title: North American English

text: A majority of North American English (for example, in contrast to British English) includes phonological features that concern consonants, such as rhoticity (full pronunciation of all sounds), conditioned T-glottalization (with "satin" pronounced , not ), T- and D-flapping (with "metal" and "medal" pronounced the same, as ), L-velarization (with "filling" pronounced , not ), as well as features that concern vowel sounds, such as various vowel mergers before (so that, "Mary", "marry", and "merry" are all commonly pronounced the same), raising of pre-voiceless (with "price" and "bright" using a higher vowel sound than "prize" and "bride"), the weak vowel merger (with "affected" and "effected" often pronounced the same), at least one of the vowel mergers (the – merger is completed among virtually all Americans and the – merger among nearly half, while both are completed among virtually all Canadians), and yod-dropping (with "tuesday" pronounced , not ). The last item is more advanced in American English than Canadian English.


title: Namora

text: Namora () is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. She is from Atlantis and is the daughter of an Atlantean father and a human mother. She is the cousin of Namor the Sub-Mariner.


title: Namora

text: Mabel Cadena portrays Namora in her live-action debut in the Marvel Cinematic Universe film "" (2022).


title: Namora

text: Namora first appeared in the 12-page comic story "The Coming of Namora!" published in "Marvel Mystery Comics" #82 (May 1947), pencilled by Ken Bald and inked by Syd Shores. Namora also featured on the cover drawn by Bob Powell. Her costume was designed by "Sub-Mariner" creator Bill Everett. Initially, she and Namor had no apparent familial relationship, and romantic interest was sometimes implied between the two.


title: Namora

text: She had her own comic book series, "Namora", which ran from August–December 1948. While this title lasted only three issues, she regularly appeared with Namor in "Marvel Mystery Comics" and also in "Sub-Mariner" until that series ended in 1955.


title: Namora

text: The character was not seen again for 16 years until she made a brief flashback appearance in the Silver Age "Sub-Mariner" series, in "Sub-Mariner" #33 (January 1971). Her death was established in "Sub-Mariner" #50 (June 1972), where her frozen body is shown to Namor, and her death is depicted in flashback in #51 (July 1972).


title: Namora

text: Over the next 30 years, Namora appeared in a number of flashbacks and alternate reality stories, including "What If?" #9 (June 1978), "The New Warriors Annual" #1 (1991), "What If?" #47 (March 1993), "The New Warriors" #44 (February 1994), "Avengers: Forever" #4-5 (March–April 1999), and "Marvel: The Lost Generation" #3-2 (December 2000-January 2001).


title: Namora

text: Namora eventually reappears, alive, in the "Agents of Atlas" series, in issues #1-6 (October 2006-March 2007). She also appears in "Incredible Hulk" #107-112 (August–December 2007), "Giant-Size Marvel Adventures: Avengers" #1 (September 2007), "World War Hulk" #2 (September 2007), "Spider-Man Family" #4 (October 2007), and "Incredible Hercules" #121-122 (November–December 2008).


title: Namora

text: Namora is a character that originated in the Golden Age of Comic Books. Her original name was Aquaria Nautica Neptunia, but she was nicknamed "Namora" in honor of her cousin Namor. Like Namor, she is a hybrid mutant with superhuman strength and the power of flight by using the wings on her ankles. When her father was killed by treasure-hunting surface-dwellers, she fully changed her name to Namora, the Atlantean term for "Avenging Daughter", as Namor means "Avenging Son". She was Namor's cousin (though not by blood), and became his companion for a period of several years.


title: Namora

text: Namora was ultimately shown to have been fatally poisoned by the Lemurian terrorist Llyra. She was survived by her clone, Namorita, whom she had passed off as her birth daughter because of Atlantian taboos against cloning. "" revealed that she had been a member of The Monster Hunters in 1956.


title: Namora

text: Some time later, the Agents of Atlas find a damaged coffin, which appears to contain the mummified corpse of Namora. Upon closer inspection, Marvel Boy disables a holographic display creating the corpse image, revealing a well-preserved, alive Namora inside the coffin. When awakened, Namora joins in a fight against underwater sea creatures and displays just how powerful she is, shown to be equal in power to her cousin Namor.


title: Namora

text: Jimmy Woo offers her a spot, and Namora joins the Agents of Atlas, where she leads Venus to recover all memories of her past life as a siren, almost driving her mad in the process. It is then revealed by the enhanced bliss inducing powers of the naiad that Namora's innermost desire is to sleep with her cousin Namor.


title: Namora

text: Eventually the team manages to reach the Yellow Claw, revealed as the mastermind behind the Atlas Foundation, and willing to give his leading role to Jimmy Woo. Woo accepts, and Namora, as the other Agents, are employed to travel the world in Marvel Boy's spaceship to shut down any rebellious cell still pursuing criminal objectives.


title: Namora

text: At some point in her career as an Agent of Atlas she takes an extended leave, or leaves the role altogether, to join Amadeus Cho's group during the "World War Hulk" event.


title: Namora

text: Angry over the death and subsequent vilification of her daughter at the onset of the superhero Civil War over government registration, Namora joins Amadeus Cho, Hercules and Angel to aid the Hulk. During the crisis, Hercules ends up holding the entire locality of Manhattan on his shoulders.


title: Namora

text: In the course of her membership in Cho's group, she shares a genuinely romantic kiss with Hercules. Some time later, following the Secret Invasion, Hercules and Amadeus Cho vacation near an Atlantean city, and she and Hercules have a romantic fling. This is interrupted by an Amazon attack. Namora aids Hercules in repelling the Amazons and rescuing Cho from their amorous and ultimately fatal attentions.


title: Namora

text: The Agents of Atlas decide to oppose Osborn's agenda by taking on the role of "supervillains", in order to form close ties to Osborn. After some time, the group becomes aware of Norman's Cabal to find out that a member of the group is none other than Namora's cousin, Namor. Upon finding this out, the Agents confront Namor for his involvement in the group. Initially at odds with each other for their recent decisions, Namora and Namor end up kissing and beginning a relationship. Namora contemplates staying with Namor until it is revealed that it was Atlantean elders that plotted for them to start a relationship and mate a long time ago as human/Atlantean hybrids are so powerful. Namor and Namora decide to part ways as they were unsure how much of their feelings for each other were genuine and how much was due to the secret plotting of the elders.


title: Namora

text: During "Infinity", Namora's Atlantean School is chosen as one of the institutions set to do battle in the new Contest of Champions. However, Atlantis is attacked and decimated by the forces of Thanos before the competition can begin. Namora sends a desperate plea for help to Hank Pym, but the kingdom is destroyed before action can be taken.


title: Namora

text: Namora possesses superhuman strength and can fly. She is nearly invulnerable as bullets and other missiles cannot penetrate her extremely tough skin. She can swim at superhuman speeds, breathe underwater, and is immune to the cold and pressures of the depths. She can also see better underwater than a normal human. Namora must periodically immerse herself in water to retain her powers and her health.


title: Namora

text: The second Namora first appeared in "Exiles" #46, and was created by Tony Bedard and Mizuki Sakakibara, and was associated with the multiversal travelers called the Exiles. She is an alternate-Earth counterpart of Namor the Sub-Mariner, rather than of Aquaria Nautica Neptunia, the Earth-616 Namora. She is a mutant with superhuman strength and the power of flight by using the ankle wings on her feet. Unlike the Marvel Universe Namor and Namora, she has the blue skin of most Atlanteans.


title: Namora

text: In Namora's universe, she became an early ally of Charles Xavier who convinced her to not attack the surface world. She would later do so, after anti-mutant hysteria led to the imprisonment of most mutants. Namora killed all of her Earth's superheroes, having the most difficulty with the Fantastic Four, and she conquered the world and ruled it for decades, before becoming 'unhinged' in time and forced to join the Exiles, much to her chagrin. Having a haughty attitude, she acted like she was superior to the other members. Still, she has shown that she did care for them, as evidenced when she thought that Hyperion had killed Morph. She lashed out at Hyperion, breaking his neck. However, it was for naught. Hyperion recovered quickly and blasted Namora with his "flash vision", killing her. The Exiles later sent her body back to her home reality (Earth-2189) for burial.


title: Namora

text: Namora appeared in the Marvel Mangaverse series. In the story, "Eternity Twilight", Namora rescued Bruce Banner, who suffered temporary amnesia and have fallen for him not before Banner regained his memory involving the Hulk (a Godzilla-like beast accidentally summoned by Banner). Afterwards, Banner and Namora went back to the surface and helps Earth's heroes battle not only the Hulk, but also the demon-god Dormammu.


title: Namora

text: A teenaged version of Namora appears as one of the main protagonists in the all-ages "Marvel Her-oes" series, which was written by Grace Randolph. She attends the same high school as Jennifer Walters and Janet van Dyne, and hides her Atlantean heritage by claiming to be an exchange student from Greece under the name of "Namora Aquarius".


title: Namora

text: During the "Ultimatum" storyline, Thing, Invisible Woman, and Dr. Arthur Molekevic fight Doctor Dorcas alongside Namora and a Tiger Shark in Atlantis and defeat him.


title: Kumkum – Ek Pyara Sa Bandhan

text: Kumkum – Ek Pyara Sa Bandhan (; A lovely bond) is an Indian television series that aired on Star Plus from 15 July 2002 to 13 March 2009 in the afternoon slot. Hussain Kuwajerwala and Juhi Parmar played the lead roles Sumeet and Kumkum. It was produced under the company BAG films. The show is currently being reaired on Star Plus and Utsav Plus at 2:30 pm.


title: Kumkum – Ek Pyara Sa Bandhan

text: The soap opera tells the tale of the Wadhwa family and its daughter-in-law, Kumkum. She is happily married to Jatin. However, he dies of a brain tumor while she is expecting their first child. The Wadhwas decide to get their young daughter-in-law remarried and find an eligible young man named Vishal. However, when obstacles arise leading and the marriage is called off on the last day, Jatin's younger brother Sumeet impulsively marries Kumkum in order to save her from societal disgrace. Sumeet is plagued by guilt for marrying Kumkum against her will, but she eventually falls in deep love with him while trying to expose Renuka (Sumeet's ex-girlfriend). The crux of the story evolves as a blossoming romance between Sumeet and Kumkum leads them to realise that they are soulmates and how Kumkum being the ideal daughter-in-law of the Wadhwa family protects Sumeet's family despite the adverse circumstances facing them. Manik (an impostor bearing Jatin's face) creates havoc in their lives, but Kumkum exposes his fake identity and unites with Sumeet. Kumkum gives birth to Sharman and Aashka (Sumeet and Kumkum's progeny).


