title: Union for the Mediterranean

text: On 1 November 2016, the UfM officially launched the "Integrated Programme for the Protection of Lake Bizerte against Pollution" in Bizerte. Tunisia. The event was held in the presence of Youssef Chahed, Head of Government of Tunisia, Federica Mogherini, High Representative of the European Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy and Vice-President of the European Commission, and Fathallah Sijilmassi, Secretary General of the Union for the Mediterranean. With a total budget of more than €90 million over a 5-year period, the programme will contribute towards cleaning up Lake Bizerte in northern Tunisia, improving the living conditions of the surrounding populations and reducing the main sources of pollution impacting the entire Mediterranean Sea. The project is supported by International financing institutions, such as the European Investment Bank and the European Commission, as well as the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development.


title: Union for the Mediterranean

text: In November 2016, the UfM Secretariat officially became observer to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) during the COP22, while actively participating through the launch of specific regional initiatives and projects aimed at helping achieve the Paris Agreement targets in the Euro-Mediterranean region.


title: Union for the Mediterranean

text: On 23 January 2017, the Union for the Mediterranean's Member States gave a strong political commitment to strengthen regional cooperation in the Mediterranean by endorsing the UfM roadmap for action at the second Regional Forum of the UfM, which took place in Barcelona on 23–24 January 2017 under the theme of "Mediterranean in Action: Youth for Stability and Development".


title: Union for the Mediterranean

text: On 22 February 2017, the Secretariat of the Union for the Mediterranean (UfM) and the Swedish International Development Agency (Sida) signed a €6.5 million multi annual financial agreement to support UfM activities in favour of a more sustainable and inclusive development in the region.


title: Union for the Mediterranean

text: On 10 April 2017, the Heads of State or Government of Cyprus, France, Greece, Italy, Malta, Portugal and Spain convened in Madrid at the 3rd Summit of Southern European Union Countries, where they reaffirmed their support to the Union for the Mediterranean and stressed its ""central role in the consolidation of Euro-Mediterranean regional cooperation, as an expression of co-ownership in the management of our common regional agenda in order to effectively and collectively address our current challenges"".


title: Union for the Mediterranean

text: In 2017, 51 regional cooperation projects, worth over €5.3 billion, have been accorded the UfM label, through the unanimous support of the 43 Member States. Implementation of the projects is accelerating and is producing positive results on the ground.


title: Union for the Mediterranean

text: 27 November 2017 Ministers from the 43 Member countries of UfM gathered in Cairo at the 4th UfM Ministerial Conference on "Strengthening the Role of Women in Society" to agree on a common agenda to strengthen the role of women in the Euro-Mediterranean region.


title: Union for the Mediterranean

text: On 29 November 2017, the UfM Regional Stakeholder Conference on the Blue Economy, brought together over 400 key stakeholders dealing with marine and maritime issues from the entire region, including government representatives, regional and local authorities, international organisations, academia, the private sector and civil society.


title: Union for the Mediterranean

text: On 20 March 2018, the European Commission and the Government of Palestine, in partnership with the Union for the Mediterranean, hosted an international donor Pledging Conference to consolidate financial support to the construction of a large-scale desalination plant and its associated water supply infrastructure in the Gaza Strip.


title: Union for the Mediterranean

text: On 13 July 2018, the UfM celebrated its 10th anniversary, with 51 regional cooperation projects labelled, 12 regional policy platforms created and over 300 expert fora organised.


title: Union for the Mediterranean

text: The UfM's goal is to enhance regional cooperation, dialogue and the implementation of concrete projects and initiatives with tangible impact on our citizens. The UfM has consolidated an action-driven methodology, with a common ambition of creating effective links between the policy dimension and its operational translation into concrete projects and initiatives on the ground to adequately address the challenges of the region and its key interrelated priorities. This methodology is composed of three components: Policy framework, dialogue Platforms and regional Projects – namely the "Three Ps".


title: Union for the Mediterranean

text: The UfM complements the bilateral work of the European Neighbourhood Policy set up in 2004 and the development policies of UfM member states, driving the emergence of a shared Mediterranean agenda to achieve an impact, not just on the situation of one country, but on regional integration as a whole.


title: Union for the Mediterranean

text: With 43 members, the UfM acts as a central platform for setting regional priorities and sharing experiences of the principal challenges that the region faces.


title: Union for the Mediterranean

text: The UfM Secretariat implements decisions taken at political level through regional and sub-regional sectorial dialogues fora and follow-up activities thereby following through on Ministerial commitments and promoting initiatives to foster regional cooperation.


title: Union for the Mediterranean

text: The work to achieve this goal is carried out in conjunction with other organisations and regional cooperation forums (The Arab League, the Arab Maghreb Union) and alongside sub-regional cooperation fora such as the 5+5 Dialogue with which the UfM is actively associated.


title: Union for the Mediterranean

text: Structured regional dialogues fora have involved over 20,000 stakeholders from around the Mediterranean, including parliamentarians and representatives of international organisations, NGOs, civil society organisations, international financial institutions, development agencies, industry and the private sector, universities as well as think tanks.


title: Union for the Mediterranean

text: In March 2015, the Inter-parliamentary Conference for the Common Foreign and Security Policy and the Common Security and Defence Policy, in its final conclusions, described the UfM as "the most efficient and multifaceted cooperation forum in the region".


title: Union for the Mediterranean

text: In May 2016, the Parliamentary Assembly of the UfM recognized, in the final declaration of its 12th Plenary Session, the "importance of the pivotal role played by the UfM in promoting cooperation and regional integration in the Mediterranean […]".


title: Union for the Mediterranean

text: In January 2017, at the occasion of the second UfM Regional Forum gathering the Ministers of Foreign Affairs of the 43 Member States, Ms. Federica Mogherini, High Representative of the European Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy and Vice-President of the European Commission, declared: "we have committed together to break this circle of lack of integration and tensions and conflictuality and invest in a coherent manner on more political dialogue and more regional integrational cooperation on very concrete fields of actions through our Union for the Mediterranean."


title: Union for the Mediterranean

text: The third Union for the Mediterranean (UfM) Regional Forum was held in Barcelona on 8 October 2018 under the title '10 years: Building together the future of regional cooperation'. Consolidated as the annual gathering of the Ministers of Foreign Affairs of UfM Member States, the Forum provided the occasion to draw up a state-of-play of regional cooperation in the Euro-Mediterranean area and its prospects, as well as to spotlight where the UfM needs to redouble its efforts to meet current and future challenges. Ministers took stock of the implementation of the UfM Roadmap endorsed a year ago and committed to amplifying the impetus given to the Euro-Mediterranean partnership. This third edition of the Regional Forum was chaired by the UfM Co-Presidency, assumed by Federica Mogherini, EU High Representative for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy and Vice-President of the European Commission, and Ayman Safadi, Minister of Foreign Affairs of Jordan, and hosted by Josep Borrell, Minister of Foreign Affairs of Spain and Nasser Kamel, the UfM Secretary General.


title: Union for the Mediterranean

text: Via the process of labelisation, the UFM supports projects that address common regional challenges that are likely to have a direct impact on the lives of citizens. The UfM label guarantees regional recognition and visibility for the selected projects. It also gives them access to funding opportunities through the network of financial partners of the UfM.


title: Union for the Mediterranean

text: The main added value of the UfM lies in the interrelation created between the policy dimension and its operational translation into concrete projects on the ground, which in return nourishes the definition of relevant policies through a multi-stakeholder approach. The adoption of projects on the ground follows the principle of "variable geometry", providing a degree of flexibility by which a smaller number of countries may decide, with the approval of all, to cooperate and participate in projects of common interest.


title: Union for the Mediterranean

text: In December 2015, 37 projects were labeled by the UfM. As of June 2018, more than 50 projects were labeled by the UfM.


title: Union for the Mediterranean

text: After a consultation process with stakeholders, the UfM launched in 2013 a regional initiative (Med4Jobs) that defines the priorities of intervention in terms of employability, intermediary services and job creation in the region, under which specific projects are developed.


title: Union for the Mediterranean

text: By 2015, the secretariat of the UfM had labeled 13 projects addressing the challenges of youth employability and inclusive growth. Framed by the political mandate and the priorities expressed in regional dialogues, these projects target 200,000 beneficiaries, mostly young people, and involve over 1,000 small and medium private enterprises.


title: Union for the Mediterranean

text: On Women empowerment, it had also labeled 10 projects benefiting over 50,000 women in the Euro-Mediterranean region, this with the participation of over 1000 shareholders and with a budget of over 127 million euros.


title: Union for the Mediterranean

text: The specific focus on Youth employability and Women empowerment is in line with the UfM's aim at reinforcing human capital in the region, which is the key issue for stability and security in the region.


title: Union for the Mediterranean

text: By 2015, 14 projects were labelled by the 43 countries of the UfM, included the cleanup of Lake Bizerte in Tunisia, the construction of the desalination plant in Gaza, and the integrated urban development of the city of Imbaba.


title: Union for the Mediterranean

text: As of June 2018, the UfM has 23 labelled projects addressing the regional Sustainable Development pillar. These projects are expected to have an important socio-economic impact across the region, including on climate action, renewable energy, transport, urban development, water, the blue economy and environment.


title: Union for the Mediterranean

text: Twenty-five years after 1995 Barcelona Declaration, the EU failed to accomplish any of the objectives announced in the declaration. The Mediterranean did not become "a common area of peace, stability and shared prosperity". A free Europe-Mediterranean free trade area had not become reality and initiatives to strengthen human rights or democracies had achieved nothing.


title: Union for the Mediterranean

text: A major reason for the lack of success is that the EU was torn between "values" and "interests": Had the EU stayed true to its values it would have had to press for democratic reform, but if interests were priorities the EU would have to stay on friendly terms with autocratic regimes.


title: Union for the Mediterranean

text: In contrast with the Barcelona Process, one of the biggest innovations of the Union for the Mediterranean is its institutional architecture. It was decided at the Paris Summit to provide the Union with a whole set of institutions in order to up-grade the political level of its relations, promote a further co-ownership of the initiative among the EU and Mediterranean partner countries and improve the Euro-Mediterranean Partnership's visibility.


