容 a.k.a. 張蓮覺; 1875–1938), to accept his hand as a "co-equal" wife; they married in 1895. Clara Ho Tung later gave birth to three sons and seven daughters.


title: Robert Hotung

text: Robert and Margaret were baptised as Christians late in life and interred at the Hong Kong Cemetery. The rest of his family, including Clara, are buried in the Eurasian cemetery, Chiu Yuen Cemetery, located on Mount Davis.


title: Robert Hotung

text: Robert and Clara's eldest son, Edward Hotung (1902–1957), became a prominent banker and philanthropist in Hong Kong. He was a founder of the Chinese Gold and Silver Exchange in Hong Kong, as well as Treasurer of the Chinese War Chest in Shanghai during the Japanese occupation. He had two sons, Sir Joseph Hotung KBE (1930–2021) and Eric Hotung CBE (1926–2017); and two daughters, Mary Ketterer, who received the Royal Order of the Golden Ark for her work in conservation, and Antonia.


title: Robert Hotung

text: Joseph Hotung was a businessman, philanthropist and art collector who received an LLB from the University of London. He served on the boards of HSBC and Hongkong Electric Holdings Ltd, and was chair of the Arts Development Council in Hong Kong and member of the SOAS Governing Body. A trustee of the British Museum from 1994 to 2004, he funded the creation of two new galleries, including the Joseph E. Hotung Gallery of Oriental Antiquities.


title: Robert Hotung

text: Eric Hotung was a businessman and Ambassador-at-Large and Economic Advisor to Timor-Leste (East Timor). He was born in Hong Kong and grew up there and in Shanghai. Eric attended Georgetown University in 1947 and graduated in 1951. Afterwards, he worked at the New York Stock Exchange and at General Motors before returning to Hong Kong. He married Patricia Anne Shea and they had five sons and three daughters. He died in 2017, aged 91.


title: Robert Hotung

text: Robert and Clara's second son, Robbie Ho Shai-lai (1906–1998), was a general under the Kuomintang regime. He renounced his British nationality and became a citizen of the Republic of China. He was also ambassador to Japan for the Republic of China from 1952 to 1956 and a member of the Nationalist China military delegation to the United Nations from 1956 to 1966. Robbie's son Robert Hung-Ngai Ho, a former journalist and publisher in Hong Kong, is the founder of the Tung Lin Kok-yuen Canada Society, a Buddhist charity. He resides in West Vancouver, Canada, and is a recipient of the Order of British Columbia for his philanthropic work in that province.


title: Robert Hotung

text: Robert had another son, George Ho Cho-chi, born out of wedlock. George went on to become founder of Commercial Radio Hong Kong.


title: Robert Hotung

text: Robert and Clara's eldest daughter, Victoria married Sir Man-kam Lo, a prominent Eurasian lawyer and legislator who was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II after World War II. Their son, Lo Tak-shing, was a former lawyer and legislator in Hong Kong who ran against Tung Chee Hwa in the elections for Chief Executive in 1997.


title: Robert Hotung

text: Three other daughters – Irene Cheng, Jean Gittins and Florence Yeo – wrote memoirs chronicling their war-time experiences in colonial Hong Kong. Jean Gittins migrated to Melbourne Australia after the War, where she worked in the Pathology Department of Melbourne University. She also wrote six books: "I Was at Stanley", " Eastern Windows – Western Skies", "The Diggers from China", "Stanley: Behind Barbed Wire", "A Stranger No More" and "Prizes, Books and Papers (1879/1969)".


title: Robert Hotung

text: Irene Cheng (1904–2007) was one of the first female undergraduate students admitted to study English at the University of Hong Kong in 1921. She went on to earn a Diploma in Education at King's College in London in 1925. In 1936, she received her PhD from the University of London. She is the author of "Clara Ho Tung. A Hong Kong Lady: Her Family and Her Times" and "Intercultural Reminiscences."


title: Robert Hotung

text: Florence Yeo married Malaysian-born doctor K.C. Yeo and settled in the UK. Her memoir is called "My Memories."


title: Robert Hotung

text: There are many parks, schools, and buildings named after or founded by Robert Ho Tung in Hong Kong, including Lady Hotung Hall at Hong Kong University, Hotung Secondary School, Tung Lin Kok-yuen Buddhist temple, and King George V School.


title: Robert Hotung

text: In Macau, the Sir Robert Ho Tung Library is housed in a mansion once owned by Ho Tung, who resided there during the Japanese occupation of Hong Kong, under the protection granted by . Also, there is a school named after him called ().


title: History of Trinidad and Tobago

text: The history of Trinidad and Tobago begins with the settlements of the islands by Indigenous First Peoples. Trinidad was visited by Christopher Columbus on his third voyage in 1498, (he never landed in Tobago), and claimed in the name of Spain. Trinidad was administered by Spanish hands until 1797, but it was largely settled by French colonists. Tobago changed hands between the British, French, Dutch, and Courlanders, but eventually ended up in British hands following the second Treaty of Paris (1814). In 1889, the two islands were incorporated into a single political entity. Trinidad and Tobago obtained its independence from the British Empire in 1962 and became a republic in 1976.


title: History of Trinidad and Tobago

text: Human settlement in Trinidad dates back at least 7,000 years. The earliest settlers, termed Archaic or Ortoiroid, are believed to have settled Trinidad and Tobago from northeastern South America around 4000 BCE. Twenty-nine Archaic sites have been identified, mostly in south Trinidad and Tobago; this includes the 7,000-year-old Banwari Trace site which is the oldest discovered human settlement in the eastern Caribbean. Archaic populations were pre-ceramic, and dominated the area until about 200 BCE.


title: History of Trinidad and Tobago

text: Around 250 BCE the first ceramic-using people in the Caribbean, the Saladoid people, entered Trinidad and Tobago. The earliest evidence of these people come from around 2100 BCE along the banks of the Orinoco River in Venezuela. From Trinidad and Tobago, they are believed to have moved north into the remaining islands of the Caribbean. Thirty-seven Saladoid sites have been identified in Trinidad and Tobago, and are located all over the island.


title: History of Trinidad and Tobago

text: After 250 CE a third group, called the Barrancoid people settled in southern Trinidad and Tobago after migrating up the Orinoco River toward the sea. The oldest Barrancoid settlement appears to have been at Erin, on the south coast.