title: Kumkum – Ek Pyara Sa Bandhan

text: Sumeet and Kumkum's story continues with their grown-up kids Dhruv, Sharman and Aashka and Kumkum's role of establishing harmony in the Wadhwa family. Dhruv's wife Antara plans an elaborate ruse to usurp the Wadhwa property and house to herself, but her plans are foiled after Sumeet and Kumkum unveil her truth to Dhruv. Sharman who is in deep love with Neeti gets engaged to her, but when Dhruv refuses to accept Siya on the day of the wedding owing to his feelings for Antara, Sharman impulsively marries Siya. Siya is disappointed and vents her frustration at the Wadhwa family, but she eventually forgives Sharman and confesses her love for him and Sumeet-Kumkum are finally happy to see the Wadhwa family happily settled. Unfortunately both Kumkum and Sumeet die before they complete a ritual that would enable them to be soulmates by Pulkit (Kumkum's ex-stalker) who conspires to kill Sumeet after trailing Kumkum secretly for several days. The shot misses Sumeet, but Kumkum is shot dead and Sumeet punishes Pulkit but still kills himself, unable to bear the separation.


title: Kumkum – Ek Pyara Sa Bandhan

text: Sumeet and Kumkum are reborn as prophesied again without any memory of their past life. In the new life Sumeet and Kumkum initially hate each other, but fall in deep love all over again owing to unusual circumstances, prompting them to be a false husband and wife in front of their family members. When they finally realise their love for each other, they are separated due to a misunderstanding between the Raichand and Mishra families and later by a series of new obstacles but eventually reunite in the end. Sumeet marries Kumkum and Harshvardhan and Rajeshwari Wadhwa accompany them to the sacred pilgrimage site where their lives ended in the previous birth. The show ends with memories of the idealistic couple who demonstrated that love finds a way back and is undying and immortal. Sumeet and Kumkum complete the sacred ritual at this place, finally uniting together forever.


title: Kumkum – Ek Pyara Sa Bandhan

text: After 780 episodes, on 10 April 2006, the storyline of the series took a leap of 20 years. Then it took another leap of 20 years in 2008 where the leads were shown reincarnated with a new family.


title: Kumkum – Ek Pyara Sa Bandhan

text: In February 2009, the channel informed the production house to terminate the series by 13 March 2009. As per the channel's instructions the series ended on that day.


title: Kumkum – Ek Pyara Sa Bandhan

text: It received the highest ratings in the afternoon slot and is regarded as one of the longest ran Indian soap during afternoons.


title: Kumkum – Ek Pyara Sa Bandhan

text: After a time change from 3:30 pm to 1:00pm (IST) in November 2002, it started receiving ratings ranging 6 to 7 TVR in March 2003, becoming the most viewed afternoon show, overcoming the other highest rated afternoon shows like "Bhabhi" and "Shagun". On 25 March 2004, it received the highest ever afternoon rating of 13.12 TVR, overtaking some prime time soaps.


title: RTFM

text: RTFM is an initialism and internet slang for the expression "read the fucking manual" – typically used to reply to a basic question where the answer is easily found in the documentation, user guide, owner's manual, man page, online help, internet forum, software documentation or FAQ.


title: RTFM

text: Usage is variously viewed as a pointed reminder of etiquette to try to find a solution before posting to a mass forum or email alias; helping a noob to improve themselves; as a useless response; or as a hostile and elitist response. Polite usages would mention where one has looked when asking a question, and to provide an exact location or link where exactly to RTFM.


title: RTFM

text: In expurgated texts, substitutions such as "read the frickn' manual", "read the factory manual", "read the field manual", "read the flaming manual", "read the fine manual", "read the friendly manual", "read the [pause] manual" or similar variants are used.


title: RTFM

text: If there is no appropriate content in the manual but the answer is frequently seen in the forum, a similar response might be to Lurk moar, meaning to observe the forum for a time before asking questions.


title: Clan Stewart

text: Clan Stewart (Gaelic: "Stiùbhart") is a Scottish Highland and Lowland clan. The clan is recognised by Court of the Lord Lyon; however, it does not have a Clan Chief recognised by the Lord Lyon King of Arms. Because the clan has no chief it can be considered an armigerous clan; however, the Earls of Galloway are now considered to be the principal branch of this clan, and the crest and motto of The Earls of Galloway's arms are used in the Clan Stewart crest badge. The Court of the Lord Lyon recognises two other Stewart/Stuart clans, Clan Stuart of Bute and Clan Stewart of Appin. Clan Stuart of Bute is the only one of the three clans at present which has a recognised chief.


title: Clan Stewart

text: The Stewarts who became monarchs of Scotland were descended from a family who were seneschals (stewards) of Dol in Brittany, France. After the Norman conquest of England, the Stewarts acquired estates in England as the FitzAlan family, also Earls of Arundel. Walter Flaad or Walter fitz Alan the steward came to Scotland when David I of Scotland claimed his throne. It is from their office as stewards that the surname "Stewart" came. Walter was created High Steward of Scotland and was granted large estates in Renfrewshire and East Lothian. Walter was one of the commanders of the royal army which defeated Somerled of the Isles (ancestor of Clan Donald) at the Battle of Renfrew in 1164. (See: Walter fitz Alan).


title: Clan Stewart

text: Alexander Stewart, 4th High Steward of Scotland, also known as Alexander of Dundonald Castle, commanded the Scottish army at the Battle of Largs in 1263 against Viking invaders.


title: Clan Stewart

text: During the Wars of Scottish Independence, James Stewart, 5th High Steward of Scotland swore fealty to Edward I of England. However, he later sided with Robert the Bruce and William Wallace in the struggle for Scottish independence.


title: Clan Stewart

text: Walter Stewart, 6th High Steward of Scotland married Marjory, daughter of king Robert the Bruce. When Robert's son, David II of Scotland died, he was succeeded by Walter Stewart's son, Robert II of Scotland. King Robert II had many sons; the eldest, John, succeeded to the throne of Scotland as Robert III of Scotland. The royal line of male Stewarts was uninterrupted until the reign of Mary, Queen of Scots. As a family the Stewarts (Stuarts) held the throne of Scotland and later England until the death of Anne, Queen of Great Britain in 1714.


title: Clan Stewart

text: The Dukedom of Albany is a peerage title that was bestowed on some younger sons in the Scottish and later the British royal family, particularly in the House of Stuart. Robert II's third son was Robert Stewart, 1st Duke of Albany, who was Regent of Scotland during part of the reigns of his father, brother, and nephew James I of Scotland. Robert II's fourth son was Alexander Stewart, Earl of Buchan, who was famed as the "Wolf of Badenoch" and was responsible for the destruction of Elgin Cathedral.


title: Clan Stewart

text: When James I of Scotland came of age, he curbed the power of his cousins, the Albany Stewarts. He beheaded Murdoch Stewart, 2nd Duke of Albany, eldest son of the former regent Robert Stewart. Two of Murdoch's sons, Walter and Alexander (Alasdair), were both executed as well.


title: Clan Stewart

text: As the Chief of the Stewarts was also the occupant of the throne, the relationship between the various branches or members of the family differed from the usual ties between clansmen and their Chief. The family did however have their own badge and tartan to distinguish them. Apart from the royal house of Stewart, the three main branches of the clan that settled in the Scottish Highlands during the 14th and 15th centuries were the Stewarts of Appin, Stewarts of Atholl and Stewarts of Balquhidder. Today the Earls of Galloway are considered the senior line of the Clan Stewart.


title: Clan Stewart

text: The Stewarts of Appin descend from Sir John Stewart of Bonkyll, son of Alexander Stewart, 4th High Steward of Scotland. Sir John's younger son, James Stewart, was killed in 1333 at the Battle of Halidon Hill. His grandson married the heiress of the Lord of Lorne (chief of Clan MacDougall). He was the first Stewart Lord of Lorne. The Stewarts of Appin supported the royalist cause during the Civil War of the 17th century and also supported the deposed Stuart monarchs during the Jacobite rising of 1715 and Jacobite rising of 1745.


title: Clan Stewart

text: The Stewarts of Atholl are descended from a son of Alexander Stewart, Earl of Buchan, the "Wolf of Badenoch". James Stewart built a strong castle at Garth where he settled at the end of the 14th century. Queen Joanna, widow of James I of Scotland married the "Black Knight of Lorne" who was descended from the fourth High Steward. Their son was John Stewart of Balveny who was granted the Earldom of Atholl by his half-brother, James II of Scotland. He supported his brother, commanding the royal forces that opposed the rebellion by the Lord of the Isles. The fifth Stewart Earl of Atholl died with no male issue and his daughter married William Murray, second Earl of Tullibardine, who succeeded as Earl of Atholl. Many Stewarts continued to live in the Atholl area with many claiming descent from the Wolf of Badenoch. They were mainly transferred by allegiance to the Murray Earls of Atholl and were known as "Athollmen". This is maintained today with the Atholl Highlanders, Europe's only legal private army. General David Stewart of Garth, an Athollman, was an officer in the Black Watch regiment and his book, "Sketches of the Highlanders and Highland Regiments", popularized his homeland in Victorian England.


title: Clan Stewart

text: James Stewart of Sticks and Ballechin (d. 1523), illegitimate son of James II, King of Scotland, was the ancestor of several other Stewart families in Atholl, including the Stewarts of Arnagang, Ballechin, Innervack, Killichassie, the later Kynachins, Loch of Clunie, and Stewartfield.


title: Clan Stewart

text: Stewarts came to Balqhidder in about 1490, when William Stewart, grandson of the only son of the Duke of Albany to escape the persecution of James I, was appointed ballie of the crown lands of Balquhidder.


title: Clan Stewart

text: The chiefs of the Clan Stuart of Bute are descended from Sir John Stewart, illegitimate son of Robert Stewart who reigned as Robert II of Scotland by Moira Leitch (according to tradition).


