title: Minimum inhibitory concentration

text: In microbiology, the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) is the lowest concentration of a chemical, usually a drug, which prevents visible growth of a bacterium or bacteria. MIC depends on the microorganism, the affected human being (in vivo only), and the antibiotic itself. It is often expressed in micrograms per milliliter (μg/mL) or milligrams per liter (mg/L).


title: Minimum inhibitory concentration

text: The MIC is determined by preparing solutions of the chemical in vitro at increasing concentrations, incubating the solutions with separate batches of cultured bacteria, and measuring the results using agar dilution or broth microdilution. Results have been graded into susceptible (often called sensitive), increased exposure, or resistant to a particular antimicrobial by using a breakpoint. Breakpoints are agreed upon values, published in guidelines of a reference body, such as the U.S. Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI), the British Society for Antimicrobial Chemotherapy (BSAC) or the European Committee on Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing (EUCAST). There have been major discrepancies between the breakpoints from various European countries over the years, and between those from the European Committee on Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing (EUCAST) and the US Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI).


title: Minimum inhibitory concentration

text: While MIC is the lowest concentration of an antibacterial agent necessary to inhibit visible growth, minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) is the minimum concentration of an antibacterial agent that results in bacterial death. The closer the MIC is to the MBC, the more bactericidal the compound.


title: Minimum inhibitory concentration

text: The first step in drug discovery is often the screening of a library drug candidate for MICs against bacteria of interest. As such, MICs are usually the starting point for larger pre-clinical evaluations of novel antimicrobial agents. The purpose of measuring the minimum inhibitory concentration is to ensure that antibiotics are chosen efficiently to increase the success of treatment.


title: Minimum inhibitory concentration

text: After the discovery and commercialization of antibiotics, microbiologist, pharmacologist, and physician Alexander Fleming developed the broth dilution technique using the turbidity of the broth for assessment. This is commonly believed to be the conception point of minimum inhibitory concentrations. Later in the 1980s, Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute has consolidated the methods and standards for MIC determination and clinical usage. Following the discovery of new antibacterials, pathogens and their evolution, the protocols by CLSI are also continually updated to reflect that change. The protocols and parameters set by CLSI are considered to be the "gold standard" in the United States and are used by regulatory authorities, such as the FDA, to make evaluations.


title: Minimum inhibitory concentration

text: Nowadays, the MIC is used in antimicrobial susceptibility testing. The MIC is reported by providing the susceptibility interpretation next to each antibiotic. The different susceptibility interpretations are: S (Sensitive), I (Intermediate), and R (Resistant). These interpretations were created and implemented by the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI). In clinics, more often than not, exact pathogens cannot be easily determined by symptoms of the patient. Then, even if the pathogen is determined, different serotypes of pathogens, such as "Staphylococcus aureus," have varying levels of resistance to antimicrobials. As such, it is difficult to prescribe correct antimicrobials. The MIC is determined in such cases by growing the pathogen isolate from the patient on plate or broth, which is later used in the assay. Thus, knowledge of the MIC will provide a physician valuable information for making a prescription. Accurate and precise usage of antimicrobials is also important in the context of multidrug-resistant bacteria. Microbes such as bacteria have been gaining resistance to antimicrobials they were previously susceptible to. Usage of incompatible levels of antimicrobials provides the selective pressure that has driven the direction and evolution of resistance of bacterial pathogens. This has been seen at sub-MIC levels of antibiotics. As such, it is increasingly important to determine the MIC in order to make the best choice in prescribing antimicrobials.


title: Minimum inhibitory concentration

text: MIC is used clinically over MBC because MIC is more easily determined. Minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC), which is the minimum antibacterial concentration resulting in microbial death, is defined by the inability to re-culture bacteria. In addition, drug effectiveness is generally similar when taken at both MIC and MBC concentrations because the host immune system can expel the pathogen when bacterial proliferation is at a standstill. When the MBC is much higher than the MIC, drug toxicity makes taking the MBC of the drug detrimental to patient. Antimicrobial toxicity can come in many forms, such as immune hypersensitivity and off-target toxicity.


title: Minimum inhibitory concentration

text: There are three main reagents necessary to run this assay: the media, an antimicrobial agent, and the microbe being tested. The most commonly used media is cation-adjusted Mueller Hinton Broth, due to its ability to support the growth of most pathogens and its lack of inhibitors towards common antibiotics. Depending on the pathogen and antibiotics being tested, the media can be changed and/or adjusted. The antimicrobial concentration is adjusted into the correct concentration by mixing stock antimicrobial with media. The adjusted antimicrobial is serially diluted into multiple tubes (or wells) to obtain a gradient. The dilution rate can be adjusted depending on the breakpoint and the practitioner's needs. The microbe, or the inoculating agent, must come from the same colony-forming unit, and must be at the correct concentration. This may be adjusted by incubation time and dilution. For verification, the positive control is plated in a hundred fold dilution to count colony forming units. The microbes inoculate the tubes (or plate) and are incubated for 16–20 hours. The MIC is generally determined by turbidity.


title: Minimum inhibitory concentration

text: Etests can also be used as an alternative method to determine minimal inhibitory concentration values of a wide range of antimicrobial agents against different organism groups which has been widely used in microbiology laboratories around the world. Manufactured by bioMérieux, Etests are a ready-to-use, non-porous plastic reagent strip with a predefined gradient of antibiotic, covering a continuous concentration range.


title: Nutanix

text: Nutanix, Inc. is an American cloud computing company that sells software, cloud services (such as desktops as a service, disaster recovery as a service, and cloud monitoring), and software-defined storage.


title: Nutanix

text: Nutanix was founded on September 23, 2009 by Dheeraj Pandey, Mohit Aron and Ajeet Singh. In early 2013 Aron left Nutanix to start Cohesity, a privately held computer data storage company.


title: Nutanix

text: Venture capital firms invested $312.2 million over five rounds of funding in Nutanix. The company reached a $1 billion valuation by 2013, which made it known as a "unicorn startup". It raised $140 million in a Series E round of financing in 2014, valuing the company at approximately $2 billion.


title: Nutanix

text: Nutanix filed for an initial public offering (IPO) in December 2015, reporting a net loss in its fiscal year ending July 2015 of $126 million. In August 2016, Nutanix announced it had acquired PernixData.


title: Nutanix

text: The IPO on September 30, 2016, raised about $230 million after selling 14.87 million shares at a price of $16. This was the biggest VC-backed IPO of 2016 in the U.S. Analysts expected Nutanix's public offering would be delayed.


title: Nutanix

text: In May 2017, Nutanix partnered with IBM to create a series of data center hardware using IBM Power Systems for business apps.


title: Nutanix

text: In March 2018, Nutanix announced the acquisition of Minjar, based in Bangalore. Later the same year, Nutanix acquired the DaaS startup Frame.


title: Nutanix

text: On June 1, 2019, Nutanix appointed Brian Stevens to its board of directors. In March 2020, Sohaib Abbasi joined the company's board of directors.


title: Nutanix

text: Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, Nutanix announced a furlough impacting about 1,500 employees in April 2020. In June 2020, Nutanix added Virginia Gambale to its board of directors.


title: Nutanix

text: In December, 2020, Pandey was replaced as chief executive by Rajiv Ramaswami, who had been the chief operating officer at VMware.


title: Nutanix

text: In 2021, the company transitioned from making hardware appliances to focusing on subscription software.


title: Nutanix

text: In 2022, MinIO alleged that Nutanix had been violating MinIO's free software license for the past three years, with good faith negotiations over the matter breaking down and Nutanix' license being revoked as a consequence.


title: Nutanix

text: Nutanix combines storage, computing, and virtualization. The company's software product families include Acropolis, Prism, Era, Frame, and Files. In 2015, Nutanix was reported to have built a Linux KVM based hypervisor, called AHV (Acropolis HyperVisor) in order to make managing computer infrastructure easier.


title: Masonite

text: Masonite is a type of hardboard, a kind of engineered wood, which is made of steam-cooked and pressure-molded wood fibers in a process patented by William H. Mason. It is also called Quartrboard, Isorel, hernit, karlit, torex, treetex, and pressboard.


title: Masonite

text: A product resembling masonite (hardboard) was first made in England in 1898 by hot-pressing waste paper. Masonite was patented in 1924 in Laurel, Mississippi, by William H. Mason, who was a friend and protégé of Thomas Edison. Mass production started in 1929. In the 1930s and 1940s, Masonite was used for applications including doors, roofing, walls, desktops, and canoes. It was sometimes used for house siding.


title: Masonite

text: Similar "tempered hardboard" is now a generic product made by many forest product companies. The Masonite Corporation entered the door business as a supplier of facings in 1972, and was purchased in 2001 by Premdor Corporation, a door maker, from its former parent International Paper. It no longer supplies generic hardboard.


title: Masonite

text: Masonite is formed using the Mason method, in which wood chips are disintegrated by saturating them with steam, then increasing the steam or air pressure to and suddenly releasing them through an orifice to atmospheric pressure. Forming the fibers into boards on a screen, the boards are then pressed and heated to form the finished product with a smooth burnished finish. (Later a dry process with two burnished surfaces was also used.) The original lignin in the wood serves to bond the fibers without any added adhesive. The long fibers give Masonite a high bending strength, tensile strength, density, and stability. Unlike other composite wood panels, no formaldehyde-based resins are used to bind the fibers in Masonite.


title: Masonite

text: Artists have often used it as a support for painting, and in artistic media such as linocut printing. Masonite's smooth surface makes it a suitable material for table tennis tables and skateboard ramps.


title: Masonite

text: Masonite is used by moving companies. Among other things, they use it to protect the walls of buildings where they work, and lay on floors to enable smooth rolling of dollies loaded with goods.


title: Masonite

text: Masonite is widely used in construction, particularly in renovations where floors are finished prior to other work and require protection. Sheets of Masonite are typically laid over red rosin paper on finished floors to protect them. The Masonite sheets are taped together with duct tape to prevent shifting and to keep substances from leaking through.


title: Masonite

text: Masonite is used extensively in the construction of sets for theater, film and television. It is especially common in theaters as the stage floor, painted matte black.


