title: The Wonder (film)

text: In 1862, Elizabeth "Lib" Wright, an English nurse who served in the Crimean War, is sent to a rural village in Ireland where she is tasked with closely watching Anna O'Donnell, a fasting girl who according to her family has not eaten for four months. She is to be assisted by a nun, Sister Michael, and the two are to report their findings independently to a council of local dignitaries. The trauma of the Great Famine still looms over the community, and many locals are wary of the English nurse. Lib meets Anna's deeply religious family: her mother Rosaleen, her father Malachy and her elder sister Kitty. At dinner, Lib learns that Anna's elder brother died of an unknown illness. Anna herself appears in good health and says she has been kept alive by consuming "manna from Heaven".


title: The Wonder (film)

text: At her lodgings, Lib encounters William Byrne, a man who grew up locally and whose family perished in the Great Famine while he was away at boarding school. Now a journalist for the "Daily Telegraph", William is reporting on the story, which he believes to be a hoax. Lib and William become intimately involved. Lib's observations initially reveal no evidence of deception. Anna prays many times a day and speaks of the fate of the damned in Hell. Lib, still grieving for the death of her only child, takes laudanum to help her sleep.


title: The Wonder (film)

text: Noticing that her mother kisses Anna goodnight on her mouth while cupping her face, Lib deduces that chewed food is being covertly passed to Anna. She forbids the family from touching her. Anna does not deny that this is her "manna", and she discloses to Lib the reasons for her fast: her elder brother had repeatedly raped her, and she attributes his death to God's wrath. Anna believes that by sacrificing her life she will free her brother's soul. Separated from her family's touch, Anna's condition worsens. William files a report to his paper in which he lays the blame for Anna's expected death on her family and the community.


title: The Wonder (film)

text: Lib informs the council of her findings, but they refuse to believe her. Sister Michael states that she had found no evidence of Rosaleen feeding Anna. Members of the council question Anna, but she repeats that she is sustained solely by "manna from Heaven". Knowing that Anna will inevitably die unless she eats soon, Lib pleads for the family to take action, or at least for her mother to resume the kisses. Rosaleen refuses, saying that after Anna's sacred death, both her children will be in heaven. Lib persuades William to assist with a rescue plan. While the family are at mass, Lib brings Anna, now near death, to a nearby holy clootie well. She tells her that although "Anna" will die, she will be reborn as a new girl named "Nan". Anna closes her eyes and appears to die. When she revives, Lib is finally able to feed her. Lib returns to the house alone and sets it ablaze, at the same time deliberately destroying her laudanum bottle.


title: The Wonder (film)

text: Lib tells the council that Anna died of natural causes, and that the fire was an accident. Concerned for their own possible culpability for Anna's death, and in the absence of a body within the charred remains of the house, they terminate her employment without pay. Sister Michael tells Lib that, after leaving mass early, she saw a vision of Anna and an angel leaving the area on horseback. She asks Lib to swear that Anna has gone to a better place.


title: The Wonder (film)

text: In Dublin, Lib reunites with William and Nan, who has recovered her health. The three pose as a family named Cheshire and set sail for Sydney.


title: The Wonder (film)

text: On 28 April 2021, it was announced that Florence Pugh was set to star in Sebastián Lelio's adaptation of "The Wonder". Principal photography began in Ireland on 12 August 2021. Accompanying the announcement of the start of production, it was reported that Tom Burke, Niamh Algar, Elaine Cassidy, Kíla Lord Cassidy, Toby Jones, Ciarán Hinds, Dermot Crowley, Brían F. O'Byrne and David Wilmot had joined the cast.


title: The Wonder (film)

text: "The Wonder" premiered at the Telluride Film Festival on 2 September 2022, followed by a screening at the 2022 Toronto International Film Festival on 13 September 2022. Its European premiere was at the 70th San Sebastián International Film Festival on 21 September 2022. It was released on Netflix on 16 November 2022, following a limited theatrical release on 2 November.


title: The Wonder (film)

text: Reviewing the film following its premiere at Telluride, David Ehrlich of "IndieWire" called it a "sumptuous but slightly undercooked tale", praising Lelio's direction, the performances, the cinematography, and the score. Peter Bruge praised the cast performances in his review for "Variety" but criticized the screenplay, summarizing it as an "evenhanded but ultimately preposterous adaptation". "The Hollywood Reporter"’s Stephen Farber found it an "illuminating study of dark prejudices" and commended Pugh's performance and Lelio's direction, which he said represents perhaps his "finest achievement to date".


title: The Wonder (film)

text: The film has been likened to folk horror, with Meara Isenberg of CNET noting its "rural setting, religious foreboding and general sense of dread". Ed Power of the "Irish Examiner" described it as "Famine trauma meets folk horror", calling it a "gripping film ... full of buried secrets and festering evil".


title: Quattro (four-wheel-drive system)

text: quattro (meaning "four" in Italian) is the trademark used by the automotive brand Audi to indicate that all-wheel drive (AWD) technologies or systems are used on specific models of its automobiles.


title: Quattro (four-wheel-drive system)

text: The word "quattro" is a registered trademark of Audi AG, a subsidiary of the German automotive concern, Volkswagen Group.


title: Quattro (four-wheel-drive system)

text: Quattro was first introduced in 1980 on the permanent four-wheel drive Audi Quattro model, often referred to as the "Ur-Quattro" (meaning "original" or "first"). The term quattro has since been applied to all subsequent Audi AWD models. Due to the nomenclature rights derived from the trademark, the word quattro is now always spelled with a lower case "q", in honour of its former namesake.


title: Quattro (four-wheel-drive system)

text: Other companies in the Volkswagen Group have used different trademarks for their 4WD vehicles. While Audi has always used the term "quattro", Volkswagen-branded cars initially used ""syncro"", but more recently, VW uses ""4motion"". Škoda simply uses the nomenclature ""4x4"" after the model name, whereas SEAT uses merely ""4"" (""4Drive"" more recently). None of the above trademarks or nomenclatures defines the operation or type of 4WD system, as detailed below.


title: Quattro (four-wheel-drive system)

text: Volkswagen Group has been developing four-wheel drive (4WD) systems almost since its inception during the Second World War. The Volkswagen Kübelwagen, Volkswagen Schwimmwagen, and Volkswagen Kommandeurswagen were all military vehicles which required all four road wheels to be "driven", the latter being a 4WD Volkswagen Beetle. Their military and four-wheel drive experiences later aided them in designing the Volkswagen Iltis for the German military ("Bundeswehr") in the 1970s. The Iltis utilized an early form of 4WD, which would later become synonymous with "quattro".


title: Quattro (four-wheel-drive system)

text: In that original quattro system, later found in road-going passenger cars, the engine and transmission are situated in a longitudinal position. Torque is sent through the transmission to a mechanical centre differential (commonly abbreviated to "diff") which apportions (distributes) the torque between front and rear driven axles. 4WD was permanently active.


