title: Spanish Revolution of 1936

text: In the agricultural field, federations of trade unions carried out this type of initiative, among which we can find the school of secretaries of Levante, the agricultural university of Moncada, the regional institute of agriculture and livestock, and the school of militants of Monzón.


title: Spanish Revolution of 1936

text: For informal education there were the libertarian athenaeums, or popular social centers in which different informative, cultural, or work tasks were developed. The athenaeums had a very strong tradition where anarchism was strong. However, in the war they even expanded into areas with few CNT roots. In some cases, such as Madrid, these athenaeums came to create schools, have health insurance, and promote other types of services.


title: Spanish Revolution of 1936

text: Various communities also carried out other initiatives, such as the creation of libraries, artistic activities, a cinema forum, theater groups, athenaeums, the foundation of its own academies, or nursery schools.


title: Spanish Revolution of 1936

text: The problems that had to be faced had two different roots: on the one hand, there were the problems typical of a war, to which others that had been dragging down the educational sphere can be added, and on the other, those typical of the rationalist school movement.


title: Spanish Revolution of 1936

text: The coincidence of the revolution and the Spanish Civil War meant that in the military field various initiatives avre developed coordinated by the new administrations established by the revolutionary wave, most of which would be unsuccessful.


title: Spanish Revolution of 1936

text: This was the first military initiative, developed on July 24, 1936, when the first voluntary militia, the Durruti Column, departed from Barcelona in the direction of Zaragoza. One of the last columns was the Los Aguiluchos Column, which left Barcelona on August 28 in the direction of Huesca. The columns of Barcelona and Lleida headed mainly towards Huesca and Zaragoza, and the Valencian ones towards Teruel, repeatedly besieging the three provincial capitals. At the beginning of September, the Carod-Ferrer Column arrived and was installed around Villanueva de Huerva.


title: Spanish Revolution of 1936

text: This operation lasted until the end of September, when faced with the imperative of the imminent Battle of Madrid some of the columns gave up their independence, subordinating themselves to the requirements of the government.


title: Spanish Revolution of 1936

text: The idea of an expedition to Mallorca had been present since July 19, when it was taken by the nationalists, along with Ibiza and Formentera. Menorca was the only island in the Balearic archipelago that remained in republican hands. The republicans managed to take back the islands of Ibiza, Formentera, and Cabrera, landing on the island of Mallorca in the area of Punta Amer and Porto Cristo. On September 5, Bayo's column began the withdrawal from Mallorca, which lasted until September 12, returning to Barcelona.


title: Spanish Revolution of 1936

text: The so-called "Mallorca landings" could be considered to have been definitively concluded when on September 20 Francoist troops from Mallorca occupied Formentera.


title: Spanish Revolution of 1936

text: The last major operation of the confederal militias took place in November 1936. Buenaventura Durruti, one of the main protagonists of the Revolution, died on November 20, 1936. The resistance of the popular militias, together with the reinforcements of the International Brigades, allowed Madrid to resist the attack of the rebels. In the subsequent defense of the city, numerous anarcho-syndicalists intervened, such as the column led by the Madrilenian Cipriano Mera.


title: Spanish Revolution of 1936

text: Criticism of the Spanish Revolution has primarily centered around allegations of coercion by anarchist participants (primarily in the rural collectives of Aragon), which critics charge ran contrary to libertarian organizational principles. Bolloten claims that CNT–FAI reports overplayed the voluntary nature of collectivization, and ignored the more widespread realities of coercion or outright force as the primary characteristic of anarchist organization.


title: Spanish Revolution of 1936

text: He also emphasizes the generally coercive nature of the war climate and anarchist military organization and presence in many portions of the countryside as being an element in the establishment of collectivization, even if outright force or blatant coercion was not used to bind participants against their will.


title: Spanish Revolution of 1936

text: This charge had previously been made by historian Ronald Fraser in his "Blood of Spain: An Oral History of the Spanish Civil War", who commented that direct force was not necessary in the context of an otherwise coercive war climate.


title: Spanish Revolution of 1936

text: Anarchist sympathizers counter that the presence of a "coercive climate" was an unavoidable aspect of the war that the anarchists cannot be fairly blamed for, and that the presence of deliberate coercion or direct force was minimal, as evidenced by a generally peaceful mixture of collectivists and individualist dissenters who had opted not to participate in collective organization. The latter sentiment is expressed by historian Antony Beevor in his "Battle for Spain: The Spanish Civil War, 1936–1939".


title: Spanish Revolution of 1936

text: Historian Graham Kelsey also maintains that the anarchist collectives were primarily maintained through libertarian principles of voluntary association and organization, and that the decision to join and participate was generally based on a rational and balanced choice made after the destabilization and effective absence of capitalism as a powerful factor in the region.


title: Spanish Revolution of 1936

text: There is also focus placed by pro-anarchist analysts on the many decades of organization and shorter period of CNT–FAI agitation that was to serve as a foundation for high membership levels throughout anarchist Spain, which is often referred to as a basis for the popularity of the anarchist collectives, rather than any presence of force or coercion that allegedly compelled unwilling persons to involuntarily participate.


title: Spanish Revolution of 1936

text: Michael Seidman has suggested there were other contradictions with workers' self-management during the Spanish Revolution. He points out that the CNT decided both that workers could be sacked for "laziness or immorality" and that all workers should "have a file where the details of their professional and social personalities will be registered". He also notes that the CNT Justice Minister, García Oliver, initiated the setting up of "labour camps", and that even the most principled anarchists, the Friends of Durruti, advocated "forced labour". However, Garcia Oliver explained his idealistic vision of justice in Valencia on December 31, 1936; common criminals would find redemption in prison through libraries, sport, and theatre. Political prisoners would achieve rehabilitation by building fortifications and strategic roads, bridges, and railways, and would receive decent wages. Garcia Oliver believed it made more sense for fascist lives to be saved than for them to be sentenced to death. This is in contrast to the policy of mass annihilation of political opponents enacted in the rebel zone during the war.


title: Spanish Revolution of 1936

text: Anarchist authors have sometimes understated the problems that the working class faced during the Spanish Revolution during the early period of the movement. For example, while Gaston Leval admits that the collectives imposed a "work discipline" that was "strict", he then restricts this comment to a mere footnote. Other radical commentators, however, have incorporated the limitations of the Spanish Revolution into their theories of anti-capitalist revolution. Gilles Dauvé, for example, uses the Spanish experience to argue that to transcend capitalism, workers must completely abolish both wage labour and capital rather than just self-manage them.


title: Amit Sial

text: Amit Sial (born 1 July 1975) is an Indian actor who primarily works in Hindi cinema. He has also worked in various series like Maharani, Jamtara - Sabka Number Ayega, Kathmandu Connection and Inside Edge.


title: Amit Sial

text: He appeared in "Charlie Ke Chakkar Mein", which he co-wrote and co-produced. His other recent acting includes "ISSAQ", a Hindi adaptation of "Romeo and Juliet", shot in Varanasi, in which the equivalent of Mercutio, and "Coffin Maker", set in Goa with Naseeruddin Shah, Ratna Pathak Shah, and Randeep Hooda. Sial worked for Indian producer Ekta Kapoor and Bejoy Nambiar's film "Kuku Mathur Ki Jhand Ho Gayi".


title: High school (North America)

text: High schools in North America are schools for secondary education, which may also involve intermediate education.


title: Toy Soldiers (song)

text: "Toy Soldiers" is a song by American singer Martika appearing on her 1988 eponymous debut album and released in the United States as the second single from the album on April 26, 1989. It was a number-one "Billboard" Hot 100 hit for two weeks in mid-1989. An edited version of the song is included in the imported version of the album "Toy Soldiers: The Best of Martika".


title: Toy Soldiers (song)

text: Martika wrote the song about a friend who was battling a cocaine addiction. "I was a little hesitant because I had only written two songs before and they were light songs. I came up to Michael and said I wanted to write about drugs. It was the first time I got the nerve to write about something that was scary for me to talk about, so I did." According to an episode of VH-1's "Pop-Up Video", in which "Toy Soldiers" was featured, the friend-in-question eventually conquered the addiction.


title: Toy Soldiers (song)

text: The song is performed in the key of C minor with a tempo of 65 beats per minute in time. The song follows a chord progression of A–B–A–B–Cm–B–Cm–Gm–Cm–B.


title: Toy Soldiers (song)

text: Bryan Buss of AllMusic retrospectively reviewed the "Martika" album, stating "the big hit single, 'Toy Soldiers', works with its childlike vocals and lyrics, creating a haunting, effective dichotomy with its subject of drug addiction." Buss also highlighted the song as an album standout by labeling it an AMG Pick Track. Rob Theakston of Allmusic labeled the song as an AMG Pick Track on the 2005 compilation "Toy Soldiers: The Best of Martika".


title: Toy Soldiers (song)

text: The song spent two weeks at number one on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 and in New Zealand while peaking within the top ten of the charts in both Australia and the United Kingdom. On "Billboard"s year-end chart for 1989, "Toy Soldiers" placed number 29. It was Martika's only number-one single in the US, and her highest-ranking single in the United Kingdom. The single was certified gold in the United States by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA).


title: Toy Soldiers (song)

text: In March and April 2009, VH1 ran a countdown of the "100 Greatest One-Hit Wonders of the 80s". "Toy Soldiers" placed at number 67 on the countdown, although Martika had three other top 40 hits: "More Than You Know" (number 18); "I Feel the Earth Move" (number 25); and "Love... Thy Will Be Done" (number 10).


title: Toy Soldiers (song)

text: The video for the song was directed by Jim Shea, who later became a regular in directing country music videos. Martika is seen singing with a waterfall in front of her (this was done by filming her in an empty pool with a water current flowing between her and the camera).


title: Seamount

text: A seamount is a large geologic landform that rises from the ocean floor that does not reach to the water's surface (sea level), and thus is not an island, islet or cliff-rock. Seamounts are typically formed from extinct volcanoes that rise abruptly and are usually found rising from the seafloor to in height. They are defined by oceanographers as independent features that rise to at least above the seafloor, characteristically of conical form. The peaks are often found hundreds to thousands of meters below the surface, and are therefore considered to be within the deep sea. During their evolution over geologic time, the largest seamounts may reach the sea surface where wave action erodes the summit to form a flat surface. After they have subsided and sunk below the sea surface such flat-top seamounts are called "guyots" or "tablemounts".