title: Masonite

text: Masonite panels are sometimes sawn into by 8-foot strips. These strips are used to form the edge of sidewalks where curved shapes are desired when pouring concrete.


title: Masonite

text: Masonite is a popular choice for cake boards for professional cake decorators, since it is a natural product and is strong enough to support multiple-tiered creations such as wedding cakes.


title: Masonite

text: Due to its low cost and flexibility, Masonite is widely used as the curved surface of skateboard ramps.


title: Masonite

text: Masonite was a popular protective backing for wooden console stereo and television cabinets from the 1960s to the 1980s.


title: Masonite

text: Due to its flexibility, Masonite is commonly used by model railroaders for their layouts as fascia, to cover the structural materials used for the layout.


title: Masonite

text: Masonite swells and rots over time when exposed to the elements, and may prematurely deteriorate when it is used as exterior siding. In 1996, International Paper (IP) lost a class action suit brought by homeowners whose Masonite siding had deteriorated. The jury found that IP's Masonite siding was defective.


title: BBC Weather

text: BBC Weather is the department of the BBC (British Broadcasting Corporation) responsible for both the preparation and the broadcasting of weather forecasts.


title: BBC Weather

text: On 6 February 2018, BBC Weather changed supplier from the government Met Office to MeteoGroup, after being required to put its weather services out to tender. Previously, the government Met Office had been the provider of weather information for 94 years.


title: BBC Weather

text: The first BBC weather forecast was a shipping forecast, broadcast on the radio on behalf of the Met Office on 14 November 1922, and the first daily weather forecast was broadcast on 26 March 1923.


title: BBC Weather

text: In 1936, the BBC experimented with the world's first televised weather maps, brought into practice in 1949 after World War II. The map filled the entire screen, with an off-screen announcer reading the next day's weather.


title: BBC Weather

text: On 11 January 1954, the first in-vision weather forecast was broadcast, presented by George Cowling. In an in-vision the narrator stands in front of the map. At that point, the maps were drawn by hand in the London Weather Centre, before being couriered across London. The forecasts were presented by the same person who had composed them, and had relatively low accuracy. The London Weather Centre which opened in 1959 took the responsibility for the national radio weather broadcasts. Radio forecasters were chosen by a BBC audition from the forecasters at the London Weather Centre.


title: BBC Weather

text: In 1962, the installation of a fax machine and an electronic computer in the Met Office led to more accurate and quicker forecasting.


title: BBC Weather

text: Satellite photography was available from 1964, but was of a poor quality and was given on paper, with the coastline etched in felt-tip pen. This did not change until 1973 with the installation of a new computer, increasing processing power of the Weather Centre greatly, leading to forecasts twice as accurate as earlier ones.


title: BBC Weather

text: As computational capability improved, so did graphics technology. Early hand-drawn maps gave way to magnetic symbols, which in turn gave way to bluescreen (CSO) computer-generated imagery technology, each of which allowed the presenter greater control over the information displayed.


title: BBC Weather

text: Early magnetic symbols tended to adhere poorly to the maps, and occasional spelling errors (such as the presenter writing 'GOF' instead of 'FOG') marred some broadcasts, but allowed the presenter to show how weather would change over time. The symbols were designed to be 'self-explicit', allowing the viewer to understand the map without a key or legend.


title: BBC Weather

text: On 18 February 1985, computer graphics were introduced although the basic design of symbols was kept the same. These forecasts were widely acclaimed for their simplicity, winning an award from the Royal Television Society in 1993.


title: BBC Weather

text: On 2 October 2000, BBC Weather underwent a more significant change. Whilst there was not much change to the existing weather symbols new symbols giving information on pollen and sun levels were introduced. A new more detailed map of Britain was used based on satellite data.


title: BBC Weather

text: Possibly the most famous of the forecasters is the now semi-retired Michael Fish. Famous for his informal manner and eccentric dress sense (he once wore a blue and green blazer emblazoned with all the weather symbols), he was a viewer favourite despite an unfortunate comment before the Great Storm of 1987.


title: BBC Weather

text: During a weather forecast some hours before the storm, Michael Fish started his forecast with the now infamous line "Earlier on today, apparently, a woman rang the BBC and said she heard there was a hurricane on the way. Well, if you're watching, don't worry, there isn't". Although he was factually correct, as it is impossible for a proper hurricane to reach the UK latitudes, and he was actually referring to a Florida hurricane (Floyd), and he went on to accurately forecast stormy conditions over the south of England, the statement has gone down in popular culture as one of the worst mistakes made so publicly.


title: BBC Weather

text: The weather symbols were replaced in May 2005 after 29 years and 9 months on air by a controversial format as the forecast underwent another redesign, with the flat map replaced by a 3D globe, and weather conditions shown by coloured areas. Cloud cover is indicated by the brightness of the map, while rain and snow are indicated by animated blue and white areas respectively. The graphics are provided by Weatherscape XT, which was developed by the commercial arm of the New Zealand Metservice.


title: BBC Weather

text: The move polarised opinion; some saw it as more accurate and modern, while others disliked the brown colour chosen for the landmass and the presumed high cost of the graphics. The angling of the map, in order to show the curvature of the Earth, led to Scotland appearing little larger than Devon, and Shetland being almost invisible while exaggerating London and the South East. This led to many Scottish commentators accusing the BBC of having a London bias. As a result, the map was realigned, and the moving tour of the UK was lengthened.


title: BBC Weather

text: The new look won a prestigious Silver Award at the Promax/BDA Awards in 2006. Criticism has continued, however, with some viewers complaining about the colour scheme, and of a lack of detail in the forecast about weather developments beyond 36 hours. There have been continuous developments. In 2006, a rippling effect was introduced to define seas and oceans.


title: BBC Weather

text: On 23 August 2015, the BBC announced that the Met Office would lose its contract to provide weather forecasts, the BBC stating that it is legally obliged to ensure that licence fee payers get the best value for money. The BBC said that the on-air presenting team was not expected to change and it would still broadcast warnings from the Met Office National Severe Weather Warning Service and Shipping Forecast issued on behalf of the Maritime and Coastguard Agency.


title: BBC Weather

text: A competitive tendering process followed, with MeteoGroup chosen as the new provider in August 2016. On 6 February 2018, the BBC began using the MeteoGroup graphics, which include:


title: BBC Weather

text: Public feedback in January 2018 regarding the subsequent updates and changes to the BBC Website and associated weather applications for mobile devices were generally critical.


title: BBC Weather

text: Many weather watchers were highly critical of the new design, with widespread criticism voiced across the media. Many used the comments section of the blog written by Michael Burnett, the BBC Executive responsible, to voice their complaints. The blog entry dated 22 January 2018 was originally aimed at positively promoting the changes, but this appeared to have the opposite effect when the blog post generated well over 1000 mostly critical comments in under 10 days.


title: BBC Weather

text: The BBC Weather website provides outlook weather forecasts for UK and international locations using animated symbols and a format similar in design to that used for the televised broadcasts. The website launched in 1997.


title: BBC Weather

text: The website also runs frequent special features about seasonal sports, white Christmas, nature, and meteorological science. It also has world weather, UK outlook, and weather news.


title: BBC Weather

text: On 20 May 2013, the BBC released the BBC Weather App for both iOS devices (although initially not optimised for iPad) and Android devices (via the Google Play Store). Both versions were designed by Media Applications Technologies, and their data source was the Met Office.


title: Kelly Mantle

text: Kelly Leroy Mantle (born July 9, 1976), is an American actor, singer-songwriter, comedian, musician, drag queen, and reality television personality. Mantle appeared as a contestant on the sixth season of the reality TV show "RuPaul's Drag Race".


title: Kelly Mantle

text: Mantle's uncle was professional baseball player Mickey Mantle, who played for the New York Yankees. Mantle graduated with a BFA in Theatre from the University of Oklahoma.


title: Kelly Mantle

text: After college, Mantle went to Chicago to begin a career as an actor. She acted in plays such as "The Convention" and "Royal Flush". "Lone Star/Laundry & Bourbon" was the first production by OKRA Theatre, a theater company started by Mantle and her friend Tracy Parks, who directed the play.


title: Kelly Mantle

text: In 1998, Mantle starred in the Chicago production of Charles Busch's play "Vampire Lesbians of Sodom". After two years of living in Chicago, she moved to Los Angeles. She later auditioned for the Los Angeles production of "Vampire Lesbians of Sodom", where she was scouted and signed by a talent agent.


title: Kelly Mantle

text: In Los Angeles, Mantle became a member of the band "Sex with Lurch", which was formed by singer Robbie Quinne and guitarist Bernard Yin. As part of the group, Mantle used the stage name "Brandy Warhol". The group disbanded in December 2002. Mantle later joined Quinne's follow-up band, the Barbarellatones.


title: Kelly Mantle

text: Mantle was also a member of the band Tranzkuntinental. The band was started by Charlie Paulson and Xander Smith and features drag queens Detox, Rhea Litré, Vicky Vox, and Willam Belli.


title: Kelly Mantle

text: Currently, Mantle is a member of the band the Rollz Royces with Tammie Brown and Michael Catti. Mantle and Catti have appeared in Tammie Brown's Christmas show Holiday Sparkle at Fubar in West Hollywood.


title: Kelly Mantle

text: In 2014 Mantle starred in "Confessions of a Womanizer" with Gary Busey. The film was released in 2016. Mantle, who is genderfluid, made history when the film's producers sought both supporting actor and supporting actress consideration for her performance and The Academy granted the request.


title: Kelly Mantle

text: Mantle starred as Sheila on both seasons of the OutTV and Amazon Prime sitcom "The Browns" alongside Tammie Brown and in 2022 supported Trixie and Katya on their tour "Trixie and Katya Live".


title: Kelly Mantle

text: In December 2013, Logo announced that Mantle was among fourteen drag queens who would be competing on the sixth season of "RuPaul's Drag Race". She was eliminated in the first episode, lip-synching to Express Yourself against Vivacious.


title: Prince George of Greece and Denmark

text: Prince George of Greece and Denmark (; 24 June 1869 – 25 November 1957) was the second son and child of George I of Greece and Olga Konstantinovna of Russia, and is remembered chiefly for having once saved the life of his cousin the future Emperor of Russia, Nicholas II in 1891 during their visit to Japan together. He served as high commissioner of the Cretan State during its transition towards independence from Ottoman rule and union with Greece.