title: Union for the Mediterranean

text: With the purpose of guaranteeing the co-ownership of the Union for the Mediterranean, the Heads of State and Government decided in Paris that two countries, one from the EU and one from the Mediterranean partner countries, will jointly preside the Union for the Mediterranean. The 27 agreed that the EU co-presidency had to "be compatible with the external representation of the European Union in accordance with the Treaty provisions in force." "The Mediterranean partner countries decided to choose by consensus and among themselves a country to hold the co-presidency for a non-renewable period of two years."


title: Union for the Mediterranean

text: In 2012 the secretariat announced that the co-presidency of Egypt would be succeeded by Jordan, and that of France by the European Union. The change which, took place in September 2012 was decided at a meeting of the high representatives in Barcelona on 28 June.


title: Union for the Mediterranean

text: The meeting of UfM Senior Officials, composed of ambassadors and senior Foreign Affairs officials appointed individually by the 43 countries of the UfM, is held several times a year, at regular intervals, at the seat of the Secretariat of UfM in Barcelona or in one of the UfM countries. Its role is to discuss regional issues, guide policies and actions of the organization and to label the projects submitted to it. Each country has an equal vote and all decisions are made by consensus.


title: Union for the Mediterranean

text: Alongside these meetings, other UfM meetings take place, especially ministerial meetings that define the Mediterranean agenda on specific issues, such as environment and climate change, the digital economy, the role of women in society, transportation or industry.


title: Union for the Mediterranean

text: The Secretariat of the Union for the Mediterranean was inaugurated on 4 March 2010 in an official ceremony in Barcelona.


title: Union for the Mediterranean

text: The task of the permanent Secretariat is to provide operational follow-up of the sectorial ministerial meeting, identifying and monitoring the implementation of concrete projects for the Euro-Mediterranean region, and searching for partners to finance these projects and coordinating various platforms for dialogue.


title: Union for the Mediterranean

text: The Euro-Mediterranean Ministers of Foreign Affairs decided at the Marseilles conference of November 2008 that the headquarters of the Secretariat would be at the Royal Palace of Pedralbes in Barcelona. They also agreed on the structure of this new key institution and the countries of origin of its first members:


title: Union for the Mediterranean

text: In 2017, the secretariat of the UfM has a staff of 60 persons from more than 20 nationalities, including the permanent presence of senior officials seconded from the European Commission, the EIB, and CDC.


title: Union for the Mediterranean

text: The Euro-Mediterranean Parliamentary Assembly (EMPA) is not a new institution inside the Euro-Mediterranean Partnership framework. It was established in Naples on 3 December 2003 by the Euro-Mediterranean Ministers of Foreign Affairs and had its first plenary session in Athens on 22–23 March 2004. The EMPA gathers parliamentarians from the Euro-Mediterranean countries and has four permanent committees on the following issues:


title: Union for the Mediterranean

text: Since the launch of the Union for the Mediterranean, the EMPA's role has been strengthened for it is considered the "legitimate parliamentary expression of the Union".


title: Union for the Mediterranean

text: At the Euro-Mediterranean Foreign Affairs Conference held in Marseilles in November 2008, the Ministers welcomed the EU Committee of the Regions proposal to establish a Euro-Mediterranean Assembly of Local and Regional Authorities (ARLEM in French). Its aim is to bridge between the local and regional representatives of the 43 countries with the Union for the Mediterranean and EU institutions.


title: Union for the Mediterranean

text: The EU participants are the members of the EU Committee of the Regions, as well as representatives from other EU institutions engaged with the Euro-Mediterranean Partnership. From the Mediterranean partner countries, the participants are representatives of regional and local authorities appointed by their national governments. The ARLEM was formally established and held its first plenary session in Barcelona on 31 January 2010. The ARLEM's co-presidency is held by the President of the EU Committee of the Regions, Luc Van den Brande, and the Moroccan mayor of Al Hoceima, Mohammed Boudra.


title: Union for the Mediterranean

text: In 5 November 2022, Turkish authorities detained at the port of Izmir the First Vice-President of the European Committee of the Regions, Apostolos Tzitzikostas, who was en route to co-chair a meeting of the Euro-Mediterranean Regional and Local Assembly on behalf of the President of the Committee of the Regions. The assembly released a statement condemning this action and described it abusive and unprovoked and asked for clarification and credible explanations from the Turkish government for the incident.


title: Union for the Mediterranean

text: The Anna Lindh Foundation for the Dialogue between Cultures, with headquarters are in Alexandria, Egypt, was established in April 2005. It is a network for the civil society organisations of the Euro-Mediterranean countries, aiming at the promotion of intercultural dialogue and mutual understanding.


title: Union for the Mediterranean

text: At the Paris Summit it was agreed that the Anna Lindh Foundation, along with the UN Alliance of Civilizations will be in charge of the cultural dimension of the Union for the Mediterranean.


title: Union for the Mediterranean

text: In September 2010 the Anna Lindh Foundation published a report called "EuroMed Intercultural Trends 2010". This evaluation about mutual perceptions and the visibility of the Union of the Mediterranean across the region is based on a Gallup Public Opinion Survey in which 13,000 people from the Union of the Mediterranean countries participated.


title: Union for the Mediterranean

text: As a platform for dialogue and cooperation, the Union for the Mediterranean engages in strategic partnerships with global, regional and sub-regional organizations.


title: Union for the Mediterranean

text: During the past few years, the UfM strengthened its ties with relevant stakeholders through the signature of various Memoranda of Understanding:


title: Union for the Mediterranean

text: The Paris Declaration states that contributions for the Union for the Mediterranean will have to develop the capacity to attract funding from "the private sector participation; contributions from the EU budget and all partners; contributions from other countries, international financial institutions and regional entities; the Euro-Mediterranean Investment and Partnership Facility (FEMIP); the ENPI", among other possible instruments,


title: Rehnquist Court

text: The Rehnquist Court was the period in the history of the Supreme Court of the United States during which William Rehnquist served as Chief Justice. Rehnquist succeeded Warren Burger as Chief Justice after the latter's retirement, and Rehnquist held this position until his death in 2005, at which point John Roberts was nominated and confirmed as Rehnquist's replacement. The Rehnquist Court is generally considered to be more conservative than the preceding Burger Court, but not as conservative as the succeeding Roberts Court. According to Jeffrey Rosen, Rehnquist combined an amiable nature with great organizational skill, and he "led a Court that put the brakes on some of the excesses of the Earl Warren era while keeping pace with the sentiments of a majority of the country."


title: Rehnquist Court

text: Biographer John Jenkins argued that Rehnquist politicized the Supreme Court and moved the court and the country to the right. Through its rulings, the Rehnquist Court often promoted a policy of New Federalism in which more power was given to the states at the expense of the federal government. The Rehnquist Court was also notable for its stability, as the same nine justices served together for 11 years from 1994 to 2005, the longest such stretch in Supreme Court history.


title: Rehnquist Court

text: Rehnquist joined the Court in 1972 after Richard Nixon appointed him as an Associate Justice, and Rehnquist remained in that position until Ronald Reagan elevated him to the position of Chief Justice in 1986, when Warren Burger retired. Rehnquist's vacant Associate Justice seat was filled by Antonin Scalia. The Rehnquist Court thus began on September 26, 1986, with Scalia and the final eight members of the Burger Court: Rehnquist, William Brennan, Byron White, Thurgood Marshall, Harry Blackmun, Lewis Powell, John Paul Stevens, and Sandra Day O'Connor.


title: Rehnquist Court

text: Powell retired in 1987; President Reagan's nomination of Robert Bork was defeated by the Senate, and his second nominee, Douglas Ginsburg, withdrew before a vote. Reagan's third nominee, Anthony Kennedy, was confirmed by the Senate. Brennan retired in 1990 and Marshall in 1991, giving President George H. W. Bush the opportunity to appoint Justices David Souter and Clarence Thomas. White retired in 1993 and Blackmun retired in 1994, and President Bill Clinton appointed Justices Ruth Bader Ginsburg and Stephen Breyer to replace White and Blackmun respectively.


title: Rehnquist Court

text: The composition of the Supreme Court remained unchanged for the balance of the Rehnquist Court, which ended when Rehnquist died on September 3, 2005. He was succeeded by the current Chief Justice, John Roberts, who was appointed to the position by George W. Bush.


title: Rehnquist Court

text: Presidents during this court included Ronald Reagan, George H. W. Bush, Bill Clinton, and George W. Bush. Congresses during this court included the 99th through the 109th United States Congresses.


title: Rehnquist Court

text: The Rehnquist Court issued several notable rulings touching on many aspects of American life. Landmark cases of the Rehnquist Court include:


title: Rehnquist Court

text: Rehnquist had often been a lone conservative dissenter during the Burger Court, but the appointments of O'Connor, Scalia, Kennedy, and, perhaps most importantly, Thomas, moved the court to the right. Rehnquist favored returning power to the states at the expense of the federal government, and he was joined by Justices O'Connor, Scalia, Kennedy, and Thomas in striking down federal laws, which the Rehnquist Court did more often than any previous court. These five justices formed a dominant conservative bloc, though Rehnquist was less committed to ideological purity than Scalia or Thomas, and Justices Kennedy and O'Connor often served as swing votes who would side with the more liberal justices. O'Connor's prominence as a swing vote led some to call it the "O'Connor Court," and she wrote several important opinions. Justice Stevens, the most senior associate justice during much of the Rehnquist Court, led the liberal bloc, which also included Justices Souter, Ginsburg, and Breyer. Stevens was often successful in winning over either or both of O'Connor and Kennedy in order to stymie the agenda of the court's conservative bloc. Of the nine justices who served from 1994-2005, seven had been appointed by Republican presidents, and the relative liberalism of some of those justices (particularly Stevens and Souter) frustrated many in the Republican Party.


title: Fenian raids

text: The Fenian raids were a series of incursions carried out by the Fenian Brotherhood, an Irish republican organization based in the United States, on military fortifications, customs posts and other targets in Canada (then part of British North America) in 1866, and again from 1870 to 1871. A number of separate incursions by the Fenian Brotherhood into Canada were undertaken to bring pressure on the British government to withdraw from Ireland, although none of these raids achieved their aims.


title: Fenian raids

text: In Canada, the incursions divided its burgeoning Irish-Canadian population, many of whom were torn between loyalty to their new home and sympathy for the aims of the Fenians. Protestant Irish immigrants were generally loyal to the British and fought with the pro-Union Orange Order against the Fenians.