title: Clan Stewart

text: Earl Castle Stewart, in the County Tyrone, is a title in the Peerage of Ireland. It was created in 1800 for Andrew Thomas Stewart, 9th Baron Castle Stuart.


title: Clan Stewart

text: The Earls Castle Stewart claim to be the head representatives in the pure male line of the Scottish Royal House of Stuart. They are directly descended from Sir Walter Stewart (died 1425), Keeper of Dumbarton Castle, younger son of Murdoch Stewart, 2nd Duke of Albany, son of Robert Stewart, 1st Duke of Albany, younger son of King Robert II of Scotland.


title: Clan Stewart

text: The usual tartan for the Stewarts or Stuarts is a red coloured pattern known as the Royal Stuart Tartan. According to historian Henry James Lee the effect of a large body of men crossing a hill in the red Stuart tartan, contrasting with the dark coloured heath has been described "as if the hill were on fire".


title: Amaurosis fugax

text: Amaurosis fugax (Greek "amaurosis" meaning "darkening", "dark", or "obscure", Latin "fugax" meaning "fleeting") is a painless temporary loss of vision in one or both eyes.


title: Amaurosis fugax

text: The experience of amaurosis fugax is classically described as a temporary loss of vision in one or both eyes that appears as a "black curtain coming down vertically into the field of vision in one eye;" however, this altitudinal visual loss is relatively uncommon. In one study, only 23.8 percent of patients with transient monocular vision loss experienced the classic "curtain" or "shade" descending over their vision. Other descriptions of this experience include a monocular blindness, dimming, fogging, or blurring. Total or sectorial vision loss typically lasts only a few seconds, but may last minutes or even hours. Duration depends on the cause of the vision loss. Obscured vision due to papilledema may last only seconds, while a severely atherosclerotic carotid artery may be associated with a duration of one to ten minutes. Certainly, additional symptoms may be present with the amaurosis fugax, and those findings will depend on the cause of the transient monocular vision loss.


title: Amaurosis fugax

text: Prior to 1990, amaurosis fugax could, "clinically, be divided into four identifiable symptom complexes, each with its underlying pathoetiology: embolic, hypoperfusion, angiospasm, and unknown". In 1990, the causes of amaurosis fugax were better refined by the Amaurosis Fugax Study Group, which has defined five distinct classes of transient monocular blindness based on their supposed cause: embolic, hemodynamic, ocular, neurologic, and idiopathic (or "no cause identified"). Concerning the pathology underlying these causes (except idiopathic), "some of the more frequent causes include atheromatous disease of the internal carotid or ophthalmic artery, vasospasm, optic neuropathies, giant cell arteritis, angle-closure glaucoma, increased intracranial pressure, orbital compressive disease, a steal phenomenon, and blood hyperviscosity or hypercoagulability."


title: Amaurosis fugax

text: With respect to embolic and hemodynamic causes, this transient monocular visual loss ultimately occurs due to a temporary reduction in retinal artery, ophthalmic artery, or ciliary artery blood flow, leading to a decrease in retinal circulation which, in turn, causes retinal hypoxia. While, most commonly, emboli causing amaurosis fugax are described as coming from an atherosclerotic carotid artery, any emboli arising from vasculature preceding the retinal artery, ophthalmic artery, or ciliary arteries may cause this transient monocular blindness.


title: Amaurosis fugax

text: Despite the temporary nature of the vision loss, those experiencing amaurosis fugax are usually advised to consult a physician immediately as it is a symptom that may herald serious vascular events, including stroke. Restated, "because of the brief interval between the transient event and a stroke or blindness from temporal arteritis, the workup for transient monocular blindness should be undertaken without delay." If the patient has no history of giant cell arteritis, the probability of vision preservation is high; however, the chance of a stroke reaches that for a hemispheric TIA. Therefore, investigation of cardiac disease is justified.


title: Amaurosis fugax

text: A diagnostic evaluation should begin with the patient's history, followed by a physical exam, with particular importance being paid to the ophthalmic examination with regards to signs of ocular ischemia. When investigating amaurosis fugax, an ophthalmologic consultation is absolutely warranted if available. Several concomitant laboratory tests should also be ordered to investigate some of the more common, systemic causes listed above, including a complete blood count, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, lipid panel, and blood glucose level. If a particular cause is suspected based on the history and physical, additional relevant labs should be ordered.


title: Amaurosis fugax

text: If laboratory tests are abnormal, a systemic disease process is likely, and, if the ophthalmologic examination is abnormal, ocular disease is likely. However, in the event that both of these routes of investigation yield normal findings or an inadequate explanation, noninvasive duplex ultrasound studies are recommended to identify carotid artery disease. Most episodes of amaurosis fugax are the result of stenosis of the ipsilateral carotid artery. With that being the case, researchers investigated how best to evaluate these episodes of vision loss, and concluded that for patients ranging from 36 to 74 years old, "...carotid artery duplex scanning should be performed...as this investigation is more likely to provide useful information than an extensive cardiac screening (ECG, Holter 24-hour monitoring, and precordial echocardiography)." Additionally, concomitant head CT or MRI imaging is also recommended to investigate the presence of a "clinically silent cerebral embolism."


title: Amaurosis fugax

text: If the results of the ultrasound and intracranial imaging are normal, "renewed diagnostic efforts may be made," during which fluorescein angiography is an appropriate consideration. However, carotid angiography is not advisable in the presence of a normal ultrasound and CT.


title: Amaurosis fugax

text: Fleeting loss of vision does not in itself require any treatment, but it may indicate an underlying condition, sometimes serious, that must be treated. If the diagnostic workup reveals a systemic disease process, directed therapies to treat the underlying cause are required. If the amaurosis fugax is caused by an atherosclerotic lesion, use of aspirin as an anticoagulant is indicated, and a carotid endarterectomy considered based on the location and grade of the stenosis. Generally, if the carotid artery is still patent, the greater the stenosis, the greater the indication for endarterectomy. "Amaurosis fugax appears to be a particularly favorable indication for carotid endarterectomy. Left untreated, this event carries a high risk of stroke; after carotid endarterectomy, which has a low operative risk, there is a very low postoperative stroke rate." However, the rate of subsequent stroke after amaurosis is significantly less than after a hemispheric TIA, therefore there remains debate as to the precise indications for which a carotid endarterectomy should be performed. If the full diagnostic workup is completely normal, patient observation is recommended.


title: Chhatrasal

text: Chhatrasal Bundela (4 May 1649 – 20 December 1731) was an Indian warrior and ruler from the Bundela Rajput clan, who fought against the Mughal Empire, and established his own kingdom in Bundelkhand during the 17th-18th centuries.


title: Chhatrasal

text: Chhatrasal was born at Kachar Kachnai in Tikamgarh, on 4 May 1649, to Champat Rai and Sarandha. He was a descendant of Rudra Pratap Singh of Orchha.


title: Chhatrasal

text: Chhatrasal was 12 when his father Champat Rai of Mahoba was killed by the Mughals during the reign of Aurangzeb. Inspired by Chhatrapati Shivaji's ideals he travelled to Maharashtra and sought guidance from him. Chhatrasal raised the banner of revolt against the Mughals in Bundelkhand at the age of 22, with an army of 5 horsemen and 25 swordsmen, in 1671.


title: Chhatrasal

text: Chhatrasal declared independence from Mughals in the 1720s and was able to resist the Mughals until he was attacked by Muhammad Khan Bangash in December 1728. Chhatrasal was 79 years old when he led his army against Bangash, after a severe battle Chhatrasal was defeated and was forced to retreat to his fort at Jaitpur. The Mughals besieged him and conquered most of his territories. Chhatrasal made several attempts to ask the Baji Rao I, the Peshwa of Maratha Empire, for help. However, the Peshwa was busy and could not help Chhatrasal until March 1729. In a letter sent to Baji rao, Chhatrasal wrote: ""Know you Bajirao! That I am in the same plight in which the famous elephant was when caught by the crocodile. My valiant race is on the point of extinction. Come and save my honour"". Peshwa Baji rao I personally led his army towards Bundelkhand and attacked several Mughal outposts, the Mughal supplies were completely cut off by the swift cavalry of the Peshwa in the Battle of Malwa. Bangash, who was surprised by the sudden involvement of the Marathas, sent several letters to the Mughal emperor for aid, however upon being denied any help he started negotiations with Chhatrasal and Bajirao. Bangash was allowed to retreat on the condition that he never returns or shows aggression towards Bundelkhand. Chhatrasal rewarded the peshwa with large tracts of lands and diamond mines in Bundelkhand which helped the Marathas to gain access to Central and North India.


title: Chhatrasal

text: Peshwa Baji Rao's second wife Mastani was Chhatrasal's daughter born from his concubine Ruhani Begum.


title: Chhatrasal

text: Chhatrasal was a patron of literature, and his court housed several noted poets. His eulogies written by Kavi Bhushan, Lal Kavi, Bakhshi Hansaraj and other court poets helped him gain lasting fame.


title: Chhatrasal

text: He also contributed in construction of temples of Kundalpur, a jain pilgrim centre in Madhya Pradesh.


title: Chhatrasal

text: The Chhatarpur town and its eponymous district in Madhya Pradesh are named after Chhatrasal. Several places in Chhatarpur, including the Maharaja Chhatrasal Museum, Maharaja Chhatrasal Station Chhatarpur railway station (a railway station in Chhatarpur), are named after him. The Chhatrasal Stadium in Delhi is also named after the Maharaja Chhatrasal.


title: RT UK

text: RT UK, also known as Russia Today, was a free-to-air television news channel based in the United Kingdom. It was part of the RT network, a Russian state-controlled international television network funded by the federal tax budget of the Russian government. The channel's head was Nikolay Bogachikhin. Launched in 2014, it ran live broadcasts for seven years and ceased broadcasting from London in July 2021.


title: RT UK

text: RT UK served as the home and production base of RT's UK-based programmes. The channel's studios were located in Millbank Tower. Prior to its closure, the channel offered four hours of its own programming per day, airing RT UK News Monday through Friday at 7 pm, 8 pm, 9 pm and 10 pm. The RT UK News anchors were Bill Dod and Kate Partridge. RT International now broadcasts in its place, though the channel is still available online through RT's websites and social media.