title: Prince George of Greece and Denmark

text: From 1883, George lived at Bernstorff Palace near Copenhagen with Prince Valdemar of Denmark, his father's younger brother. The queen had taken the boy to Denmark to enlist him in the Danish royal navy and consigned him to the care of Valdemar, who was an admiral in the Danish fleet. Feeling abandoned by his father on this occasion, George would later describe to his fiancée the profound attachment he developed for his uncle from that day forward.


title: Prince George of Greece and Denmark

text: In 1891, George accompanied his cousin the Tsesarevich Nicholas on his voyage to Asia, and saved him from an assassination attempt in Japan, in what became known as the Ōtsu Incident.


title: Prince George of Greece and Denmark

text: George, along with his brothers Constantine and Nicholas, were involved with the organization of the 1896 Summer Olympics in Athens. George served as president of the Sub-Committee for Nautical Sports. He served as a judge for the weightlifting competition, and demonstrated his strength by clearing the weights at the end of the event.


title: Prince George of Greece and Denmark

text: Although much of modern Greece had been independent since the 1820s, Crete remained in Ottoman hands. For the rest of the 19th century, there had been many rebellions and protests on the island. A Greek force arrived to annex the island in 1897 and the Great Powers acted, occupying the island and dividing it into British, French, Russian and Italian areas of control.


title: Prince George of Greece and Denmark

text: In 1898, Turkish troops were ejected and a national government was set up, still nominally under Ottoman suzerainty. Prince George, not yet thirty, was made High Commissioner, and a joint Muslim-Christian assembly was part-elected, part-appointed. However, this was not enough to satisfy Cretan nationalists.


title: Prince George of Greece and Denmark

text: Eleftherios Venizelos was the leader of the movement to unite Crete with Greece. He had fought in the earlier revolts and was now a member of the Assembly, acting as minister of justice to Prince George. They soon found themselves opposed. George, a staunch royalist, had assumed absolute power. Venizelos led the opposition to this. In 1905, however, he summoned an illegal revolutionary assembly in Theriso, in the hills near Chania, the then capital of the island, the "Theriso revolt".


title: Prince George of Greece and Denmark

text: During the revolt, the newly created Cretan Gendarmerie remained faithful to George. In this difficult period, the Cretan population were divided: in the 1906 elections the pro-Prince parties took 38,127 votes, while pro-Venizelos parties took 33,279. But the Gendarmerie managed to execute its duties without taking sides. Finally, British diplomats brokered a settlement and in September 1906 George was replaced by former Greek prime minister Alexandros Zaimis, and left the island. In 1908, the Cretan Assembly unilaterally declared "enosis" (union) with Greece.


title: Prince George of Greece and Denmark

text: In October 1912 George returned from Paris to Athens so that he could join the naval ministry as Greece prepared for war against Turkey. Later he served as "aide-de-camp" to King George who, however, was assassinated in March 1913. George went to Copenhagen to settle his father's financial affairs there, as he had never ceased to be a Prince of Denmark.


title: Prince George of Greece and Denmark

text: Following a Parisian luncheon between King George and Prince Roland Bonaparte in September 1906 during which the king agreed to the prospect of a marriage between their children, George met Roland's daughter, Marie Bonaparte (2 July 1882 – 21 September 1962) on 19 July 1907 at the Bonapartes' home in Paris. A member of one of the non-imperial branches of the Bonaparte dynasty, she was an heiress to the Blanc casino fortune through her mother.


title: Prince George of Greece and Denmark

text: Although a homosexual, who lived most of the year with his uncle Prince Valdemar of Denmark with whom he had a life-long relationship, he dutifully courted her for twenty-eight days. He confided to her that he had experienced major disappointments when his roles in the Otsu incident and the Cretan governorship were misconstrued and under-appreciated by both individuals and governments who he felt should have known better. He also admitted that, contrary to what he knew were her hopes, he could not commit to living in France permanently since he had to remain prepared to undertake royal duties in Greece or Crete if summoned to do so. Once his proposal of marriage was tentatively accepted, the bride's father was astonished when George waived any contractual clause guaranteeing an allowance or inheritance from Marie; she would retain and manage her own fortune (a trust yielding 800,000 francs "per annum") and only their future children would receive legacies.


title: Prince George of Greece and Denmark

text: George wed Marie civilly in Paris on 21 November 1907, and in a Greek Orthodox ceremony in Athens the following December, during which George's uncle Valdemar served as the "koumbaros". By March Marie was pregnant and, as agreed, the couple returned to France to take up residence. When George brought his bride to Bernstorff for the first family visit, Valdemar's wife Marie d'Orléans was at pains to explain to Marie Bonaparte the intimacy which united uncle and nephew, so deep that at the end of each of George's several yearly visits to Bernstorff, he would weep, Valdemar would take sick, and the women learned the patience not to intrude upon their husbands' private moments. During the first of these visits, Marie Bonaparte and Valdemar found themselves engaging in the kind of passionate intimacies she had looked forward to with her husband who, however, only seemed to enjoy them vicariously, sitting or lying beside his wife and uncle. On a later visit, Marie Bonaparte carried on a passionate flirtation with Prince Aage, Valdemar's eldest son. In neither case does it appear that George objected, or felt obliged to give the matter any attention. However, George criticized Marie d'Orléans to his wife, alleging that she drank too much and was having an affair with his uncle's stablemaster. But Marie Bonaparte found no fault with her husband's aunt, rather, she admired the forbearance and independence of Valdemar's wife under circumstances which caused her bewilderment and estrangement from her own husband.


title: Prince George of Greece and Denmark

text: From 1913 to early 1916, George's wife carried on an intense flirtation, then an affair until May 1919 with French prime minister Aristide Briand. In 1915 Briand wrote to Marie that, having come to know and like Prince George, he felt guilty about their secret passion. George tried to persuade him that Greece, officially neutral during World War I but suspected of sympathy for the Central Powers, really hoped for an Allied victory: He may have influenced Briand to support the disastrous Allied expedition against the Turks at Salonika. When the prince and princess returned in July 1915 to France following a visit to the ailing King Constantine I in Greece, her affair with Briand had become notorious and George expressed a restrained jealousy. By December 1916 the French fleet was bombing Athens and in Paris Briand was suspected, alternately, of having seduced Marie in a futile attempt to bring Greece over to the Allied side, or of having been seduced by her to oust Constantine and set George upon the Greek throne.


title: Prince George of Greece and Denmark

text: Although he was on friendly terms with his wife's mentor, Sigmund Freud, in 1925 George asked Marie to give up her work as a psychoanalyst to devote herself to their family life, but she declined. When he learned from the newspapers in 1938 that his only son had married a Russian commoner, George forbade him to return home and refused ever to meet his wife.


title: Prince George of Greece and Denmark

text: In 1948, Prince George was named as one of the sponsors/godparents of his grand nephew Prince Charles of the United Kingdom, along with King George VI, King Haakon VII of Norway, Queen Mary, Princess Margaret, the Dowager Marchioness of Milford Haven, Pamela, Lady Brabourne, and David Bowes-Lyon.


title: Prince George of Greece and Denmark

text: On 21 November 1957 Princess Marie and her husband celebrated their golden wedding anniversary. Prince George died 25 November 1957, aged eighty-eight, the longest-living dynast of the House of Oldenburg of his generation. He was buried at Tatoi Royal Cemetery with Danish and Greek flags, his wedding ring, a lock of Valdemar's hair, a photo of Valdemar, and earth from Bernstorff. Prince George was the last living child of King George and Queen Olga.


title: Brotherly Love (1995 TV series)

text: Brotherly Love is an American sitcom television series that ran from September 16, 1995, to April 1, 1996, on NBC, and then moved to The WB, where it aired from September 15, 1996, until May 18, 1997. The series was created by Jonathan Schmock and Jim Vallely, and produced by Witt/Thomas Productions in association with Touchstone Television (season 1) and Walt Disney Television (season 2). The primary focus of the series is on the relationship of three brothers, played by real-life brothers Joey Lawrence, Matthew Lawrence, and Andrew Lawrence.


title: Brotherly Love (1995 TV series)

text: The show was first aired on NBC as part of its 1995–96 schedule and then switched to The WB for the beginning of its 1996–97 lineup. The show also aired in syndication on Disney Channel from 1998 until 2002. It has also previously aired on Family Channel in Canada.


title: Riad (architecture)

text: A riad (; also spelled "riyad") is a type of traditional Moroccan and Andalusi interior garden or courtyard associated with house and palace architecture. Its origin is generally attributed to Persian gardens that spread during the Islamic period. The term is nowadays often used in Morocco to refer to a hotel or guesthouse-style accommodation with shared common areas and private rooms, often within a restored traditional mansion.


title: Riad (architecture)

text: The term "riad" originates from the Arabic term for garden, رياض ("riyad"). Historically, the term referred to a type of interior garden common to historic Moorish architecture in Al-Andalus (Iberian Peninsula) and North Africa: in particular, a rectangular courtyard garden that is symmetrically divided into four parts along its central axes and typically has a fountain at its middle.


title: Riad (architecture)

text: Riad architecture ultimately has ancient roots in Mediterranean and Middle Eastern domestic architecture. Houses centered around inner courtyards existed across the ancient Greco-Roman world and, before that, in the ancient Middle East. Interior gardens are also an ancient feature of domestic architecture in the Middle East, and the geometrically arranged gardens of Islamic architecture derive from Iranian civilization in particular. Archaeological remains of similar gardens have been found in and around ancient Mesopotamia, and the later evolution of such gardens can be found in the grand geometrically-arranged gardens of Iranian and Mughal architecture, known as a "chahar bagh". In addition to the existing influences of Greco-Roman culture in the Mediterranean, the formation of the Islamic world after the 7th century also spread and established these architectural models across the region and all the way to al-Andalus in the Iberian Peninsula. Interior gardens were a popular feature of palace architecture in the Islamic world because water and greenery were associated with images of paradise in Islam.