title: Seamount

text: The Earth's oceans contain more than 14,500 identified seamounts of which 9,951 seamounts and 283 guyots, covering a total area of , have been mapped but only a few have been studied in detail by scientists. Seamounts and guyots are most abundant in the North Pacific Ocean, and follow a distinctive evolutionary pattern of eruption, build-up, subsidence and erosion. In recent years, several active seamounts have been observed, for example Kamaʻehuakanaloa (formerly Lōʻihi) in the Hawaiian Islands.


title: Seamount

text: Because of their abundance, seamounts are one of the most common marine ecosystems in the world. Interactions between seamounts and underwater currents, as well as their elevated position in the water, attract plankton, corals, fish, and marine mammals alike. Their aggregational effect has been noted by the commercial fishing industry, and many seamounts support extensive fisheries. There are ongoing concerns on the negative impact of fishing on seamount ecosystems, and well-documented cases of stock decline, for example with the orange roughy ("Hoplostethus atlanticus"). 95% of ecological damage is done by bottom trawling, which scrapes whole ecosystems off seamounts.


title: Seamount

text: Because of their large numbers, many seamounts remain to be properly studied, and even mapped. Bathymetry and satellite altimetry are two technologies working to close the gap. There have been instances where naval vessels have collided with uncharted seamounts; for example, Muirfield Seamount is named after the ship that struck it in 1973. However, the greatest danger from seamounts are flank collapses; as they get older, extrusions seeping in the seamounts put pressure on their sides, causing landslides that have the potential to generate massive tsunamis.


title: Seamount

text: Seamounts can be found in every ocean basin in the world, distributed extremely widely both in space and in age. A seamount is technically defined as an isolated rise in elevation of or more from the surrounding seafloor, and with a limited summit area, of conical form. There are more than 14,500 seamounts. In addition to seamounts, there are more than 80,000 small knolls, ridges and hills less than 1,000 m in height in the world's oceans.


title: Seamount

text: Most seamounts are volcanic in origin, and thus tend to be found on oceanic crust near mid-ocean ridges, mantle plumes, and island arcs. Overall, seamount and guyot coverage is greatest as a proportion of seafloor area in the North Pacific Ocean, equal to 4.39% of that ocean region. The Arctic Ocean has only 16 seamounts and no guyots, and the Mediterranean and Black seas together have only 23 seamounts and 2 guyots. The 9,951 seamounts, which have been mapped, cover an area of . Seamounts have an average area of , with the smallest seamounts found in the Arctic Ocean and the Mediterranean and Black Seas, whilst the largest mean seamount size occurs in the Indian Ocean . The largest seamount has an area of and it occurs in the North Pacific. Guyots cover a total area of and have an average area of , more than twice the average size of seamounts. Nearly 50% of guyot area and 42% of the number of guyots occur in the North Pacific Ocean, covering . The largest three guyots are all in the North Pacific: the Kuko Guyot (estimated ), Suiko Guyot (estimated ) and the Pallada Guyot (estimated ).


title: Seamount

text: Seamounts are often found in groupings or submerged archipelagos, a classic example being the Emperor Seamounts, an extension of the Hawaiian Islands. Formed millions of years ago by volcanism, they have since subsided far below sea level. This long chain of islands and seamounts extends thousands of kilometers northwest from the island of Hawaii.


title: Seamount

text: There are more seamounts in the Pacific Ocean than in the Atlantic, and their distribution can be described as comprising several elongate chains of seamounts superimposed on a more or less random background distribution. Seamount chains occur in all three major ocean basins, with the Pacific having the most number and most extensive seamount chains. These include the Hawaiian (Emperor), Mariana, Gilbert, Tuomotu and Austral Seamounts (and island groups) in the north Pacific and the Louisville and Sala y Gomez ridges in the southern Pacific Ocean. In the North Atlantic Ocean, the New England Seamounts extend from the eastern coast of the United States to the mid-ocean ridge. Craig and Sandwell noted that clusters of larger Atlantic seamounts tend to be associated with other evidence of hotspot activity, such as on the Walvis Ridge, Bermuda Islands and Cape Verde Islands. The mid-Atlantic ridge and spreading ridges in the Indian Ocean are also associated with abundant seamounts. Otherwise, seamounts tend not to form distinctive chains in the Indian and Southern Oceans, but rather their distribution appears to be more or less random.


title: Seamount

text: Isolated seamounts and those without clear volcanic origins are less common; examples include Bollons Seamount, Eratosthenes Seamount, Axial Seamount and Gorringe Ridge.


title: Seamount

text: If all known seamounts were collected into one area, they would make a landform the size of Europe. Their overall abundance makes them one of the most common, and least understood, marine structures and biomes on Earth, a sort of exploratory frontier.


title: Seamount

text: Most seamounts are built by one of two volcanic processes, although some, such as the Christmas Island Seamount Province near Australia, are more enigmatic. Volcanoes near plate boundaries and mid-ocean ridges are built by decompression melting of rock in the upper mantle. The lower density magma rises through the crust to the surface. Volcanoes formed near or above subducting zones are created because the subducting tectonic plate adds volatiles to the overriding plate that lowers its melting point. Which of these two process involved in the formation of a seamount has a profound effect on its eruptive materials. Lava flows from mid-ocean ridge and plate boundary seamounts are mostly basaltic (both tholeiitic and alkalic), whereas flows from subducting ridge volcanoes are mostly calc-alkaline lavas. Compared to mid-ocean ridge seamounts, subduction zone seamounts generally have more sodium, alkali, and volatile abundances, and less magnesium, resulting in more explosive, viscous eruptions.


title: Seamount

text: All volcanic seamounts follow a particular pattern of growth, activity, subsidence and eventual extinction. The first stage of a seamount's evolution is its early activity, building its flanks and core up from the sea floor. This is followed by a period of intense volcanism, during which the new volcano erupts almost all (e.g. 98%) of its total magmatic volume. The seamount may even grow above sea level to become an oceanic island (for example, the 2009 eruption of Hunga Tonga). After a period of explosive activity near the ocean surface, the eruptions slowly die away. With eruptions becoming infrequent and the seamount losing its ability to maintain itself, the volcano starts to erode. After finally becoming extinct (possibly after a brief rejuvenated period), they are ground back down by the waves. Seamounts are built in a far more dynamic oceanic setting than their land counterparts, resulting in horizontal subsidence as the seamount moves with the tectonic plate towards a subduction zone. Here it is subducted under the plate margin and ultimately destroyed, but it may leave evidence of its passage by carving an indentation into the opposing wall of the subduction trench. The majority of seamounts have already completed their eruptive cycle, so access to early flows by researchers is limited by late volcanic activity.


title: Seamount

text: Ocean-ridge volcanoes in particular have been observed to follow a certain pattern in terms of eruptive activity, first observed with Hawaiian seamounts but now shown to be the process followed by all seamounts of the ocean-ridge type. During the first stage the volcano erupts basalt of various types, caused by various degrees of mantle melting. In the second, most active stage of its life, ocean-ridge volcanoes erupt tholeiitic to mildly alkalic basalt as a result of a larger area melting in the mantle. This is finally capped by alkalic flows late in its eruptive history, as the link between the seamount and its source of volcanism is cut by crustal movement. Some seamounts also experience a brief "rejuvenated" period after a hiatus of 1.5 to 10 million years, the flows of which are highly alkalic and produce many xenoliths.


title: Seamount

text: In recent years, geologists have confirmed that a number of seamounts are active undersea volcanoes; two examples are Kamaʻehuakanaloa (formerly Lo‘ihi) in the Hawaiian Islands and Vailulu'u in the Manu'a Group (Samoa).


title: Seamount

text: The most apparent lava flows at a seamount are the eruptive flows that cover their flanks, however igneous intrusions, in the forms of dikes and sills, are also an important part of seamount growth. The most common type of flow is pillow lava, named so after its distinctive shape. Less common are sheet flows, which are glassy and marginal, and indicative of larger-scale flows. Volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks dominate shallow-water seamounts. They are the products of the explosive activity of seamounts that are near the water's surface, and can also form from mechanical wear of existing volcanic rock.


title: Seamount

text: Seamounts can form in a wide variety of tectonic settings, resulting in a very diverse structural bank. Seamounts come in a wide variety of structural shapes, from conical to flat-topped to complexly shaped. Some are built very large and very low, such as Koko Guyot and Detroit Seamount; others are built more steeply, such as Kamaʻehuakanaloa Seamount and Bowie Seamount. Some seamounts also have a carbonate or sediment cap.


title: Seamount

text: Many seamounts show signs of intrusive activity, which is likely to lead to inflation, steepening of volcanic slopes, and ultimately, flank collapse. There are also several sub-classes of seamounts. The first are guyots, seamounts with a flat top. These tops must be or more below the surface of the sea; the diameters of these flat summits can be over . Knolls are isolated elevation spikes measuring less than . Lastly, pinnacles are small pillar-like seamounts.


title: Seamount

text: Seamounts are exceptionally important to their biome ecologically, but their role in their environment is poorly understood. Because they project out above the surrounding sea floor, they disturb standard water flow, causing eddies and associated hydrological phenomena that ultimately result in water movement in an otherwise still ocean bottom. Currents have been measured at up to 0.9 knots, or 48 centimeters per second. Because of this upwelling seamounts often carry above-average plankton populations, seamounts are thus centers where the fish that feed on them aggregate, in turn falling prey to further predation, making seamounts important biological hotspots.


title: Seamount

text: Seamounts provide habitats and spawning grounds for these larger animals, including numerous fish. Some species, including black oreo "(Allocyttus niger)" and blackstripe cardinalfish "(Apogon nigrofasciatus)", have been shown to occur more often on seamounts than anywhere else on the ocean floor. Marine mammals, sharks, tuna, and cephalopods all congregate over seamounts to feed, as well as some species of seabirds when the features are particularly shallow.


title: Seamount

text: Seamounts often project upwards into shallower zones more hospitable to sea life, providing habitats for marine species that are not found on or around the surrounding deeper ocean bottom. Because seamounts are isolated from each other they form "undersea islands" creating the same biogeographical interest. As they are formed from volcanic rock, the substrate is much harder than the surrounding sedimentary deep sea floor. This causes a different type of fauna to exist than on the seafloor, and leads to a theoretically higher degree of endemism. However, recent research especially centered at Davidson Seamount suggests that seamounts may not be especially endemic, and discussions are ongoing on the effect of seamounts on endemicity. They "have", however, been confidently shown to provide a habitat to species that have difficulty surviving elsewhere.