title: RT UK

text: The UK media regulator Ofcom has repeatedly found RT to have breached its rules on impartiality and on one occasion found it had broadcast "materially misleading" content. On 18 March 2022, Ofcom cancelled RT's UK broadcasting licence "with immediate effect" after concluding the outlet was not "fit and proper" or a "responsible broadcaster".


title: RT UK

text: RT UK was launched on 30 October 2014 and closed for TV broadcasting on 30 July 2021. The channel's coverage focused on the United Kingdom. RT presenter Afshin Rattansi stated that the channel's position was "to challenge dominant power structures in Britain by broadcasting live and original programming with a progressive UK focus", and it was "not subject to the metropolitan elite's London bias" since its "news will come from right across the country".


title: RT UK

text: Richard Sambrook, former director of global news at the BBC and director of the Centre of Journalism at Cardiff University was quoted as saying "It's a surprising move to focus resources on the UK. It's not a commercial proposition, therefore the main purpose must be to gain influence. It's about soft power for the Kremlin". In a pre-launch statement, RT correspondent Polly Boiko said "So much is made of how RT is funded. It's been cast as the Big Bad Wolf of the news media landscape," and "I think many of us... see the launch of RT UK as an opportunity to shake off the accusations levelled at the channel".


title: RT UK

text: Ahead of the launch of its UK-specific broadcasts in 2014, RT said that its advertisements promoting the channel had been rejected by ad agencies because it was felt they would violate UK laws on political advertising. The network posted versions of the adverts on billboards and its website with the word "redacted" on them in protest. The UK Advertising Standards Authority said it had not banned the ads or even received any complaint about them.


title: RT UK

text: The UK broadcast regulator Ofcom has repeatedly reprimanded the international version of RT for its failure to remain impartial. In July 2014, London-based RT International correspondent Sara Firth resigned, after five years with the channel, calling its coverage of the MH17 disaster, the "straw that broke the camel's back". Shortly after RT UK was launched, Ofcom said sanctions would be imposed if further breaches of the broadcasting code occurred.


title: RT UK

text: In September 2015, Ofcom found RT in breach of the impartiality rules in its coverage of events in Ukraine and Syria. It also upheld the complaint by the BBC that allegations made in an episode of "The Truthseeker" that a BBC "Panorama" film, "Saving Syria's Children", had faked parts of a report on a chemical weapon attack in Syria were "materially misleading". Another episode of "The Truthseeker", named "Genocide of Eastern Ukraine", stated that the Ukrainian government was deliberately bombing civilians, had murdered and tortured journalists, and had crucified babies. Ukrainian army forces were accused of "ethnic cleansing" and were compared to Nazis during World War Two. The only response to these allegations shown in the broadcast was a caption reading, "Kiev claims it is not committing genocide, denies casualty reports", which appeared on screen for six seconds. According to Ofcom, the broadcast had "little or no counterbalance or objectivity". A spokesperson for the media regulator said "Ofcom found that RT broadcast content that was either materially misleading or not duly impartial. These are significant failings and we are therefore requiring RT to broadcast two clear statements on our decision which correct these failures".


title: RT UK

text: In December 2018, Ofcom ruled that seven programmes broadcast by RT between 17 March and 26 April of that year, in the wake of the Salisbury nerve agent attacks, had breached the UK's impartiality rules. The BBC reported that RT was "extremely disappointed by Ofcom's conclusions". RT was fined £200,000 but kept its licence to broadcast in the UK.


title: RT UK

text: In October 2016, RT published a letter sent to "Russia Today TV UK Ltd" by NatWest bank informing the company that it intended to cease the banking facilities provided to the company. RT's editor in Moscow, Margarita Simonyan, tweeted in Russian "They closed our accounts in Britain. All of them. 'Decision not to be discussed'. Long live freedom of speech!" Russian MPs, the foreign ministry, and human rights officials condemned the move.


title: RT UK

text: The Russian embassy in London described the move as an "openly political decision". The British government, which owned the majority of shares in the group since the 2008 financial crisis, denied responsibility for the bank's actions. NatWest subsequently said that it had written to one of RT's suppliers, not to the station itself, and that it would review the decision. RT said the supplier provided all RT services in the UK.


title: RT UK

text: Oliver Kamm wrote in "The Times" in October 2016: "For purportedly expert analysis of world events, RT turns to an assortment of racists, neo-Nazis, UFO buffs, 9/11 conspiracy theorists and obscure fantasists. Admittedly it's also been commended for balance and fairness – by the British National Party". He continued: "This is not a normal news outlet but a conspiracy of fraudsters in the service of a murderous autocracy". In "The Observer", Nick Cohen wrote in November 2014 that the channel "feeds the huge western audience that wants to believe that human rights are a sham and democracy a fix. Believe that and you will ask: what right have we to criticise Putin? At least he is honest in his way".


title: RT UK

text: In late February 2022, following Russia's invasion of Ukraine, a number of British journalists based in RT's offices in Moscow and at RT UK's offices in London resigned from the network in response to its coverage of the incident. Former First Minister of Scotland Alex Salmond suspended his RT talk show, "The Alex Salmond Show", on 24 February after receiving public criticism following the invasion. According to "The Times", four journalists "publicly announced their resignation, while others are said to have quietly left RT's London bureau". YouTube banned access to all RT and Sputnik channels on the platform from Europe and Britain.


title: RT UK

text: On 2 March 2022, RT UK's SD Freeview channel 234 went off the air in the afternoon, with RT HD on Freeview channel 113 following an hour later at about 4:45pm. Both channels were replaced by a placeholder message saying that the service was unavailable. On the same day, Sky removed channel 511, which hosted RT, due to the ongoing situation in Ukraine.


title: RT UK

text: In 2022, following the invasion of Ukraine by Russia, Ofcom looked into whether RT had breached impartiality rules regarding its coverage of the conflict. Although the European Union proposed banning the channel across all its member states, this was opposed by Liz Truss, then British foreign secretary, who feared it may lead to an official ban on the BBC and other British news outlets in Russia.


title: RT UK

text: Ofcom revoked RT's UK broadcasting licence "with immediate effect" on 18 March 2022 after concluding the outlet was not "fit and proper" or a "responsible broadcaster". In particular, Ofcom said that Russian laws against disinformation concerning the Russian invasion of Ukraine meant that RT could not report the invasion responsibly. At the time of the ruling, Ofcom had 29 open investigations regarding RT's coverage of the invasion. The ruling only concerned the right to broadcast in the UK; RT's ability to broadcast online was not affected. Kremlin spokesperson Dmitry Peskov criticised the ban, saying it was "continuing the anti-Russian madness that is happening in America and Europe".


title: Plymouth Rock chicken

text: The Plymouth Rock is an American breed of domestic chicken. It was first seen in Massachusetts in the nineteenth century, and for much of the early twentieth century was the most widely kept chicken breed in the United States. It is a dual-purpose chicken, raised both for its meat and for its brown eggs. It is resistant to cold, easy to manage, and a good sitter.


title: Plymouth Rock chicken

text: The Plymouth Rock was first shown in Boston in 1849, but was then not seen for another twenty years. In 1869, in Worcester, Massachusetts, one D.A. Upham cross-bred some Black Java hens with a cock with barred plumage and a single comb; he selectively bred for barred plumage and clean (featherless) legs. His birds were shown in Worcester in 1869; the modern Plymouth Rock is thought to derive from them. Other people have been associated with the development of the Plymouth Rock, as have other chicken breeds including the Brahma, the Cochin (both white and buff), the Dominique, and the White-faced Black Spanish. According to the Livestock Conservancy, it originated from cross-breeding of Java birds with single-combed Dominiques; or, based on genomic analysis, principally from the Dominique, with substantial contribution from the Java and Cochin and some input from other breeds.


title: Plymouth Rock chicken

text: The Plymouth Rock was included in the first edition of the "American Standard of Perfection" of the new American Poultry Association in 1874. The barred plumage pattern was the original one; other colors were later added.


title: Plymouth Rock chicken

text: Because of its many good qualities – tasty meat, good egg production, resistance to cold, early feathering, easy management, good sitting – the Plymouth Rock became the most widespread chicken breed in the United States until the time of World War II. With the advent of industrial chicken farming, it was much used in the development of broiler hybrids, but began to fall in popularity as a domestic fowl.


title: Plymouth Rock chicken

text: The Plymouth Rock is listed by the Livestock Conservancy as "recovering", meaning that there are at least 2500 new registrations per year. Worldwide, numbers for the Plymouth Rock are reported at almost 33,000; about 24,000 are reported for the Barred Plymouth Rock, and over 970,000 for the White variety.


title: Plymouth Rock chicken

text: The Plymouth Rock has a single comb with five points; the comb, wattles and ear-lobes are bright red. The legs are yellow and unfeathered. The beak is yellow or horn-colored. The back is long and broad, and the breast fairly deep.


title: Plymouth Rock chicken

text: In the United States, seven color varieties of the Plymouth Rock are recognized: barred, blue, buff, Columbian, partridge, silver-penciled and white. Ten plumage varieties are listed by the Entente Européenne d’Aviculture et de Cuniculture, of which five – barred, black, buff, Columbian and white – are recognized by the Poultry Club of Great Britain. In Australia, the barred variant is split into two separate colors, dark barred and light barred.


title: Plymouth Rock chicken

text: The Plymouth Rock is a dual-purpose breed, and is kept both for its meat and for its large brown eggs, of which it lays about 200 per year. The eggs weigh about .