title: Riad (architecture)

text: Scholars generally attribute the origins of riad gardens in the western Islamic world to its antecedents in the eastern Persian world. The ancient Roman city of Volubilis also provided reference for the beginnings of domestic architecture during the Idrisid Dynasty in Morocco. Important examples of riads, or riad-like gardens, in al-Andalus are found at Madinat al-Zahra (10th century), the Aljaferia (11th century), the Castillejo of Monteagudo (near Murcia, 12th century) and the Alhambra (13th-15th centuries). However, it is unclear to what extent Moroccan riads and houses were inspired by models imported by immigrants from al-Andalus or to what extent they developed locally in parallel with Andalusi versions. What is certain, however, is that there was historically a close cultural and geopolitical relationship between the two lands on either side of the Strait of Gibraltar. When the Almoravids (who were based in Morocco) conquered al-Andalus in the 11th century they commissioned Muslim, Christian and Jewish artisans from al-Andalus to work on monuments in Morocco and throughout their empire, further contributing to a shared architectural and artistic heritage between al-Andalus and North Africa. The earliest known example of a true riad garden (with a symmetrical four-part division) in Morocco was found in the Almoravid palace built by Ali ibn Yusuf in Marrakesh in the early 12th century, which was part of the older Ksar al-Hajjar fortress. The era of the Almoravids and their successor dynasties (such as the Almohads, the Marinids, and the Nasrids) was a formative period of Moroccan architecture and of wider Moorish architecture during which the model of the riad garden was perfected and established as a standard feature of interior secular or palace architecture in the region. It was particularly successful and common in Marrakesh, where the combination of climate and available space made it well-suited to the architecture of the bourgeois mansions and royal palaces built in the city.


title: Riad (architecture)

text: Riad gardens were major elements of later Moroccan royal palaces, although sometimes in a form slightly different or more complex than the classic four-part division. The famous El Badi in Marrakesh, a lavish reception palace built by the Saadian sultan Ahmad al-Mansur in the late 16th century, was essentially a giant rectangular riad courtyard, with symmetrical gardens, pools, and two monumental pavilions facing each other at either end. (The presence of two pavilions in this manner was also reminiscent of the layout of the much smaller Court of the Lions in the Alhambra.) The Saadian palace built by al-Mansur in the Agdal Gardens, replaced by modern structures today, also had a symmetrical riad-style courtyard layout. The largest riad garden in Marrakesh today is the Arsat an-Nil ("Garden of the Nile") located in the Royal Palace and dating from the reign of the Alaouite sultan Muhammad Ibn Abdallah (1757–1790). Measuring around 130 meters on its north–south axis and 70 meters on its east–west axis, it is divided along its middle by a path from north to south which in turn is intersected by several other perpendicular paths, forming a vast, elongated version of a riad. Riads became more common in Fes only in recent centuries, as the existing architectural fabric and the sloped landscape of the city lent themselves less easily to large gardens. The late 19th-century Dar Batha palace (now a museum) in Fes is a large and clear example of a classic riad.


title: Riad (architecture)

text: The riad is one of two main types of traditional Moroccan houses, often with two or more stories around an interior symmetrical garden centered around a fountain. Riads were the stately city homes of the wealthiest citizens such as merchants and courtiers who were able to build mansions which included interior gardens. The style of these riads has changed over the years, but the basic form is still used in designs today.


title: Riad (architecture)

text: In many cases, especially for palaces, the gardens were surrounded by a gallery. Moroccan houses were inward focused, which allowed for family privacy and protection from the weather. This inward focus was expressed with a centrally placed interior garden or courtyard, and the lack of large windows on the exterior walls of rammed earth or mud brick. This design principle also found support in the social mores of Islamic society, which placed great value on privacy and encouraged a separation between private family spaces (where women notably lived and worked) and semi-public spaces where outside guests were received. The central gardens of traditional riads were often planted with fruit trees such as orange trees or lemon trees. The walls of the riads could be adorned with tadelakt plaster, stucco decoration, and "zellij" tiles, sometimes with Arabic calligraphy and quotes from the Quran.


title: Riad (architecture)

text: In recent years there has been a surge of interest in using traditional Moroccan houses as part of the country's tourism industry. In this context, the term "riad" has become a common term to denote traditional Moroccan houses in general, particularly those converted into tourist accommodation. This interest has led to a wave of renovations in towns such as Marrakesh, Essaouira, and Fes, where many of these often-crumbling houses have been restored and converted to hotels, guesthouses, or restaurants. Many of the crumbling or ruined properties in Marrakech have been bought by foreigners. This foreign interest has brought new challenges but the investment has helped with the restoration of the UNESCO site and has helped revive many of the handcrafts and artisan trades that were gradually being lost before this trend.


title: Immanuel Wallerstein

text: Immanuel Maurice Wallerstein (; September 28, 1930 – August 31, 2019) was an American sociologist and economic historian. He is perhaps best known for his development of the general approach in sociology which led to the emergence of his world-systems approach. He was a Senior Research Scholar at Yale University from 2000 until his death in 2019, and published bimonthly syndicated commentaries through Agence Global on world affairs from October 1998 to July 2019.


title: Immanuel Wallerstein

text: His parents, Sara Günsberg (born in 1895) and Menachem Lazar Wallerstein (born in 1890), were Polish Jews from Galicia who moved to Berlin, because of the World War, where they married in 1919. Two years later, Sara gave birth to their first son, Solomon. In 1923, the Wallerstein family emigrated to New York, where Immanuel was born. On the "list of alien passengers for the United States" at the time of his family's emigration, the nationality of his mother and brother was described as Polish.


title: Immanuel Wallerstein

text: Having grown up in a politically conscious family, Wallerstein first became interested in world affairs as a teenager. He received all three of his degrees from Columbia University: a BA in 1951, an MA in 1954, and a PhD in 1959, where he completed his dissertation under the supervision of Hans L. Zetterberg and Robert Staughton Lynd. However, throughout his life, Wallerstein also studied at other universities around the world, including Oxford University from 1955 to 1956, Université libre de Bruxelles, Universite Paris 7 Denis Diderot, and Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México.


title: Immanuel Wallerstein

text: From 1951 to 1953 Wallerstein served in the U.S. Army. After his discharge, he wrote a master's thesis on McCarthyism as a phenomenon of American political culture. The widely cited work, as Wallerstein himself later stated, "confirmed my sense that I should consider myself, in the language of the 1950s, a 'political sociologist.


title: Immanuel Wallerstein

text: Wallerstein married Beatrice Friedman in 1964, and had a daughter, Katharine, two years later. He was stepfather to Beatrice's two children from a previous marriage. He and Beatrice had five grandchildren.


title: Immanuel Wallerstein

text: Wallerstein's academic and professional career began at Columbia University where he was first an instructor and then associate professor of sociology from 1958 to 1971. During his time there he became leading supporter for student who were protesting during the Columbia University protests of 1968 as they fought against Columbia's involvement in the Vietnam War. In 1971 he moved from New York to Montreal, where he taught at McGill University for five years.


title: Immanuel Wallerstein

text: Originally, Wallerstein's prime area of intellectual concern was not American politics, but the politics of the non-European world, most especially of India and Africa. For two decades Wallerstein researched Africa, publishing numerous books and articles, and in 1973 he became president of the African Studies Association.


title: Immanuel Wallerstein

text: In 1976 Wallerstein was offered the unique opportunity to pursue a new avenue of research, and so became head of the Fernand Braudel Center for the Study of Economies, Historical Systems and Civilization at Binghamton University in New York, whose mission was "to engage in the analysis of large-scale social change over long periods of historical time". The Center opened with the publishing support of a new journal, "Review", (of which Wallerstein was the founding editor), and would go on to produce a body of work that "went a long way toward invigorating sociology and its sister disciplines, especially history and political-economy". Wallerstein would serve as a distinguished professor of sociology at Binghamton until his retirement in 1999.


title: Immanuel Wallerstein

text: During his career Wallerstein held visiting-professor posts in Hong Kong, British Columbia, and Amsterdam, among numerous others. He was awarded multiple honorary titles, intermittently served as Directeur d'études associé at the École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales in Paris, and served as president of the International Sociological Association between 1994 and 1998. Similarly, during the 1990s he chaired the Gulbenkian Commission on the Restructuring of the Social Sciences, whose object was to indicate a direction for social scientific inquiry for the next 50 years.


title: Immanuel Wallerstein

text: Between 2000 and his death in 2019 Wallerstein worked as a Senior Research Scholar at Yale University. He was also a member of the Advisory Editors Council of the "Social Evolution & History" journal. In 2003, he received the "Career of Distinguished Scholarship Award" from the American Sociological Association, and in 2004 the International N. D. Kondratieff Foundation and the Russian Academy of Natural Sciences (RAEN) awarded him the Gold Kondratieff Medal. Wallerstein died on August 31, 2019 from an infection, at the age of 88.


title: Immanuel Wallerstein

text: Wallerstein began as an expert on post-colonial African affairs, which he selected as the focus of his studies after attending international youth conferences in 1951 and 1952. His publications focused almost exclusively on this topic until the early 1970s, when he began to distinguish himself as a historian and theorist of the global capitalist economy on a macroscopic level. His early criticism of global capitalism and championship of "anti-systemic movements" made him an "éminence grise" with the anti-globalization movement within and outside of the academic community, along with Noam Chomsky (1928- ) and Pierre Bourdieu (1930-2002).


title: Immanuel Wallerstein

text: Wallerstein's most important work, "The Modern World-System", appeared in four volumes between 1974 and 2011. In it, Wallerstein drew on several intellectual influences. From Karl Marx, Wallerstein took the underlying emphasis on economic factors and their dominance over ideological factors in global politics, and such ideas as the dichotomy between capital and labor, while criticizing the traditional Marxian view of world economic development through stages such as feudalism and capitalism, and while criticizing as well its account of the process of accumulation of capital, and of dialectics. From dependency theory, he took the key concepts of "core" and "periphery".