title: Seamount

text: The volcanic rocks on the slopes of seamounts are heavily populated by suspension feeders, particularly corals, which capitalize on the strong currents around the seamount to supply them with food. These coral are therefore host to numerous other organisms in a commensal relationship, for example Brittle Stars, who climb the coral to get themselves off the seafloor, helping them to catch food particles, or small zooplankton, as they drift by. This is in sharp contrast with the typical deep-sea habitat, where deposit-feeding animals rely on food they get off the ground. In tropical zones extensive coral growth results in the formation of coral atolls late in the seamount's life.


title: Seamount

text: In addition soft sediments tend to accumulate on seamounts, which are typically populated by polychaetes (annelid marine worms) oligochaetes (microdrile worms), and gastropod mollusks (sea slugs). Xenophyophores have also been found. They tend to gather small particulates and thus form beds, which alters sediment deposition and creates a habitat for smaller animals. Many seamounts also have hydrothermal vent communities, for example Suiyo and Kamaʻehuakanaloa seamounts. This is helped by geochemical exchange between the seamounts and the ocean water.


title: Seamount

text: Seamounts may thus be vital stopping points for some migratory animals, specifically whales. Some recent research indicates whales may use such features as navigational aids throughout their migration. For a long time it has been surmised that many pelagic animals visit seamounts as well, to gather food, but proof of this aggregating effect has been lacking. The first demonstration of this conjecture was published in 2008.


title: Seamount

text: The effect that seamounts have on fish populations has not gone unnoticed by the commercial fishing industry. Seamounts were first extensively fished in the second half of the 20th century, due to poor management practices and increased fishing pressure seriously depleting stock numbers on the typical fishing ground, the continental shelf. Seamounts have been the site of targeted fishing since that time.


title: Seamount

text: Nearly 80 species of fish and shellfish are commercially harvested from seamounts, including spiny lobster (Palinuridae), mackerel (Scombridae and others), red king crab ("Paralithodes camtschaticus"), red snapper ("Lutjanus campechanus"), tuna (Scombridae), Orange roughy ("Hoplostethus atlanticus"), and perch (Percidae).


title: Seamount

text: The ecological conservation of seamounts is hurt by the simple lack of information available. Seamounts are very poorly studied, with only 350 of the estimated 100,000 seamounts in the world having received sampling, and fewer than 100 in depth. Much of this lack of information can be attributed to a lack of technology, and to the daunting task of reaching these underwater structures; the technology to fully explore them has only been around the last few decades. Before consistent conservation efforts can begin, the seamounts of the world must first be mapped, a task that is still in progress.


title: Seamount

text: Overfishing is a serious threat to seamount ecological welfare. There are several well-documented cases of fishery exploitation, for example the orange roughy ("Hoplostethus atlanticus") off the coasts of Australia and New Zealand and the pelagic armorhead ("Pseudopentaceros richardsoni") near Japan and Russia. The reason for this is that the fishes that are targeted over seamounts are typically long-lived, slow-growing, and slow-maturing. The problem is confounded by the dangers of trawling, which damages seamount surface communities, and the fact that many seamounts are located in international waters, making proper monitoring difficult. Bottom trawling in particular is extremely devastating to seamount ecology, and is responsible for as much as 95% of ecological damage to seamounts.


title: Seamount

text: Corals from seamounts are also vulnerable, as they are highly valued for making jewellery and decorative objects. Significant harvests have been produced from seamounts, often leaving coral beds depleted.


title: Seamount

text: Individual nations are beginning to note the effect of fishing on seamounts, and the European Commission has agreed to fund the OASIS project, a detailed study of the effects of fishing on seamount communities in the North Atlantic. Another project working towards conservation is CenSeam, a Census of Marine Life project formed in 2005. CenSeam is intended to provide the framework needed to prioritise, integrate, expand and facilitate seamount research efforts in order to significantly reduce the unknown and build towards a global understanding of seamount ecosystems, and the roles they have in the biogeography, biodiversity, productivity and evolution of marine organisms.


title: Seamount

text: Possibly the best ecologically studied seamount in the world is Davidson Seamount, with six major expeditions recording over 60,000 species observations. The contrast between the seamount and the surrounding area was well-marked. One of the primary ecological havens on the seamount is its deep sea coral garden, and many of the specimens noted were over a century old. Following the expansion of knowledge on the seamount there was extensive support to make it a marine sanctuary, a motion that was granted in 2008 as part of the Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary. Much of what is known about seamounts ecologically is based on observations from Davidson. Another such seamount is Bowie Seamount, which has also been declared a marine protected area by Canada for its ecological richness.


title: Seamount

text: The study of seamounts has been hindered for a long time by the lack of technology. Although seamounts have been sampled as far back as the 19th century, their depth and position meant that the technology to explore and sample seamounts in sufficient detail did not exist until the last few decades. Even with the right technology available, only a scant 1% of the total number have been explored, and sampling and information remains biased towards the top . New species are observed or collected and valuable information is obtained on almost every submersible dive at seamounts.


title: Seamount

text: Before seamounts and their oceanographic impact can be fully understood, they must be mapped, a daunting task due to their sheer number. The most detailed seamount mappings are provided by multibeam echosounding (sonar), however after more than 5000 publicly held cruises, the amount of the sea floor that has been mapped remains minuscule. Satellite altimetry is a broader alternative, albeit not as detailed, with 13,000 catalogued seamounts; however this is still only a fraction of the total 100,000. The reason for this is that uncertainties in the technology limit recognition to features or larger. In the future, technological advances could allow for a larger and more detailed catalogue.


title: Seamount

text: Observations from CryoSat-2 combined with data from other satellites has shown thousands of previously uncharted seamounts, with more to come as data is interpreted.


title: Seamount

text: Seamounts are a possible future source of economically important metals. Even though the ocean makes up 70% of Earth's surface area, technological challenges have severely limited the extent of deep sea mining. But with the constantly decreasing supply on land, some mining specialists see oceanic mining as the destined future, and seamounts stand out as candidates.


title: Seamount

text: Seamounts are abundant, and all have metal resource potential because of various enrichment processes during the seamount's life. An example for epithermal gold mineralization on the seafloor is Conical Seamount, located about 8 km south of Lihir Island in Papua New Guinea. Conical Seamount has a basal diameter of about 2.8 km and rises about 600 m above the seafloor to a water depth of 1050 m. Grab samples from its summit contain the highest gold concentrations yet reported from the modern seafloor (max. 230 g/t Au, avg. 26 g/t, n=40). Iron-manganese, hydrothermal iron oxide, sulfide, sulfate, sulfur, hydrothermal manganese oxide, and phosphorite (the latter especially in parts of Micronesia) are all mineral resources that are deposited upon or within seamounts. However, only the first two have any potential of being targeted by mining in the next few decades.


title: Seamount

text: Some seamounts have not been mapped and thus pose a navigational danger. For instance, Muirfield Seamount is named after the ship that hit it in 1973. More recently, the submarine USS "San Francisco" ran into an uncharted seamount in 2005 at a speed of , sustaining serious damage and killing one seaman.


title: Seamount

text: One major seamount risk is that often, in the late of stages of their life, extrusions begin to seep in the seamount. This activity leads to inflation, over-extension of the volcano's flanks, and ultimately flank collapse, leading to submarine landslides with the potential to start major tsunamis, which can be among the largest natural disasters in the world. In an illustration of the potent power of flank collapses, a summit collapse on the northern edge of Vlinder Seamount resulted in a pronounced headwall scarp and a field of debris up to away. A catastrophic collapse at Detroit Seamount flattened its whole structure extensively. Lastly, in 2004, scientists found marine fossils up the flank of Kohala mountain in Hawaii (island). Subsidation analysis found that at the time of their deposition, this would have been up the flank of the volcano, far too high for a normal wave to reach. The date corresponded with a massive flank collapse at the nearby Mauna Loa, and it was theorized that it was a massive tsunami, generated by the landslide, that deposited the fossils.


title: Growth–share matrix

text: The growth–share matrix (aka the product portfolio matrix, Boston Box, BCG-matrix, Boston matrix, Boston Consulting Group analysis, portfolio diagram) is a chart created in a collaborative effort by BCG employees: Alan Zakon first sketched it and then, together with his colleagues, refined it. BCG's founder Bruce D. Henderson popularized the concept in an essay titled "The Product Portfolio" in BCG's publication "Perspectives" in 1970. The purpose of the matrix is to help corporations to analyze their business units, that is, their product lines. This helps the company allocate resources and is used as an analytical tool in brand marketing, product management, strategic management, and portfolio analysis.


title: Growth–share matrix

text: To use the chart, analysts plot a scatter graph to rank the business units (or products) on the basis of their relative market shares and growth rates.


title: Growth–share matrix

text: As a particular industry matures and its growth slows, all business units become either "cash cows" or "dogs". The natural cycle for most business units is that they start as "question marks", then turn into "stars". Eventually, the market stops growing; thus, the business unit becomes a "cash cow". At the end of the cycle, the cash cow turns into a "dog".


title: Growth–share matrix

text: Only a diversified company with a balanced portfolio can use its strengths to truly capitalize on its growth opportunities. The balanced portfolio has:


title: Growth–share matrix

text: For each product or service, the 'area' of the circle represents the value of its sales. The growth–share matrix thus offers a "map" of the organization's product (or service) strengths and weaknesses, at least in terms of current profitability, as well as the likely cashflows. Common spreadsheet applications can be used to generate the matrix. In addition, designated online tools are available.


title: Growth–share matrix

text: The need which prompted this idea was, indeed, that of managing cash-flow. It was reasoned that one of the main indicators of cash generation was relative market share, and one which pointed to cash usage was that of market growth rate.


title: Growth–share matrix

text: This indicates likely cash generation, because the higher the share the more cash will be generated. As a result of 'economies of scale' (a basic assumption of the BCG Matrix), it is assumed that these earnings will grow faster the higher the share. The exact measure is the brand's share relative to its largest competitor. Thus, if the brand had a share of 20 percent, and the largest competitor had the same, the ratio would be 1:1. If the largest competitor had a share of 60 percent, however, the ratio would be 1:3, implying that the organization's brand was in a relatively weak position. If the largest competitor only had a share of 5 percent, the ratio would be 4:1, implying that the brand owned was in a relatively strong position, which might be reflected in profits and cash flows. If this technique is used in practice, this scale is logarithmic, not linear.