title: Fenian raids

text: While authorities in the United States arrested the men and confiscated the arms of the Fenian Brotherhood, there was speculation that some in the U.S. government had ignored the preparations undertaken by the Fenians because of anger over British actions that were construed by some as assistance to the Confederate States of America during the American Civil War. The Fenian raids were one of the factors that led to Canadian Confederation, as the provinces united to face the threat of the Fenian invasions.


title: Fenian raids

text: The Dedham, Massachusetts chapter of the Fenian Brotherhood, which had offices in the Norfolk House, hosted a meeting at Temperance Hall in which a raid into Canada was organized. John R. Bullard, a recent Harvard Law School graduate, was elected moderator of the meeting and, having been swept up in his own sudden importance and fever of the meeting, ended his animated speech by asking "Who would be the first man to come forward and pledge himself to go to Canada and help free Ireland?" The first of the roughly dozen men to sign the "enlistment papers" were Patrick Donohoe and Thomas Golden. Thomas Brennan said he could not participate, but donated $50 to the cause. The meeting ended with the group singing "The Wearing of the Green." The raid was a failure. Some of the men got as far as St. Albans, Vermont, but none made it to Canada. A few were arrested and some had to send home for money.


title: Fenian raids

text: Led by John O'Mahony, this Fenian raid occurred in April 1866, at Campobello Island, New Brunswick. A Fenian Brotherhood war party of over 700 members arrived at the Maine shore opposite the island intending to seize Campobello from the British. Royal Navy officer Charles Hastings Doyle, stationed at Halifax, Nova Scotia, responded decisively. On 17 April 1866, he left Halifax with several warships carrying over 700 British soldiers and proceeded to Passamaquoddy Bay, where the Fenian force was concentrated. This show of force by Doyle discouraged the Fenians, and they dispersed. The invasion reinforced the idea of protection for New Brunswick by joining with the British North American colonies of Nova Scotia, and the United Province of Canada, formerly Upper Canada (now Ontario) and Lower Canada (Quebec), to form the Dominion of Canada.


title: Fenian raids

text: After the Campobello raid, the "Presidential faction" led by Fenian founders James Stephens and John O'Mahony focused more on fundraising for rebels in Ireland. The more militant "Senate Faction" led by William R. Roberts believed that even a marginally successful invasion of the Province of Canada or other parts of British North America would provide them with leverage in their efforts. After the failure of the April attempt to raid New Brunswick, which had been blessed by O'Mahony, the Senate Faction implemented their own plan for invading Canada. Drafted by the senate "Secretary for War" General T. W. Sweeny, a distinguished former Union Army officer, the plan called for multiple invasions at points in Canada West (now southern Ontario) and Canada East (now southern Quebec) intended to cut Canada West off from Canada East and possible British reinforcements from there. Key to the plan was a diversionary attack at Fort Erie from Buffalo, New York, meant to draw troops away from Toronto in a feigned strike at the nearby Welland Canal system. This was the only Fenian attack, other than the Quebec raid several days later, that was launched in June 1866.


title: Fenian raids

text: About 1000 to 1300 Fenians crossed the Niagara River in the first 14 hours of June 1 under Colonel John O'Neill. Sabotaged by Fenians in its crew, the U.S. Navy's side-wheel gunboat did not begin intercepting Fenian reinforcements until 2:15 p.m.—14 hours after Owen Starr's advance party had crossed the river ahead of O'Neill's main force. Once the USS "Michigan" was deployed, O'Neill's force in the Niagara Region was cut off from further supplies and reinforcements.


title: Fenian raids

text: After assembling with other units from Canada and travelling all night, Canadian troops advanced into a well-laid ambush by approximately 600–700 Fenians the next morning north of Ridgeway, a small hamlet west of Fort Erie. (The Fenian strength at Ridgeway had been reduced by desertions and deployments of Fenians in other locations in the area overnight.)


title: Fenian raids

text: Canadian Militia troops at the Battle of Ridgeway consisted of inexperienced volunteers with no more than basic drill training but armed with Enfield rifled muskets equal to the armaments of the Fenians. A single company of the Queen's Own Rifles of Toronto had been armed the day before on their ferry crossing from Toronto with state-of-the-art seven-shot Spencer repeating rifles, but had not had an opportunity to practise with them and were issued with only 28 rounds per man. The Fenians were mostly battle-hardened American Civil War veterans, armed with weapons procured from leftover war supplies, either Enfield rifled muskets or the comparable Springfield.


title: Fenian raids

text: The opposing forces exchanged volleys for about two hours, before a series of command errors threw the Canadians into confusion. The Fenians took advantage of it by launching a bayonet charge that broke the inexperienced Canadian ranks. Seven Canadians were killed on the battlefield, two died shortly afterwards from wounds, and four later died of wounds or disease while on service; ninety-four more were wounded or disabled by disease. Ten Fenians were killed and sixteen wounded.


title: Fenian raids

text: After the battle, the Canadians retreated to Port Colborne, at the Lake Erie end of the Welland Canal. The Fenians rested briefly at Ridgeway, before returning to Fort Erie. Another encounter, the Battle of Fort Erie, followed that saw several Canadians severely wounded and the surrender of a large group of local Canadian Militia who had moved into the Fenian rear. After considering the inability of reinforcements to cross the river and the approach of large numbers of Canadian Militia and British soldiers, the remaining Fenians released the Canadian prisoners and returned to Buffalo early in the morning of June 3. They were intercepted by the gunboat "Michigan" and surrendered to the United States Navy.


title: Fenian raids

text: The traditional historical narrative alleges that the turning point in the Battle of Ridgeway was when Fenian cavalry was erroneously reported and the Canadian Militia ordered to form squares, the standard tactic for infantry to repel cavalry. When the mistake was recognized, an attempt was made to reform in column; being too close to the Fenian lines, it failed. In his 2011 history of Ridgeway, however, historian Peter Vronsky argues the explanation was not as simple as that. Prior to the formation of the square, confusion had already broken out when a unit of the Queen's Own Rifles mistook three arriving companies from the 13th Battalion of The Royal Hamilton Light Infantry for British troops. When the Queen's Own Rifles began retiring to give the field to what they thought were British Army units, the 13th Battalion mistook this for a retreat, and began withdrawing themselves. At this moment that the infamous "form square" order was given, completing the debacle that was unfolding on the field.


title: Fenian raids

text: A board of inquiry determined that allegations over the alleged misconduct of Lieutenant-Colonel Alfred Booker (13th Battalion), on whom command of Canadian volunteers had devolved, had "not the slightest foundation for the unfavourable imputations cast upon him in the public prints". Nevertheless, the charges dogged Booker for the rest of his life. A second board of inquiry into the battle at Fort Erie exonerated Lieutenant-Colonel J. Stoughton Dennis, Brigade Major of the Fifth Military District, although the President of the Board of Inquiry, Colonel George T. Denison, differed from his colleagues on several key points.


title: Fenian raids

text: Five days after the start of the invasion, U. S. President Andrew Johnson issued a proclamation requiring enforcement of the neutrality laws, guaranteeing the Fenian invasion could not continue. Generals Ulysses S. Grant and General George Meade went to Buffalo, New York to inspect the situation. Following instructions from Grant, Meade issued strict orders to prevent anyone from violating the border. Grant then proceeded to St. Louis. Meade, finding that the battles were over and the Fenian army interned in Buffalo, went to Ogdensburg, New York, to oversee the situation in the St. Lawrence River area. The U.S. Army was then instructed to seize all Fenian weapons and ammunition and prevent more border crossings. Further instructions on 7 June 1866 were to arrest anyone who appeared to be a Fenian.


title: Fenian raids

text: Fenian commander Brigadier General Thomas William Sweeny was arrested by the United States government for violating American neutrality. Nevertheless, he was soon released and served in the United States Army until he retired in 1870.


title: Fenian raids

text: After the invasion of Canada West failed, the Fenians decided to concentrate their efforts on Canada East; however, the U.S. government had begun to impede Fenian activities, and arrested many Fenian leaders. The Fenians soon saw their plans begin to fade. General Samuel Spear of the Fenians managed to escape arrest, and, on June 7, Spear and his 1000 men marched into Canadian territory, achieving occupancy of Pigeon Hill, Frelighsburg, St. Armand and Stanbridge. At this point the Canadian government had done little to defend the border, but on June 8 Canadian forces arrived at Pigeon Hill and the Fenians, who were low on arms, ammunition and supplies, promptly surrendered, ending the raid on Canada East.


title: Fenian raids

text: Timothy O'Hea was awarded the Victoria Cross for actions he took at Danville, Canada East, on June 9, 1866, at about the time of the Pigeon Hill Raid. Although only about 23 years old, O'Hea, a private in the 1st Battalion of the Rifle Brigade stationed in Canada, saw the threat posed by a burning railway car containing ammunition and fought the blaze single-handedly for an hour, saving the lives of many in the area.


title: Fenian raids

text: From 1870 to 1871, the Fenian Brotherhood organized several raids into the Canadian provinces of Quebec and Manitoba.


title: Fenian raids

text: In addition to organizing raids against those provinces, the Fenian Brotherhood also organized openly in the Northwestern United States in the 1870s, threatening the security of the Colony of British Columbia. Although the Fenians never launched a raid against British Columbia, tensions were sufficient that the Royal Navy sent several large warships to the new railhead at Vancouver, British Columbia, during celebrations for the completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway in 1886.


title: Fenian raids

text: Another raid by the Fenians occurred on 25 May 1870. The Canadians, acting on information supplied by Thomas Miller Beach, were able to wait for and turn back the attack at Eccles Hill.


title: Fenian raids

text: The Battle of Trout River was a military conflict that occurred on 27 May 1870. It was a part of the Fenian raids. This battle occurred outside of Huntingdon, Quebec near the international border about north of Malone, New York. The location of this battle should not be confused with Trout River in the Northwest Territories.


title: Fenian raids

text: John O'Neill, after the failed 1870 invasion, had resigned the Senate Wing then joined the Savage Wing. In return he was given a seat on the Savage Wing governing council. In 1871 O'Neill and an odd character named W. B. O’Donoghue asked the Savage Wing Council to undertake another invasion of Canada across the Dakota Territory border. The Council, weary of Canadian adventures in general and O’Neill in particular, would have none of it. O'Neill's idea was turned down, but the Council promised to loan him arms and agreed they would not publicly denounce him and his raid.