title: Quattro (four-wheel-drive system)

text: After 1987, Audi replaced a manually locking centre differential with the Torsen (torque sensing) Type 1 ("T1") centre differential. This allowed engine torque to be automatically directed to individual axles as driving conditions and grip warranted. Under 'normal' conditions (where grip in both front and rear axles is equal), torque is split between front and rear with a 'default" 50:50 distribution in many, though not all, versions. In adverse conditions (i.e., when there is variation in grip between front and rear), a maximum of 67-80% (depending on the transmission, or model of Torsen diff) of the engine's torque can be directed to the front or rear axles. The fully automated mechanical nature of the Torsen centre differential helps prevent wheel slippage from occurring, by diverting torque instantly, without any discernible notice to the vehicle occupants, to the axle which has more grip. This method of operation can be described as proactive. Furthermore, unlike the various types of electronically operated differentials, Torsen has no requirement for electronic data from sources such as road wheel speed sensors; it, therefore, has an element of "fail-safe", unlike designs such as Haldex Traction, should one of the wheel speed sensors develop a fault. In comparison, viscous coupling and electronically controlled centre differentials that are used in other four-wheel drive systems are reactive, since they only redirect torque "after" wheel slippage has occurred. The advantage is felt under hard acceleration, including whilst cornering, since the torque transfer between axles is seamless, thus maintaining stable vehicle dynamics, and considerably reducing the chance of losing control of the vehicle.


title: Quattro (four-wheel-drive system)

text: The Torsen-based quattro system also offers an advantage in the opposite function of distributing torque to the road wheels, namely engine braking. When engine braking is used to slow the car down, with Torsen-based systems, the resulting "reverse-torque" loads on the front and rear axle are equally stabilized, in exactly the same way that engine "propulsion" torque is apportioned fully mechanically autonomously. This allows the spreading of the engine braking effect to all four wheels and tyres. The Torsen-based quattro-equipped vehicle is able to execute a more stable high-speed turn under deceleration, with less risk of losing control due to loss of grip in the front or rear axles.


title: Quattro (four-wheel-drive system)

text: The Torsen T3 centre differential combines a planetary gear set with a Torsen differential in a compact package developed for centre differential installations. Unlike the T1 Torsen where the torque split is a nominal 50:50, in the T3 Torsen the torque split, due to the use of the planetary gear set, is an asymmetric 40:60 front-rear torque split (i.e., when grip is equal on both front and rear axles, 40% of torque is sent to the front axle, and 60% to the rear). As with the T1 Torsen, torque will be distributed dynamically depending on tractive conditions, but with an actual (rather than nominal) static bias. The T3 allows handling characteristics and vehicle dynamics more akin to rear-wheel drive cars. This asymmetric Torsen was first introduced in the highly acclaimed 2006-model (B7) Audi RS4. The Type 3 torsen was used in the Audi S4 and RS4 B7 manual transmissions from 2006 to 2008, as well as the S6, S8, and Q7 models from 2007.


title: Quattro (four-wheel-drive system)

text: The torque split across axles and between left and right wheels has been achieved through the various evolutions of the quattro system, through a driver-selectable manually locking differential (rear axle only), and eventually through open differentials with Electronic Differential Lock (EDL). EDL is an electronic system, utilising the existing anti-lock braking system (ABS), part of the Electronic Stability Programme (ESP), which brakes just the one spinning wheel on an axle, therefore allowing the transfer of torque across the axle to the wheel which does have traction.


title: Quattro (four-wheel-drive system)

text: Audi debuted a new generation of quattro in the 2010 RS5. The key change is the replacement of the Torsen Type "C" centre differential with an Audi-developed "Crown Gear" differential. Whilst this is superficially the same as a normal open differential, adapted for a centre application, it has some key differences:


title: Quattro (four-wheel-drive system)

text: If one axle loses grip, different rotational speeds arise inside the differential which result in an increase in axial forces that force the clutch plates to close. Once closed, the output shaft is locked resulting in the diversion of the majority of the torque to the axle achieving better traction. In the Crown Gear differential up to 85% of torque can flow to the rear, and up to 70% of torque can be diverted to the front axle.


title: Quattro (four-wheel-drive system)

text: The net result of this advance in quattro is the ability of the vehicle electronics to fully manage the vehicle dynamics in all traction situations, whether in cornering, acceleration or braking or in any combination of these.


title: Quattro (four-wheel-drive system)

text: Audi has never officially debuted quattro in specific generations. Changes to quattro technology have generally been debuted with a specific range or model in the range and then brought into other models during appropriate points in the model cycle.


title: Quattro (four-wheel-drive system)

text: The exception to the above was the debut of the 2010 RS5 which was, amongst other things, heralded by Audi as the debut of a "new generation of quattro".


title: Quattro (four-wheel-drive system)

text: Used from 1981 to 1987 in Audi Quattro turbo coupé, Audi 80 B2 platform (1978–1987, Audi 4000 in North American market), Audi Coupé quattro B2 platform (1984–1988), Audi 100 C3 platform (1983–1987, Audi 5000 in North American market). Also, starting from 1984, used on the Volkswagen VW Passat B2 platform (VW Quantum in the US market) where it was known as "Syncro".


title: Quattro (four-wheel-drive system)

text: How the system performs: When all differentials are unlocked, the car will not be able to move if one wheel (front or rear) loses traction (is on ice or raised in the air). When the center differential is locked with the rear differential unlocked, the car will not be able to move if one front wheel and one rear wheel lose traction. When the rear differential is locked with the center unlocked, the car will not be able to move if both rears or one front loses traction. When both center and rear differentials are locked, the car will not be able to move if both rears and one front lose traction.


title: Quattro (four-wheel-drive system)

text: Starting from 1988 on older generation Audi 100 C3 platform and Audi Quattro until the end of their production, and on new generation B3 platform (1989–1992) Audi 80/90 quattro, B4 platform (1992–1995) Audi 80, Audi S2, Audi RS2 Avant, C4 platform (1991–1994) Audi 100 quattro, Audi S4, later C4 platform (1994-1997) Audi A6/S6.


title: Quattro (four-wheel-drive system)

text: Torsen centre differential, 50:50 'default' split, automatically apportioning up to 75% of torque transfer to either axle.


title: Quattro (four-wheel-drive system)

text: How does the system perform: In on-road conditions the car will not be able to move if one front and both rear wheels lose traction altogether.


title: Quattro (four-wheel-drive system)

text: Starting from 1995 on Audi A4/S4/RS4 (B5 platform), Audi A6/S6/allroad/RS6, Audi A8/S8 with both manual and automatic transmissions. Also on VW Passat B5, where it was initially referred to as "syncro", but by the time it reached US soil, it had been re-christened 4motion. Also used on the Volkswagen Phaeton and Volkswagen Group D platform sister vehicles. The Volkswagen Touareg used 4Xmotion with a separate transmission, PTUs and front axles.


title: Quattro (four-wheel-drive system)

text: The manually locking rear differential from the earlier generations was replaced with a conventional open differential, with Electronic Differential Lock (EDL) (which detects wheelspin via ABS road wheel speed sensors, and applies brakes to one spinning wheel, thus transferring torque via open differential to the opposite wheel which has more traction). EDL works at speeds up to , on all quattro models (on non-quattro models: up to ).


title: Quattro (four-wheel-drive system)

text: Torsen type 1 centre differential, 50:50 'default' split, automatically apportioning up to 75% of torque transfer to either front or rear axle.


title: Quattro (four-wheel-drive system)

text: Starting with the B7 Audi RS4 and the manual transmission version of the 2006 B7 Audi S4. It was adopted in the entire S4, S6, and S8 lineup in 2007.


title: Quattro (four-wheel-drive system)

text: Torsen type 3 (Type "C") centre differential, 40:60 'default' split front-rear, automatically apportioning up to 80% of the torque to one axle using a 4:1 high-biased center differential. With the aid of ESP, up to 100% of the torque can be transferred to one axle.


title: Quattro (four-wheel-drive system)

text: Audi's new sport differential, debuted 'torque vectoring' to quattro generation V. The Audi sport differential allowed the dynamic allocation of torque across the rear axle of the debut vehicle: the B7 (2008) S4, and is now an optional addition to all quattro vehicles, which continue to use the 40:60 asymmetric Torsen (Type "C") centre differential. The sport differential replaces the normal open rear differential while the front axle still rely on an open differential with EDL.