title: Immanuel Wallerstein

text: However, Wallerstein named Frantz Fanon (1925-1961), Fernand Braudel (1902-1985), and Ilya Prigogine (1917-2003) as the three individuals who exerted the greatest influence "in modifying my line of argument (as opposed to deepening a parallel line of argument)." In "The Essential Wallerstein", he stated that: "Fanon represented for me the expression of the insistence by those disenfranchised by the modern world‑system that they have a voice, a vision, and a claim not merely to justice but to intellectual valuation."; that Braudel, for his description of the development and political implications of extensive networks of economic exchange in the European world between 1400 and 1800, "more than anyone else made me conscious of the central importance of the social construction of time and space and its impact on our analyses."; and that "Prigogine forced me to face the implications of a world in which certainties did not exist – but knowledge still did."


title: Immanuel Wallerstein

text: Wallerstein also stated that another major influence on his work was the "world revolution" of 1968. A member of the faculty of Columbia University at the time of the student protests, he participated in a faculty committee that attempted to resolve the dispute. He argued in several works that this revolution marked the end of "liberalism" as a viable ideology in the modern world system. He also argued that the end of the Cold War, rather than marking a triumph for liberalism, indicates that the current system has entered its 'end' phase: a period of crisis that will end only when it is replaced by another system. Wallerstein anticipated the growing importance of the North–South divide at a time when the main world conflict was the Cold War.


title: Immanuel Wallerstein

text: Wallerstein was often mocked for arguing since 1980 that the United States is a "hegemon in decline", but since the Iraq War this argument has become more widespread. During this time, Wallerstein also argued that the development of the capitalist world economy was detrimental to a large proportion of the world's population. Like Marx, Wallerstein predicted that capitalism will be replaced by a socialist economy, a view held in the 1970s, but reassessed in the 1980s. He concluded that the successor system(s) is unknowable.


title: Immanuel Wallerstein

text: Wallerstein's first volume on world-systems theory ("The Modern World System", 1974) was predominantly written during a year at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences (now affiliated with Stanford University). In it, he argues that the modern world system is distinguished from empires by its reliance on economic control of the world order by a dominating capitalist center (core) in systemic economic and political relation to peripheral and semi-peripheral world areas.


title: Immanuel Wallerstein

text: Wallerstein rejected the notion of a "Third World", claiming that there is only one world connected by a complex network of economic exchange relationships — i.e., a "world-economy" or "world-system" in which the "dichotomy of capital and labor" and the endless "accumulation of capital" by competing agents (historically including, but not limited, to nation-states) account for frictions. This approach is known as the world-system theory.


title: Immanuel Wallerstein

text: Wallerstein located the origin of the modern world-system in 16th-century Western Europe and the Americas. An initially slight advance in capital accumulation in Britain, the Dutch Republic, and France, due to specific political circumstances at the end of the period of feudalism, set in motion a process of gradual expansion. As a result, only one global network or system of economic exchange exists in modern society. By the 19th century, virtually every area on earth was incorporated into the capitalist world-economy.


title: Immanuel Wallerstein

text: The capitalist world-system is far from homogeneous in cultural, political, and economic terms; instead, it is characterized by fundamental differences in social development, accumulation of political power, and capital. Contrary to affirmative theories of modernization and capitalism, Wallerstein did not conceive of these differences as mere residues or irregularities that can and will be overcome as the system evolves.


title: Immanuel Wallerstein

text: A lasting division of the world into "core", "semi-periphery", and "periphery" is an inherent feature of world-system theory. Other theories, partially drawn on by Wallerstein, leave out the semi-periphery and do not allow for a grayscale of development. Areas which have so far remained outside the reach of the world-system enter it at the stage of "periphery". There is a fundamental and institutionally stabilized "division of labor" between core and periphery: while the core has a high level of technological development and manufactures complex products, the role of the periphery is to supply raw materials, agricultural products, and cheap labor for the expanding agents of the core. Economic exchange between core and periphery takes place on unequal terms: the periphery is forced to sell its products at low prices, but has to buy the core's products at comparatively high prices. Once established, this unequal state tends to stabilize itself due to inherent, quasi-deterministic constraints. The statuses of core and periphery are not exclusive and fixed geographically, but are relative to each other. A zone defined as "semi-periphery" acts as a periphery to the core and as a core to the periphery. At the end of the 20th century, this zone would comprise Eastern Europe, China, Brazil, and Mexico. It is important to note that core and peripheral zones can co-exist in the same location.


title: Immanuel Wallerstein

text: One effect of the expansion of the world-system is the commodification of things, including human labor. Natural resources, land, labor, and human relationships are gradually being stripped of their "intrinsic" value and turned into commodities in a market which determines their exchange value.


title: Immanuel Wallerstein

text: In the last two decades of his life, Wallerstein increasingly focused on the intellectual foundations of the modern world-system and the pursuit of universal theories of human behavior. In addition, he showed interest in the "structures of knowledge" defined by the disciplinary division between sociology, anthropology, political science, economics, and the humanities, which he himself regarded as Eurocentric. In analyzing them, he was highly influenced by the "new sciences" of theorists like Ilya Prigogine.


title: Immanuel Wallerstein

text: Wallerstein's theory provoked harsh criticism, not only from neo-liberal or conservative circles but even from some historians who say that some of his assertions may be historically incorrect. Some critics suggest that Wallerstein tended to neglect the cultural dimension of the modern world-system, arguing that there is a world system of global culture which is independent from the economic processes of capitalism; this reduces it to what some call "official" ideologies of states which can then easily be revealed as mere agencies of economic interest. Nevertheless, his analytical approach, along with that of associated theorists such as Andre Gunder Frank, Terence Hopkins, Samir Amin, Christopher Chase-Dunn, Thomas D. Hall, Anibal Quijano and Giovanni Arrighi, has made a significant impact on the field and has established an institutional base devoted to the general approach of intellectual inquiry. Their ideology has also attracted strong interest from the anti-globalization movement.


title: Immanuel Wallerstein

text: Arthur Stinchcombe was very critical of Wallerstein's "The Modern World-System", writing that the book presents no theoretical argument and no determinate mechanisms. Instead, the theory of the book "reduces to a general imperative for the scholar to look for world system influences, perhaps wise advice but not very specific." Stinchcombe also argues that the book does not define its concepts independently of their effects, thus entailing tautologies regarding cores, peripheries and semi-peripheries.


title: Immanuel Wallerstein

text: Wallerstein's definition follows dependency theory, which intended to combine the developments of the different societies since the 16th century in different regions into one collective development. The main characteristic of his definition is the development of a global division of labour, including the existence of independent political units (in this case, states) at the same time. There is no political center, compared to global empires like the Roman Empire; instead, the capitalist world-system is identified by the global market economy. It is divided into core, semi-periphery, and periphery regions, and is ruled by the capitalist mode of production.


title: Immanuel Wallerstein

text: Defines the difference between developed and developing countries, characterized e.g. by power or wealth. The core refers to developed countries, the periphery to the dependent developing countries. The main reason for the position of the developed countries is economic power. Wallerstein "used the term "core" to suggest a multicentric region containing a group of states rather than the term "center" , which implies a hierarchy with a single peak."


title: Immanuel Wallerstein

text: Defines states that are located between core and periphery, and who benefit from the periphery through unequal exchange relations. At the same time, the core benefits from the semi-periphery through unequal exchange relations.


title: Immanuel Wallerstein

text: Defines a kind of monopoly where there is more than one service provider for a particular good/service. Wallerstein claims that quasi-monopolies are self-liquidating because new sellers go into the market by exerting political pressure to open markets to competition.


title: Immanuel Wallerstein

text: A Kondratiev wave is defined as a cyclical tendency in the world's economy. It is also known as a "supercycle." Wallerstein argues that global wars are tied to Kondratiev waves. According to him, global conflicts occur as the summer phase of a wave begins, which is when production of goods and services around the world are on an upswing.


title: G. C. Murmu

text: Girish Chandra Murmu (born 21 November 1959) is the 14th Comptroller and Auditor General of India and the external auditor of the Inter-Parliamentary Union. He is also the chairman of the United Nations Panel of External Auditors and the Asian Organization of Supreme Audit Institutions. He is currently the external auditor of the WHO (2020-2023), succeeding the Auditor General of the Philippines. He was the Inaugural Lieutenant Governor of the Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir till 6 August 2020. He is a 1985 batch IAS officer of Gujarat cadre and was principal secretary to Narendra Modi during his tenure as the Chief Minister of Gujarat.


title: G. C. Murmu

text: G.C. Murmu was born on 21 November 1959 in Betnoti village of Mayurbhanj district in Odisha in a Santal family. He holds a Master of Arts degree in Political Science from Utkal University. He also holds an MBA degree from University of Birmingham. He is the eldest among eight siblings, six brothers and two sisters. One of his brothers, Shirish Chandra Murmu is working as an Executive Director at the Reserve Bank of India as of 2022.


title: G. C. Murmu

text: In 2001, when Narendra Modi became chief minister of Gujarat, Murmu was the Relief Commissioner. Shortly afterwards he became Commissioner, Mines and Minerals and thereafter Managing Director, Gujarat Maritime Board.


title: G. C. Murmu

text: Murmu's career took off in 2004 when he was made joint secretary of the Gujarat Home Department, which was headed by Amit Shah and directly supervised by Narendra Modi.


title: G. C. Murmu

text: He was given the task of handling the 2002 Gujarat riots cases. when Amit Shah was in jail, Murmu prepared his case papers.


title: G. C. Murmu

text: On 31 October 2019, Murmu took charge as the 1st Lieutenant Governor of Jammu and Kashmir after the formation of the new Union territory of Jammu and Kashmir under the Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act, 2019. He succeeded Governor of Jammu and Kashmir Satya Pal Malik, to become the 1st Lieutenant Governor of Jammu and Kashmir. Chief Justice of Jammu and Kashmir High Court Gita Mittal administered the oath of office at a function at Raj Bhavan. On 5 August 2020, he resigned from his position.


title: Bigeminy

text: Bigeminy is a cardiac arrhythmia in which there is a single ectopic beat, or irregular heartbeat, following each regular heartbeat. Most often this is due to ectopic beats occurring so frequently that there is one after each sinus beat, or normal heartbeat. The two beats are figuratively similar to two twins (hence "bi-" + "gemini"). For example, in ventricular bigeminy, a sinus beat is shortly followed by a premature ventricular contraction (PVC), a pause, another normal beat, and then another PVC. In atrial bigeminy, the other "twin" is a premature atrial contraction (PAC).