title: Fenian raids

text: O'Neill resigned from the Fenians to lead the invasion, which was planned in Saint Paul, Minnesota, to invade Manitoba near Winnipeg. About 35 men, led by O'Neill, William B. O'Donoghue, and John J. Donnelly, hoped to join forces with Louis Riel's French-Indian Métis. On October 5, O'Neill's force managed to capture a Hudson's Bay Company post and a Canadian customs house which they believed to be just north of the international border. A U.S. survey team had determined the border was two miles further north, placing the Hudson's Bay post and the customs house both inside U.S. territory. O'Neill, J. J. Donnelly and ten others were taken prisoner near Pembina, Dakota Territory, by U.S. soldiers led Captain Loyd Wheaton.


title: Fenian raids

text: The farcical raid was doomed from the very start. It actually took place inside the United States, and the Métis under Riel had signed a pact with the British just as the invasion began. Riel and his Métis captured O'Donoghue and gave him to U.S. authorities. In a somewhat muddled federal response, O'Neill was arrested twice – once in Dakota and once in Minnesota- but was released and never charged for "invading" U.S. territory. The men captured with him were released by the court as simply "dupes" of O'Neill and Donnelly.


title: Fenian raids

text: Support for the Fenian Brotherhood's invasion of Canada quickly disappeared and there was no real threat after the 1890s. Nevertheless, the raids had an important effect on all Canadians. Ironically, though they did nothing to advance the cause of Irish independence, the 1866 Fenian raids and the inept efforts of the Canadian Militia to repulse them helped to galvanize support for Confederation in 1867. Some historians have argued that the affair tipped the final votes of reluctant Maritime provinces in favour of the collective security of nationhood, making Ridgeway the "battle that made Canada." Alexander Muir, a Scottish immigrant, author of "The Maple Leaf Forever" and member of the Orange Order, fought at Ridgeway with the Queen's Own Rifles.


title: Fenian raids

text: The raids also aroused a martial spirit among Canadians by testing the militia's strength. Because of their poor performance, the militia took efforts to improve themselves. This was achieved without the huge cost of a real war. The greatest impact of the Fenian raids was in the developing a sense of Canadian nationalism and leading the provinces into Confederation. This was seen as necessary for survival and self-defence; the raids showed Canadians that safety lay in unity and were an important factor in creating the modern nation-state of Canada.


title: Fenian raids

text: The Fenian raids caused an increased anti-American sentiments in Canada and the Maritimes because of the U.S. government's perceived tolerance of the Fenians when they were meeting openly and preparing for the raids. An estimated casualty figure for the Fenian Raids into Canada 1866, including deaths from disease while on service in both Canada West (Ontario) and Canada East (Quebec), was calculated by the Militia Department in 1868 as 31 dead and 103 wounded or struck by disease (including a female civilian accidentally shot by the militia.)


title: Fenian raids

text: Several memorials were erected throughout Canada, commemorating those who volunteered with the Canadian militia fought during the raids. These monuments include the Canadian Volunteers Monument in Queen's Park, Toronto, and the Battle of Eccles Hill Monument in Frelighsburg, Quebec. In June 2006 Ontario's heritage agency dedicated a plaque at Ridgeway on the commemoration of the 140th anniversary of the battle. Many members of today's Canadian army regiment, The Queen's Own Rifles of Canada, return to the Ridgeway battle site each year on the weekend closest to the June 2 anniversary for a bicycle tour of the battle sites.


title: Sarah Lancashire filmography

text: Sarah Lancashire is an English actress whose career began in 1986. Lancashire's first acting roles were in local theatre, with small guest roles in television dramas and sitcoms. After coming to public attention with roles in programmes such as "Coronation Street", (1987, 1991–1996, 2000) "Where the Heart Is" (1997–1999) and "Clocking Off" (2000), Lancashire signed a two-year golden handcuffs contract with the ITV network, appearing exclusively in ITV1 programming for the next two years. Lancashire has continued to work extensively across a variety of television drama genres, including guest appearances, regular roles in returning series and with featured roles in standalone miniseries' and television films. Her more prolific work includes the drama series' "Lark Rise to Candleford" (2008–2011), "Last Tango in Halifax" (2012–2020) and "Happy Valley" (2014–present).


title: Sarah Lancashire filmography

text: Lancashire has appeared in the feature films "And When Did You Last See Your Father?" and "Dad's Army" and has returned to West End Theatre several times since her 1990 stint in "Blood Brothers". Her combined acting credits have earned Lancashire a number of awards and nominations over a career spanning four decades and a prominent status within the British Television Industry of the 21st century. Lancashire was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2017 Birthday Honours for services to drama.


title: Bitch Better Have My Money

text: "Bitch Better Have My Money" (otherwise known in clean and radio versions as "B**** Better Have My Money" or simply "Better Have My Money") is a song recorded by Barbadian singer Rihanna. It was written by Jamille Pierre, Bibi Bourelly, Rihanna, Travis Scott, Kanye West and WondaGurl and produced by Deputy, co-produced by West, together with additional production by Scott and WondaGurl. The song was digitally released on March 26, 2015, through the iTunes Store. "Bitch Better Have My Money" is a trap song and represents a notable musical departure from the previous single, "FourFiveSeconds".


title: Bitch Better Have My Money

text: Upon release critics gave the song mixed reviews, finding the song catchy and ready to be played in clubs, but thought it was a step down from the preceding single. The song placed at number 95 on "Pitchfork" list of The 200 Best Songs of the 2010s Decade. "Bitch Better Have My Money" reached the top-10 in eight countries, including New Zealand and France, as well as the top-20 in six more countries including Canada, the United States and Australia. To promote the song, Rihanna performed at the 2nd iHeartRadio Music Awards on March 29, 2015. A accompanying music video was released on July 2, 2015.


title: Bitch Better Have My Money

text: "Bitch Better Have My Money" was written by Jamille Pierre, Bibi Bourelly, Rihanna, Travis Scott, Kanye West and Ebony "WondaGurl" Oshunrinde and produced by Deputy, Scott, West and WondaGurl.


title: Bitch Better Have My Money

text: The song was conceived in producer Deputy's apartment and consisted of a simple beat. Development continued when the producer had a session with writer Bibi Bourelly, who went into the recording studio and began to freestyle the initial lyrics. The first lyric of her freestyle was "bitch better have my money" which later became the title of the completed song. Following the completion of the song, Deputy believed that Rihanna would be the artist for it, stating "This is definitely something that Rihanna needs to sing. We was trying to figure out who could do it because Bibi killed it. Not anyone could just sing this record."


title: Bitch Better Have My Money

text: After a certain period of time, Bourelly had a recording session with both West and Rihanna; it was the first time they heard the track and they both reacted positively to it. When they finally got a hold on the song, some changes were made to it. They were done by Scott, WondaGurl and West; all of them added an additional part by the end of the song. When Deputy was asked whether he was bothered by the adjustments that were made, he responded, "I thought it was cool. I didn't have any negative feelings to it. Rih[anna] loved it and it was really about what she wants."


title: Bitch Better Have My Money

text: "Bitch Better Have My Money" is a trap song with a length of three minutes and thirty-nine seconds. According to Jim Farber of "New York Daily News" the song is reminiscent of the works by West, particularly the half-sang and half-rapped vocals. To deliver the vocals, she uses her Caribbean accent. Farber also called the song "shadowy" and "repetitive" and according to him results in being more a riff than a full song. "Billboard" Jason Lipshutz found the song similar to Rihanna's 2013 single "Pour It Up". Brittany Spanos of "Rolling Stone" noted that the song differs drastically from her previous 2015 single, "FourFiveSeconds", which featured a "gentle, acoustic tone". Similarly, Miles Raymer of "Entertainment Weekly" wrote that, "'Bitch Better Have My Money' is a trap-influenced banger that's a complete 180° difference from the "countryfied" sound of 'FourFiveSeconds'."


title: Bitch Better Have My Money

text: Lewis Corner of Digital Spy noted that the track represents a sequel to the music material present on Rihanna 2012 seventh studio album, "Unapologetic", "with its swaggering hip-hop heartbeat and Rihanna's braggadocio callouts". Lyrically, the song features an angrier tone than "Rihanna's usual oeuvre", "Every time I drop I am the only thing y'all playing, Don't act like you forgot, I call the shots" proclaimed along with "machine-gun ad-libs". Lipshutz noted that the lyrical content of the song sounded inspired by Beyoncé's 2014 single "Flawless".


title: Bitch Better Have My Money

text: On March 25, 2015, via her official Twitter account, Rihanna posted, "rihannaNOW.com #R8 #BBHMM #March26". Subsequently, she posted the artwork of the song on her official Instagram account. The black-and-white cover features Rihanna with highlighted brows while wearing a motorcycle jacket; John Walker of MTV News assumed that it was shot by Dutch photographer duo Inez and Vinoodh, who did both the cover and the music video for "FourFiveSeconds". The title of the song is placed on the left side and is written in Braille.


title: Bitch Better Have My Money

text: According to Morwenna Ferrier of "The Guardian", "Rihanna's new image screams Madonna circa-"Vision Quest" meets Paolo Roversi meets Frida Kahlo meets Boy George." Later that day, a snippet of the song was released via the Dubsmash application. On March 26, the song was made available for digital download via the iTunes Store. Subsequently, an edited version of the song was released under the title, "B**** Better Have My Money". The song was initially set to appear on "Anti" but was removed from the track listing, along with "FourFiveSeconds" and "American Oxygen".


title: Bitch Better Have My Money

text: "Rolling Stone" wrote, "Her evolving sound has gotten much harder since her dance pop debut, and 'Bitch Better Have My Money' may be her hardest yet." The same magazine later ranked "Bitch Better Have My Money" at number 45 on its year-end list to find the 50 best songs of 2015. Jeff Pearson of "Paste" thought that the single is a "classic RiRi" in which she sounds confident and in control "more than ever". Stacy-Ann Ellis of "Vibe" described the song as "badass" and "bossy", "she confidently claims her place as the game's top shot-caller, and by song's end, you'll be feeling the same way."


title: Bitch Better Have My Money

text: "Billboard"s Lipshutz gave the song three out of five stars and wrote that although the song is not a right successor to Rihanna's previous [lead] singles such as "We Found Love" and "Only Girl (In the World)", it "is designed to make clubs rumble and arenas explode, and will successfully do so over the next year and beyond". In the same vein, Digital Spy's Corner also gave the song three out of five stars. Although Rihanna announced that she wanted her next project to feel soulful, regarding "Bitch Better Have My Money", he thought "It's a song for the club for sure, but as for that real and soulful sound? Maybe it's still to come." Corner and Amy Davidson, for the same publication, ranked the single at number three on their Playlist: 10 tracks you need to hear for the date March 31 and wrote, Bitch Better Have My Money' determines that the singer's new album will still bring plenty of fun."