title: Quattro (four-wheel-drive system)

text: The torque vectoring rear axle differential is designed and manufactured by Magna Powertrain, and is being offered on Audi A4, A5, A6 and their derivatives (including "RS" models). The "Sport Differential" selectively distributes torque to the rear axle wheels thereby generating a yaw moment, which improves handling and also stabilizes the vehicle when it oversteers or understeers, thereby increasing safety.


title: Quattro (four-wheel-drive system)

text: The sport differential operates by using two superposition ("step up") gears at the differential, which are operated via multi-plate clutches each side of the differential crown wheel. When required by the software (using lateral and longitudinal yaw sensors, the ABS wheel sensors, and a steering wheel sensor), the control software (located in a control unit close to the rear differential), actuates the relevant clutch pack. This has the effect of taking the output shaft drive through the step-up gear to the attached wheel, while the other shaft continues to drive its wheel directly (i.e., the clutch pack not actuated). The higher speed output shaft produces increased torque to the wheel, producing a yaw (turning) moment. In normal operation increased torque is delivered to the wheel on the outside of the turn thereby increasing the vehicles turning moment, in other words, its willingness to turn in the direction pointed by the steering wheel.


title: Quattro (four-wheel-drive system)

text: Audi debuted the 6th generation of quattro in the 2010 RS5. The key change in generation VI is the replacement of the Torsen Type "C" centre differential with an Audi-developed "Crown Gear" differential. With the new "Crown Gear" center differential, up to 70% of the torque can be applied to the front wheels while up to 85% can be applied to the rear wheels if necessary. The net result of this advance in quattro is the ability of the vehicle electronics to fully manage the vehicle dynamics in all traction situations, whether in cornering, acceleration, braking, snow or in any combination of these. This system was later adopted by the A7, latest generation of the A6 and A8.


title: Quattro (four-wheel-drive system)

text: The Audi Q7, the platform-mate of the Volkswagen Touareg and Porsche Cayenne, does not use the same underpinnings of either previous model. BorgWarner instead provides the 4WD system for this more off-road appropriate SUV. A Torsen Type 3 (T3) differential is used.


title: Quattro (four-wheel-drive system)

text: Audi announced "Audi Quattro with Ultra Technology" in February 2016, it is a front-wheel drive biased system for use on platforms with longitudinally mounted engines.


title: Quattro (four-wheel-drive system)

text: Since Volkswagen Group's first mainstream transverse engined vehicle in 1974, four-wheel drive (4WD) has also been considered for their A-platform family of cars. It was not until the second generation of this platform that 4WD finally appeared on the market. The mid-1980s Mk2 Golf syncro, with its transverse engine and transmission positioning, had most of its torque sent primarily to the front axle.


title: Quattro (four-wheel-drive system)

text: Attached to the transaxle is a Power Transfer Unit (PTU), which is connected to a rear axle through a propeller shaft. The PTU also feeds torque through itself to the front axle. At the rear axle, torque was first sent through a viscous coupling before reaching the final drive gearset. This coupling contained friction plates and an oil just viscous enough so that pressure affected how many plates were connected and active (and therefore, how much power was being delivered to the rear wheels).


title: Quattro (four-wheel-drive system)

text: Starting with the Mk4 generation A4-platform, the viscous coupling has been dropped in favour of a Haldex Traction electro-hydraulic limited-slip "coupler" (LSC) or clutch. The Haldex Traction LSC unit is not a differential and therefore cannot perform in the true sense like a differential. A Haldex Traction unit may divert up to a maximum 100% of the torque to the rear axle as conditions warrant. Many people are confused with the torque distribution on Haldex-based systems. Under normal operating conditions the Haldex clutch operates a rate of 5% torque transmission. Under adverse conditions where the car's road wheel speed sensors have determined that both front wheels have lost traction, the Haldex clutch can lock at 100% clamping force, meaning all torque is transferred to the rear axle. The torque split between left and right wheels is achieved with a conventional open differential. If one side of the driven axle loses grip, then the Electronic Differential Lock (EDL) component of the ESP controls this. EDL brakes a single spinning wheel; therefore, the torque gets transferred across the axle to the opposite wheel via the open differential. On all transverse engine cars with the Haldex-based four wheel drive system, the EDL only controls front wheels, and not the rear.


title: Quattro (four-wheel-drive system)

text: The main advantages of the Haldex Traction LSC system over the Torsen-based system include: a slight gain in fuel economy (due to the decoupling of the rear axle when not needed, thereby reducing driveline losses due to friction), and the ability to maintain a short engine bay and larger passenger compartment due to the transverse engine layout. A further advantage of the Haldex, when compared to just front wheel drive variants of the same model, is a more balanced front-rear weight distribution (due to the location of the Haldex center "differential" next to the rear axle).


title: Quattro (four-wheel-drive system)

text: Disadvantages of the Haldex Traction system include: the vehicle has inherent front-wheel drive handling characteristics (as when engine braking, load is only applied on the front wheels, and due to the reactive nature of the Haldex system and slight lag time in the redistribution of engine power), and the Haldex LSC unit also requires additional maintenance, in the form of an oil and filter change every (whereas the Torsen is generally considered to be maintenance-free). Another important disadvantage of the Haldex system is the requirement for all four tyres to be of identical wear levels (and rolling radii), due to the Haldex requiring data from all four road wheel speed sensors. A final significant disadvantage is the reduction in luggage capacity in the boot (trunk), due to the bulky Haldex LSC unit necessitating a raised boot floor by some three inches.


title: Quattro (four-wheel-drive system)

text: This 4WD system was used only on Volkswagen branded vehicles, and was never used on any Audi cars except Audi R8 model.


title: Quattro (four-wheel-drive system)

text: The aforementioned viscous coupling 4WD system was found in the Mk2 generation of transverse-engined A2-platform vehicles, including the Volkswagen Golf Mk2 and Jetta. It was also found on the Volkswagen Type 2 (T3) (Vanagon in the US), Mk3 generation of Golf and Jetta, third generation of Volkswagen Passat B3 (which was based on a heavily revised A-platform), and the Volkswagen Eurovan.


title: Quattro (four-wheel-drive system)

text: The Vanagon system was RWD-biased, the engine and transaxle were in the rear, whereas the viscous coupling was found in the front axle near the final drive. This 4WD system was known as "Syncro" on all vehicles.


title: Quattro (four-wheel-drive system)

text: A viscous coupling installed instead of a centre differential, with freewheel mechanism to disconnect the driven axle when braking.


title: Quattro (four-wheel-drive system)

text: Normally a front-wheel drive vehicle (except Vanagon, see above). In normal driving conditions, 95% of torque is transferred to front axle. Because viscous coupling is considered to be "slow" (some time is needed for silicone fluid to warm-up and solidify), 5% of torque is transferred to rear axle at all times to "pre-tension" the viscous coupling and reduce activation time. The coupling locks when slipping occurs and up to near 50% of torque is automatically transferred to rear axle (front in Vanagon). In on-road conditions, the car will not move if one front wheel and one rear wheel lose traction.