title: Plymouth Rock chicken

text: In industrial agriculture, crosses of suitable strains of white Plymouth Rock with industrial strains of white Cornish constitute the principal stock of American broiler production.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: Rape is a type of sexual assault initiated by one or more persons against another person without that person's consent. The act may be carried out by physical force, under threat or manipulation, by impersonation, or with a person who is incapable of giving valid consent.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: Definitions of "rape" vary, but they generally require some degree of sexual penetration without consent. The term "consent" varies by law as well. Minors, for example, are often considered too young to consent to sexual relations with older persons (see statutory rape and age of consent). Consent is also considered invalid if obtained under duress, or from a person who does not have the ability to understand the nature of the act, due to factors such as young age, mental disability, or substance intoxication.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: Many jurisdictions, such as Canada and several US and Australian states, no longer have a traditional common law offence of rape, which always required that sexual penetration had occurred. Some of these jurisdictions instead have created new statutory offences, such as sexual assault or criminal sexual conduct, which criminalise sexual contact without consent, and without any requirement that sexual intercourse occurred.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: Depending on the jurisdiction, rape may be characterized as a sexual offence or an offence against the person.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: Rape may also be characterized as a form of aggravated assault or battery, or both, indecent assault or sexual assault or battery, or both.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: To sustain a conviction, rape might require proof that the defendant had sexual penetration with another person. Depending on the jurisdiction, the actus reus of rape may consist of "having carnal knowledge of" a woman, or "having sexual intercourse with" a woman (including a girl) specifically, or either a woman or a man (including a girl or a boy) generally, or engaging in sexual intercourse with a person (which term includes an intersex person who might arguably be neither a woman nor a man) or having "sexual connection" with a person affected by penile penetration of that person's genitalia, or penile penetration of the vagina, anus or mouth (these terms construed as including surgically constructed organs) of a person.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: In "Prosecutor v. Anto Furundžija", the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia included fellatio in the definition of rape, because [para 183]: "The Trial Chamber holds that the forced penetration of the mouth by the male sexual organ constitutes a most humiliating and degrading attack upon human dignity. The essence of the whole corpus of international humanitarian law as well as human rights law lies in the protection of the human dignity of every person, whatever his or her gender".


title: Laws regarding rape

text: Countries around the world differ in how they deal with the mens rea element in the law regarding rape, (i.e. the belief of the accused that the victim is not consenting or might not be consenting), and in how they place the onus of proof with regard to belief of consent.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: For example, under the Sexual Offences Act 2003, the belief must be "reasonable" and "Whether a belief is reasonable is to be determined having regard to all the circumstances, including any steps A has taken to ascertain whether B consents".


title: Laws regarding rape

text: In some jurisdictions the mens rea is quite complex, such as in New South Wales, where the law reads:


title: Laws regarding rape

text: The Explanatory Report of the Istanbul Convention, states at para 189: "The interpretation of the word "intentionally" is left to domestic law, but the requirement for intentional conduct relates to all the elements of the offence". [in regard to Article 36 of the convention – Sexual violence, including rape].


title: Laws regarding rape

text: Rape has been defined so as to require proof that the sexual act in question was done without the victim's consent, or so as to require proof that it was done either without their consent or, alternatively, against their will.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: There is not always a requirement that the victim did not consent. In the England and Wales, section 5 of the Sexual Offences Act 2003 creates the offence of "rape of a child under 13" and contains no reference to consent. After describing the sexual act the offence prohibits, the explanatory notes to the Act say "whether or not the child consented to this act is irrelevant".


title: Laws regarding rape

text: In M.C. v. Bulgaria, the European Court of Human Rights ruled that the victim does not necessarily have to resist physically for the crime of rape to be committed [para 166]:


title: Laws regarding rape

text: Some circumstances, such as where the victim is kidnapped or in detention, or under conditions of war or genocide, may be viewed as so coercive, that they presume non-consent altogether; for example in "ICTY, The Prosecutor v. Kunarac, Kovac and Vukovic", it was ruled, in regard to the rape during the Bosnian War, where women were kept in detention centers, under extremely harsh conditions, and were selected for sex by soldiers and policemen, that [para 132]: "Such detentions amount to circumstances that were so coercive as to negate any possibility of consent".


title: Laws regarding rape

text: The issue arises in law as who can legally consent, for example with regard to persons who suffer from mental or physical disability. Although laws differ by jurisdiction, emerging international standards suggest that a person's mental or physical disability, should not, "in and of itself", render the sexual interaction illegal, but rather "the exploitation or abuse" of such disability by the perpetrator should do so: in the European Union, the "Directive 2011/93/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 December 2011" reads (with regard to the determination of legal consent of a child who is above the age of consent): "(10) Disability, by itself, does not automatically constitute an impossibility to consent to sexual relations. However, the abuse of the existence of such a disability in order to engage in sexual activities with a child should be criminalised".


title: Laws regarding rape

text: From the second part of the 20th century onwards, the crime of rape has undergone major changes in definition in many countries, especially in Western countries. It has evolved from its narrow traditional definition of forced penetration of a vagina by a penis, outside of marriage, to a broader definition, which includes forced sex in marriage (marital rape), and may also include other sexual acts (such as anal or oral sexual penetration); the latter were traditionally dealt with under sodomy laws. This redefinition of rape had the effect of defining male rape. There have also been changes in the legal definition of consent/coercion.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: Two different changes have been made in recent decades in many jurisdictions in regard to the criminal offense of rape as it relates to marital status:


title: Laws regarding rape

text: Throughout much of the history, rape in marriage was not a crime. Most cultures subscribed to the idea of the existence of 'conjugal rights' to sexual intercourse with one's spouse, and, until well into the 20th century, most legal systems generally accepted, overtly or tacitly, that such 'rights' could be taken by force, against the will of the wife. Traditional understanding and views of marriage, rape, sexuality, gender roles and self determination have started to be challenged in most Western countries during the 1960s and 1970s, which has led to the subsequent criminalization of marital rape during the following decades. With a few notable exceptions, it was during the past 30 years when most laws against marital rape have been enacted. Several countries in Eastern Europe and Scandinavia made spousal rape illegal before 1970, but other countries in Western Europe and the English-speaking Western World outlawed it much later, mostly in the 1980s and 1990s.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: Marital rape is included in the 1993 Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women as a form of violence against women, which reads:


title: Laws regarding rape

text: It is also included in the Council of Europe Recommendation Rec(2002)5 of the Committee of Ministers to member states on the protection of women against violence, which reads:


title: Laws regarding rape

text: In addition, the World Health Organization, defines sexual violence as: "any sexual act, attempt to obtain a sexual act, unwanted sexual comments or advances, or acts to traffic, or otherwise directed, against a person’s sexuality using coercion, "by any person regardless of their relationship to the victim", in any setting, including but not limited to home and work".


title: Laws regarding rape

text: The countries which choose to ratify the Council of Europe Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence, the first legally binding instrument in Europe in the field of violence against women, are bound by its provisions to ensure that non-consensual sexual acts committed against a spouse or partner are illegal. The convention came into force in August 2014.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: A marry-your-rapist law or rape-marriage law states that a rapist will not be prosecuted if they marry their victim. Although the terms for this phenomenon were only coined in the 2010s, the practice has been supported by the rape laws in many legal systems throughout history. In the late 20th and early 21st century, the remaining laws of this type were increasingly challenged and repealed in a series of countries.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: Originally, in Ancient Rome, 'rape' was a crime-defining primarily the act of a male abducting a female without the consent of the man under whose authority she was (typically father or husband); sexual intercourse was not necessary. Furthermore, in many legal systems (such as 17th century France) the consent of the woman to sexual intercourse was not a defense - the act was still a crime if done without the consent of her father. While the laws on rape differed by historical period and culture, some elements were common to most jurisdictions until the second part of the 20th century (when rape laws underwent major changes): 'rape' was a crime that could be committed only between parties who were not married to each other, and only by a male against a female.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: Punishment for rape in most countries today is imprisonment. Castration is sometimes a punishment for rape and, controversially, some U.S. jurisdictions allow shorter sentences for sex criminals who agree to voluntary chemical castration.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: In the past, rape was often punished with death, and it is punishable by death in at least 9 countries today: China, Afghanistan, United Arab Emirates, Egypt, Iran, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, and North Korea. In some of these instances, special circumstances apply. For example, rape is only punishable by death in India if the victim dies or is put in a persistent vegetative state, and/or if the rapist is a repeat offender, and in Iran, a death sentence for rape can be substituted with compensation, with or without imprisonment and flogging, if the victim so chooses.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: In 1977, in "Coker v. Georgia" the Supreme Court of the United States held that the death penalty for the crime of rape of an adult woman was cruel and unusual punishment, and thus banned it as a violation of the Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution, and in 2008 in "Kennedy v. Louisiana" it ruled the same in regard to rape of a child.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: Prison sentences for rape are not uniform. A study made by the U.S. Department of Justice of prison releases in 1992, involving about 80 percent of the prison population, found that the average sentence for convicted rapists was 9.8 years, while the actual time served was 5.4 years. This follows the typical pattern of violent crimes in the US, where those convicted typically serve no more than half of their sentence.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: Between 2002 and 2003, more than one in ten convicted rapists in Victoria, Australia, served a wholly suspended sentence, and the average total effective sentence for rape was seven years. In the Republic of Ireland, the average sentence given for rape is 5 – 7 years.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: While the practice is condemned as barbaric by many present-day societies, some societies punish the victims of rape as well as the perpetrators. According to such cultures, being raped dishonors the victim and, in many cases, the victim's family. In some countries (e.g. Libya, Afghanistan) rape victims are sometimes killed to restore honor to the family's name.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: In the Shakespeare drama "Titus Andronicus", the title character kills his raped, maimed daughter in what he believes to be a mercy killing.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: Certain cultures have historically promoted a system of honor, dishonor, and shame, which was applied with particular strictness to females. A victim of rape would be considered to have lost her honorable reputation and place in society, a loss of honor which entailed shame on the woman's family group as well. In early ancient Rome, ancient China, and other cultures, a pressure has existed which has led women to commit suicide after becoming victims of rape. The iconic Roman instance is that of Lucretia. Likewise, the suicide of female rape victims for reasons of shame is also historically documented in Chinese and Japanese culture.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: In countries which outlaw fornication or adultery, rape victims may become subject to these laws (if they cannot prove the rape case and/or if it is revealed they were not virgins at the time of the assault - in the case of unmarried victims).