title: Bitch Better Have My Money

text: After selling 108,000 copies in its first four days of release, "Bitch Better Have My Money" debuted at number 23 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 chart for the issue dated April 11, 2015. The following week, the song sold additional 133,000 copies, a 22% gain in sales compared to its debut week, and peaked at number four on the US Digital Songs chart. The same week, it only moved four places to number 19 on the "Billboard" Hot 100, due to the track being made available on Spotify two weeks after its digital download release, on April 8, 2015. Over its next 12 weeks on the chart, the song fluctuated in and out of the top 20 until the release of its music video in July 2015 led to a 65% spike in sales and 84% increase in streaming, fueling a leap from number 28 to its new peak of number 15; it sold 43,000 digital downloads and was streamed 10 million times in the United States that week.


title: Bitch Better Have My Money

text: Additionally, for the week dated June 20, 2015, the song peaked at number six on the US Rhythmic Chart and for the week dated July 18, it peaked at number five on the US Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart. The single also topped the US Dance Club Songs chart (dated June 27) and became Rihanna's 23rd number one in the chart's nearly 39-year history; she now trails only Madonna for the most No. 1s on the chart. On June 30, 2015, "Bitch Better Have My Money" was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) denoting sales of over 1,000,000 digital copies.


title: Bitch Better Have My Money

text: In Canada, "Bitch Better Have My Money" debuted at number 29 on the Canadian Hot 100 for the week dated April 11. The next week it reached its peak of number 11 on the chart, for the issue dated April 18. The single also peaked at number 41 on the Canadian CHR/Top 40 Airplay.


title: Bitch Better Have My Money

text: In Australia, "Bitch Better Have My Money" debuted and peaked at number 14 on the singles chart for the week dated April 12, 2015. Furthermore, it peaked at number five on the Australian Urban Singles Chart. The single was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA), denoting sales of over 35,000 digital copies. In New Zealand, it debuted and peaked at number 10 for the week dated April 6. It became Rihanna's 32nd top-ten single on the chart. "Bitch Better Have My Money" was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand (RIANZ) for selling over 7,500 copies in the country.


title: Bitch Better Have My Money

text: In the United Kingdom, "Bitch Better Have My Money" debuted at number 29 on the UK Singles Chart for the week ending date March 29, 2015. The same week, it debuted at number six on the UK R&B Chart, and peaked at number five the next week. On April 5, 2015, the single peaked at number 27 on the UK Singles Chart.


title: Bitch Better Have My Money

text: "Bitch Better Have My Money" was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI), denoting sales of over 400,000 digital copies in the country. In Ireland, the song debuted at number 39 on the Irish Singles Chart for the week dated April 2. On April 23, in its fourth-week on the chart, it reached a new peak of 32. "Bitch Better Have My Money" was a commercial success in several countries of continental Europe, it reached the top-ten on 7 national charts and the top-twenty in 4 more countries.


title: Bitch Better Have My Money

text: In Sweden, the song debuted at number 38 on April 17, 2015, and it peaked at number 14 the next week. It stayed on the chart for 21 weeks total and was certified platinum by the Swedish Recording Industry Association (GLF) denoting sales of over 40,000 digital copies in the country and double platinum in Poland, by the Polish Society of the Phonographic Industry (ZPAV), denoting sales of 40,000 digital copies in the country. "Bitch Better Have My Money" debuted and peaked at number 25 on the Danish Singles Chart on April 24. It stayed on the chart for four consecutive weeks and was certified platinum by IFPI Denmark for shipping over 90,000 copies of the song in the country. The single was also certified gold in Italy, by the Federation of the Italian music industry (FIMI), denoting sales/streams of 25,000 copies. "Bitch Better Have My Money" was also successful in France, where it debuted and peaked at number three on the singles chart. It stayed at number three for 2 consecutive weeks and it charted for 35 weeks total. Finally, the track reached number one in Finland, number six in Spain and number seven in Switzerland.


title: Bitch Better Have My Money

text: The video was directed by Rihanna and Megaforce, with cinematography from Benoît Debie, and was filmed in April 2015 in Los Angeles, with the boat scene being filmed at Marina Del Rey.


title: Bitch Better Have My Money

text: The official trailer for the music video was released on June 28, 2015, at the BET Awards. The trailer captured a cryptic storyline: a rich woman, identity unknown, gets herself ready in her lavish apartment, clothes on and purse gathered in her arms, kisses her partner goodbye, and enters a dimly-lit elevator. As this occurs, Rihanna, wearing dark makeup, pulls up to the apartment complex at night. She opens up her car's trunk and pulls out a large suitcase. Struggling with the suitcase, she too enters the elevator. In one scene, the elevator doors close on the two standing women. In the next, the doors open and Rihanna struts out, alone, except for her heavy suitcase. The full video, which is seven minutes long, was released on Thursday, July 2, 2015, and was rated MA for graphic violence, nudity, and adult language. In France, the music video is broadcast after 10:30 pm with a warning "Not advised for kids under 12 years old" (in French "déconseillé aux moins de 12 ans"). The video stars Rihanna, Mads Mikkelsen, Eric Roberts, Rachel Roberts, Sita Abellán and Sanam.


title: Bitch Better Have My Money

text: The actual plot of the video involves Rihanna and friends intoxicating and then later sadistically torturing the woman (Rachel Roberts), and also her corrupt accountant husband (Mads Mikkelsen), who has been stealing money. A video was later posted on Metro.com of deleted scenes from the video, showing the torture of the accountant in greater detail. The music video was inspired by Rihanna's real life experience with an accountant who cheated her of her money.


title: Bitch Better Have My Money

text: On November 18, 2016, it surpassed 100 million views, becoming the first age-restricted Vevo Certified video to reach that mark.


title: Bitch Better Have My Money

text: Rihanna performed "Bitch Better Have My Money" for the first time at the 2nd iHeartRadio Music Awards on March 29, 2015. During the performance, Rihanna wore a short black dress accompanied with a green Versace coat and high boots of the same color. The performance featured her emerging from a helicopter; after delivering the lyrics she left the microphone and "broke out into dance". "Billboard"s Stacy Anderson praised Rihanna's confidence during the performance and noted that the, "track's confrontational lyrics were delivered in full, the several profane moments bleeped live." Will Robinson of "Entertainment Weekly" labeled the performance as one of the five best things that happened during the award ceremony. Regarding the performance, Paul Thompson of "Rolling Stone" wrote, "there were no giggles, winks or nods at the camera, making the performance a welcome piece of method acting in a night hampered by production snafus and anticlimaxes. "New York Daily News" praised Rihanna's entrance on stage and wrote "As usual, the singing sensation did not disappoint and delivered a high-energy, show-stopping performance!" Carolyn Menyes of "Music Times" also praised the singer's performance, stating that "Her vocal performance was strong, as she barked out the lyrics", adding that "she was filled with attitude and swagger." On April 1, Rihanna pranked Jimmy Kimmel by creeping into his house on April Fools' Day and went into his bedroom to play "Bitch Better Have My Money". On April 4, 2015, Rihanna performed the song at the Final Four of the March Madness 2015, which was held in Indianapolis, Indiana. On May 16, 2015, Rihanna performed the song on "Saturday Night Live" as her fifth appearance on the show. On September 9, 2015, Ellen DeGeneres lip synced the song on "The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon" as part of a standard comedy bit with host Jimmy Fallon. Rihanna performed the song during the 2016 MTV Video Music Awards in a medley with "Pour It Up" and "Needed Me". On April 20, 2018, Ecca Vandal covered the song for Triple J's "Like a Version".


title: Psycho-Pass 3

text: Psycho-Pass 3 is a 2019 anime series in the "Psycho-Pass" franchise that serves as a direct sequel to the 2014 series "Psycho-Pass 2" and aired in Japan's Fuji TV's Noitamina from October 24 to December 12, 2019. It was first revealed in March 2019. Besides featuring characters from previous series, "Psycho-Pass" and "Psycho-Pass 2", the anime focuses on new characters including Yūki Kaji's Arata Shindo and Yūichi Nakamura's Kei Mikhail Ignatov with Akira Amano having conceived their designs. Naoyoshi Shiotani returns to direct the series at Production I.G. Set in a dystopian future where society is overseen by technology known as the Sibyl System, the story focuses on Shindo and Ignatov, two policemen.


title: Psycho-Pass 3

text: Director Naoyoshi Shiotani conceived the series in 2015 when coming up with a "Psycho-Pass" series that primarily relies on a new cast. Much attention was provided to the new main duo a well as the series' social commentary in regards to immigrants in Japan. The series was adapted into a manga and was followed by the movie sequel "" (2020) which closes the main arc. Critical response to the series was largely positive for the handling of several themes and dynamic of Shindo and Ignatov.


title: Psycho-Pass 3

text: The Public Safety Bureau assigns newly-appointed agents, Arata Shindo and Kei Mikhail Ignatov, to Unit One now led by Mika Shimotsuki. The Enforcers, consisting of Tenma Todoroki, Kazumichi Irie, Mao Kisaragi, and Sho Hinakawa, meet them and are surprised by how Arata is able to investigate people through his Mental Trace. During the story, Unit One investigates a case involving idol Karina Komiya who is voted as the new Governor of Tokyo. As they track criminals trying to kill her, Unit One meet the Suppressing Action Department of the Foreign Affairs Operations Department, a branch overseeing international crimes such as smuggling and terrorism. Led by Frederica Hanashiro, the Ministry give the protagonists information about criminals labeled as foxes from the secret criminal organization Bifrost.