title: Quattro (four-wheel-drive system)

text: The freewheel segment, installed inside the rear differential, lets rear wheels rotate faster than front wheels without locking the viscous coupling and preventing ABS from applying brakes to each wheel independently. Because of the freewheel, torque can be transferred to rear axle only when the vehicle is moving forward. For four-wheel drive to work when reversing, a vacuum-actuated "throttle control element" is installed on the differential case. This device locks the freewheel mechanism when in reverse gear. The freewheel mechanism unlocks when the gear-shift lever is pushed to the right, past the third gear. The freewheel is not unlocked immediately after leaving reverse gear on purpose – this is to prevent the freewheel from cycling from locked to unlocked if the car is stuck and driver is trying to "rock" the car by changing from first to reverse and back.


title: Quattro (four-wheel-drive system)

text: Starting from 1998, the Swedish Haldex Traction LSC unit replaced the viscous coupling. Haldex is used by Audi on the quattro versions of the Audi S1, Audi A3, Audi S3, and the Audi TT. It is also used by Volkswagen in the 4motion versions of the Mk4 and Mk5 generations of Volkswagen Golf, Volkswagen Jetta, and the Golf R32, Volkswagen Sharan, 6th generation VW Passat (also based on the A-platform) and Transporter T5. On the Audis, the trademark holds, and are still referred to as quattro, whereas the Volkswagens receive the 4motion name. The Škoda Octavia 4x4 and SEAT León 4 and SEAT Alhambra 4 also used Haldex LSC, being based on Volkswagen Group models. Curiously, the Bugatti Veyron also utilizes Haldex, though with separate transmission, PTU and front and rear axles.


title: Quattro (four-wheel-drive system)

text: Haldex Traction LSC multi-plate clutch with ECU electronic control, acting as a pseudo center differential.


title: Quattro (four-wheel-drive system)

text: How: Normally front-wheel drive vehicle. A Haldex Traction LSC unit may divert up to a maximum 100% of the torque to the rear axle as conditions warrant. Many people find the torque distribution on Haldex Traction systems confusing. Under normal operating conditions, the Haldex LSC clutch operates at 5% (divide 5% between front and rear, and 97.5% torque goes to the front, and 2.5% goes to the rear). Under adverse conditions where both front wheels lose traction, the Haldex clutch can lock at 100% clamping force. This means, that since there is no torque transferred to the front axle, all torque (minus losses) must be transferred to the rear axle. The torque split between left and right wheels is achieved with a conventional open differential. If one side of the driven axle loses grip, then the Electronic Differential Lock (EDL) controls this. EDL brakes a single spinning wheel, and therefore torque gets transferred to the opposite wheel via the open differential. On all transverse-engined cars with the Haldex Traction LSC four-wheel drive system, the EDL only controls the front wheels, and not the rear.


title: Quattro (four-wheel-drive system)

text: In vehicles equipped with EDL on the front wheels only, the car will not move if both front and one of the rear wheels loses traction.


title: Quattro (four-wheel-drive system)

text: Again, due to limitations of Electronic Differential Lock (see quattro IV description above), in off-road conditions it is enough for one front and one rear wheel to lose traction and the car will not move.


title: Quattro (four-wheel-drive system)

text: The Haldex Traction system is more reactive than preventative, in that there must be a difference in slip (or rotational speed) of the two axle systems before the Haldex operates and sends torque to the rear axle. This is not the same as wheel spin, as the system can react in less than the full rotation of any wheel on the vehicle. The Torsen's permanent 'full-time' even torque split under non-slipping conditions makes slipping less likely to start.


title: Quattro (four-wheel-drive system)

text: The Haldex Electronic Control Unit (ECU) disengages the Haldex clutch in the centre coupling as soon as brakes are applied to allow ABS work properly. When performing tight low-speed turns (e.g. parking) the clutch is disengaged by Electronic Control Unit to avoid "wind-up" in transmission. When Electronic Stability Programs (ESP) are activated the Haldex is disengaged to allow the ESP system to effectively control the vehicle, this applies under acceleration and deceleration conditions.


title: Quattro (four-wheel-drive system)

text: As part of Audi's celebration of quattro All-Wheel Drive technology, a TV commercial titled 'Ahab' was produced inspired by the American novel, Moby Dick. The ad debuted in the United States during 2012 NFL division playoffs.


title: Charles Edison

text: Charles Edison (August 3, 1890 – July 31, 1969) was an American politician, businessman, inventor and animal behaviorist. He was the Assistant and then United States Secretary of the Navy, and served as the 42nd governor of New Jersey. Commonly known as "Lord Edison", he was a son of Thomas Edison and Mina Miller Edison.


title: Charles Edison

text: Charles Edison was born on August 3, 1890, at Glenmont, the Edison family home in West Orange, New Jersey. He was Thomas Edison's fifth child and second from his marriage to Mina Miller. He graduated from the Hotchkiss School in 1909.


title: Charles Edison

text: In 1915–1916, he operated the 100-seat "Little Thimble Theater" with Guido Bruno. The theater staged the works of George Bernard Shaw and August Strindberg, and Charles contributed verse to "Brunos Weekly" under the pseudonym Tom Sleeper. Late in 1915, he brought his players to Ellis Island to perform for Chief Clerk Augustus Sherman and more than four hundred detained immigrants.


title: Charles Edison

text: These avant-garde activities came to a halt when his father put him to work. For a number of years, Charles Edison ran Edison Records. Charles became president of his father's company Thomas A. Edison, Inc. in 1927, and ran it until it was sold in 1957, when it merged with the McGraw Electric Company to form the McGraw-Edison Electric Company. Edison was board chairman of the merged company until he retired in 1961.


title: Charles Edison

text: On January 18, 1937, President Roosevelt appointed Charles Edison as Assistant Secretary of the Navy, then as Secretary on January 2, 1940, Claude A. Swanson having died several months previously. Edison himself only kept the job until June 24, resigning to run for Governor of New Jersey. During his time in the Navy department, he advocated construction of the large s, and that one of them be built at the Philadelphia Navy Yard, which secured votes for Roosevelt in Pennsylvania and New Jersey in the 1940 presidential election; in return, Roosevelt had BB-62 named the .


title: Charles Edison

text: In 1940, he won election as Governor of New Jersey, running in reaction to the political machine run by Frank Hague, but broke with family tradition by declaring himself a Democrat. As governor, he proposed updating the New Jersey State Constitution. Although it failed in a referendum and nothing was changed during his tenure, state legislators did reform the constitution later.


title: Charles Edison

text: Between 1951 and 1969, he lived in the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel, where he struck up a friendship with Herbert Hoover, who also lived there. In 1962, Edison was one of the founders of the Conservative Party of New York State.


title: Charles Edison

text: In 1967, Edison hosted a meeting at the Waldorf-Astoria in New York that led to the founding of the Charles Edison Youth Fund, later the Charles Edison Memorial Youth Fund. Attending the meeting were Rep. Walter Judd (R-MN), author William F. Buckley, organizer David R. Jones, and Edison's political advisor Marvin Liebman. The name of the organization was changed in 1985 to The Fund for American Studies, in keeping with Edison's request to drop his name after 20 years of use.


title: Charles Edison

text: In 1924, Edison joined the New Jersey Society of the Sons of the American Revolution. He was assigned national member number 39,292 and state society number 2,894.


title: Charles Edison

text: In 1948, he established a charitable foundation, originally called "The Brook Foundation", now the Charles Edison Fund.


title: Charles Edison

text: Charles Edison died on July 31, 1969, in New York City, three days shy of his 79th birthday. He is buried in Rosedale Cemetery in Orange, New Jersey.