title: Bigeminy

text: After any PVC there is a pause that can lead to the development of bigeminy. A PVC wavefront often encounters a refractory AV node that does not conduct the wavefront retrograde. Thus the atrium is not depolarized and the sinus node is not reset. Since the sinus P wave to PVC interval is less than the normal P–P interval, the interval between the PVC and the next P wave is prolonged to equal the normal time elapsed during two P–P intervals. This is called a "compensatory" pause. The pause after the PVC leads to a longer recovery time, which is associated with a higher likelihood of myocardium being in different stages of repolarization. This then allows for re-entrant circuits and sets up the ventricle for another PVC after the next sinus beat. The constant interval between the sinus beat and PVC suggests a reentrant etiology rather than spontaneous automaticity of the ventricle.


title: Bigeminy

text: Premature atrial contractions by contrast do not have a compensatory pause, since they reset the sinus node, but atrial or supraventricular bigeminy can occur. If the PACs are very premature, the wavefront can encounter a refractory AV node and not be conducted. This can be mistaken for sinus bradycardia if the PAC is buried in the T wave since the PAC will reset the SA node and lead to a long P–P interval.


title: Bigeminy

text: When the atrial rhythm is irregular (as in atrial fibrillation or sinus arrythmia) the presence of bigeminy depends on the length of the P–P interval and happens more frequently with a longer interval. As with post PVC pauses, a longer P–P interval leads to a higher chance of re-entrant circuits and thus PVCs. The term "rule of bigeminy" is used to refer to the dependence of bigeminy on the ventricular cycle length in irregular rhythms.


title: Bigeminy

text: There can be similar patterns depending on the frequency of abnormal beats. If every other beat is abnormal, it is described as bigeminal. If every third beat is aberrant, it is trigeminal; every fourth would be quadrigeminal. Typically, if every fifth or more beat is abnormal, the aberrant beat would be termed occasional.


title: Bigeminy

text: Bigeminy is contrasted with couplets, which are paired abnormal beats. Groups of three abnormal beats are called triplets and are considered a brief run of non-sustained ventricular tachycardia (NSVT), and if the grouping lasts for more than 30 seconds, it is ventricular tachycardia (VT).


title: Bigeminy

text: In people without underlying heart disease and who do not have any symptoms, bigeminy in itself does not require any treatment. If it does become symptomatic, beta-blockers can be used to try and suppress ventricular ectopy. Class I and III agents are generally avoided as they can provoke more serious arrhythmias.


title: Gibbs phenomenon

text: In mathematics, the Gibbs phenomenon, discovered by and rediscovered by , is the oscillatory behavior of the Fourier series of a piecewise continuously differentiable periodic function around a jump discontinuity. The function's formula_1th partial Fourier series (formed by summing its formula_1 lowest constituent sinusoids) produces large peaks around the jump which overshoot and undershoot the function's actual values. This approximation error approaches a limit of about 9% of the jump as more sinusoids are used, though the infinite Fourier series sum does eventually converge almost everywhere except the point of discontinuity.


title: Gibbs phenomenon

text: The Gibbs phenomenon was observed by experimental physicists, but was believed to be due to imperfections in the measuring apparatus, and it is one cause of ringing artifacts in signal processing.


title: Gibbs phenomenon

text: The Gibbs phenomenon involves both the fact that Fourier sums overshoot at a jump discontinuity, and that this overshoot does not die out as more sinusoidal terms are added.


title: Gibbs phenomenon

text: The three pictures on the right demonstrate the phenomenon for a square wave (of height formula_3) whose Fourier series is


title: Gibbs phenomenon

text: More precisely, this square wave is the function formula_5 which equals formula_3 between formula_7 and formula_8 and formula_9 between formula_8 and formula_11 for every integer formula_12; thus this square wave has a jump discontinuity of height formula_13 at every integer multiple of formula_14.


title: Gibbs phenomenon

text: As more sinusoidal terms are added, the error of the partial Fourier series converges to a fixed height. But because the width of the error continues to narrow, the area of the error – and hence the energy of the error – converges to 0. Deriving the formula of the limit of the error for the square wave reveals that the error exceeds the height of the square wave formula_15 by


title: Gibbs phenomenon

text: or about 9% of the jump. More generally, at any discontinuity of a piecewise continuously differentiable function with a jump of formula_17, the formula_1th partial Fourier series will (for formula_1 very large) overshoot this jump by an error approaching formula_20 at one end and undershoot it by the same amount at the other end; thus the "jump" in the partial Fourier series will be about 18% larger than the jump in the original function. At the discontinuity, the partial Fourier series will converge to the midpoint of the jump (regardless of the actual value of the original function at the discontinuity). The quantity


title: Gibbs phenomenon

text: The Gibbs phenomenon was first noticed and analyzed by Henry Wilbraham in an 1848 paper. The paper attracted little attention until 1914 when it was mentioned in Heinrich Burkhardt's review of mathematical analysis in Klein's encyclopedia. In 1898, Albert A. Michelson developed a device that could compute and re-synthesize the Fourier series. A widespread myth says that when the Fourier coefficients for a square wave were input to the machine, the graph would oscillate at the discontinuities, and that because it was a physical device subject to manufacturing flaws, Michelson was convinced that the overshoot was caused by errors in the machine. In fact the graphs produced by the machine were not good enough to exhibit the Gibbs phenomenon clearly, and Michelson may not have noticed it as he made no mention of this effect in his paper about his machine or his later letters to "Nature".


title: Gibbs phenomenon

text: Inspired by correspondence in "Nature" between Michelson and A. E. H. Love about the convergence of the Fourier series of the square wave function, J. Willard Gibbs published a note in 1898 pointing out the important distinction between the limit of the graphs of the partial sums of the Fourier series of a sawtooth wave and the graph of the limit of those partial sums. In his first letter Gibbs failed to notice the Gibbs phenomenon, and the limit that he described for the graphs of the partial sums was inaccurate. In 1899 he published a correction in which he described the overshoot at the point of discontinuity ("Nature", April 27, 1899, p. 606). In 1906, Maxime Bôcher gave a detailed mathematical analysis of that overshoot, coining the term "Gibbs phenomenon" and bringing the term into widespread use.


title: Gibbs phenomenon

text: After the existence of Henry Wilbraham's paper became widely known, in 1925 Horatio Scott Carslaw remarked, "We may still call this property of Fourier's series (and certain other series) Gibbs's phenomenon; but we must no longer claim that the property was first discovered by Gibbs."


title: Gibbs phenomenon

text: Informally, the Gibbs phenomenon reflects the difficulty inherent in approximating a discontinuous function by a "finite" series of continuous sinusoidal waves. It is important to put emphasis on the word "finite", because even though every partial sum of the Fourier series overshoots around each discontinuity it is approximating, the limit of summing an infinite number of sinusoidal waves does not. The overshoot peaks moves closer and closer to the discontinuity as more terms are summed, so convergence is possible.


title: Gibbs phenomenon

text: There is no contradiction (between the overshoot error converging to a non-zero height even though the infinite sum has no overshoot), because the overshoot peaks move toward the discontinuity. The Gibbs phenomenon thus exhibits pointwise convergence, but not uniform convergence. For a piecewise continuously differentiable (class "C") function, the Fourier series converges to the function at "every point" except at jump discontinuities. At jump discontinuities, the infinite sum will converge to the jump discontinuity's midpoint (i.e. the average of the values of the function on either side of the jump), as a consequence of Dirichlet's theorem.


title: Gibbs phenomenon

text: The Gibbs phenomenon is closely related to the principle that the smoothness of a function controls the decay rate of its Fourier coefficients. Fourier coefficients of smoother functions will more rapidly decay (resulting in faster convergence), whereas Fourier coefficients of discontinuous functions will slowly decay (resulting in slower convergence). For example, the discontinuous square wave has Fourier coefficients formula_22 that decay only at the rate of formula_23, while the continuous triangle wave has Fourier coefficients formula_24 that decay at a much faster rate of formula_25.


title: Gibbs phenomenon

text: This only provides a partial explanation of the Gibbs phenomenon, since Fourier series with absolutely convergent Fourier coefficients would be uniformly convergent by the Weierstrass M-test and would thus be unable to exhibit the above oscillatory behavior. By the same token, it is impossible for a discontinuous function to have absolutely convergent Fourier coefficients, since the function would thus be the uniform limit of continuous functions and therefore be continuous, a contradiction. See .


title: Gibbs phenomenon

text: In practice, the difficulties associated with the Gibbs phenomenon can be ameliorated by using a smoother method of Fourier series summation, such as Fejér summation or Riesz summation, or by using sigma-approximation. Using a continuous wavelet transform, the wavelet Gibbs phenomenon never exceeds the Fourier Gibbs phenomenon. Also, using the discrete wavelet transform with Haar basis functions, the Gibbs phenomenon does not occur at all in the case of continuous data at jump discontinuities, and is minimal in the discrete case at large change points. In wavelet analysis, this is commonly referred to as the Longo phenomenon. In the polynomial interpolation setting, the Gibbs phenomenon can be mitigated using the S-Gibbs algorithm.


title: Gibbs phenomenon

text: Let formula_26 be a piecewise continuously differentiable function which is periodic with some period formula_27. Suppose that at some point formula_28, the left limit formula_29 and right limit formula_30 of the function formula_31 differ by a non-zero jump of formula_17:


title: Gibbs phenomenon

text: More generally, if formula_45 is any sequence of real numbers which converges to formula_28 as formula_47, and if the jump of formula_17 is positive then


title: Gibbs phenomenon

text: If instead the jump of formula_17 is negative, one needs to interchange limit superior with limit inferior, and also interchange the formula_52 and formula_53 signs, in the above two inequalities.


title: Gibbs phenomenon

text: From a signal processing point of view, the Gibbs phenomenon is the step response of a low-pass filter, and the oscillations are called ringing or ringing artifacts. Truncating the Fourier transform of a signal on the real line, or the Fourier series of a periodic signal (equivalently, a signal on the circle), corresponds to filtering out the higher frequencies with an ideal (brick-wall) low-pass filter. This can be represented as convolution of the original signal with the impulse response of the filter (also known as the kernel), which is the sinc function. Thus the Gibbs phenomenon can be seen as the result of convolving a Heaviside step function (if periodicity is not required) or a square wave (if periodic) with a sinc function: the oscillations in the sinc function cause the ripples in the output.