title: Psycho-Pass 3

text: During the investigation of a cult, Ignatov and Kisarage are kidnapped by its leader, who is the son of a Bifrost member. Ignatov's wife, Maiko Maya Stronskaya, is taken hostage too. As the leader aims to exploit Ignatov, he is instead murdered by Maiko. This causes Maiko to become a latent criminal and is kept hidden from her life. In the outcome, Bifrost is reduced to three members who have been plotting against each other too with Shindo's late father revealed to be one of them. Unit One joins forces with the Ministry to stop Bifrost and Shindo is chosen as Komiya's bodyguard, fearing her to be the next target. Ignatov meets Shizuka Homura from Bifrost who offers his wife's recovery at the cost of his aid. Meanwhile, former inspector Akane Tsunemori remains imprisoned for an unknown crime but claims that she chose Shindo as her successor to solve a crime as both of them are immune to the Sybil System's value. The series ends on a cliffhanger as Koichi Azusawa from Bifrost arranges a car accident to attack former Unit One member Yayoi Kunizuka. The series' plot continues in the film "".


title: Psycho-Pass 3

text: Director Naoyoshi Shiotani came up with the idea of "Psycho Pass 3" in 2015 after productions of the series' 2015 film, "", was made. The director claimed the franchise should use new characters for the sequel "Psycho-Pass 3" and the 2018 film trilogy "" was created to fill gap between the movie and the third television series. The trilogy was also a test case for "Psycho-Pass 3" in terms of production. Shiotani entrusted the writers Tow Ubukata, Makoto Fukami and Ryō Yoshigami with handling the new cast. Fukami and Yoshikami wrote the script while Ubukata was in charge of the composition. Fukami was surprised with the ongoing dynamic between Shiotani and Ubukata as despite the new story sharing a new cast, the series still felt like "Psycho-Pass".


title: Psycho-Pass 3

text: He clarified that every episode of the new series should be based on a different theme based on Ubukata's writing and there are a few characters not included in the original series composition that were added later on. Special attention was given to Shindo's characterization because he could easily come across as an unlikable character based on how he controls conversations but is also still caring. Ubukata wanted the two main characters to be written solely by Fukami. Since it was composed of three parts, economics, politics, and religion, the acoustic staff said, "Each one is like a movie version." Shiotani was able to create a composition with three themes and stick to the acoustic composition that can only be achieved with the 60-minute format. The sound team gave us finish on a tight schedule. Although the series is centered in a future Japan, Shiotani wanted to depict the issues from the modern Japan, most notably the poor treatment given to immigrants.


title: Psycho-Pass 3

text: Yūki Kaji voiced Shindo in the series. Upon seeing his character for the first time, Kaji found him stylish. Kaji was overjoyed when he got the role of Shindo during the audition, having watched the previous "Psycho-Pass" works and being a fan of them. Kaji enjoyed the character's relationship with Ignatov due to their close relationship and Shindo's style of interacting with the characters from previous seasons. Kaji laughed when first reading the script because he found the cast unique and looked forward to the characters' growth during the series. He had mixed feelings about Shindo wielding the Dominator due to the violence it can cause.


title: Psycho-Pass 3

text: Ignatov's voice actor, Yūichi Nakamura, also enjoyed the dynamic between Shindo and his character and wished the two were brothers. The handling of the characters' relationships with their underlings also appealed to him. Nakamura had no clear understanding of Shindo and Ignatov because their pasts are not explored in the early episodes and he looked forward to the development of the series.


title: Psycho-Pass 3

text: The series was first announced in March 2019 by the official website of "Psycho-Pass", claiming it would air on Fuji TV's Noitamina programming block. Outside of Japan, the series made its debut on Amazon Prime Video, revealing a total of eight episodes, each one being 45 minutes long.


title: Psycho-Pass 3

text: The opening theme is "Q-vism" by Who-ya Extended. Who-ya Extended was very proud that his work can be involved in these historical works as the theme song. He mentioned "Q-vism" gives mysterious feeling of gratitude and a sense of responsibility continues. He sang with respect for the series that has been spun so far, and the expectations for this new work. Lastly, he envisioned determination into the feeling of loneliness and speed hoping to reach as many people as a possible. The ending theme is "bullet" by Cö shu Nie. Miku Nakamura from the band said she was a fan of "Psycho-Pass" herself and was honored to do thing theme. The rudder was held by themselves. They had a distorted "bullet" that can be released at any time.


title: Psycho-Pass 3

text: The series was released in for DVD and Blu-ray volume from January 22 to April 15, 2020. A manga adaptation of the series written by Saru Hashino was serialized in Shueisha's "Shonen Jump+" website and app from October 30, 2019 to August 28, 2021. A manga adaptation of the "First Inspector" was serialized in the same website and app from October 30, 2021 to July 30, 2022. Following the anime's cliffhanger finale, Production I.G produced a film, "", released in 2020. The cast's image was used to produce clothing by the suit brand Difference, which is produced by Konaka Co.


title: Psycho-Pass 3

text: "Psycho-Pass 3" has received better treatment than its immediate predecessor with focus given for the new characters and a script that tackled such modern day topics as immigration, corporate financial mismanagement and genetic manipulation. Despite being the third television series involving the "Psycho-Pass" series, Anime News Network found it accessible due to how the cast react to Sybil System while quickly establishing its status quo, finding the pilot "solid". Comic Book Resources regarded the series at delivering appealing sci-fi action to returning fans by delivering both new protagonists who stand out despite the fame of previous heroes. "CinemaHolic" enjoyed how the series focuses on multiple cases that appear to be connected while also exploring not only the new cast but also returning.


title: Psycho-Pass 3

text: Ninotaku found him to be a well-developed character because he fits with the other characters created by Gen Urobuchi, especially Akane Tsunemori. Kila from Sequential Planet noted that the usage of new protagonists was a risky move for the franchise due to the popularity of Kogami and Tsunemori. Nevertheless, she believed that both Shindo and Ignatov were likable characters, enjoying the former the most for how his cheerful personality stood in high contrast to the dark narrative. Due to the focus the duo is given, the reviewer believed Shindo and Ignatov managed to be Kogami and Tsunemori's successors. Shindo and Ignatov's roles were praised by TheCinemaHolic due to how they fit within the supporting characters and brief elements from the past lives imply further depths such as the latter being a victim of xenophobia. Shindo was also praised by Anime News Network because his mentalist skill adds a new element to investigation and gives the series an air of mystery.


title: Psycho-Pass 3

text: There was comment in regards to the anime's ending. Although Anime News Network was disappointed by the lack of closure for the returning cast, the focus given on Shindo and Ignatov earned positive responses for the build up they are given in terms or not whether they will betray one another. As Ignatov is the primary subject of this, the website claims he has a bigger character arc than his best friend. Since the television series ends on a cliffhanger there were multiple mysteries in regards to the cast that website Comic Book Resources look forward to be resolved in "First Inspector". "The Cinema Holic" was more critical, finding the experience "incomplete" as a result of the narrative not reaching a proper ending and relying on the movie sequel.


title: Humber

text: The Humber is a large tidal estuary on the east coast of Northern England. It is formed at Trent Falls, Faxfleet, by the confluence of the tidal rivers Ouse and Trent. From there to the North Sea, it forms part of the boundary between the East Riding of Yorkshire on the north bank and North Lincolnshire on the south bank. Although the Humber is an estuary from the point at which it is formed, many maps show it as the River Humber.


title: Humber

text: Below Trent Falls, the Humber passes the junction with the Market Weighton Canal on the north shore, the confluence of the River Ancholme on the south shore; between North Ferriby and South Ferriby and under the Humber Bridge; between Barton-upon-Humber on the south bank and Kingston upon Hull on the north bank (where the River Hull joins), then meets the North Sea between Cleethorpes on the Lincolnshire side and the long and thin headland of Spurn Head to the north.


title: Humber

text: Ports on the Humber include the Port of Hull, the Port of Grimsby and the Port of Immingham; there are lesser ports at New Holland and North Killingholme Haven. The estuary is navigable for the largest of deep-sea vessels. Inland connections for smaller craft are extensive but handle only a quarter of the goods traffic handled in the Thames.


title: Humber

text: Although it is now an estuary, the Humber had a much longer freshwater course during the Ice Age, extending across what was the dry bed of the North Sea.


title: Humber

text: The Humber features regularly in medieval British literature. In the Welsh Triads, the Humber is one of the three principal rivers of Britain (together with the Thames and the River Severn) and is continually mentioned throughout the Brut y Brenhinedd as a boundary between the southern kingdom (Lloegyr) and various northern kingdoms. In Geoffrey of Monmouth's 12th-century chronicle (), the Humber is named for "Humber the Hun", an invader who drowned there during battle in the earliest days of the chronicle.


title: Humber

text: The Humber remained an important boundary throughout the Anglo-Saxon period, separating Northumbria from the southern kingdoms. The name "Northumbria" derives from the Anglo-Saxon (plural) = "the people north of the Humber".


title: Humber

text: The Humber is recorded with the abbreviation "Fl. Abi" (The Abus river, ) in Ptolemy's Geographia, discharging into the German Ocean (the North Sea) south of Ocelum Promontorium (Spurn Head). Ptolemy also gives the Iron Age tribes of the area as the Coritani south of the Humber and the Parisi to the north.


title: Humber

text: In the 1719 novel Robinson Crusoe, the eponymous protagonist leaves England on a ship departing from The Humber.


title: Humber

text: On 23 August 1921, the British airship R38 crashed into the estuary near Hull, killing 44 of the 49 crew on board.


title: Humber

text: From 1974 to 1996, the areas now known as the East Riding of Yorkshire, North Lincolnshire and North East Lincolnshire constituted the county of Humberside. The Humber, from 1996, forms a boundary between the East Riding of Yorkshire (to the north) and North Lincolnshire and North East Lincolnshire, to the south.


title: Humber

text: The estuary's only modern crossing is the Humber Bridge, which was the longest single-span suspension bridge in the world from its construction in 1981 until 1998. It is now the eleventh longest.


title: Humber

text: Before the bridge was built, a series of paddle steamers operated from the Corporation Pier railway station at the Victoria Pier in Hull to the railway pier in New Holland. Steam ferries started in 1841, and in 1848 were purchased by the Manchester, Sheffield and Lincolnshire Railway. They, and their successors, ran the ferry until the bridge opened in 1981. Railway passenger and car traffic continued to use the pier until the end of ferry operations.


title: Humber

text: The line of the bridge is similar to an ancient ferry route from Hessle to Barton upon Humber, which is noted in the "Domesday Book" and in a charter of 1281. The ferry was recorded as still operating in 1856, into the railway era. The Humber was then across.


title: Humber

text: The Humber Forts were built in the mouth of the river for the First World War. Planned in 1914, their construction started in 1915 and they were not completed until 1919. A coastal battery at Easington, "Fort Goodwin" or "Kilnsea Battery", faced the Bull Sands Fort. They were also garrisoned during the Second World War, and were finally abandoned for military use in 1956.