title: Spoiled child

text: A spoiled child or spoiled brat is a derogatory term aimed at children who exhibit behavioral problems from being overindulged by their parents or other caregivers. Children and teens who are perceived as spoiled may be described as "overindulged", "grandiose", "narcissistic" or "egocentric-regressed". When the child has a neurological condition such as autism, ADHD or intellectual disability, observers may see them as "spoiled”. There is no specific scientific definition of what "spoiled" means, and professionals are often unwilling to use the label because it is considered vague and derogatory. Being spoiled is not recognized as a mental disorder in any of the medical manuals, such as the ICD-10 or the DSM-IV, or its successor, the DSM-5.


title: Spoiled child

text: Richard Weaver, in his work "Ideas Have Consequences", introduced the term “spoiled child psychology” in 1948. In 1989, Bruce McIntosh coined the term the "spoiled child syndrome". The syndrome is characterized by "excessive, self-centered, and immature behavior". It includes lack of consideration for other people, recurrent temper tantrums, an inability to handle the delay of gratification, demands for having one's own way, obstructiveness, and manipulation to get their way. McIntosh attributed the syndrome to "the failure of parents to enforce consistent, age-appropriate limits", but others, such as Aylward, note that temperament is probably a contributory factor. Temper tantrums are "recurrent". McIntosh observes that "many of the problem behaviors that cause parental concern are unrelated to spoiling as properly understood". Children may have occasional temper tantrums without them falling under the umbrella of "spoiled". Extreme cases of spoiled child syndrome will involve "frequent" temper tantrums, physical aggression, defiance, destructive behavior, and refusal to comply with even the simple demands of daily tasks. This can be similar to the profile of children diagnosed with Pathological Demand Avoidance, which is part of the autism spectrum.


title: Spoiled child

text: Children with underlying medical or mental health problems may exhibit some of the symptoms. Speech or hearing disorders, and attention deficit disorder, may lead to children's failing to understand the limits set by parents. Children who have recently experienced a stressful event, such as the separation of the parents (divorce) or the birth or death of a close family relative, may also exhibit some or all of the symptoms. Children of parents who themselves have psychiatric disorders may manifest some of the symptoms, because the parents behave erratically, sometimes failing to perceive their children's behavior correctly, and thus fail to properly or consistently define limits of normal behavior for them.


title: Spoiled child

text: Parents can seek advice, support, and encouragement to empower them in parenthood from diverse sources.


title: Spoiled child

text: Treatment by a physician involves assessing parental competence, and whether the parents set limits correctly and consistently. Physicians will rule out dysfunction in the family, referring dysfunctional families for family therapy and dysfunctional parents for parenting skills training, and counsel parents in methods for modifying their child's behavior.


title: Spoiled child

text: In early infancy, a baby signals desire for food, contact, and comfort by crying. This behavior can be viewed as a distress signal indicating that some biological need is not being met. While parents sometimes worry about spoiling their children by giving them too much attention, specialists in child development maintain that babies cannot be spoiled in the first six months of life. During the first year, children are developing a sense of basic trust and attachment.


title: Spoiled child

text: Alfred Adler (1870–1937) believed that "only children" were likely to experience a variety of problems from their situation. Adler theorized that because only children have no rivals for their parents' affection, they will become pampered and spoiled, particularly by their mother. He suggested that this could later cause interpersonal difficulties if the person is not universally liked and admired.


title: Spoiled child

text: A 1987 quantitative review of 141 studies on 16 different personality traits contradicted Adler's theory. This research found no evidence of any "spoilage" or other pattern of maladjustment in only children. The major finding was that only children are not very different from children with siblings. The main exception to this was the finding that only children are generally higher in achievement motivation. A second analysis revealed that only children, first-borns, and children with only one sibling score higher on tests of verbal ability than later-borns and children with multiple siblings.


title: Spoiled child

text: Spoiling in early childhood tends to create characteristic reactions that persist, fixed, into later life. These can cause significant social problems. Spoiled children may have difficulty coping with situations such as teachers scolding them or refusing to grant extensions on homework assignments, playmates refusing to allow them to play with their toys and playmates refusing playdates with them, a loss in friends, failure in employment, and failure with personal relationships. As adults, spoiled children may experience problems with anger management, professionalism, and personal relationships; a link with adult psychopathy has been observed.


title: Computer-aided manufacturing

text: Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) also known as computer-aided modeling or computer-aided machining is the use of software to control machine tools in the manufacturing of work pieces. This is not the only definition for CAM, but it is the most common; CAM may also refer to the use of a computer to assist in all operations of a manufacturing plant, including planning, management, transportation and storage. Its primary purpose is to create a faster production process and components and tooling with more precise dimensions and material consistency, which in some cases, uses only the required amount of raw material (thus minimizing waste), while simultaneously reducing energy consumption.


title: Computer-aided manufacturing

text: CAM is a subsequent computer-aided process after computer-aided design (CAD) and sometimes computer-aided engineering (CAE), as the model generated in CAD and verified in CAE can be input into CAM software, which then controls the machine tool. CAM is used in many schools alongside computer-aided design (CAD) to create objects.


title: Computer-aided manufacturing

text: Traditionally, CAM has been considered a numerical control (NC) programming tool, wherein two-dimensional (2-D) or three-dimensional (3-D) models of components are generated in CAD. As with other "computer-aided" technologies, CAM does not eliminate the need for skilled professionals such as manufacturing engineers, NC programmers, or machinists. CAM leverages both the value of the most skilled manufacturing professionals through advanced productivity tools, while building the skills of new professionals through visualization, simulation and optimization tools.


title: Computer-aided manufacturing

text: A CAM tool generally converts a model to a language the target machine in question understands, typically G-Code. The numerical control can be applied to machining tools, or more recently to 3D printers.


title: Computer-aided manufacturing

text: Early commercial applications of CAM were in large companies in the automotive and aerospace industries; for example, Pierre Béziers work developing the CAD/CAM application UNISURF in the 1960s for car body design and tooling at Renault. Alexander Hammer at DeLaval Steam Turbine Company invented a technique to progressively drill turbine blades out of a solid metal block of metal with the drill controlled by a punch card reader in 1950.


title: Computer-aided manufacturing

text: Historically, CAM software was seen to have several shortcomings that necessitated an overly high level of involvement by skilled CNC machinists. Fallows created the first CAD software but this had severe shortcomings and was promptly taken back into the developing stage. CAM software would output code for the least capable machine, as each machine tool control added on to the standard G-code set for increased flexibility. In some cases, such as improperly set up CAM software or specific tools, the CNC machine required manual editing before the program will run properly. None of these issues were so insurmountable that a thoughtful engineer or skilled machine operator could not overcome for prototyping or small production runs; G-Code is a simple language. In high production or high precision shops, a different set of problems were encountered where an experienced CNC machinist must both hand-code programs and run CAM software.


title: Computer-aided manufacturing

text: The integration of CAD with other components of CAD/CAM/CAE Product lifecycle management (PLM) environment requires an effective CAD data exchange. Usually it had been necessary to force the CAD operator to export the data in one of the common data formats, such as IGES or STL or Parasolid formats that are supported by a wide variety of software.


title: Computer-aided manufacturing

text: The output from the CAM software is usually a simple text file of G-code/M-codes, sometimes many thousands of commands long, that is then transferred to a machine tool using a direct numerical control (DNC) program or in modern Controllers using a common USB Storage Device.


title: Computer-aided manufacturing

text: CAM packages could not, and still cannot, reason as a machinist can. They could not optimize toolpaths to the extent required of mass production. Users would select the type of tool, machining process and paths to be used. While an engineer may have a working knowledge of G-code programming, small optimization and wear issues compound over time. Mass-produced items that require machining are often initially created through casting or some other non-machine method. This enables hand-written, short, and highly optimized G-code that could not be produced in a CAM package.