title: Growth–share matrix

text: On the other hand, exactly what is a high relative share is a matter of some debate. The best evidence is that the most stable position (at least in fast-moving consumer goods markets) is for the brand leader to have a share double that of the second brand, and triple that of the third. Brand leaders in this position tend to be very stable—and profitable; the Rule of 123.


title: Growth–share matrix

text: The selection of the relative market share metric was based upon its relationship to the experience curve. The market leader would have greater experience curve benefits, which delivers a cost leadership advantage.


title: Growth–share matrix

text: Another reason for choosing relative market share, rather than just profits, is that it carries more information than just cash flow. It shows where the brand is positioned against its main competitors, and indicates where it might be likely to go in the future. It can also show what type of marketing activities might be expected to be effective.


title: Growth–share matrix

text: Rapidly growing in rapidly growing markets, are what organizations strive for; but, as we have seen, the penalty is that they are usually net cash users – they require investment. The reason for this is often because the growth is being 'bought' by the high investment, in the reasonable expectation that a high market share will eventually turn into a sound investment in future profits. The theory behind the matrix assumes, therefore, that a higher growth rate is indicative of accompanying demands on investment. The cut-off point is usually chosen as 10 per cent per annum. Determining this cut-off point, the rate above which the growth is deemed to be significant (and likely to lead to extra demands on cash) is a critical requirement of the technique; and one that, again, makes the use of the growth–share matrix problematical in some product areas. What is more, the evidence, from fast-moving consumer goods markets at least, is that the most typical pattern is of very low growth, less than 1 per cent per annum. This is outside the range normally considered in BCG Matrix work, which may make application of this form of analysis unworkable in many markets.


title: Growth–share matrix

text: Where it can be applied, however, the market growth rate says more about the brand position than just its cash flow. It is a good indicator of that market's strength, of its future potential (of its 'maturity' in terms of the market life-cycle), and also of its attractiveness to future competitors. It can also be used in growth analysis.


title: Growth–share matrix

text: While theoretically useful, and widely used, several academic studies have called into question whether using the growth–share matrix actually helps businesses succeed, and the model has since been removed from some major marketing textbooks. One study (Slater and Zwirlein, 1992) which looked at 129 firms found that those who follow portfolio planning models like the BCG matrix had lower shareholder returns.


title: Growth–share matrix

text: There are further criticisms to the BCG Matrix. The Matrix defines dogs as having low market share and relatively low market growth rate.


title: Growth–share matrix

text: As originally practiced by the Boston Consulting Group, the matrix was used in situations where it could be applied for graphically illustrating a portfolio composition as a function of the balance between cash flows. If used with this degree of sophistication its use would still be valid. However, later practitioners have tended to over-simplify its messages. In particular, the later application of the names (problem children, stars, cash cows and dogs) has tended to overshadow all else—and is often what most students, and practitioners, remember.


title: Growth–share matrix

text: Perhaps the most important danger is, however, that the apparent implication of its four-quadrant form is that there should be balance of products or services across all four quadrants; and that is, indeed, the main message that it is intended to convey. Thus, money must be diverted from 'cash cows' to fund the 'stars' of the future, since 'cash cows' will inevitably decline to become 'dogs'. There is an almost mesmeric inevitability about the whole process. It focuses attention, and funding, on to the 'stars'. It presumes, and almost demands, that 'cash cows' will turn into 'dogs'.


title: Growth–share matrix

text: The reality is that it is only the 'cash cows' that are really important—all the other elements are supporting actors. It is a foolish vendor who diverts funds from a 'cash cow' when these are needed to extend the life of that 'product'. Although it is necessary to recognize a 'dog' when it appears (at least before it bites you) it would be foolish in the extreme to create one in order to balance up the picture. The vendor, who has most of his (or her) products in the 'cash cow' quadrant, should consider himself (or herself) fortunate indeed, and an excellent marketer, although he or she might also consider creating a few stars as an insurance policy against unexpected future developments and, perhaps, to add some extra growth. There is also a common misconception that 'dogs' are a waste of resources. In many markets 'dogs' can be considered loss-leaders that while not themselves profitable will lead to increased sales in other profitable areas.


title: Growth–share matrix

text: As with most marketing techniques, there are a number of alternative offerings vying with the growth–share matrix although this appears to be the most widely used. The next most widely reported technique is that developed by McKinsey and General Electric, which is a three-cell by three-cell matrix—using the dimensions of 'industry attractiveness' and 'business strengths'. This approaches some of the same issues as the growth–share matrix but from a different direction and in a more complex way (which may be why it is used less, or is at least less widely taught). Both growth-share matrix and Industry Attractiveness-Business Strength matrix developed by McKinsey and General Electric, are criticized for being static as they portray businesses as they exist at one point in time. Business environment is subject to constant changes, hence, businesses evolve over time. The Life Cycle-Competitive Strength Matrix was introduced to overcome these deficiences and better identify "developing winners" or potential "loosers". A more practical approach is that of the Boston Consulting Group's Advantage Matrix, which the consultancy reportedly used itself though it is little known amongst the wider population.


title: Growth–share matrix

text: The initial intent of the growth–share matrix was to evaluate business units, but the same evaluation can be made for product lines or any other cash-generating entities. This should only be attempted for real lines that have a sufficient history to allow some prediction; if the corporation has made only a few products and called them a product line, the sample variance will be too high for this sort of analysis to be meaningful.


title: Milena Govich

text: Milena Govich ( ;, Serbian: Милена Гович, born October 29, 1976) is an American actress, director, singer, dancer, and musician, best known for portraying NYPD Detective Nina Cassady on the television series "Law & Order".


title: Milena Govich

text: Govich was born in Norman, Cleveland County, Oklahoma. Both of her parents, Dr. Bruce Michael Govich, who died in 1998, and Dr. Marilyn Green Govich, are professors of music: Bruce worked at University of Oklahoma and Marilyn currently teaches voice at the University of Central Oklahoma. Her father was Serbian and her mother is of Scottish and English ancestry. Her aunt, Milica Govich, is also an actress who has appeared on Broadway, television, and film.


title: Milena Govich

text: Milena graduated from Norman High School in 1995 as valedictorian of her class. She followed her academic parents by graduating from the University of Central Oklahoma, once again graduating valedictorian with a double-degree in performance and pre-medical studies, and a minor in dance and violin. After graduation, Govich moved to New York City to pursue an acting career.


title: Milena Govich

text: Govich has appeared on Broadway in the musical revival of "Cabaret", joining the 1998–2004 production in December 2000. She began in the role of Lulu, featuring her singing, dancing, and playing violin, and was the understudy and eventual replacement for the lead role, Sally Bowles. Govich also performed on Broadway in the 2002 musical revival of "The Boys from Syracuse" and in the musical "Good Vibrations". She starred as Millie in the first regional production of "Thoroughly Modern Millie". In July 2012, Govich starred in the title role of "Sweet Charity" at The Lyric Theatre.


title: Milena Govich

text: On television, Govich first gained national attention in the United States as Gabby in the pilot episode of CBS's "Love Monkey", then as the prostitute/con-artist Candy on "Rescue Me". She also starred in the Dick Wolf-produced series "Conviction" and then starred on Wolf's flagship series, "Law & Order", as Detective Nina Cassady. She played the role for one season.


title: Milena Govich

text: She has been featured or recurred on numerous other television shows: as New Orleans District Attorney Lyndsey Swann in the 20th Century Fox Television show "K-Ville"; as Assistant District Attorney Tracy Hunt on the CBS series "The Defenders"; and as Regina Turner on "Make It or Break It".


title: Milena Govich

text: Govich has also appeared in several films, including 2004's "Bad Behavior", 2006's "In Love", 2009's "Sordid Things", 2011's "A Novel Romance", starring opposite Steve Guttenberg, and "Lucky N#mbr", starring opposite Method Man.


title: Milena Govich

text: Govich played the part of Jessica Rossi on the short-lived 2006 NBC legal drama "Conviction", created by Dick Wolf. The day after that show was cancelled, Wolf invited her to join the cast of "Law & Order" for the 17th season, which premiered on September 22, 2006. Govich played Det. Nina Cassady, who joined the cast as the junior partner when Jesse L. Martin's character, Det. Ed Green, was elevated to senior partner upon the retirement of Det. Joe Fontana, who was portrayed by Dennis Farina. Govich guest-starred, as a different character, on the "Law & Order" episode "Flaw" (Season 16, Episode 2) in 2005, joining a list of "Law & Order" cast regulars who did the same before having a starring role in the series. Reuters reported on June 1, 2007, that Govich would be replaced by Jeremy Sisto.


title: Milena Govich

text: Govich was one of eight filmmakers selected for the American Film Institute's Directing Workshop for Women, mentored by Paul Feig. Her directorial debut short film, "Temporary" (which gained her acceptance into AFI) has won multiple awards on the film festival circuit.


title: Milena Govich

text: Her upcoming short film, "Unspeakable", written by David Cornue, is currently in post-production. It will serve as an episodic proof of concept for a one-hour TV drama, also written by Cornue. As of May 2020, it remains unreleased.


title: Milena Govich

text: Twelve years after leaving "Law & Order", Govich reunited with Wolf as a director and co-executive producer for his CBS series "FBI".


title: Milena Govich

text: On October 10, 2008, Govich sang the U.S. national anthem at the New Jersey Devils home opener at the Prudential Center in Newark, New Jersey. She has also appeared twice on tour as the guest performer with Taiwanese pop star Fei Xiang.


title: Zócalo

text: The Zócalo () is the common name of the main square in central Mexico City. Prior to the colonial period, it was the main ceremonial center in the Aztec city of Tenochtitlan. The plaza used to be known simply as the "Main Square" or "Arms Square", and today its formal name is Plaza de la Constitución ("Constitution Square"). This name does not come from any of the Mexican constitutions that have governed the country but rather from the Cádiz Constitution, which was signed in Spain in the year 1812. Even so, it is almost always called the "Zócalo" today. Plans were made to erect a column as a monument to Independence, but only the base, or "zócalo" (meaning "plinth"), was built. The plinth was buried long ago, but the name has lived on. Many other Mexican towns and cities, such as Oaxaca, Mérida, and Guadalajara, have adopted the word "zócalo" to refer to their main plazas, but not all.