title: Laws regarding rape

text: In recent years, there have been various guidelines and recommendations from international human rights organizations in regard to rape and sexual violence. One view that is advanced is that the offense of 'rape' should be replaced with a broader offense of 'sexual assault'. For instance, the "Handbook for Legislation on Violence against Women" from the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs


title: Laws regarding rape

text: The Council of Europe Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence, also known as the Istanbul Convention, which creates legally binding obligations for countries which choose to ratify it, reads:


title: Laws regarding rape

text: Rape was an offense under the common law of England. That offense became an offense under the law of other countries, including Australia and the United States, as a result of colonization or conquest, or the following cession (see British Empire). It is discussed at Rape in English law#History.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: Under this law, rape traditionally describes the act of a male forcing a female to have sexual intercourse (sexual penetration of the vagina by the penis) with him. Common law rape required the utmost physical resistance by the victim, as well as substantial force by the defendant. The common law crime of rape was collectively adopted by the American colonies in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Until the late twentieth century, spousal rape was not considered a true rape case because both spouses were deemed to have consented to a lifelong sexual relationship through the wedding vows. However, with changes to the marital rape exemption, as well as with the significant development of women's rights, the belief of a marital right to force sexual intercourse has become less widely held.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: Rape was also an offense at common law in Scotland. This offense was not derived from the English offense as Scotland retained its own system of criminal law under the terms of the Acts of Union 1707.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: Chapter 14 (Sexual Offenses) of the 2004 Penal Code of Bhutan outlaws rape and other sexual offenses.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: Under the criminal code, there are several categories of rape, which are punished differently, depending on factors such as the age of the victim, the relationship between the victim and the perpetrator, the number of participants (gang rape), whether the victim was pregnant, whether injury occurred. Marital rape is also recognized as an offense under the 2004 laws, being classified as a petty misdemeanour. The most serious form of rape is Gang rape of a child under twelve years of age, classified as a felony of the first degree.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: The Criminal Code does not contain an offence of "rape", which historically required proof of penile penetration for a conviction. Instead, the law criminalizes "sexual assault", which is defined as sexual contact with another person without that other person's consent. The offence of sexual assault is broader than the historical offence of rape. Proof of penetration is not required to ground the offence of sexual assault, nor is the offence gender specific. Consent is defined in section 273.1(1) of the Criminal Code as ""the voluntary agreement of the complainant to engage in the sexual activity in question"".


title: Laws regarding rape

text: Any act of sexual penetration, whatever its nature, committed against another person or on the perpetrator, by violence, constraint, threat or surprise, is rape. Rape is punished by a maximum of fifteen years' criminal imprisonment.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: Rape is punished by a maximum of twenty years' criminal imprisonment in certain aggravating factors (including victim under age of 15).


title: Laws regarding rape

text: Rape is punished by a maximum of thirty years' criminal imprisonment where it caused the death of the victim.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: Rape is punished by a maximum of imprisonment for life when it is preceded, accompanied or followed by torture or acts of barbarity.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: The offences have the same penalty, of life imprisonment, and the same provisions regarding conduct of trials, except that rape under section 4 is an alternative verdict in a rape trial, but not conversely.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: The common-law offence was codified by the Offences against the Person Act 1861 and the Criminal Law (Rape) Act 1981. A statutory definition was introduced by section 2(1) of the 1981 act; as amended it states:


title: Laws regarding rape

text: The act also restricted reference to the alleged victim's past sexual history, and provided anonymity for both parties. Originally, the act referred to ""unlawful" sexual intercourse"; the word "unlawful", intended to preserve the exemption for marital rape, was deleted by the 1990 act.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: By section 2 of the 1990 act, "sexual assault" is defined in terms of "indecent assault", which is not otherwise defined. The 1988 Law Reform Commission (LRC) report on "rape and allied offences", on which the 1990 act was based, recommended expanding the common-law definition rather than creating a new offence, and the inclusion of penetration of the anus in the scope of section 4(b). The 1990 act mandated that trials for both rape offences be at the Central Criminal Court, removed the rule that males under 14 were considered incapable of sexual offences, and relaxed the obligation to warn the jury about an alleged victim's uncorroborated testimony. It also specifies that failure to offer resistance is not evidence of consent.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: 1. Whoever with physical violence or with threat of grave and direct danger forces another to intercourse or to tolerance or action of an indecent act, is punished with incarceration.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: In 2019 a new paragraph was added (Art. 336 par. 5), practically making lack of consent the sole criterion for rape. It reads:5. Whoever, apart from the case of paragraph 1, attempts intercourse without the consent of the victim, is punished with incarceration of up to ten years.In Greece, marital rape was made illegal in 2006.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: The 2009 "Law against Sexual Violence, Exploitation, and Trafficking in Persons" defines rape as follows:


title: Laws regarding rape

text: Rape is part of the statutory offence of sexual violation. Sexual violation is created by section 128 of the Crimes Act 1961.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: The mere fact that a person "allows" sexual connection to be performed on them, does not automatically mean that they are legally "consenting". If that person allows sexual connection due to coercion (e.g., under force, threats or fear of force; when he/she is asleep or very intoxicated; if he/she is affected by an intellectual, mental, or physical condition or impairment of a certain nature and degree; when he/she is mistaken about the partner's identity), then he/she is not legally consenting.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: (1) A person does not consent to sexual activity just because he or she does not protest or offer physical resistance to the activity.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: (3) A person does not consent to sexual activity if the activity occurs while he or she is asleep or unconscious.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: (4) A person does not consent to sexual activity if the activity occurs while he or she is so affected by alcohol or some other drug that he or she cannot consent or refuse to consent to the activity.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: (5) A person does not consent to sexual activity if the activity occurs while he or she is affected by an intellectual, mental, or physical condition or impairment of such a nature and degree that he or she cannot consent or refuse to consent to the activity.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: (6) One person does not consent to sexual activity with another person if he or she allows the sexual activity because he or she is mistaken about who the other person is.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: (7) A person does not consent to an act of sexual activity if he or she allows the act because he or she is mistaken about its nature and quality.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: (8) This section does not limit the circumstances in which a person does not consent to sexual activity.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: "Attempted sexual violation and assault with intent to commit sexual violation" are also punished (Article 129).


title: Laws regarding rape

text: Article 129A is entitled "Sexual conduct with consent induced by certain threats" and makes it illegal for a person to have sexual connection with another person or to do an indecent act on another person when the accused knows that the other person has been induced to consent to the connection/act by threat. However, a person is guilty of this crime "if (and only if) he or she knows that the other person has been induced to consent" to the sexual connection/indecent act "by an express or implied threat". Subsection (5), (a), (b), (c) of this article defines "threat" for the purpose of this article.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: Article 135 outlaws "Indecent assault". Article 138 outlaws "Sexual exploitation of a person with a significant impairment".


title: Laws regarding rape

text: When any of these circumstances occur, a person guilty of rape is punishable by up to 10 years imprisonment. However, if a person is guilty of rape through gross negligence he or she is liable to imprisonment for a period not exceeding five years.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: If the activity in question was sexual intercourse or the offender has rendered a person unconscious or unable to resist the sexual activity, the penalty imposed shall be no less than three years imprisonment.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: The section recognizes sexually transmitted infections (defined in the "Infection Protection Act") as grievous bodily harm.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: Chapter 3 of this Code, which relates to rape, was inserted by the Anti-Rape Law of 1997. By section 2 of that Act, the crime of rape is classified as a crime against persons under that Code.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: On March 3, 2022, Republic Act (RA) No. 11648 was signed and it changed the definition of rape into "By a person who shall have carnal knowledge of another person.." effectively making male rape as a crime.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: According to the Article 131 of the Criminal Code of Russia, rape is defined as heterosexual vaginal intercourse using violence or threat of violence or if the victim is in a helpless state. The other forms of a violent sexual intercourse (male-male, female-male, female-female and non-vaginal male-female) are called "coercive sexual actions" and are punishable by the Article 132. These two crimes, however, are punishable identically. Besides, such crimes as sexual relations with a person under the age of consent (16 years as of 2013, article 134) and depraved actions (Article 135), if committed against a person under 12 years since 2012 are considered rape or coercive sexual actions (depending on sex of the offender and the victim and the type of intercourse) and punished according to the articles 131 or 132, because such victim is deemed to be in a helpless state due to his/her age. However, the Article 134 punishes sexual activity between same-sex pairings harsher than sexual activity between opposite-sex pairings when one of the persons is under 16 years old.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: Rape or coercive sexual actions without any aggravating circumstances are punishable with 3 to 6 years of imprisonment. If the crime:


title: Laws regarding rape

text: then it is punishable with 4 to 10 years of imprisonment with possible subsequent restraint of liberty for up to 2 years (i.e. the criminal may not change or leave residence without permission and must register himself at local penal inspectorate 1 to 4 times a month; court may also impose additional restrictions such as the criminal may not leave home in certain hours, visit certain locations, change work without permission).


title: Laws regarding rape

text: then it is punishable with 8 to 15 years of imprisonment with the subsequent mandatory restraint of liberty for up to 2 years and a possible ban on certain occupations or employment positions for up to 20 years.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: then it is punishable with 12 to 20 years of imprisonment with the subsequent mandatory restraint of liberty for up to 2 years and a possible ban on certain occupations or employment positions for up to 20 years.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: If the crime was committed against a person under 14 years by the criminal who had previously been sentenced for a sexual crime against a minor then it is punishable with 15 to 20 years of imprisonment with mandatory ban on certain occupations or employment positions for up to 20 years or with life imprisonment.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: In South Africa, rape is defined by the Criminal Law (Sexual Offences and Related Matters) Amendment Act, 2007 (Act No. 32 of 2007). This act has repealed the common law offence of rape and replaced it with a new expanded statutory offence of rape, applicable to all forms of sexual penetration without consent, irrespective of gender. Rape is defined in section 3 of the act as follows:


title: Laws regarding rape

text: Marital rape was made illegal in 1992, and since 2004 marital rape is prosecutable ex-officio (meaning it can be prosecuted even if the wife doesn't complain).


title: Laws regarding rape

text: Rape of a male is considered a heavy sexual assault/thread and is prosecuted under Art. 189 of the Swiss Penalty Code.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: Rape under the law of Trinidad and Tobago is an indictable offence, created by section 4 of the Sexual Offenses Act:


title: Laws regarding rape

text: "(1) Subject to subsection (2), a person ("the accused") commits the offence of rape when he has sexual intercourse with another person ("the complainant")—


title: Laws regarding rape

text: Marital rape is also illegal; subsection (5) states: "(5) This section also applies to a husband in relation to the commission of the offence of rape on his wife."