title: Computer-aided manufacturing

text: At least in the United States, there is a shortage of young, skilled machinists entering the workforce able to perform at the extremes of manufacturing; high precision and mass production. As CAM software and machines become more complicated, the skills required of a machinist or machine operator advance to approach that of a computer programmer and engineer rather than eliminating the CNC machinist from the workforce.


title: Computer-aided manufacturing

text: Over time, the historical shortcomings of CAM are being attenuated, both by providers of niche solutions and by providers of high-end solutions. This is occurring primarily in three arenas:


title: Computer-aided manufacturing

text: Most machining progresses through many stages, each of which is implemented by a variety of basic and sophisticated strategies, depending on the part design, material, and software available.


title: Ringer (TV series)

text: Ringer is an American thriller crime drama television series that initially aired on The CW from September 13, 2011 to April 17, 2012. The series stars Sarah Michelle Gellar, who plays twin sisters Bridget Kelly and Siobhan Martin. On May 13, 2011, it was reported that the project had been picked up to series by The CW. On October 12, 2011, The CW ordered a full first season of 22 episodes.


title: Ringer (TV series)

text: "Ringer" received mixed reviews, though most critics praised Gellar's performance. On May 11, 2012, The CW canceled the series after one season.


title: Ringer (TV series)

text: Bridget Kelly (Sarah Michelle Gellar) is a recovering drug addict and stripper in Wyoming. She is under the protection of FBI Agent Victor Machado (Nestor Carbonell), having agreed to testify against her employer, local crime boss Bodaway Macawi (Zahn McClarnon), whom she witnessed committing murder. Fearing that Macawi, who has already murdered several witnesses linking him to previous crimes, will also kill her, Bridget flees to New York to meet her estranged twin sister Siobhan (also played by Gellar).


title: Ringer (TV series)

text: Soon after Bridget's arrival in New York, Siobhan, who had kept her sister's existence secret from her family, appears to commit suicide by jumping into the ocean. Bridget then assumes Siobhan's identity and tries to fit in among Siobhan's wealthy social circle, including Siobhan's husband Andrew (Ioan Gruffudd), stepdaughter Juliet (Zoey Deutch), best friend Gemma (Tara Summers), and Gemma's husband Henry (Kristoffer Polaha) with whom Siobhan had been having an affair. The only one who knows that Bridget is passing as Siobhan is Bridget's Narcotics Anonymous sponsor Malcolm (Mike Colter). Bridget's life becomes more complicated as she discovers that her sister was hiding secrets of her own and that someone is trying to kill Siobhan as well.


title: Ringer (TV series)

text: The pilot was announced in early 2011 for CBS. Filming for the pilot began in March 2011 in New York City. The pilot was directed by Richard Shepard and written by Eric Charmelo and Nicole Snyder. The remainder of the series was entirely filmed in Los Angeles. Gellar served as executive producer alongside Peter Traugott and Pam Veasey.


title: Ringer (TV series)

text: In a surprise, the pilot was picked up to series on May 13, 2011 not by CBS, but by their sister network, The CW. This caused ABC Studios to drop out of co-producing the show, citing that it cannot produce a series for the economics of The CW. Warner Bros. Television stepped in as co-producers instead. On the CW's 2011-12 schedule the series was paired with "90210" and aired Tuesday nights at 9:00 pm Eastern/8:00 pm Central. The network initially ordered thirteen episodes.


title: Ringer (TV series)

text: The series premiered on September 13, 2011. On October 12, 2011, the series was picked up for a full season of 22 episodes.


title: Ringer (TV series)

text: Casting announcements for the series began in January 2011. First to be cast was Sarah Michelle Gellar, who also served as executive producer. Gellar plays Bridget and her twin sister Siobhan Martin. Gellar said, "The joke is that I'm playing five characters" – Bridget and Siobhan in the present, both women in flashbacks, and "Shivette" (which it says on her chair on set), Bridget impersonating Siobhan. The series was Gellar's return to television following the end of "Buffy the Vampire Slayer" eight years earlier.


title: Ringer (TV series)

text: Next to be cast was Nestor Carbonell as Victor Machado, followed by Ioan Gruffudd as Siobhan's husband Andrew Martin, and Mike Colter as Bridget's sponsor Malcolm Ward. Tara Summers later joined the series as Gemma Butler. Kristoffer Polaha was the last actor to be cast in March 2011, as Henry Butler.


title: Ringer (TV series)

text: It was reported on July 19, 2011, that Jaime Murray had been cast as Olivia, Andrew's business partner, who first appeared in episode two and became a recurring character. On July 26, 2011, it was announced that Zoey Deutch had been recast as Juliet, Siobhan's step-daughter and Andrew's daughter. In August, several other recurring roles were cast.


title: Ringer (TV series)

text: Justin Bruening would be joining Ringer as a recurring character named Tyler, who will pursue Siobhan; Billy Miller as John Delario, who met Bridget during her NA meetings; Jason Dohring as Mr. Carpenter, a teacher at the high school Siobhan's step-daughter Juliet attends; and Gage Golightly was cast in a recurring role as Tessa, "a tough teenager who tangles with Siobhan's step-daughter Juliet (Zoey Deutch) at her new inner-city school". On September 3, Nicole Gale Anderson revealed on her official Twitter that she joined "Ringer" and will play the role of Monica. Mädchen Amick has been cast as Greer Sheridan, Siobhan's old friend. On October 26, it was announced that Andrea Roth has been cast to play Catherine, Andrew's ex-wife and Juliet's mother. Brody Hutzler was cast as Greer Sheridan's husband Jason.


title: Ringer (TV series)

text: The show mostly broadcasts indie music. During the Pilot, in order to accentuate the neo-noir aspect of the show, the 1960 song "I Fall to Pieces" by Patsy Cline and a cover of the 1969 song "25 or 6 to 4" by Pacifika were played during key scenes. Later in the season, along with "Glory Box" by Portishead, "Video Games" was featured for the first time on prime spot on "Ringer" on September 28, 2011 during a pivotal scene. Adele's song "Set Fire To The Rain" was used for the promotional campaign of the show and "Rumour Has It" during the last scene of the mid-season finale. The song "Riverside" by the Alfred Hitchcock lover, Agnes Obel is played during Episode 12 and another Lana Del Rey song, "Blue Jeans", was played on February 14, 2012 during the last scene of the episode. The new Regina Spektor single, "All the Rowboats", was featured on Episode 17. Season one ended with a song from the rock band The Black Keys called "She's Long Gone".


title: Ringer (TV series)

text: The main title music was composed by Gabriel Mann, who also scored the pilot and the first four episodes; Mark Snow assumed scoring duties thereafter.


title: Ringer (TV series)

text: Sarah Michelle Gellar, Ioan Gruffudd and Kristoffer Polaha were at the 1st Critics' Choice Television Awards on June 20, 2011 at the Beverly Hills Hotel to support "Ringer" and receive "The Most Exciting New Series" award.


title: Ringer (TV series)

text: The series made its debut at Comic-Con 2011 with cast members Sarah Michelle Gellar, Nestor Carbonell, Ioan Gruffudd and Kristoffer Polaha. Executive producer Pam Veasey and co-executive producers Nicole Snyder and Eric Charmelo also appeared. In addition, Gellar was featured in a photo shoot for "The Hollywood Reporter" entitled "Comic-Con: TV's 6 Most Wanted Women".