title: Zócalo

text: It has been a gathering place for Mexicans since Aztec times, having been the site of Mexican ceremonies, the swearing-in of viceroys, royal proclamations, military parades, Independence ceremonies, and modern religious events such as the festivals of Holy Week and Corpus Christi. It has received foreign heads of state and is the main venue for both national celebrations and national protests. The Zócalo and surrounding blocks have played a central role in the city's planning and geography for almost 700 years. The site is just one block southwest of the Templo Mayor, which, according to Aztec legend and mythology, was considered the center of the universe.


title: Zócalo

text: The modern Zócalo in Mexico City is 57,600 m (240 m × 240 m). It is bordered by the Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral to the north, the National Palace to the east, the Federal District buildings to the south and the Old Portal de Mercaderes to the west, the Nacional Monte de Piedad building at the north-west corner, with the Templo Mayor site to the northeast, just outside view. In the centre is a flagpole with an enormous Mexican flag ceremoniously raised and lowered each day and carried into the National Palace. There is an entrance to the Metro station "Zócalo/Tenochtitlan" located at the north-east corner of the square but no sign above ground indicates its presence.


title: Zócalo

text: Prior to the conquest, the area that the occupies was open space, in the center of the Aztec capital . It was bordered to the east by 's "New Houses" or Palace (which would become the National Palace) and to the west by the "Old Houses", the palace of (1469–1481) where the Emperor , 's uncle and immediate predecessor also lived. A European-style plaza was not part of the conquered Aztec ; the old city had a sacred precinct or which was the absolute center of the city (and the universe, according to Aztec belief), but it was located to the immediate north and northeast of the modern-day .


title: Zócalo

text: The current occupies a space south-southwest of the intersection of roads that oriented . The north–south road was called (for the locations north and south it led to). The road led west and stretched east a little before leading into the lake that surrounded the city at the time. These roads were the width of three jousting lances according to . This intersection divided the city into four neighborhoods. The sacred precinct, containing the , was located to the northeast of this intersection and walled off from the open area for commoners. As to this area's relationship to the proper, some historians say that it was part of it, but others say no.


title: Zócalo

text: The modern plaza of Mexico City was placed by Alonso Garcia Bravo shortly after the invasion when he laid out what is now the historic center. After the destruction of Tenochtitlan, Cortés had the city redesigned for symbolic purposes. He kept the four major neighborhoods or "capullis" but he had a church, now the Cathedral of Mexico City, built at the place the four adjoined. He had the Temo become the cathedral. The southern half was called the "Plaza Mayor" (Main Square) and the northern one was called the "Plaza Chica" (Small Square). Fairly early in the colonial period, the Plaza Chica would be swallowed up by the growing city.


title: Zócalo

text: During early colonial times, the plaza was bordered to the north by the new church, and to the east by Cortés's new palace, built over and with the ruins of Moctezuma's palace. On the west side of the plaza, the Portales de Mercaderes (Merchants' Portals) were built, south of Cortés' other palace, the Palace of the Marquis of the Valley of Oaxaca. On the south side, was the Portal of the Flowers (Flores), named so after its owner, Maria Gutierrez Flores de Caballerias. Next to this portal was the House of the Ayuntamiento, a government building for the city. Both of these were behind a small drainage canal that ran east–west.


title: Zócalo

text: Flooding was always an issue for the plaza and the city in general. The plaza was flooded in 1629 with water two meters deep, ruining many of the merchants located there and requiring many of the portals to be rebuilt. The drainage project to control flooding, known as the "desagüe", drafted Indian men over nearly the whole colonial period, to work on this major infrastructure project. Controlling flooding meant health benefits for Mexico City residents by preventing human waste from polluting the city during floods and controlling mosquitoes, which spread disease. It also changed the ecological system that supported birds and fish populations and allowed for Indian cultivation of crops.


title: Zócalo

text: After the cathedral was constructed in the latter half of the 16th century, the look of the plaza changed. The old church faced east and not to the plaza itself. The new cathedral's three portals towered south over the plaza and giving the area a north–south orientation, which exists to this day.


title: Zócalo

text: Over much of the 17th century, the plaza became overrun with market stalls. After a mob burned the Viceregal Palace in 1692, depicted in the famous 1696 painting by Cristóbal de Villalpando, authorities attempted to completely clear the plaza to make way for the "Parian", a set of shops set in the southwest corner of the plaza used to warehouse and sell products brought by galleons from Europe and Asia. This was opened in 1703. The Parián is shown at the bottom of Villalpando's painting; it was later destroyed in an 1828 riot.


title: Zócalo

text: This, however, did not keep the rest of the plaza from becoming filled again with makeshift stalls such as the group known as "San José" located next to the Parian itself. This prompted historian Francisco Sedano to comment that it was ugly and unsightly. He claimed it was very difficult to walk around here at the time because of its uneven pavement, mud in the rainy season, aggressive street dogs, mounds of trash and human excrement tossed among the corn husks and other discarded wrappings.


title: Zócalo

text: Again the plaza was cleared (with exception of the Parian) by proclamation of Charles IV of Spain in December 1789. Then-viceroy Juan Vicente Güemes Pacheco had the plaza repaved and the open gutters covered with stone blocks. He also had a fountain installed in each corner. During this work, the Aztec Calendar was unearthed, as well as a statue of the goddess Coatlicue. The Calendar was put on display on the west side of the cathedral, where it remained until about 1890 when it was moved to the old "Centro Museum". It now resides in the Museum of Anthropology. The statue eventually made its way to this museum, but not until it was practically buried in one of the back patios of the Royal and Pontifical University until after Independence. The former merchants of the plaza were moved primarily to a new building called the "Mercado de Volador" (Market of the Flyer), located southeast of the plaza where the Supreme Court building stands today.


title: Zócalo

text: The plaza was converted into a public space with 64 lamps. The cathedral was separated from the plaza by iron grating; 124 stone benches were placed and the plaza was marked off by low iron poles connected by an iron chain. The main feature of the redesigned plaza was an equestrian statue of Charles IV by Manuel Tolsá. It was first placed in the southeastern corner of the plaza, first on a gilded wood base to inaugurate it in December 1803. When the monument was finished, the wooden base was replaced by an oval one of stone measuring 113 meters by 95.5 meters, with its own balustrade and fountains at the corners created by José del Mazo.


title: Zócalo

text: This was the backdrop when Viceroy Don Felix Maria Calleja, other authorities and assembled people swore allegiance to the Constitution of Cadiz, and fealty to the Spanish Crown on 22 May 1813 as the Mexican War of Independence raged. This event also resulted in renaming the square as the "Plaza of the Constitution." The last changes to the plaza before Independence in 1821 were done by Manuel Tolsá placing the Cross of Mañozca at the southeast corner and placing another, similar cross to the northwest. Both of these were set on stone Neoclassical pedestals.


title: Zócalo

text: A symbolic move upon Independence was the dismantling and removal of the equestrian monument to Charles IV from Plaza. The statue itself can still be seen in front of the National Art Museum where its current, and much smaller, base states that it is preserved solely for its artistic value. The statue's former oval base was moved to what was then the university building and the balustrade was moved to the Alameda Central. This left the plaza bare except for the Parian.


title: Zócalo

text: On 4 and 5 December 1828, the Parián market, the most active of Mexico City's markets, was looted and damaged by a popular uprising. Several merchants died and most were ruined. President Santa Anna finally had the Parián demolished in 1843. This left the plaza bare again, except for some ash trees and flower gardens that were planted and protected by stone borders. Santa Anna wanted to build a monument to Mexican Independence in the center of the plaza but his project got only as far as the base (zócalo), which stayed there for decades and gave the plaza its current popular name. It stayed this way until 1866 when the Paseo (path) del Zócalo was created in response to the numbers of people who were using the plaza to take walks. A garden with footpaths was created; fountains were placed at each corner; 72 iron benches were installed and the area was lighted by hydrogen gas lamps. Santa Anna's base, however, was not removed.


title: Zócalo

text: In 1878, Antonio Escandon donated a kiosk to the city which was set over and on top of Santa Anna's base. It was lit with four large iron candelabras and designed to be similar to one in the Bois de Boulogne in Paris. Soon afterward, the company "Ferrocarriles del Distrito Federal" ("Trains of the Federal District") converted part of the Zócalo into a streetcar station with ticket kiosk and stand. The streetcars and lighting were converted to electric power in 1894, and the Zócalo's paths were paved with asphalt in 1891.


title: Zócalo

text: From the latter half of the nineteenth century to the beginning of the twentieth, the Zócalo again filled with market stalls, including the "Centro Mercantil" which sold fabric, clothing, and Art Nouveau stonework. The other stalls concentrated on more mundane merchandise. This caused pedestrians to take their walks on Alameda Central or on San Francisco and Madero streets, to the west of the Zócalo.


title: Zócalo

text: During the "Decena Trágica" (the ten days from 9 to 19 February 1913), the National Palace was bombarded from the nearby military fort, incidentally damaging the Zócalo. In 1914, the ash trees planted in the previous century (which meanwhile had grown considerably) were taken out; new footpaths, grassy areas, and garden space were created; and palm trees were planted in each corner of the plaza.


title: Zócalo

text: The Zócalo was a meeting place for protests for 1 May. In 1968, students protested against the authoritarian measures taken by then-president Gustavo Díaz Ordaz. It was also the starting point of the marathon run in the 1968 Summer Olympics. The plaza deteriorated until, by the 1970s, all that was left were light poles and a large flagpole in the center. Then the ground was leveled again, the train tracks taken out, and the whole plaza cemented over. Automobile parking was prohibited and the plaza's shape was squared to 200 meters on each side. Later in the 1970s, the Zócalo was repaved with pink cobblestones; small trees protected by metal grates were planted; and small areas of grass were seeded around the flagpole.


title: Zócalo

text: As the end of the twentieth century neared, the Zócalo, along with most of the city center (called the "Colonia Centro") was in massive disrepair. This caused "The Economist" magazine to remark that the Zócalo and the area surrounding it "... should be one of the most compelling architectural destinations in the Americas. Instead, much of it is a slum of gutted buildings, dark and dirty streets blocked by milling vendors, and garbage-strewn vacant lots."