title: Humber

text: Fort Paull is further upstream, a Napoleonic-era emplacement replaced in the early 20th century by "Stallingborough Battery" opposite Sunk Island.


title: Humber

text: Graham Boanas, a Hull man, is believed to be the first man to succeed in wading across the Humber since ancient Roman times. The feat, in August 2005, was attempted to raise cash and awareness for the medical research charity, DebRA. He started his trek on the north bank at Brough; four hours later, he emerged on the south bank at Whitton. He is tall and took advantage of a very low tide. He replicated this achievement on the television programme "Top Gear" (Series 10 Episode 6) when he beat James May who drove an Alfa Romeo 159 around the inland part of the estuary in a race without using the Humber Bridge.


title: Humber

text: On Saturday 26 August 1911, Alice Maud Boyall became the first woman to swim the Humber. Boyall, then aged 19 and living in Hull, was the Yorkshire swimming champion. She crossed the Humber from Hull to New Holland Pier swimming the distance in 50 minutes, 6 minutes slower than the existing men's record.


title: Humber

text: Since 2011 Warners Health have organised the 'Warners Health Humber Charity Business Swim'. Twelve swimmers from companies across the Yorkshire region train and swim in an ellipse from the south bank to the north bank of the river under the Humber Bridge over a total distance of approximately . Since then, an organised group crossing at the Humber Bridge has become an annual event, with a small number of pre-selected swimmers crossing in a 'pod' which remains close together, in aid of Humber Rescue.


title: Humber

text: In 2019 competitive open water swimmer Richard Royal became the first person to attempt and complete a two-way swim across the river, beginning and finishing at Hessle foreshore, with Barton on the south bank as the mid-way point, covering a total of 4,085 m. Royal holds the record for the fastest one-way swim across the Humber (35 minutes 11 seconds) and the fastest two-way swim (1 hour, 13 minutes, 46 seconds). He raised over £900 for Humber Rescue, who provided safety support during the swim.


title: Humber

text: Most European hydronyms are Celtic in origin and numerous Celtic or Pre-Celtic derivations for "Humber" have been suggested.


title: Humber

text: The name "Humber" may be a Brittonic formation containing "-[a]mb-ṛ", a variant of the element "*amb" meaning "moisture", with the prefix "*hu-" meaning "good, well" (c.f. Welsh "hy-", in "Hywel", etc).


title: Humber

text: The first element may also be "*hū-", with connotations of "seethe, boil, soak", of which a variant forms the name of the adjoining River Hull.


title: Humber

text: The estuary appears in some Latin sources as (A name used by Edmund Spenser in "The Faerie Queene"). This is possibly a Latinisation of the Celtic form (Welsh for river mouth or estuary) but is erroneously given as a name for both the Humber and The Ouse as one continuous watercourse. Both and may record an older Indo-European word for water or river, (as in the 'Five Rivers' of the Punjab). An alternative derivation may be from the Latin verb meaning "to hide, to conceal". The successive name "Humbre"/"Humbri"/"Umbri" may continue the meaning via the Latin verb also meaning "to cover with shadows".


title: Humber

text: Many fish live in and also migrate along the Humber when returning from the sea to their spawning grounds in Yorkshire, Lincolnshire and Derbyshire. Salmon, sole, cod, eel, flounder, plaice, sprat, lamprey and sand goby have all been caught within the estuary. The Humber is also a good place for over-wintering birds and is a good breeding ground for bitterns, marsh harriers, little terns and avocets. It forms part of the Severn-Trent flyway, a route used by migratory birds to cross Great Britain.


title: Humber

text: In 2019 the Yorkshire Wildlife Trust and the University of Hull re-introduced the river oyster into the Humber after a sixty-year absence.


title: Synchronization gear

text: A synchronization gear (also known as a gun synchronizer or interrupter gear) was a device enabling a single-engine tractor configuration aircraft to fire its forward-firing armament through the arc of its spinning propeller without bullets striking the blades. This allowed the aircraft, rather than the gun, to be aimed at the target.


title: Synchronization gear

text: There were many practical problems, mostly arising from the inherently imprecise nature of an automatic gun's firing, the great (and varying) velocity of the blades of a spinning propeller, and the very high speed at which any gear synchronizing the two had to operate. In practice, all known gears worked on the principle of actively triggering each shot, in the manner of a semi-automatic weapon.


title: Synchronization gear

text: Design and experimentation with gun synchronization had been underway in France and Germany in 1913–1914, following the ideas of August Euler, who seems to have been the first to suggest mounting a fixed armament firing in the direction of flight (in 1910). However, the first practical—if far from reliable—gear to enter operational service was that fitted to the Fokker Eindecker fighters, which entered squadron service with the German Air Service in mid-1915. The success of the Eindecker led to numerous gun synchronization devices, culminating in the reasonably reliable hydraulic British Constantinesco gear of 1917. By the end of the war German engineers were well on the way to perfecting a gear using an electrical rather than a mechanical or hydraulic link between the engine and the gun, with the gun being triggered by a solenoid rather than by a mechanical "trigger motor".


title: Synchronization gear

text: From 1918 to the mid-1930s the standard armament for a fighter aircraft remained two synchronized rifle-calibre machine guns, firing forward through the arc of the propeller. During the late 1930s, however, the main role of the fighter was increasingly seen as the destruction of large, all-metal bombers, for which this armament was inadequately light. Since it was impractical to try to fit more than one or two extra guns in the limited space available in the front of a single-engine aircraft's fuselage, this led to an increasing proportion of the armament being mounted in the wings, firing outside the arc of the propeller. The conclusive redundancy of synchronization gears did not, however, finally come until the introduction of jet propulsion and the absence of a propeller for guns to be synchronized with.


title: Synchronization gear

text: A mechanism to enable an automatic weapon to fire between the blades of a whirling propeller is usually called an interrupter or synchronizer gear. Both these terms are more or less misleading, at least insofar as explaining what happens when the gear functions.


title: Synchronization gear

text: The term "interrupter" implies that the gear pauses, or "interrupts" the fire of the gun at the point where one of the blades of the propeller passes in front of its muzzle. The difficulty is that even the relatively slowly revolving propellers of First World War aircraft typically turned twice or even three times for each shot a contemporary machine gun could fire. A two-bladed propeller would therefore obstruct the gun six times every firing cycle of the gun, a four-bladed one twelve times. Another way of putting this is that an "interrupted" gun would have been "blocked" more than forty times every second, while it was firing at a rate in the region of seven rounds per second. Unsurprisingly, the designers of so-called interrupter gears found this too problematic to be seriously attempted, as the gaps between "interruptions" would have been too short to allow the gun to fire at all.


title: Synchronization gear

text: And yet, "synchronization", in the usual sense of the word, between the rate of fire of a machine gun ("firing as such, in a fully automatic manner") and the revolutions per minute of a spinning aircraft propeller is also a conceptual impossibility. A machine gun normally fires a constant number of rounds a minute, and while this may be boosted by, for instance, strengthening and increasing the tension on a return spring, or redirecting the gasses produced by each firing, it cannot be varied at will while the gun is operating. On the other hand, the propeller of an aircraft, especially before the advent of the constant-speed propeller, turned at widely differing rates of revolution per minute, depending on the throttle setting, and whether the aircraft was climbing, flying level, or diving. Even if it had been feasible to pick a particular point on an aircraft engine's tachometer at which a machine gun's cyclic rate would permit it to fire through the propeller arc, this would be very limiting.


title: Synchronization gear

text: It has been pointed out that any mechanism that achieved the feat of firing between the whirling blades of a propeller without striking them could be described as "interrupting" the fire of the gun (to the extent that it no longer actually works as an automatic weapon at all), and also as "synchronizing", or "timing" its fire to coincide with the revolutions of the propeller.


title: Synchronization gear

text: First, a method of determining the position of the propeller at a given instant was required. Typically, a cam, driven either directly from the propeller shaft itself, or from some part of the drive train revolving at the same speed as the propeller, generated a series of impulses at the same rate as the propeller's revolutions. There were exceptions to this. Some gears placed the cam within the gun trigger mechanism itself, and the firing impulses were sometimes timed to occur at every two or three revolutions of the propeller, or, especially in the case of hydraulic or electric gears, at the rate of two or more for each revolution. The diagrams in this section assume, for simplicity's sake, one impulse for one revolution, so that each synchronized round is "aimed" at a single spot on the propeller disc.


title: Synchronization gear

text: The timing of each impulse had to be adjusted to coincide with a "safe" period, when the blades of the propeller were well out of the way, and this adjustment had to be checked at intervals, especially if the propeller was changed or refitted, as well as after a major engine overhaul. Faults in this adjustment (for example, a cam wheel slipping a millimetre or two, or a pushrod flexing) could well result in "every" bullet fired hitting the propeller, a worse result than if the gun was fired through the propeller with no control at all. The other main type of failure involved a break in the stream of firing impulses, usually due to the generator or linkages either jamming or breaking (or disintegrating). This simply meant the gun no longer fired, and was a common cause of synchronized guns "jamming".


title: Synchronization gear

text: The speed of the propeller, and thus the distance that it travelled between the firing of the gun and the arrival of the bullet at the propeller disc, varied as the rate of engine revolutions changed. Where muzzle velocity was very high, and the guns were sited well forward so that the bullets had a very short distance to reach the disc of the propeller, this difference could be largely ignored. But in the case of relatively low muzzle velocity weapons, or any gun sited well back from the propeller, the question could become critical, and in some cases the pilot had to consult his tachometer, taking care that his engine revolutions were within a "safe" range before firing, otherwise risking speedy destruction of his propeller.


title: Synchronization gear

text: The second requirement was for a gun that would reliably fire (or "interrupt" its fire) "exactly" when the gear "told" it to. Not all automatic weapons were equally amenable to synchronization. When it was ready to fire, a synchronized machine-gun ideally needed to have a round in the breech, the breech to be closed, and the action cocked (the so-called "closed bolt" position). The difficulty was that several widely used automatic weapons (notably the Lewis gun and the Italian Revelli) were triggered from an open bolt, so that there was typically a tiny but variable interval between the gun being triggered and its firing. This meant they could not be synchronized at all without extensive modification.