title: Ringer (TV series)

text: Two promotional posters for the series were unveiled on July 20, 2011; one with Gellar, Carbonell, Gruffudd and Polaha, and one with only Gellar, both with the tagline "The Ultimate Double Cross". Sarah Michelle Gellar, Nestor Carbonell, Ioan Gruffudd, Kristoffer Polaha and Mike Colter attended "The Television Critics Association Summer Tour" to promote "Ringer". Throughout August several "Ringer" billboards were displayed in Los Angeles, New York and Chicago and two huge mirrors were launched in New York and Los Angeles to allow passersby to create visual doppelgangers of themselves.


title: Ringer (TV series)

text: On September 1, 2011, a new promotional poster was released with the whole cast. Sarah Michelle Gellar was featured on the cover of the September 2, 2011 "Entertainment Weekly" with the tagline "The Return (Yay!) of Sarah Michelle Gellar. One of TV's most iconic stars is back with a twisty new drama, "Ringer": 'It's what audiences want to see me do – It's "Cruel Intentions" meets "Buffy"'". On September 7, 2011, Eric Charmelo, Nicole Snyder, Mike Colter, and Nestor Carbonell were at the Paley Fest 2011: Fall TV Preview Parties in Los Angeles to preview the pilot following an introductory Panel. On September 10, 2011 the whole cast (except Gellar) was at the CW Launch Party. On September 11, 2011, Sarah Michelle Gellar made the cover of The New York VUE, the TV magazine included every Sunday in "The Daily News" with the tagline "Doubling Back. Sarah Michelle Gellar returns to TV playing twins on "Ringer"". On September 12, 2011, Sarah Michelle Gellar was on "Late Night with Jimmy Fallon" and on "Regis and Kelly" the following day to promote the pilot. On September 26, 2011, Gellar was a guest on "Chelsea Lately" to promote the series and on "Rachael Ray" the following day. On October 13, 2011, Gellar was a guest on the late-night talk show "Conan" and on Jimmy Kimmel Live! on November 14, 2011. On February 6, 2012, Gellar was a guest on Andy Cohen's "Watch What Happens Live" with Ryan Murphy and on the "Late Show with David Letterman". The following day she was on the morning show Live! with Kelly and on February 21, 2012 on "Rachael Ray".


title: Ringer (TV series)

text: The pilot was met with mixed to positive reviews, dividing critics, with an initial score of 59 out of 100 (based on 29 critics) from Metacritic.


title: Ringer (TV series)

text: In a review at TV.com, Tim Surette was enthusiastic about the show's pilot, deeming it over-the-top with its "convoluted mystery" and "Outrageous. But potentially delicious fun." "After Elton" also gave "Ringer" a positive review, calling it "the single best new show of the year". "People Magazine" gave the series 4/4 stars. E! News called the show "intense", commending the "film noir-ness" of the show. They described Sarah Michelle Gellar as "awesome" and "fantastic". Their verdict was "watch, watch, watch!" "The Insider" included "Ringer" in its list of "10 Best New Fall TV Shows". Matt Mitovich of TV Line gave the pilot a positive review stating, "the set-up is sound, with some loose ends addressed and nice details sprinkled in. Tackling multiple roles, Gellar does a fine job as in-too-deep Bridget, icy Siobhan, and Bridget-as-Siobhan, and the supporting cast presents no weak link." "Ringer" was one of the Editor's Picks of Yahoo! saying "the first episode delivers so many shocking twists and turns, you won't be able to catch your breath. Heck, we're still catching ours." The "New York Post" gave a positive review giving 3/4 stars saying the pilot is "so good that it's CBS' bad" for having given away "Ringer" to the CW. "USA Today" gave 3/4 stars thanks to "two very good, well-defined Gellar performances" their bottom line was "you've been given a good show, CW. Don't mess it up."


title: Ringer (TV series)

text: "Las Vegas Weekly" gave a mixed review, saying it was "a little silly but also juicy and well-acted". "The Hollywood Reporter" concluded that although Gellar was "projecting gravitas" the show "really doesn't have a lot of weight". "Newsday" likewise commented that while Sarah Michelle Gellar looks "stunning", the show doesn't fit the network as "it's inert, lackluster and a trifle old-fashioned", and gave it a C+ grade. Matthew Gilbert of ""The Boston Globe" was more negative about "Ringer", handing it a "D" grade as well as calling the special effects "lousy" and "sloppy", and "the story line – ripped from a cheesy daytime soap".


title: Ringer (TV series)

text: The pilot episode drew 2.84 million viewers, a 1.2 Adults 18-49 demo rating and a 1.6 in The CW's target demo of Women 18-34. The ratings reached a three-year high for The CW in the Tuesday 9:00pm time slot. The Friday after its debut, The CW broadcast an encore of the pilot episode which drew 1.87 million viewers and a 0.6 Adults 18-49 rating. The mid-season finale drew 1.6 million viewers and a 0.6 Adults 18-49 rating, with DVR figures increasing its 0.6 A18-49 rating by 67% elevating it to 1.0 A18-49 rating.


title: Ringer (TV series)

text: After a decline in ratings and viewership from the three-month hiatus over the holiday break, it was deemed that "Ringer" would likely be cancelled. The CW put the Canadian series "The L.A. Complex" in its time slot after the finale, in hopes that show would produce higher ratings. "Ringer" was nominated in the E! Save One Show campaign and came in third place. Multiple petitions were thus created, with one that had over 16,000 signatures. After about a month of the show's uncertainty, the CW officially cancelled the series on May 11, 2012.


title: Ringer (TV series)

text: The show was subsequently nominated for four more awards, including a Teen Choice award for Choice TV Actress in a Drama for Sarah Michelle Gellar, a Zap2it award, and two E! Online awards. The show has now been nominated for sixteen awards, thus quadruple the other freshman shows on the CW; and recently the show became the third-highest-selling TV show on iTunes amongst all CW shows. On May 24, 2012, it was officially revealed that "Ringer" was the CW's fifth-highest-rated series, with its viewership ratings and demographics beating out the network's renewed series, from fellow programs "Nikita", "America's Next Top Model", and "Gossip Girl" in overall viewership.


title: Ringer (TV series)

text: Sky Living has picked up the series in the UK, Louisa Forsyth, acquisitions manager at BSkyB said of the pick-up, "Securing "Ringer" exclusively for Sky Living demonstrates yet again our commitment to owning the very best in primetime US drama". The first season will start airing from September 29, 2011. In Canada, it will air on Global Television Network starting September 16, 2011. On July 28, 2011, it was announced that Mediaset España Comunicación has bought the rights to air "Ringer" in Spain, and it aired on April 15, 2012 on Telecinco. On August 25, 2011, Television Business International announced that the French Group M6 has renewed its output deal with CBS, which includes "Ringer". In Australia Ringer also aired on Network Ten on October 9, 2011, but has since been dropped and moved to its sister channel, Eleven on February 20, and airs Monday Nights at 10:30pm as of the March 12, 2012. Studio Universal bought the exclusive rights for Latin America (Brazil, Argentina, Colombia, Mexico, Peru, Uruguay, Venezuela, and Chile among others) and RAI bought the rights for Italy to broadcast Ringer on channel Rai 2 in 2012. DSTV has started to broadcast Ringer in South Africa on M-Net Series. The series has been shown in Portugal since October 2011 on pay-TV channel TV Séries under title name 'Vida Dupla' (Double Life) and is available on video on demand in Sweden since March 1, 2012 on TV4 Play. Ringer will air in 18 countries in Asia through AXN Beyond starting March 15, 2012 and in India on Big CBS Love starting April 2, 2012. In the middle east, Ringer was picked by MBC4, airing with Arabic subtitles. In Israel, the series is broadcast by Hot 3 starting September 28, 2012. In the Netherlands, the series is broadcast by Net5 starting September 4, 2012.