title: Gibbs phenomenon

text: In the case of convolving with a Heaviside step function, the resulting function is exactly the integral of the sinc function, the sine integral; for a square wave the description is not as simply stated. For the step function, the magnitude of the undershoot is thus exactly the integral of the left tail until the first negative zero: for the normalized sinc of unit sampling period, this is formula_54 The overshoot is accordingly of the same magnitude: the integral of the right tail or (equivalently) the difference between the integral from negative infinity to the first positive zero minus 1 (the non-overshooting value).


title: Gibbs phenomenon

text: The overshoot and undershoot can be understood thus: kernels are generally normalized to have integral 1, so they result in a mapping of constant functions to constant functions – otherwise they have gain. The value of a convolution at a point is a linear combination of the input signal, with coefficients (weights) the values of the kernel.


title: Gibbs phenomenon

text: If a kernel is non-negative, such as for a Gaussian kernel, then the value of the filtered signal will be a convex combination of the input values (the coefficients (the kernel) integrate to 1, and are non-negative), and will thus fall between the minimum and maximum of the input signal – it will not undershoot or overshoot. If, on the other hand, the kernel assumes negative values, such as the sinc function, then the value of the filtered signal will instead be an affine combination of the input values, and may fall outside of the minimum and maximum of the input signal, resulting in undershoot and overshoot, as in the Gibbs phenomenon.


title: Gibbs phenomenon

text: Taking a longer expansion – cutting at a higher frequency – corresponds in the frequency domain to widening the brick-wall, which in the time domain corresponds to narrowing the sinc function and increasing its height by the same factor, leaving the integrals between corresponding points unchanged. This is a general feature of the Fourier transform: widening in one domain corresponds to narrowing and increasing height in the other. This results in the oscillations in sinc being narrower and taller, and (in the filtered function after convolution) yields oscillations that are narrower (and thus with smaller "area") but which do "not" have reduced "magnitude": cutting off at any finite frequency results in a sinc function, however narrow, with the same tail integrals. This explains the persistence of the overshoot and undershoot.


title: Gibbs phenomenon

text: Without loss of generality, we may examine the formula_1th partial Fourier series formula_35 of a square wave with a formula_57 period and a formula_13 vertical discontinuity at formula_59. Because the case of odd formula_1 is very similar, let us just deal with the case when formula_1 is even:


title: Gibbs phenomenon

text: But the expression in square brackets is a Riemann sum approximation to the integral formula_68 (more precisely, it is a midpoint rule approximation with spacing formula_69). Since the sinc function is continuous, this approximation converges to the actual integral as formula_47. Thus we have


title: Gibbs phenomenon

text: The Gibbs phenomenon is undesirable because it causes artifacts, namely clipping from the overshoot and undershoot, and ringing artifacts from the oscillations. In the case of low-pass filtering, these can be reduced or eliminated by using different low-pass filters.


title: Gibbs phenomenon

text: In MRI, the Gibbs phenomenon causes artifacts in the presence of adjacent regions of markedly differing signal intensity. This is most commonly encountered in spinal MRIs where the Gibbs phenomenon may simulate the appearance of syringomyelia.


title: Gibbs phenomenon

text: The Gibbs phenomenon manifests as a cross pattern artifact in the discrete Fourier transform of an image, where most images (e.g. micrographs or photographs) have a sharp discontinuity between boundaries at the top / bottom and left / right of an image. When periodic boundary conditions are imposed in the Fourier transform, this jump discontinuity is represented by continuum of frequencies along the axes in reciprocal space (i.e. a cross pattern of intensity in the Fourier transform).


title: Gibbs phenomenon

text: And although this article mainly focused on the difficulty with trying to construct discontinuities without artifacts in the time domain with only a partial Fourier series, it is also important to consider that because the inverse Fourier transform is extremely similar to the Fourier transform, there equivalently is difficulty with trying to construct discontinuities in the frequency domain using only a partial Fourier series. Thus for instance because idealized brick-wall and rectangular filters have discontinuities in the frequency domain, their exact representation in the time domain necessarily requires an infinitely-long sinc filter impulse response, since a finite impulse response will result in Gibbs rippling in the frequency response near cut-off frequencies, though this rippling can be reduced by windowing finite impulse response filters (at the expense of wider transition bands).


title: Datu

text: Datu is a title which denotes the rulers (variously described in historical accounts as chiefs, sovereign princes, and monarchs) of numerous indigenous peoples throughout the Philippine archipelago. The title is still used today, especially in Mindanao, Sulu and Palawan, but it was used much more extensively in early Philippine history, particularly in the regions of Central and Southern Luzon, the Visayas and Mindanao. It is a cognate of the title "ratu" in several other Austronesian languages.


title: Datu

text: In early Philippine history, datus and a small group of their close relatives formed the "apex stratum" of the traditional three-tier social hierarchy of lowland Philippine societies. Only a member of this birthright aristocracy (called ""maginoo"", ""nobleza"", ""maharlika"", or ""timagua"" by various early chroniclers) could become a datu; members of this elite could hope to become a datu by demonstrating prowess in war or exceptional leadership.


title: Datu

text: In large coastal polities such as those in Maynila, Tondo, Pangasinan, Cebu, Panay, Bohol, Butuan, Cotabato, Lanao, and Sulu, several datus brought their loyalty-groups, referred to as "barangays" or ""dulohan"", into compact settlements which allowed greater degrees of cooperation and economic specialization. In such cases, datus of these barangays would then select the most senior or most respected among them to serve as what scholars referred to as a "paramount leader" or "paramount datu". The titles used by such paramount datu changed from case to case, but some of the most prominent examples were: "sultan" in the most Islamized areas of Mindanao; "lakan" among the Tagalog people; "thimuay" among the Subanen people; "rajah" in polities which traded extensively with Indonesia and Malaysia; or simply "datu" in some areas of Mindanao and the Visayas.


title: Datu

text: Proofs of Filipino royalty and nobility ("dugóng bugháw") can be demonstrated only by clear blood descent from ancient native royal blood, and in some cases adoption into a royal family.


title: Datu

text: "Datu" (Baybayin: ) is the title for chiefs, sovereign princes, and monarchs throughout the Philippine archipelago. The title is still used today, especially in Mindanao, Sulu and Palawan, but it was used much more extensively in early Philippine history, particularly in the regions of central and southern Luzon, the Visayas and Mindanao. Other titles still used today are "lakan" in Luzon, "apo" in central and northern Luzon, and "sultan" and "rajah", especially in Mindanao, Sulu and Palawan. Depending upon the prestige of the sovereign royal family, the title of "datu" could be equated to royal princes, European dukes, marquesses and counts. In large ancient barangays, which had contacts with other Southeast Asian cultures through trade, some datus took the title of "rajah" or "sultan".


title: Datu

text: The oldest historical records mentioning the title "datu" are the 7th century Srivijayan inscriptions such as Telaga Batu to describe lesser kings or vassalized kings. The word "datu" is a cognate of the Malay terms "dato" or "datuk" and to the Fijian chiefly title of "ratu".


title: Datu

text: Indigenous concepts, models, and terminology concerning nobility and rulership among the peoples of the Philippine archipelago differed from one culture to the other, but lowland communities typically had a three-tier social structure aristocracy. In many of these societies, the word ""datu"" meant the ruler of a particular social group, known as a "barangay", "dulohan", or "kedatuan".


title: Datu

text: In pre-Islamic times, the political leadership office was vested in a rajahship in Manila and a datuship elsewhere in the Philippines.


title: Datu

text: In the later part of the 1500s, the Spaniards took possession of most of Luzon and the Visayas, converting the lowland population to Christianity from their local indigenous religion. However, although Spain eventually established footholds in northern and eastern Mindanao and the Zamboanga Peninsula, its armies failed to colonize the rest of Mindanao. This area was populated by Islamized peoples ("Moros" to the Spaniards) and by many non-Muslim indigenous groups now known as Lumad peoples.


title: Datu

text: In the traditional structure of Moro societies, the sultans were the highest authority followed by the datus or rajah, with their rule being sanctioned by the Quran. The titles "datu" and "rajah", however, predate the coming of Islam. These titles were assimilated into the new structure under Islam. Datus were supported by their tribes. In return for tribute and labor, the datu provided aid in emergencies and advocacy in disputes with other communities and warfare through the "Agama" and "Maratabat" laws.


title: Datu

text: At the beginning of the 20th century, the Lumad peoples controlled an area that now covers 17 of Mindanao's 24 provinces – but by the 1980 census, they constituted less than 6% of the population of Mindanao and Sulu. Heavy migration to Mindanao of Visayans, who have been settling in the Island for centuries, spurred by government-sponsored resettlement programmes, turned the Lumads into minorities. The Bukidnon province population grew from 63,470 in 1948 to 194,368 in 1960 and 414,762 in 1970, with the proportion of indigenous Bukidnons falling from 64% to 33% to 14%.


title: Datu

text: There are 18 Lumad ethnolinguistic groups: Ata people, Bagobo, Banwaon, B'laan, Bukidnon, Dibabawon, Higaonon, Mamanwa, Mandaya, Manguwangan, Manobo, Mansaka, Subanon, Tagakaolo, Tasaday, Tboli, Teduray and Ubo.


title: Datu

text: Lumad datus have involved themselves in protecting their homeland forests from illegal loggers during the past decades. Some have joined the New People's Army (NPA), a communist rebel group in the country, for the cause of their people. Others have resisted joining the Moro and Communist separatist movements.


title: Datu

text: A datu is still basic to the smooth functioning of Lumad and Moro societies today. They have continued to act as the community leaders in their respective tribes among a variety of Indigenous peoples in Mindanao. Moros, Lumads and Visayans now share with new settlers a homeland in Mindanao.