title: Zócalo

text: In the late 1990s, Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas, then mayor of Mexico City, and Dr. Rene Coulomb, general director of the Historic Center Trust, launched a $300,000,000 renovation of the Zócalo and the surrounding city center, with the aim of attracting businesses and residents back to the area. There were plans to remove the iron grating separating the cathedral from the Zócalo, but there was so much public opposition to the idea that it was eventually scrapped.


title: Zócalo

text: In 2009, former mayor Marcelo Ebrard launched a campaign to perform maintenance works in the Historic Center (which, because of Congressional reduction of the annual budget of the local government, was largely supported with the money collected in the streets for that purpose by government officials). The campaign had satisfactory results.


title: Zócalo

text: In 2010, a replica of the Angel de la Independencia was brought to Zócalo as a way of spreading out the protesters from the original Angel site. This is because the original site of the Angel is located in a financial area, with a high traffic flow, making policing more difficult than the Zócalo.


title: Zócalo

text: A Day of the Dead parade has been held at the square since 2016 after the James Bond film "Spectre" featured a parade there.


title: Zócalo

text: The Zócalo is the center of government of both the nation and of the capital, where the powers-that-be are. This makes it a popular place for protests, and it is often dotted with protesters in makeshift camps and banners. As the plaza can hold more than 100,000 people, it is also the scene of major political rallies. Thousands rallied here in protest when Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas lost against Carlos Salinas in a presidential election widely believed to have been rigged in 1988. In 2001, followers of Zapatista leader Subcomandante Marcos, mostly poor Chiapan indigenous people, marched into the Zócalo to support a bill that would give them greater political autonomy. Following Cárdenas' lead, Andrés Manuel López Obrador staged major protests here after the 2006 Mexican presidential elections as well as a rally with thousands of participants against President Calderón's initiative to allow private and foreign investment in Mexico's state-owned energy company, PEMEX. On 30 August 2008, a peaceful protest against crime and violence filled the Zócalo to capacity.


title: Zócalo

text: The plaza is also home to regularly occurring political events. Just before 11 pm on each 15 September, the president of Mexico comes out onto the central balcony of the National Palace to perform the Grito de Dolores to the crowd gathered in the plaza. Even this is sometimes subject to the political winds of the country. For the 2006 Grito, the crowd in the Zócalo was addressed not by then-President Vicente Fox, who had gone to Dolores Hidalgo, Guanajuato to deliver the Grito, but by Alejandro Encinas, then-mayor of Mexico City. This was done to avoid mass protests in the Zócalo following the disputed presidential election between Felipe Calderón and López Obrador. Under the unpopular rule of Enrique Peña Nieto, the ceremony has been subjected to widespread criticism —mostly from left-leaning sources— for the government's notorious use of "acarreados" (people who are literally carried into the square by bus and paid for with food or other minor goods) in order to boost attendance numbers and simulate popular enthusiasm.


title: Zócalo

text: An alternative expression of Mexican pride is the celebration of the spring equinox on the Zócalo. This is done by groups looking to reassert the superiority of indigenous ethnic bloodlines (La Raza) and pre-Hispanic culture. They choose to do the ceremony here not only because it is close to where such rites used to be performed before the Spaniards came, but also because they are right next to the symbols of "Spanish" ecclesiastical and secular power (the cathedral and National Palace, respectively), which they oppose.


title: Zócalo

text: The Zócalo area has been, since 2014, where large rallies have been held in the aftermath of the 2014 Iguala mass kidnapping, an event that has become symbolic for the climate of widespread criminality, impunity and governmental corruption that many feel the country faces.


title: Zócalo

text: Since 1982, due to efforts to revitalize the city center, the Zócalo has become the scene of a number of artistic and cultural events. There are daily impromptu shows of Aztec dancers dancing to drums, wearing feathered headdresses and anklets made of concha shells. On a grander scale, some examples of events held here recently are Spencer Tunick's photo shoot where nearly 18,000 Mexicans bared all for the artist, surpassing the record set earlier in Barcelona and artist Gregory Colbert's Ashes and Snow Nomadic Museum. One curious event was the building of a temporary ice-skating rink of about 3,200 m in the middle of the Zócalo, for use by the city's residents for free in the winter of 2007. Since then, the rink has been repeatedly built up for several winter seasons.


title: Zócalo

text: The Festival de México is an annual event with programs dedicated to art (popular and fine) and academia held in the Zócalo and some other venues in the historic center. In 2008, the 24th Festival had 254 performances and shows from over 20 countries in 65 plazas and other locations near the plaza.


title: Zócalo

text: Concerts by popular singers and groups have also been held here. Café Tacuba drew almost 100,000 people to the plaza in 2005 and Colombian superstar Shakira drew a crowd of about 210,000 according to Mexico's Civil Protection. In August 2008, a skateboarding/BMX event drew 50,000 young people on a Sunday afternoon. Paul McCartney drew an attendance of 250,000 people for a free concert played on the plaza on 10 May 2012 as a part of his On the Run Tour. Justin Bieber also offered a free show on 11 July 2012, where he performed in front of 210,000 people as part of the tour for his 2012 album "Believe". On 1 October 2016, Roger Waters performed in the square before 170,000 people, once again for free and with a strong political message against Donald Trump and Enrique Peña Nieto included in sections of the show, which consisted of outtakes from his Pink Floyd years.


title: Zócalo

text: Dutch trance music producer Armin Van Buuren has a song called "Zocalo" on his 2005 album "Shivers", which, Josh Gabriel, of Gabriel & Dresden, recounts is named after Zocalo Coffeehouse in San Leandro, California, which Armin visited while recording the song, and which is itself named after the Zocalo in Mexico City.


title: Zócalo

text: The pre-title sequence of the 2015 James Bond film "Spectre" takes place largely above the Zocalo, as Bond takes command of a SPECTRE getaway helicopter. The scene is set against a Day of the Dead parade, which actually had never been held at the square before. However, after the film's release, the city officials decided to hold a Day of the Dead parade starting at the Angel of Independence and finishing at the Zocalo square on 29 October 2016 using props and wardrobe from the film. The parade has been held every year since.


title: Zócalo

text: The release of the acoustic version of the "Twenty One Pilots" song "Chlorine" contains the coordinates to this location.


title: Chavela Vargas

text: Isabel Vargas Lizano (17 April 1919 – 5 August 2012), better known as Chavela Vargas (), was a Mexican singer. She was especially known for her rendition of Mexican rancheras, but she is also recognized for her contribution to other genres of popular Latin American music. She was an influential interpreter in the Americas and Europe, muse to figures such as Pedro Almodóvar, hailed for her haunting performances, and called "la voz áspera de la ternura", 'the rough voice of tenderness'. The Latin Academy of Recording Arts & Sciences presented her with a Latin Grammy in 2007.


title: Chavela Vargas

text: She was born in Costa Rica, in San Joaquín de Flores, as Isabel Vargas Lizano, daughter of Francisco Vargas and Herminia Lizano. She was baptized on 15 July 1919 with the forenames "María Isabel Anita Carmen de Jesús." She had a difficult childhood: her parents divorced and left her under the care of an uncle, and she contracted poliomyelitis. She went by "Chavela", which is a pet name for Isabel. At age 17, she abandoned her native country due to lack of opportunities for a musical career, seeking refuge in Mexico, where an entertainment industry was burgeoning. There she resided for more than seventy years and obtained Mexican nationality.


title: Chavela Vargas

text: For many years she sang on the streets, but in her thirties she became a professional singer. In her youth she dressed as a man, smoked cigars, drank heavily, carried a gun, and was known for her characteristic red jorongo, which she wore in performances until old age. Vargas was radical in her negation of heteronormativity. Since she preferred to dress like a man, Vargas’ parents hid their defiantly nonfeminine daughter from guests.


title: Chavela Vargas

text: Vargas sang the canción ranchera in her own peculiar style. The ranchera was sung from a man's perspective and with a mariachi accompaniment. Chavela sang this type of song as a solo, using only guitar and voice. She often slowed down the tempo of melodies to draw more dramatic tension out of songs, so they could be taken as naughtily humorous.


title: Chavela Vargas

text: Towards the end of the 1950s, she became known within artistic circles, due in part to her performances in Acapulco, center of international tourism, where she sang at the Champagne Room of the restaurant La Perla. Her first album, "Noche de Bohemia" (Bohemian Night), was released in 1961 with the professional support of José Alfredo Jiménez, one of the foremost singer/songwriters of Mexican ranchera music. She eventually recorded more than 80 albums. Vargas was hugely successful during the 1950s, the 1960s, and the first half of the 1970s, touring in Mexico, the United States, France, and Spain and was close to many prominent artists and intellectuals of the time, including Juan Rulfo, Agustín Lara, Frida Kahlo and her husband, Diego Rivera, Dolores Olmedo and Jiménez. Vargas was known to have had various lesbian relationships, and is rumored to have had affairs with Frida Kahlo and Ava Gardner. Although her lyrics were addressed to women, Vargas did not publicly come out until the age of 81 in her 2002 autobiography "And If You Want to Know about My Past" ("Y si quieres saber de mi pasado").


title: Chavela Vargas

text: Vargas retired from performing due to a 15-year battle with alcoholism, which she described in her autobiography as "my 15 years in hell." Chavela could not maintain her heavy drinking and intense lifestyle. In 1970, "submerged in an alcoholic haze" as she described it, she was taken in by a native family who nursed her back to health without knowing who she was. In 2003, she told "The New York Times" that she had not had a drink in 25 years.


title: Chavela Vargas

text: Vargas returned to the stage in 1991, performing at a bohemian nightclub called "El Hábito" in Coyoacán, Mexico City. Her career started to recover international prominence, with performances in Latin America, Europe and the United States. Vargas debuted at Carnegie Hall in 2003 at age 83 at the behest and promotion of Spanish director Pedro Almodóvar, an admirer and friend.


title: Chavela Vargas

text: Long considered an open secret, she publicly came out as a lesbian at age 81 in her 2002 autobiography. Her coming out was not surprising to her fans. For years Vargas refused to change the genders in her songs. In "Paloma Negra" ("Black Dove"), Vargas accuses a woman of partying all night long and breaking her heart. Vargas herself, as a young woman, was alleged to have had an affair with Frida Kahlo during Kahlo's marriage to muralist Diego Rivera. From 1988 to 1993, she was in a relationship with her lawyer Alicia Elena Pérez Duarte.