title: Laws regarding rape

text: Rape is a statutory offence. It is created by article 5 of the Sexual Offences (Northern Ireland) Order 2008 (S.I. 1769/2008 (N.I. 2)).


title: Laws regarding rape

text: Any reference to rape in a statutory provision must be construed in accordance with article 5(1) of the said Order.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: No person is liable in tort under the law of Northern Ireland on the ground only of having deprived another of the services of his female servant by raping her.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: Prior to Sexual Offences (Scotland) Act 2009, rape in Scots Law differed from the definition of rape in other legal systems. In Scotland, rape was defined as "a crime at common law which consisted of the carnal knowledge of a female by a male person without her consent". Under Scots law, rape could only be carried out by a male who penetrated a female's vagina. If a man's anus was penetrated by another man's penis, this was called sodomy and was tried under indecent assault, a form of aggravated assault. Likewise, if a male penetrated a female's anus by his penis without her consent, he would also be charged with indecent assault.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: In Scotland, rape can only be prosecuted in the High Court of Justiciary and if convicted, the maximum penalty available to the court is life imprisonment. Evidence of distress can be used as corroborating evidence. Evidence of distress would be recognised by the first person or friend that the victim sees after the event. This should not be confused with hearsay evidence, which is not normally allowed to be led.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: One of the key elements to prosecute a male for rape is to prove that the male had sexual intercourse without the female's consent. For sexual intercourse not to be rape, the "active" consent of the female is needed. This means it is not enough for a woman to be 'passive', she must actively consent and was established by Lord Advocate's Reference (No. 1 of 2001). Therefore, a male could still be convicted of rape, even though the female did not say anything or show any resistance. This is a change in the law, as previously men who had sexual intercourse with sleeping women (as in the case of Charles Sweenie) or women who were unconscious due to voluntarily taking drugs or alcohol (see HMA v Logan) were charged with the lesser crime of indecent assault, rather than rape, as they had not used force to achieve penetration. Lord Advocate's Reference (No 1 of 2001), by requiring "active consent", had opened up the law to decide whether a voluntarily drunk or intoxicated woman can consent to sexual intercourse. This was clarified under the new laws of 2009 which state that sexual intercourse is non-consensual, and therefore considered rape if it occurs :(...) where the conduct occurs at a time when B is incapable because of the effect of alcohol or any other substance of consenting to it.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: Penetration is sufficient for a sexual intercourse to be deemed rape: there needs not to be any excretion of semen and the female's hymen does not have to be ruptured.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: In Scotland, rape continued to be a gender-specific crime until the Sexual Offences (Scotland) Act 2009. This Act came into force on 1 December 2010. The Act expanded the definition of rape to include male rape.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: There is no federal rape law in the United States, due to the "United States v. Morrison" ruling that parts of the Violence Against Women Act of 1994 were unconstitutional. Each state has its own laws concerning sexual aggression, some laws from the founding of the US and during the 1950s were based in racial discrimination against black people (Then and former slaves), in labelling consensual sex between a black man and white woman rape, and the fact that rape laws at the time did not apply when the victim was a black woman. There is also no national standard in the US for defining and reporting male-male or female-perpetrated rapes. State laws vary considerably, and in most states, the term "rape" is no longer used, and the offense has been replaced by crimes such as "sexual assault", "Criminal Sexual Conduct", "sexual abuse", "sexual battery" etc. The US laws on sexual violence are complex, with states having numerous sex offenses, dealing with different situations. The laws on sex crimes have been changed and modernized significantly during the last decades and they continue to change.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: Uniform Code of Military Justice [USC Title 10, Subtitle A, Chapter 47X, Section 920, Article 120] defines rape as:


title: Laws regarding rape

text: Marital rape is banned; the law states: "Marriage is not a defense for any conduct in issue in any prosecution under this section."


title: Laws regarding rape

text: According to the "USA Today" reporter Kevin Johnson, "no other major category of crime – not murder, assault or robbery – has generated a more serious challenge to the credibility of national crime statistics" as has the crime of rape. He says: "There are good reasons to be cautious in drawing conclusions from reports on rape. The two most accepted studies available – the FBI's annual Uniform Crime Report and the Justice Department's annual National Crime Victimization Survey – each have widely acknowledged weaknesses." The FBI's report fails to report rapes with male victims, both adults and children, fails to report non-forcible rapes of either gender "by either gender", and reflects only the number of rapes reported to police. The Justice Department's survey solicits information from people 12 and older, excluding the youngest victims of rape (and incest). However, by using a random national telephone survey of households, the National Crime Victimization Survey could pick up rapes unreported to the police. In addition, since both official reports collect rape data from states with widely divergent standards and definitions on what constitutes rape, uniform reporting is impossible.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: In an attempt to improve the tracking of rape, the National Violence Against Women survey was first published in 1998 by the National Institute of Justice and the federal Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Its authors acknowledged that they used different methodologies with relatively high margins of error. The 2000 report notes that "because annual rape victimization estimates ("nationwide") are based on responses from "only 24 women and 8 men" (emphasis added) who reported being raped, they should be viewed with caution." It goes on to note that it fails to report rapes perpetrated against children, adolescents, the homeless, or people living in institutions, group facilities, or in households without telephones.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: The 2006 report of the National Violence Against Women survey was based on the much larger sample size of 8,000 men and 8,000 women. It estimated that "17.7 million women and 2.8 million men in the United States were forcibly raped at some time in their lives, with 302,091 women and 92,748 men forcibly raped in the year preceding the survey." The report defines "rape" to include completed and attempted rapes. However, the vast majority of rapes were completed: "Among all respondents, 14.8 percent of the women and 2.1 percent of the men said they were victims of a completed rape at some time in their life, whereas 2.8 percent of the women and 0.9 percent of the men said they were victims of an attempted rape only."


title: Laws regarding rape

text: In addition, many states define sexual crimes other than male-on-female penetration as sexual assault rather than rape. There are no national standards for defining and reporting male-on-male, female-on-female or female-on-male offenses, so such crimes are generally not included in rape statistics unless these statistics are compiled using information from states which count them as rape.


title: Laws regarding rape

text: Rape crisis statistics can be found from the FBI and the Bureau of Justice as well as the CDC and RAINN (which uses the other resources as its source).


title: Fluffernutter

text: A fluffernutter (also called a "peanut butter and marshmallow sandwich", "peanut butter and marshmallow fluff sandwich", or "peanut butter and marshmallow stuff sandwich") is a sandwich made with peanut butter and marshmallow creme usually served on white bread. Variations of the sandwich include the substitution of wheat bread and the addition of various sweet, salty, and savory ingredients. The term "fluffernutter" can also be used to describe other food items, primarily desserts, that incorporate peanut butter and marshmallow creme.


title: Fluffernutter

text: The sandwich was first created in the early 20th century after marshmallow creme, a sweet marshmallow-like spread, was invented in Massachusetts. During World War I, a recipe for a peanut butter and marshmallow creme sandwich, the earliest known example of the sandwich, was published. The term "fluffernutter" was created by an advertising agency in 1960 as a more effective way to market the sandwich.


title: Fluffernutter

text: The sandwich is particularly popular in New England and has been proposed as the official state sandwich of Massachusetts.


title: Fluffernutter

text: A fluffernutter is made by spreading peanut butter on a slice of bread, then spreading an equal amount of marshmallow creme on another slice and finally combining them to form a sandwich. Variations of the recipe include wheat bread instead of white, Nutella hazelnut spread instead of, or in addition to, peanut butter, and the addition of sweet ingredients like bananas or savory and salty ingredients like bacon. The Fluffernutter itself is often seen as a variation on the peanut butter and jelly sandwich. Though often seen as a food for children, the Fluffernutter recipe has been adapted to appeal to adult tastes. For example, a New York caterer serves a fluffernutter hors d'oeuvre in a toasted ice cream cone with a spoon of peanut butter and torched marshmallow creme on top.


title: Fluffernutter

text: The term "fluffernutter" has also been used to describe other foods that feature peanut butter and marshmallow creme, including fluffernutter cookies, bars, and cupcakes. Durkee-Mower, the company that produces Marshmallow Fluff, a brand of marshmallow creme, produces a cookbook that features recipes for fluffernutter bars, frosting, pie, and a shake. In 2006, Brigham's Ice Cream and Durkee-Mower introduced a fluffernutter flavor, which featured peanut butter and Marshmallow Fluff in vanilla ice cream. Fluffernutter was also the name of a candy briefly produced by the Boyer Brothers candy company beginning in 1969.


title: Fluffernutter

text: Marshmallow creme, one of the two main ingredients of a fluffernutter, was invented in the early 20th century. Archibald Query invented a creation he called Marshmallow Creme in Somerville, Massachusetts, in 1917, while Amory and Emma Curtis of Melrose, Massachusetts, invented Snowflake Marshmallow Creme in 1913. During World War I, Emma Curtis published a recipe for the "Liberty Sandwich", which consisted of peanut butter and Snowflake Marshmallow Creme on oat or barley bread. The recipe was published in a promotional booklet sent to Curtis' customers in 1918 and may be the origin of the fluffernutter sandwich. Earlier labels and booklets published by the Curtises suggested combining Snow Flake Marshmallow Creme with peanut butter or eating it on sandwiches with chopped nuts or olives.


title: Fluffernutter

text: Meanwhile, sugar shortages during World War I hurt sales of Archibald Query's Marshmallow Creme, so Query sold his recipe in 1920 to two men from Swampscott, Massachusetts, H. Allen Durkee and Fred L. Mower, who began distributing the product through their company, Durkee-Mower Inc. The pair renamed the product Toot Sweet Marshmallow Fluff, and Durkee-Mower continues to sell the product under the name Marshmallow Fluff. The sandwich made with peanut butter and marshmallow creme continued to be eaten, but was not called a fluffernutter until 1960, when an advertising firm Durkee-Mower hired created the term as a more effective way to market the sandwich. "Fluffernutter" is a registered trademark of Durkee-Mower, although the company's U.S. trademark registrations for the term cover only ice cream and printed recipes. In 2006, Durkee-Mower sued Williams-Sonoma, Inc. in the United States District Court for the District of Massachusetts, alleging that Williams-Sonoma, Inc. infringed on its trademark by selling a marshmallow and peanut butter chocolate-covered candy under the "Fluffernutter" name.