title: Datu

text: In more affluent and powerful territorial jurisdictions and principalities in the Visayas, e.g., Panay Cebu and Leyte(which were never conquered by Spain but were accomplished as vassals using pacts, peace treaties, and reciprocal alliances), the ""datu"" class was at the top of a divinely sanctioned and stable social order in a "sakop" or "kinadatuan" ("kadatuan" in ancient Malay; "kedaton" in Javanese; and "kedatuan" in many parts of modern Southeast Asia), which is elsewhere commonly referred to also as "barangay". This social order was divided into three classes. The "Kadatuan" (members of the Visayan datu class) were compared by the Boxer Codex to the titled lords ("señores de titulo") in Spain. As "agalon" or "amo" (lords), the datus enjoyed an ascribed right to respect, obedience, and support from their ""oripun"" (commoner) or followers belonging to the third order. These datus had acquired rights to the same advantages from their legal ""Timawa"" or vassals (second-order), who bind themselves to the datu as his seafaring warriors. ""Timawas"" paid no tribute, and rendered no agricultural labor. They had a portion of the datu's blood in their veins. The above-mentioned Boxer Codex calls these ""timawas"": knights and "hidalgos". The Spanish conquistador, Miguel de Loarca, described them as ""free men, neither chiefs nor slaves"". In the late 1600s, the Spanish Jesuit priest Fr. Francisco Ignatio Alcina, classified them as "the third rank of nobility" (nobleza).


title: Datu

text: To maintain the purity of bloodline, datus marry only among their kind, often seeking high ranking brides in other Barangays, abducting them, or contracting brideprices in gold, slaves and jewelry. Meanwhile, the datus keep their marriageable daughters secluded for protection and prestige. These well-guarded and protected highborn women were called ""binokot"", the datus of pure descent (four generations) were called ""potli nga datu"" or ""lubus nga datu"", while a woman of noble lineage (especially the elderly) are addressed by the inhabitants of Panay as ""uray"" (meaning: pure as gold), e.g., "uray hilway".


title: Datu

text: The different type of culture prevalent in Luzon gave a less stable and more complex social structure to the pre-colonial Tagalog barangays of Manila, Pampanga and Laguna. Enjoying a more extensive commerce than those in Visayas, having the influence of Bornean political contacts, and engaging in farming wet rice for a living, the Tagalogs were described by the Spanish Augustinian Friar Martin de Rada as more traders than warriors.


title: Datu

text: The more complex social structure of the Tagalogs was less stable during the arrival of the Spaniards because it was still in a process of differentiating. In this society, the term "datu" or "lakan", or "apo" refers to the chief, but the noble class (to which the "datu" belonged, or could come from) was the "maginoo" class. One could be born a "maginoo", but could become a 'datu' by personal achievement.


title: Datu

text: The "datu" class (first estate) of the four echelons of Filipino society at the time of contact with the Europeans (as described by Fr. Juan de Plasencia- a pioneer Franciscan missionary in the Philippines), was referred to by the Spaniards as the "principalía". Loarca, and the canon lawyer Antonio de Morga, who classified the society into three estates (ruler, ruled, slave), also affirmed the usage of this term and also spoke about the preeminence of the "principales". All members of this datu class were "principales", whether they ruled or not. San Buenaventura's 1613 Dictionary of the Tagalog Language defines three terms that clarify the concept of this "principalía":


title: Datu

text: The Spanish term "seňor" (lord) is equated with all these three terms, which are distinguished from the "nouveau riche" imitators scornfully called "maygintao" (man with gold or "hidalgo" by gold, and not by lineage).


title: Datu

text: Upon the Christianization of most parts of the Philippine archipelago, the datus retained their right to govern their territory under the Spanish Empire. King Philip II of Spain, in a law signed June 11, 1594, commanded the Spanish colonial officials in the archipelago that these native royalties and nobilities be given the same respect, and privileges that they had enjoyed before their conversion. Their domains became self-ruled tributary barangays of the Spanish Empire.


title: Datu

text: The Filipino royals and nobles formed part of the exclusive, and elite ruling class, called the "principalía" (noble class) of the Philippines. The "principalía" was the class that constituted a birthright aristocracy with claims to respect, obedience, and support from those of subordinate status.


title: Datu

text: With the recognition of the Spanish monarchs came the privilege of being addressed as "Don" or "Doña". – a mark of esteem and distinction in Europe reserved for a person of noble or royal status during the colonial period. Other honors and high regard were also accorded to the Christianized datus by the Spanish Empire. For example, the "gobernadorcillos" (elected leader of the "cabezas de barangay" or the Christianized datus) and Filipino officials of justice received the greatest consideration from the Spanish Crown officials. The colonial officials were under obligation to show them the honor corresponding to their respective duties. They were allowed to sit in the houses of the Spanish provincial governors, and in any other places. They were not left to remain standing. It was not permitted for Spanish parish priests to treat these Filipino nobles with less consideration.


title: Datu

text: The "gobernadorcillos" exercised the command of the towns. They were port captains in coastal towns. Their office corresponds to that of the "alcaldes" and municipal judges of the Iberian Peninsula. They performed at once the functions of judges and even of notaries with defined powers. They also had the rights and powers to elect assistants and several lieutenants and "alguaciles", proportionate in number to the inhabitants of the town.


title: Datu

text: By the end of the 16th century, any claim to Filipino royalty, nobility, or "hidalguía" had disappeared into a homogenized, hispanized and Christianized nobility – the "principalía". This remnant of the pre-colonial royal and noble families continued to rule their traditional domain until the end of the Spanish regime. However, there were cases when succession in leadership was also done through election of new leaders (i.e., "cabezas de barangay"), especially in provinces near the central colonial government in Manila where the ancient ruling families lost their prestige and role. Perhaps proximity to the central power diminished their significance. However, in distant territories, where the central authority had less control and where order could be maintained without using coercive measures, hereditary succession was still enforced until Spain lost the archipelago to the Americans. These distant territories remained patriarchal societies, where people retained great respect for the "principalía".


title: Datu

text: The "principalía" was larger and more influential than the pre-conquest indigenous nobility. It helped create and perpetuate an oligarchic system in the Spanish colony for more than three hundred years. The Spanish colonial government's prohibition for foreigners to own land in the Philippines contributed to the evolution of this form of oligarchy. In some provinces of the Philippines, many Spaniards and foreign merchants intermarried with the rich and landed Austronesian local nobilities. From these unions, a new cultural group was formed, the "mestizo" class. Their descendants emerged later to become an influential part of the government, and the "principalía".


title: Datu

text: Anthropologist Laura Lee Junker's comparative analysis of historical accounts from cultures throughout the archipelago, depicts Datus functioning as:


title: Datu

text: Anthropologists like F. Landa Jocano and Laura Lee Junker and historians and historiographers like William Henry Scott make a careful distinction between the nobility and aristocratic nature of the datus vis a vis the exercise of sovereign political authority. Although the datus and paramount datus of early Philippine polities were a ""birthright aristocracy"" and were widely recognized "aristocratic" or "noble", comparable to the nobles and royals of the Spanish colonizers, the nature of their relationship with the members of their Barangay was less asymmetrical than in a monarchic political systems in other parts of the world. Their control over territory was a function of their leadership of the Barangay and, in some local pre-colonial societies (mostly in Luzon), the concept of ruling was not that of "divine right." Furthermore, their position was dependent on the common consent of the members of the barangay's aristocratic Maginoo-class. Although the position of datu could be inherited, the Maginoo could decide to choose someone else to follow within their own class, if that other person proved a more capable war leader or political administrator. Even "paramount datus" such as lakans or rajahs exercised only a limited degree of influence over the less-senior datus they led, which did not include claims over the barangays and territories of these less-senior datus. Antonio de Morga, in his work "Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas", expounds on the degree to which early Philippine datus could exercise their authority:


title: Datu

text: The term "paramount datu" or "paramount ruler" is a term applied by historians to describe the highest ranking political authorities in the largest lowland polities ("see: Barangay state") or inter-polity alliance groups in early Philippine history, most notably those in Maynila, Tondo, the Confederation of Madja-as in Panay, Pangasinan, Cebu, Bohol, Butuan, Cotabato, and Sulu.


title: Datu

text: Different cultures of the Philippine archipelago referred to the most senior datu or leader of the "barangay state" or "bayan" using different titles. In Muslim polities such as Sulu and Cotabato, the paramount ruler was called a sultan. In Tagalog communities, the equivalent title was that of "lakan". In communities which historically had strong political or trade connections with Indianized polities in Indonesia and Malaysia, the paramount ruler was called a rajah. Among the Subanon people of the Zamboanga Peninsula, the most senior "thimuay" is referred to as the ""thimuay labi"", or as "sulotan" in more Islamized Subanon communities. In some other portions of the Visayas and Mindanao, there was no separate name for the most senior ruler, so the paramount ruler was simply called a "datu", although one datu was identifiable as the most senior.


title: Datu

text: The noble or aristocratic nature of datus and their relatives is asserted in folk origin myths, was widely acknowledged by foreigners who visited the Philippine archipelago, and is upheld by modern scholarship. Succession to the position of datu was often (although not always) hereditary, and datus derived their mandate to lead from their membership in an aristocratic class. Records of Chinese traders and Spanish colonizers describe datus or paramount datus as sovereign princes and principals. Travellers who came to the Philippine archipelago from kingdoms or empires such as Song and Ming dynasty China, or 16th Century Spain, even initially referred to datus or paramount datus as "kings", even though they later discovered that datus did not exercise absolute sovereignty over the members of their barangays.


title: Datu

text: Both now and in early Philippine history, Filipino worldview had a conception of the self or individual being deeply and holistically connected to a larger community, expressed in the language of Filipino psychology as "kapwa." This indigenous conception of self strongly defined the roles and obligations played by individuals within their society.


title: Datu

text: This differentiation of roles and obligations is also more broadly characteristic of Malayo-Polynesian and Austronesian cultures where, as Mulder explains:


title: Datu

text: This ""essential inequality of individuals and their mutual obligations to each other"" informed the reciprocal relationships (expressed in the Filipino value of "utang na loob") that defined the three-tiered social structure typical among early Philippine peoples.


title: Datu

text: These settlements were characterized by a three-tier social structure, which, while slightly different between different cultures and polities, generally included a slave class (alipin/oripun), a class of commoners (timawa), and at the apex, an aristocratic or "noble" class. The noble class was exclusive, and its members were not allowed to marry outside of the aristocracy. Only members of this cognatically defined social class could rise to the position of "datu".