title: Chavela Vargas

text: Vargas' gender performativity did not reflect the Western binary of gender because she wore more masculine clothing, which in the 1940s, included pants, charro suits, sombreros, guayaberos, and ponchos. In "Chavela," Vargas remembers people telling her, "she doesn't dress like a woman, style her hair or wear her makeup like a woman." Mid-20th century Mexico was not as accepting of Vargas and her music because her gender expression and sexual orientation were constantly questioned throughout her career. Anthropologists including Roger Lancaster, Joseph Carrier, Stephen O. Murray studied the intersections of gender and sexuality in Latin America, and they claim "that patterns of sexuality can be as easily affected by political, social, and economic currents as gender relations." Vargas was publicly identified as a lesbian and her music would reflect queer love, joy, and heartbreak. Emma Perez commented on Vargas' role in shaping queerness in Mexico's music industry and calls it the "sitio" she "formed within Mexican popular music, a space/place for mestiza lesbian subjectivity, desire, and sexuality." Vargas' ability to engage with her sexuality through her music amidst finding success in a traditional country, where there was deep-rooted homophobia and religious fundamentalism, paved the way for LGBTQ artists like Concha Buika and other Latin women artists such as Lila Downs, Eugenia León, La Santa Cecilia, Julieta Venegas, and more.


title: Chavela Vargas

text: Vargas' live performances and her music were passionate yet subtle references to her personal life. She naturally challenged structural notions of masculinity through her music and performance, since "she often declined to change the pronouns in love songs written by men from 'she' to 'he.' But she also tended to shun modern gender pigeonholes, noting that many described her as 'una rareza' -- a rarity." Vargas' artistry was determined by her queer experiences and performance, which was an image she held long before it was widely celebrated and accepted.


title: Chavela Vargas

text: Vargas' songwriting resonated heavily with queer audiences. Marvette Perez, curator of Latin-American Culture and Music for the Smithsonian Museum of American History, described her sentiments on Vargas' song "Macorina" in an interview with NPR: "I don’t think there could be a more queer song for a woman to sing. The song says, ‘Ponme la mano aqui, Macorina.’ 'Put your hand right here, Macorina.' And whenever she sang the song, she put such sexuality, desire, and kind of sensuality into it that you knew why she was singing, why she was singing and to who she was singing it. She was singing it to a woman.” Vargas captured audiences through her performances on stage and her masculine gender performance, which would posthumously become part of her understated queer legacy.


title: Chavela Vargas

text: Her experience as a masculine ranchera singer in the 20th century led to marginalization and hate, which made her path as a woman in ranchera music much more difficult to garner more supporters. On the other hand, her fans recognize her "unsettling, coded, but undeniable connection between her interpretations and her physicality (the unique vocal technique to infuse emotions into the songs, her body in performance) must be turned comfortingly back to the realm of musicianship." Those who loved Vargas saw the brilliance in her gender-bending style and music, so she was able to thrive and find success even though her appearance was generally not accepted.


title: Chavela Vargas

text: Vargas is featured in many of Almodóvar's films, including "La flor de mi secreto" in both song and video. She said, however, that acting was not her ambition, although she had previously participated in films such as the 1967 movie "La Soldadera." Vargas also appeared in "Frida", singing "La Llorona" ("The Weeping Woman"). Her classic "Paloma Negra" ("Black Dove") was also included in the soundtrack of the film. She appeared in Alejandro González Iñárritu's "Babel", singing "Tú me acostumbraste" ("I got used to you"), a bolero by Frank Domínguez.


title: Chavela Vargas

text: On 10 February 2017, the biographical film "Chavela" debuted. Directed by Catherine Gund and Daresha Kyi, the film features Pedro Almodóvar, Elena Benarroch and Miguel Bosé among others.


title: Chavela Vargas

text: Chavela Vargas had been hospitalized for several weeks as a result of respiratory problems. She died in Cuernavaca, Mexico. According her official Facebook page, her last words were "I leave with Mexico in my heart."


title: Chavela Vargas

text: In August 2019, Vargas was one of the honorees inducted in the Rainbow Honor Walk, a walk of fame in San Francisco's Castro neighborhood noting LGBTQ people who have "made significant contributions in their fields."


title: Chavela Vargas

text: Joaquín Sabina's song "Por el Boulevard de los Sueños Rotos" ("Down the Boulevard of Broken Dreams") is dedicated to Vargas. Sergio Ramírez Mercado, a Nicaraguan writer, published in 2011 the novel "La Fugitiva", a fictionalized account of the life of Costa Rican writer Yolanda Oreamuno. In Ramírez' work, Oreamuno's life is told by three women who met her. According to many critics, one of the female characters telling Oreamuno's history is a singer who resembles Chavela Vargas. The character talks about her own life and her non-reciprocated love for Yolanda Oreamuno.


title: Chavela Vargas

text: In 2012, the artist Juan Carlos del Valle presented a series of portraits of Vargas at the Centro Cultural de España en México, Mexico City.


title: 2021–22 Atlético Madrid season

text: The 2021–22 season was the 115th season in the existence of Atlético Madrid and the club's 20th consecutive season in the top flight of Spanish football. In addition to the domestic league, Atlético Madrid participated in this season's editions of the Copa del Rey, the Supercopa de España, and the UEFA Champions League.


title: 2021–22 Atlético Madrid season

text: ! colspan=14 style=background:#dcdcdc; text-align:center|Players who have made an appearance this season but have left the club


title: Tom Weston-Jones

text: Tom Weston-Jones (born 29 June 1987) is an English actor, known for his role in "Copper" and for playing Richard Lee in "Warrior" (2019).


title: Tom Weston-Jones

text: Weston-Jones was born in Burton-upon-Trent, Staffordshire, and was brought up in Dubai, having gone to school at Dubai College. He holds a degree in drama and theatre from Royal Holloway University of London, and has trained at the Bristol Old Vic Theatre School.


title: Tom Weston-Jones

text: Weston-Jones has had success on television. He is best known for portraying Irish immigrant Detective Kevin Corcoran in the BBC America television series "Copper". His other roles include Anthony in "Not Safe for Work" and Meriwether Compeyson in "Dickensian".


title: Limburger

text: Limburger (in southern Dutch contexts Rommedoe, and in Belgium Herve cheese) is a cheese that originated in the Herve area of the historical Duchy of Limburg, which had its capital in Limbourg-sur-Vesdre, now in the French-speaking Belgian province of Liège. The cheese is especially known for its strong smell caused by the bacterium "Brevibacterium linens".


title: Limburger

text: The Herve name has become the modern European protected name for the cheese, while the Limburger name is used for the same style when made in other regions. Herve cheese, or "Fromage de Herve", is still produced in the territory of the old Duchy of Limburg, in Belgium, where it has been produced since the 15th century. Herve is located near Liège, and the borders separating Belgium from the Netherlands and Germany. The "Land of Herve" is a hilly area between the Vesdre and Meuse rivers. The duchy existed until the French Revolution as a part of the Holy Roman Empire, and the cheese style became popular in other areas, known by the name of its country of origin.


title: Limburger

text: In the US, it was first produced by the F.X. Baumert cheese factory in Antwerp, New York, in 1854. It was also produced in 1867 by Rudolph Benkerts in his cellar from pasteurized goat's milk. A few years later, 25 factories produced this cheese. The Chalet Cheese Cooperative in Monroe, Wisconsin, is the only American company that makes this cheese. It is also manufactured in Canada, where it is a German-Canadian cultural marker, by the Oak Grove Cheese Company in New Hamburg, Ontario.


title: Limburger

text: Herve is a Belgian rind washed soft cheese made from raw cow's milk. The aging process takes place in ripening cellars of the Herve countryside, sometimes cut into its chalky rock.


title: Limburger

text: It is sometimes flavored with herbs. Herve has a pale yellow interior with a glossy reddish-brown coating created by the bacteria that grow during its 3-month aging. It is usually shaped into a brick when sold. The taste and flavor of the cheese deepens during the period of ripening. When young, the interior is sweet, and with age it becomes spicy.


title: Limburger

text: In its first month, the cheese is firmer and more crumbly, similar to the texture of feta cheese. After about six weeks, the cheese becomes softer along the edges but is still firm on the inside and can be described as salty and chalky. After two months it is mostly creamy and much smoother. Once it reaches three months, the cheese produces its notorious smell because of the bacterium used to ferment Limburger cheese and many other smear-ripened cheeses. This is "Brevibacterium linens", the same one found on human skin that is partially responsible for body odor (particularly foot odor).


title: Limburger

text: One way to serve Limburger is the Limburger sandwich. After three months, when the cheese has ripened, it becomes spreadable. The cheese is often spread thick (more than 0.5 cm or 0.2 inch) on firm-textured 100% rye bread, with a large, thick slice of onion, and is typically served with strong black coffee or lager beer. Alternatively, chunks or slices of the cheese up to 1.5 cm (0.6 inch) thick can be cut off the block and placed in the sandwich.


title: Limburger

text: This sandwich remains very popular among the descendants of Swiss and German immigrants in the Midwestern United States, in places including Wisconsin and Ohio. In the early 20th century, Limburger sandwiches became a popular lunch for working people due to their affordability and nutritious qualities. They were frequently accompanied by a glass of beer.


title: Limburger

text: However, it is markedly less popular among the descendants born after about 1960, mainly because of the permeating smell and the inconvenience of going to specialty cheese and sausage shops to buy it.


title: Limburger

text: In Wisconsin, the Limburger sandwich can be found on menus at certain restaurants, accompanied by brown mustard. There are several variations, such as the addition of bologna, lettuce, tomato, roasted walnuts, and the use of white or French bread. Sometimes the rind of the cheese is rinsed or removed to weaken its odor.


title: Limburger

text: Limburger and its characteristic odor are a frequent butt of jokes. Reactions to, and misinterpretations of, the smell of Limburger cheese were gags used in numerous "Looney Tunes", "Little Rascals" and "Three Stooges" comedy shorts as well as in the 1942 Abbott and Costello film "Who Done It?". Also, the arch-enemy of the "Biker Mice from Mars" has the name Lawrence Limburger, complete with terrible body odor.


title: Limburger

text: The smell of the cheese is referenced in the 1979 single by the B-52's, "Dance This Mess Around", with the lyric "why don't you dance with me? I'm not no Limburger" suggesting that the singer feels she is unable to get a dancing partner due to perceived body odor.


title: Limburger

text: In the Disney Channel Original Movie Don't Look Under the Bed, Larry is making "Boogey Goo" which is said to smell terrible. He lists Limburger Cheese as one of the ingredients.