title: Fluffernutter

text: In June 2006, Massachusetts State Senator Jarrett Barrios gained national attention when he proposed legislation restricting the serving of fluffernutter sandwiches in public schools. After Barrios learned that his son was served fluffernutters on a daily basis at his Cambridge, Massachusetts, public elementary school, he created an amendment to a junk food bill that aimed to limit the serving of fluffernutters in Massachusetts public schools to once a week. The proposal was criticized as an example of trivial and overly intrusive legislation, while Barrios' supporters pointed to concerns over the problem of childhood obesity. Among the people who defended the Fluffernutter at the time was Massachusetts State Representative Kathi-Anne Reinstein, whose district in Revere was close to Lynn, where Marshmallow Fluff is made. She claimed she planned to "fight to the death for Fluff" and supported legislation that would make the Fluffernutter the official state sandwich. The measure failed, and Reinstein tried again unsuccessfully in 2009. Supporters of the bill cited the sandwich's close association with childhood and Massachusetts.


title: Fluffernutter

text: The term "fluffernutter" has sometimes been used disparagingly to describe something that lacks substance and has minimal to no cultural value. On the other hand, some writers look on fluffernutters and marshmallow creme as a source of childhood nostalgia and regional pride.


title: Fluffernutter

text: The sandwich has close ties to New England and Massachusetts, particularly to Somerville, where Archibald Query invented Marshmallow Fluff, and to Lynn, where Durkee-Mower has produced it for decades. Somerville holds an annual festival called What the Fluff? based around celebrating Marshmallow Fluff and Fluffernutter sandwiches. The festival incorporates music, visual art, games, and a cooking contest based around Fluff and Fluffernutters. In 2011, NASA astronaut Richard Michael Linnehan, who was born in Lowell and ate a fluffernutter while aboard the International Space Station, acted as one of the contest judges.


title: United States Navy Reserve

text: The United States Navy Reserve (USNR), known as the United States Naval Reserve from 1915 to 2005, is the Reserve Component (RC) of the United States Navy. Members of the Navy Reserve, called Reservists, are categorized as being in either the Selected Reserve (SELRES), the Training and Administration of the Reserve (TAR), the Individual Ready Reserve (IRR), or the Retired Reserve.


title: United States Navy Reserve

text: The mission of the Navy Reserve is to provide strategic depth and deliver operational capabilities to the Navy and Marine Corps team, and to the Joint forces, in the full range of military operations from peace to war.


title: United States Navy Reserve

text: The Navy Reserve consists of 59,152 officers and enlisted personnel who serve in every state and territory as well as overseas as of September 2020.


title: United States Navy Reserve

text: The largest cohort, the Selected Reserve (SELRES), have traditionally drilled one weekend a month and performed two weeks of active duty annual training during the year, receiving base pay and certain special pays (e.g., flight pay, dive pay) when performing Inactive Duty Training (IDT, aka "drills"), and full pay and allowances while on active duty for Annual Training (AT), Active Duty for Training (ADT), Active Duty for Operational Support (ADOS), Active Duty for Special Work (ADSW), under Presidential Selected Reserve Call-up (PSRC) / Mobilization (MOB) orders, or when otherwise recalled to full active duty.


title: United States Navy Reserve

text: Every state, as well as Guam and Puerto Rico, has at least one Navy Reserve Center (NRC, formerly known Naval Reserve Centers (NAVRESCEN) until 2005 and formerly known as Navy Operational Support Centers (NOSC) from 2005 to 2021), staffed by full-time active duty Training and Administration of the Reserve (TAR) personnel, where SELRES officers and Sailors typicaly come to do their weekend drills. The size of these centers varies greatly, depending on the number of assigned SELRES. Some NRCs may be collocated with Marine Corps Reserve Centers (MARESCEN) and were often known as Naval and Marine Corps Reserve Centers (NAVMARCORESCEN) prior to 2005. Other NRCs may be part of or tenant commands at Armed Forces Reserve Centers or Joint Reserve Centers with Army Reserve, Marine Corps Reserve, and/or Army National Guard units.


title: United States Navy Reserve

text: Navy Reserve Centers are intended mostly to handle administrative functions and classroom style training. However, some NRCs have more extensive training facilities, including SECRET or SCIF level intelligence centers, damage control trainers and small boat units. Some NRCs are co-located on existing military facilities, but many are "outside-the-wire" standalone facilities that are often the only U.S. Navy representation in their communities or even the entire state, commonwealth or territory. Because of this, NRCs outside of the Navy's Fleet traditional Concentration Areas (e.g., Norfolk, VA; San Diego, CA; Jacksonville, FL, Honolulu, HI, etc.) are also heavily tasked to provide personnel, both TAR staff and SELRES, for participation in Funeral Honors Details. This service provided to the local community is one of the NRC's top two priority missions (the other being training and mobilization of SELRES).


title: United States Navy Reserve

text: Many SELRES are assigned to front-line operational units outside of the NRC structure, many of them combat-coded, such as Naval Aviators, Naval Flight Officers, Naval Flight Surgeons, enlisted Naval Aircrewmen, and other officer and enlisted personnel assigned to Navy Reserve or Active-Reserve Integrated (ARI) aviation squadrons, air groups and air wings, or personnel assigned to major unified combatant command, Fleet and other major staff positions. These personnel, especially active flight crew, are typically funded for far more duty than the notional one weekend per month/two weeks per year construct typically associated with the Reserve and often perform military duty well in excess of 100-man-days per year. SELRES have also performed additional duty in times of war or national crisis, often being recalled to full-time active duty for one, two or three or more years and deploying to overseas locations or aboard warships, to include active combat zones, as seen during Operations Enduring Freedom and Iraqi Freedom.


title: United States Navy Reserve

text: TAR (Training and Administration of the Reserve) personnel are Navy Reserve personnel who serve in uniform year round and provide administrative support to Navy Reserve SELRES and IRR (to include VTU) personnel, active duty Navy personnel in areas where there are no major naval installations (i.e., Navy Recruiting Command personnel and NROTC staff at civilian colleges and universities), retired military personnel and family members of all the U.S. military services, and operational support for the Navy. T


title: United States Navy Reserve

text: TAR officers and Sailors are full-time career active duty personnel, but reside in the Reserve Component (RC) and perform a role similar to Active Guard and Reserve (AGR), Air Reserve Technician (ART) and Army Reserve Technician in the Air Force Reserve Command, the Air National Guard, the U.S. Army Reserve, and the Army National Guard. As opposed to most AGR personnel in the Army Reserve/Army National Guard and Air Force Reserve/Air National Guard, Navy Reserve TAR personnel are on continuous active duty with a career track paralleling and mostly mirroring their Regular Navy counterparts until they either retire from active duty or opt to separate from the TAR program to transfer to SELRES status. TAR personnel first came into being in 1952 as a sub-category of Naval Reserve personnel retained on full-time active duty in the years following World War II to administer the then-Naval Reserve infrastructure during the Cold War.


title: United States Navy Reserve

text: In 2005, the term TAR was replaced with Full Time Support (FTS). In November 2021, the term FTS was discontinued and the term TAR reinstated for this category of personnel.


title: United States Navy Reserve

text: The Individual Ready Reserve (IRR) is composed of Navy Reserve personnel who do not typically drill or train regularly but can be recalled to service in a full mobilization (requiring a Presidential order). Some IRR personnel who are not currently assigned to SELRES billets, typically senior commissioned officers in the ranks of commander or captain for whom "with pay" status SELRES billets are limited, will serve in Volunteer Training Units (VTU) or will be support assigned to established active duty or reserve commands while in a VTU status. These personnel will drill for retirement for points but without drill pay and are not eligible for Annual Training with pay. However, they remain eligible for other forms of active duty with pay and mobilization. The largest source of IRR Officers in the Navy Reserve are commissioned from the United States Merchant Marine Academy (USMMA). USMMA graduates make up more than 75% of the Navy's Strategic Sealift Officer Community which is focused on strategic sealift and sea-based logistics.


title: United States Navy Reserve

text: Reservists are called to active duty, or mobilized, as needed and are required to sign paperwork acknowledging this possibility upon enrollment in the reserve program.


title: United States Navy Reserve

text: After the 11 September attacks of 2001, Reservists were mobilized to support combat operations. The War on Terrorism has even seen the activation of an entire Navy Reserve strike fighter squadron, the VFA-201 Hunters, flying F/A-18C Hornet aircraft, which deployed on board the USS "Theodore Roosevelt" (CVN-71) as part of Carrier Air Wing EIGHT (CVW-8), flying multiple combat missions in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom.


title: United States Navy Reserve

text: More than 52,000 Navy Reservists have been mobilized and deployed to serve in Iraq and Afghanistan, including more than 8,000 who have done a second combat tour. They have served alongside Army, Marine Corps, Air Force, Coast Guard and service personnel from other countries, performing such missions as countering deadly improvised explosive devices, constructing military bases, escorting ground convoys, operating hospitals, performing intelligence analysis, guarding prisoners, and doing customs inspections for units returning from deployments.


title: United States Navy Reserve

text: Between 2013 and 2021, two Navy Reserve maritime patrol squadrons, VP-62 and VP-69 flying P-3C BMUP+ aircraft, have also been repeatedly mobilized, either in part or as entire squadrons, and forward deployed to the Western Pacific for six-month rotations to meet critical Navy Global Force Management (GFM) shortfalls.


title: United States Navy Reserve

text: Reflecting the importance of Reservists in the naval history of the United States, the first citizen sailors put to sea even before the Continental Congress created the Continental Navy, forerunner of today's U.S. Navy. On 12 June 1775, inspired to act after hearing the news of Minutemen and British regulars battling on the fields of Lexington and Concord, citizens of the seaside town of Machias, Maine, commandeered the schooner "Unity" and engaged the British warship HMS "Margaretta", boarding her and forcing her surrender after bitter close quarters combat. In the ensuing years of the American Revolution, the small size of the Continental Navy necessitated the service of citizen sailors, who put to sea manning privateers, their far-flung raids against the British merchant fleet as important as the sea battles of John Paul Jones in establishing the American naval tradition.