title: Synchronization gear

text: In practice it was found that it was necessary for the gun to be fired in semi-automatic mode. As the propeller revolved, a series of "firing impulses" was transmitted to the gun, effectively "pulling the trigger", to fire a single shot. The majority of these impulses would catch the gun in the course of its firing cycle, that is, when it was "busy" ejecting a spent round or loading a fresh one, and would be "wasted"; but eventually the firing cycle was completed, and the gun was ready to fire. It then had to "wait" for the next impulse from the gear, and on receiving this it fired. This delay between being ready to fire and actually firing is what slowed the rate of fire in comparison with a free-firing machine gun, which fires the moment it is ready to do so; but provided the gear functioned correctly, the gun could fire fairly rapidly between the whirling propeller blades without striking them.


title: Synchronization gear

text: Some other machine-guns, such as the Austrian Schwarzlose and the American Marlin, proved less than perfectly adapted to synchronization, although eventually predictable "single shot" firing was achieved, typically by modifying the trigger mechanism to emulate "closed bolt" firing. Most weapons that were successfully synchronized (at least in the First World War period) were (like the German Parabellum and Spandau guns and the British Vickers) based on the original Maxim gun of 1884, a closed bolt weapon operated by barrel recoil. Before these distinctions were fully understood, much time was wasted on attempts to synchronize unsuitable weapons.


title: Synchronization gear

text: Even a closed bolt weapon needed reliable ammunition. If the primer in a cartridge is faulty to the extent of delaying the firing of the gun for a tiny fraction of a second (quite a common case in practice with mass-produced ammunition) this is of little consequence in the case of a gun in use by infantry on the ground, but in the case of a synchronized "aircraft" gun such a delay can produce a rogue firing, sufficiently "out of time" for it to risk hitting the propeller. A very similar problem could arise where the mass of a special round (such as an incendiary or explosive one) was different enough to produce a substantial difference in muzzle velocity. This was compounded by the additional risk to the integrity of the propeller due to the nature of the round.


title: Synchronization gear

text: The "trigger motor" could theoretically take two forms. The earliest patent (Schneider 1913) assumed that the synchronization gear would periodically "prevent the gun from firing", thus operating as a true, or literal "interrupter". In practice all "real-life" synchronization gears, for which we have reliable technical details, directly "fired the gun": operating it as if it were a semi-automatic weapon rather than a completely automatic one.


title: Synchronization gear

text: The third requirement is for a linkage between the "machines" (engine and gun) to be synchronized. Many early gears used an intricate and inherently fragile bell crank and push rod linkage that could easily jam or otherwise malfunction, especially when required to work at higher speeds than it had been designed for. There were several alternative methods, including an oscillating rod, a flexible drive, a column of hydraulic fluid, a cable, or an electrical connection.


title: Synchronization gear

text: Generally, mechanical systems were inferior to hydraulic or electric ones, but none were ever entirely foolproof, and synchronization gears at best always remained liable to occasional failure. The "Luftwaffe" ace Adolf Galland in his memoir of the war period "The First and the Last" describes a serious faulty synchronization incident in 1941.


title: Synchronization gear

text: A pilot would usually only have the target in his sights for a fleeting moment, so a concentration of bullets was vital for achieving a "kill". Even flimsy First World War aircraft often took a surprisingly large number of hits to shoot down, later and larger aircraft were much harder propositions again. There were two obvious solutions—to fit a more efficient gun with a higher "cyclic rate of fire", or increase the "number of guns" carried. Both of these measures impinged on the question of synchronization.


title: Synchronization gear

text: Early synchronized guns of the 1915–1917 period had a rate of fire in the region of 400 rounds per minute. At this comparatively leisurely rate of fire a synchronizer can be geared down to deliver a single firing impulse every two or three turns of the propeller, rendering it more reliable without unduly slowing the rate of fire. To control a faster gun, with, for example, a cyclic rate of 800 or 1,000 rounds a minute, it was necessary to supply at least one impulse (if not two) for every rotation of the propeller, making it more liable to failure. The intricate mechanism of a mechanical linkage system, especially of the "push rod" type, could easily shake itself to pieces when driven at this rate.


title: Synchronization gear

text: The final version of the Fokker Eindecker, the Fokker E.IV, came with two lMG 08 "Spandau" machine guns; this armament became standard for all the German D-type scouts starting with the Albatros D.I. From the appearance of the Sopwith Camel and the SPAD S.XIII in mid-1917, right through to the end of gun synchronization in the 1950s, a twin gun installation was the international norm. Having the two guns firing simultaneously would obviously not have been a satisfactory arrangement. The guns needed to both fire "at the same point on the propeller disc", which means that one had to fire a tiny fraction of a second later than the other. This is why early gears designed for a single machine gun needed to be modified in order to control two guns satisfactorily. In practice, at least part of the mechanism had to be duplicated, even if the two weapons were not synchronized separately.


title: Synchronization gear

text: From the beginnings of practical flight, possible military uses for aircraft were considered, although not all writers came to positive conclusions on the subject. By 1913, military exercises in Britain, Germany, and France had confirmed the likely usefulness of aircraft for reconnaissance and surveillance, and this was seen by a few forward looking officers as implying the need to deter or destroy the enemy's reconnaissance machines. Thus aerial combat was by no means entirely unanticipated, and the machine gun was from the first seen as the most likely weapon to be used.


title: Synchronization gear

text: What was not generally agreed on was the superiority, at least for an attacking aircraft, of "fixed" forward-firing guns, aimed by pointing the aircraft at its target, rather than flexible weapons, aimed by a gunner other than the pilot.


title: Synchronization gear

text: As late as 1916, pilots of the DH.2 pusher fighter had problems convincing their senior officers that the forward-firing armament of their aircraft was more effective if it was fixed to fire forward rather than being flexible. On the other hand, August Euler had patented the idea of a fixed gun as early as 1910 – long before tractor aircraft became the norm, illustrating his patent with a diagram of a machine gun-armed "pusher".


title: Synchronization gear

text: Whether directly inspired by Euler's original patent or not, the first inventor to patent a method of firing forward through a "tractor" propeller was the Swiss engineer Franz Schneider, formerly with Nieuport, but by then working for the LVG Company in Germany.


title: Synchronization gear

text: The patent was published in the German aviation magazine "Flugsport" in 1914, meaning that the concept became public knowledge at an early stage. The linkage between the propeller and the gun is achieved with a spinning drive shaft, rather than a reciprocating rod. The impulses needed to operate the trigger, or in this case to prevent the trigger from operating, are produced by a cam wheel with two lobes at 180° apart situated at the gun itself since firing is to be interrupted by both blades of the propeller. No attempt was made (so far as is known) to build or test an actual operating gear based on this patent, which attracted little or no official interest at the time. The exact form of the synchronization gear fitted to Schneider's LVG E.I of 1915 and its relationship to this patent is unknown, since no plans survive.


title: Synchronization gear

text: Unlike the Schneider patent design, Saulnier's device was actually built, and may be considered the first practical synchronization gear to be tested. For the first time, the cam producing the to-and-fro movement conveying firing impulses to the gun is situated at the engine (driven in this case by the same spindle that operated the oil pump and the tachometer) and the impulses themselves are transmitted by a reciprocating rod rather than Schneider's rotating shaft. The idea of literally "interrupting" the firing of the gun gives way (probably as the result of experience) to the principle of pulling the trigger for each successive shot, like the action of a semi-automatic weapon.


title: Synchronization gear

text: It has been pointed out that this was a practical design that should have worked, but it did not. Apart from possible inconsistencies in the ammunition supplied, the real problem was that the gun used to trial the gear, a gas-operated Hotchkiss 8 mm (.323 in) machine gun borrowed from the French army, was fundamentally unsuitable for "semi-automatic" firing. Following initial unsuccessful tests, the gun had to be returned, and the experiments ceased.


title: Synchronization gear

text: When the pilots of the British Royal Flying Corps and Royal Naval Air Service arrived in France in 1914, they found themselves equipped with pusher aircraft too underpowered to carry machine guns and still have a chance of overtaking the enemy, and tractor aircraft which were difficult to arm effectively because the propeller was in the way. Among other attempts to get around this—such as firing obliquely past the arc of the propeller, and even efforts, doomed to failure, to synchronize the Lewis Gun which was at the time the "standard" British aircraft weapon— was the expedient of firing straight through the propeller arc and "hoping for the best". A high proportion of bullets would in the normal course pass the propeller without striking the blades, and each blade might typically take several hits before there was much danger of its failing, especially if it were bound with tape to prevent splintering (see diagram below, and illustration to the left).


title: Synchronization gear

text: After his early synchronization experiments failed, Saulnier pursued a method trusting rather less to statistics and luck by developing armoured propeller blades that would resist damage.


title: Synchronization gear

text: By March 1915, when French pilot Roland Garros approached Saulnier to arrange for this device to be installed on his Morane-Saulnier Type L, these had taken the form of steel wedges which "deflected" the bullets which might otherwise have damaged the propeller, or ricocheted dangerously. Garros himself and Jules Hue (his personal mechanic) are sometimes credited with testing and perfecting the "deflectors". This crude system worked after a fashion, although the wedges diminished the propeller's efficiency, and the not inconsiderable force of the impact of bullets on the deflector blades must have put undesirable stress on the engine's crankshaft.


title: Synchronization gear

text: On 1 April 1915 Garros shot down his first German aircraft, killing both the crew. On 18 April 1915, after two more victories, Garros was forced down (by ground fire) behind German lines. Although he was able to burn his aircraft, Garros was captured and his special propeller was sufficiently intact to be sent for evaluation by the "Inspektion der Fliegertruppen" ("Idflieg") at Döberitz near Berlin.


title: Synchronization gear

text: Inspection of the propeller from Garros' machine prompted Idflieg to attempt to copy it. Initial trials indicated that the deflector wedges would not be sufficiently strong to cope with the standard steel-jacketed German ammunition, and representatives from Fokker and Pfalz, two companies already building Morane copies (although, strangely, not Schneider's LVG concern) were invited to Döberitz to inspect the mechanism and suggest ways that its action might be duplicated.


title: Synchronization gear

text: Anthony Fokker was able to persuade Idflieg to arrange the loan of a Parabellum machine gun and ammunition so that "his" device could be tested, and for these items to be transported forthwith to the "Fokker Flugzeugwerke GmbH" at Schwerin (although probably "not" in his railway compartment or "under his arm", as he claimed after the war).