title: Limburger

text: A study showing that the malaria mosquito ("Anopheles gambiae") is attracted equally to the smell of Limburger and to the smell of human feet earned the Ig Nobel Prize in 2006 in the area of biology. The results of the study were published in the medical journal "The Lancet" on 9 November 1996. As a direct result of these findings, traps baited with this cheese have been placed in strategic locations in some parts of Africa to combat the epidemic of malaria.


title: Kathy Etchingham

text: Kathleen Mary Etchingham (born 18 June 1946) is an English writer known from the Swinging London music scene of the 1960s and her relationship with Jimi Hendrix.


title: Kathy Etchingham

text: Etchingham was born in Derby, the daughter of Charles Etchingham, an Irishman from Dublin. Her mother deserted the family when Kathy was 10 years old, and Kathy was sent to the Holy Faith convent boarding school in Skerries, Dublin. Returning to England, having been snatched from the convent by her mother, she eventually made her way to London.


title: Kathy Etchingham

text: In London, Etchingham became a DJ at The Cromwellian in Kensington and later at the Scotch of St James in Mason's Yard, in addition to working as a hairdresser. She knew the up-and-coming musicians of the period including The Animals, The Who, The Kinks, The Moody Blues, The Move, and many others. These bands became known in the US in the mid-1960s as the British Invasion.


title: Kathy Etchingham

text: Etchingham, at age 20, met Jimi Hendrix in The Scotch of St. James nightclub, on the night of his arrival in London on 24 September 1966. They became a couple during the time of his rise to stardom. According to her personal web page, Etchingham was the inspiration for many of Hendrix's compositions including "The Wind Cries Mary" (penned after an argument between Hendrix and Etchingham), "Foxy Lady" (during one of the first performances of this number Hendrix pointed her out from the stage), as the Katherina in "1983... (A Merman I Should Turn to Be)" and in "Send My Love to Linda" (the original lyrics of which were "Send My Love to Kathy", until Etchingham objected to being named). In 1969, she and Hendrix drifted apart.


title: Kathy Etchingham

text: Etchingham's first marriage broke up, and she later remarried and had a family. In 1997, she was instrumental in the placement of an English Heritage blue plaque on the wall of Jimi Hendrix’s home at 23 Brook Street, Mayfair. In 1998, she published a book, "Through Gypsy Eyes", which Etchingham wrote with Andrew Crofts, about her life, the 1960s, and Jimi Hendrix.


title: Kathy Etchingham

text: In 2014, Etchingham criticised the biographical film which covered her relationship with Hendrix in the 1960s, "", written and directed by John Ridley. Etchingham described the film depiction of her life with Hendrix as "absolute nonsense".


title: Paso Robles, California

text: Paso Robles ( ), officially El Paso de Robles (Spanish for "The Pass of Oaks"), is a city in San Luis Obispo County, California, United States. Located on the Salinas River approximately north of San Luis Obispo, the city is known for its hot springs, its abundance of wineries, its production of olive oil, almond orchards, and for playing host to the California Mid-State Fair.


title: Paso Robles, California

text: People differ on the pronunciation of the city's shortened name of "Paso Robles". While its Spanish pronunciation is , residents anglicize the pronunciation as . This anglicized version has been used in the city phone message.


title: Paso Robles, California

text: This area of the Central Coast, known as the City of El Paso De Robles, Paso Robles, or simply "Paso", is known for its thermal springs. Native Americans known as the Salinan lived in the area thousands of years before the mission era. They knew this area as the “Springs” or the “Hot Springs.” A tribal site on present-day Paso Robles was named "elewexe", Obispeño for "Swordfish".


title: Paso Robles, California

text: Paso Robles is located on the Rancho Paso de Robles Mexican land grant that was purchased by James and Daniel Blackburn in 1857. Their partner was Drury James of Kentucky, a veteran of the Mexican War and uncle of the outlaw Jesse James. The land was a rest-stop for travelers of the Camino Real trail, and was known for its mineral hot springs. Franciscan priests from neighboring Mission San Miguel constructed the first mineral baths in the area. During this period, Paso Robles began to attract the settlers who established cattle ranches, apple and almond orchards, dairy farms, and vineyards.


title: Paso Robles, California

text: In 1864, the first El Paso de Robles Hotel was constructed and featured a hot mineral springs bath house. Three locations (Paso Robles Inn, River Oaks Hot Springs, and Franklin Hot Springs) have offered the mineral bath hot spring experience which brought people like Ignacy Jan Paderewski to Paso Robles.


title: Paso Robles, California

text: James and Daniel Blackburn donated two blocks to the city for a public park to be used for the pleasure of its citizens and visitors. By original deed, the land was to revert to the donors if used for any other purpose than a public park. Two exceptions were made: allowing the building of the Carnegie Library, and the conversion of the library to a museum. The grounds were laid out by a Mr. Redington and a planting day was held when each citizen set out his own donation. Originally, the whole park was hedged in by a fence of cactus, and in 1890 a bandstand was built with money raised by private theatricals.


title: Paso Robles, California

text: In 1886, after the coming of the Southern Pacific Railroad, work began on laying out a town site, with the resort as the nucleus. Two weeks after the first train arrived on October 31, 1886, a three-day celebration was held including a special train from San Francisco bringing prospective buyers, who toured the area and enjoyed the daily barbecues. On November 17, the “Grand Auction” was held, resulting in the sale of 228 lots.


title: Paso Robles, California

text: The local agent for the SPR when it arrived in Paso Robles was R. M. "Dick" Shackelford, a Kentucky native who had come to California in 1853 to dig for gold. Shackelford had a varied career, going from gold mining to hauling freight by ox team, to lumbering, which took him to Nevada, where he served one term as a delegate in the state's first legislature for Washoe County. By 1886 Shackelford had returned to California and was living in Paso Robles, where he began buying up extensive property, building warehouses and starting lumber yards along the railroad's route. Shackelford also established the Southern Pacific Milling Company, which had a virtual monopoly on local milling until local farmers, in an effort to break Shackelford's stranglehold, themselves organized their own milling cooperative, the Farmers' Alliance Flour Mill.


title: Paso Robles, California

text: In 1889, the same year that Paso Robles incorporated as a city, construction began on a magnificent new hotel. The hotel required over one million bricks and cost $160,000. The new El Paso de Robles Hotel opened for business in 1891. The new hotel was three stories tall and built of solid masonry, set off by sandstone arches. This ensured the hotel was completely fireproof. The hotel also featured a seven-acre (28,000 m) garden and nine-hole golf course. Inside there was a library, a beauty salon, a barber shop, and various billiard and lounging rooms. The new hotel also offered an improved hot springs plunge bath as well as 32 individual bath rooms. The 20 by plunge bath was considered one of the finest and most complete of its time in the United States.


title: Paso Robles, California

text: On January 17, 1914, one of the world's most well-known concert pianists and composers came to the hotel: Ignace Paderewski. After three weeks of treatments at the hotel's mineral hot springs for his arthritis, he resumed his concert tour. He later returned to live at the hotel and bought two ranches west of Paso Robles.


title: Paso Robles, California

text: During the next 30 years, the hotel was visited by other notables: Boxing champion Jack Dempsey, President Theodore Roosevelt, Adela Rogers St. Johns, Phoebe Apperson Hearst (the mother of William Randolph Hearst), actors Douglas Fairbanks, Boris Karloff, Bob Hope, and Clark Gable all stayed at the El Paso de Robles Hotel. And when Major League baseball teams used Paso Robles as a spring training home, the Pittsburgh Pirates and Chicago White Sox stayed at the hotel and soaked in the mineral hot springs to soothe tired muscles.


title: Paso Robles, California

text: For a time, Paso Robles was known as the “Almond City” because the local almond growers created the largest concentration of almond orchards in the world. The ranchers in the outlying areas were very important to the Paso Robles area. On these ranches were cattle and horses, grain crops (primarily wheat and barley), garden produce and fruit and nut orchards. Many of these ranch lands and orchards have become vineyards for the many wineries which currently draw tourists to the area.


title: Paso Robles, California

text: To show their appreciation to the ranchers, in October 1931 the business people established Pioneer Day, which is still an annual celebration.


title: Paso Robles, California

text: In December 1940, a fire completely destroyed the "fire-proof" El Paso de Robles Hotel. Guests staying the night escaped unharmed. However, the night clerk who discovered the fire suffered a fatal heart attack immediately after sounding the alarm. Within months after the blaze, plans for a new hotel to be built on the site were drawn up. The design was an entirely new concept: A garden inn-hotel, designed to accommodate motor vehicle travelers. By February 1942 construction was complete and the new Paso Robles Inn opened for business.


title: Paso Robles, California

text: In 1955, scores of national media came to Paso Robles after pop culture icon and actor James Dean was pronounced dead in town following his tragic car accident just east of the city. Today, a roadside memorial in his honor stands in nearby Cholame, drawing fans looking to pay tribute to the fallen star every year.


title: Paso Robles, California

text: Through the 1960s and 1970s, the City of Paso Robles experienced significant growth. The area's wine industry flourished, the California Mid-State Fair expanded into a regional attraction, and local lakes, such as Lake Nacimiento, became family vacation destinations.


title: Paso Robles, California

text: As far back as 1795, Paso Robles has been spoken of and written about as “California’s oldest watering place”—the place to go for springs and mud baths. In 1864, a correspondent to the San Francisco Bulletin wrote that there was every prospect of the Paso Robles hot springs becoming the watering place of the state. By 1868 people were coming from as far away as Oregon, Nevada, Idaho, and even Alabama. Besides the well-known mud baths, there were the Iron Spring and the Sand Spring, which bubbles through the sand and was said to produce delightful sensations.


title: Paso Robles, California

text: In 1882, Drury James and the Blackburn brothers issued a pamphlet advertising “El Paso de Robles Hot and Cold Sulphur Springs and the Only Natural Mud Baths in the World”. By then there were first-class accommodations: a reading room, barber shop, and telegraph office; a general store, a top-of-the-line livery stable, and comfortably furnished cottages for families that preferred privacy to quarters in the hotel. Visitors could stay in touch with the rest of the world, as there were two daily mails, a Western Union telegraph office, and a Wells Fargo agency with special rates for guests. As the springs became more and more a destination of the well-to-do as a place to go to socialize, the original purpose of the springs—to heal—became peripheral.