title: Silver Lake (investment firm)

text: Silver Lake is an American global private equity firm focused on investments in technology, technology-enabled and related industries. Founded in 1999, the firm is one of the largest technology investors in the world. Its investment holdings have included Airbnb, Alibaba Group, Ancestry.com, Broadcom, Credit Karma, City Football Group, Dell Technologies, Endeavor, Expedia Group, Fanatics, First Advantage, Global Blue, GoDaddy, Jio, Lightbox, Motorola Solutions, New Zealand Rugby, NortonLifeLock, Red Ventures, Sabre Corporation, Skype, SoFi, GLG, Seagate Technology, SolarWinds, TEG, Twitter, Unity Technologies, Waymo, Weld North Education, WP Engine, Vacasa, the A-League football competition in Australia, and ZPG. Silver Lake is headquartered in Silicon Valley, and has offices in New York, London and Hong Kong.


title: Silver Lake (investment firm)

text: Silver Lake was founded in 1999, at the height of the late 1990s technology boom to make private equity investments in mature technology companies as opposed to the startups pursued actively by venture capitalists. Among the firm's founders were Jim Davidson who had led the Technology Investment Banking business at Hambrecht & Quist; David Roux who had an operational and entrepreneurial background having served as chairman and CEO of Liberate Technologies, executive vice president at Oracle Corporation and senior vice president at Lotus Development; Roger McNamee, as the representative of Integral Capital Partners, a hybrid investment fund that made investments in publicly traded companies and venture capital investments in early-stage startups; and Glenn Hutchins, who came from Blackstone Group and served as a Special Advisor on economic and healthcare policy in the early Clinton Administration and previously worked at Thomas H. Lee Partners.


title: Silver Lake (investment firm)

text: The firm raised its first fund, Silver Lake Partners, with $2.3 billion of investor commitments. Silver Lake's first fund was among the best performing funds of its vintage.


title: Silver Lake (investment firm)

text: The firm's third fund, Silver Lake Partners III was raised in 2007 with $9.6 billion of commitments. Also in 2007, the firm launched a middle-market investment business, Silver Lake Sumeru, hiring Ajay Shah and the former investment team of Shah Capital Partners. Sumeru completed fundraising for its debut fund in 2008 with $1.1 billion of capital.


title: Silver Lake (investment firm)

text: In 2011, Silver Lake Kraftwerk was launched to provide growth capital to later-stage companies in technology and tech-enabled businesses across the operations, energy, and resources industries.


title: Silver Lake (investment firm)

text: In 2013, the firm raised its fourth fund, Silver Lake Partners IV, which closed in 2013 with $10.3 billion in committed capital.


title: Silver Lake (investment firm)

text: In 2017, the firm raised its fifth fund, Silver Lake Partners V, which closed at $15 billion of commitments. Jim Davidson retired from the managing partner committee.


title: Silver Lake (investment firm)

text: In September 2020, it was announced that Silver Lake was having negotiations to invest over $1 billion in Indian retail company Reliance Retail.


title: Silver Lake (investment firm)

text: In 2021, Silver Lake purchased a minority 33.3% stake in the Australian Professional Leagues, otherwise known as the APL. The group is responsible for organising Australia's national association football leagues, being the A-League Men, A-League Women and A-League Youth. Silver Lake has estimated the value of the APL and its affiliate holdings at over US$300 million.


title: Silver Lake (investment firm)

text: In December 2019, Silver Lake appointed Egon Durban and Greg Mondre as Co-CEOs and promoted Joe Osnoss to managing partner. Silver Lake announced Ken Hao as chairman and Mike Bingle vice chairman and managing partner emeritus, with the launch of Silver Lake Partners VI.


title: Silver Lake (investment firm)

text: Since 1999, Silver Lake made investments through leveraged buyout transactions, minority growth investments and private investment in public equity (PIPE) investments.


title: Silver Lake (investment firm)

text: After the sale of Skype to Microsoft in 2011, Silver Lake was accused of unfairly depriving Skype employees of an options windfall. At issue was a clause in the Skype employee stock option grant agreement. The repurchase right gave Skype the authority to buy back shares at the grant price, when an employee left the company, even when those shares were vested.


title: Kinase

text: In biochemistry, a kinase () is an enzyme that catalyzes the transfer of phosphate groups from high-energy, phosphate-donating molecules to specific substrates. This process is known as phosphorylation, where the high-energy ATP molecule donates a phosphate group to the substrate molecule. This transesterification produces a phosphorylated substrate and ADP. Conversely, it is referred to as dephosphorylation when the phosphorylated substrate donates a phosphate group and ADP gains a phosphate group (producing a dephosphorylated substrate and the high energy molecule of ATP). These two processes, phosphorylation and dephosphorylation, occur four times during glycolysis.


title: Kinase

text: Kinases are part of the larger family of phosphotransferases. Kinases should not be confused with phosphorylases, which catalyze the addition of inorganic phosphate groups to an acceptor, nor with phosphatases, which remove phosphate groups (dephosphorylation). The phosphorylation state of a molecule, whether it be a protein, lipid or carbohydrate, can affect its activity, reactivity and its ability to bind other molecules. Therefore, kinases are critical in metabolism, cell signalling, protein regulation, cellular transport, secretory processes and many other cellular pathways, which makes them very important to human physiology.


title: Kinase

text: Kinases mediate the transfer of a phosphate moiety from a high energy molecule (such as ATP) to their substrate molecule, as seen in the figure below. Kinases are needed to stabilize this reaction because the phosphoanhydride bond contains a high level of energy. Kinases properly orient their substrate and the phosphoryl group within their active sites, which increases the rate of the reaction. Additionally, they commonly use positively charged amino acid residues, which electrostatically stabilize the transition state by interacting with the negatively charged phosphate groups. Alternatively, some kinases utilize bound metal cofactors in their active sites to coordinate the phosphate groups. Protein kinases can be classed as catalytically active (canonical) or as pseudokinases, reflecting the evolutionary loss of one or more of the catalytic amino acids that position or hydrolyse ATP. However, in terms of signalling outputs and disease relevance, both kinases and pseudokinases are important signalling modulators in human cells, making kinases very important drug targets.


title: Kinase

text: Kinases are used extensively to transmit signals and regulate complex processes in cells. Phosphorylation of molecules can enhance or inhibit their activity and modulate their ability to interact with other molecules. The addition and removal of phosphoryl groups provides the cell with a means of control because various kinases can respond to different conditions or signals. Mutations in kinases that lead to a loss-of-function or gain-of-function can cause cancer and disease in humans, including certain types of leukemia and neuroblastomas, glioblastoma, spinocerebellar ataxia (type 14), forms of agammaglobulinaemia, and many others.


title: Kinase

text: The first protein to be recognized as catalyzing the phosphorylation of another protein using ATP was observed in 1954 by Eugene P. Kennedy at which time he described a liver enzyme that catalyzed the phosphorylation of casein. In 1956, Edmond H. Fischer and Edwin G. Krebs discovered that the interconversion between phosphorylase a and phosphorylase b was mediated by phosophorylation and dephosphorylation. The kinase that transferred a phosphoryl group to Phosphorylase b, converting it to Phosphorylase a, was named Phosphorylase Kinase. Years later, the first example of a kinase cascade was identified, whereby Protein Kinase A (PKA) phosphorylates Phosphorylase Kinase. At the same time, it was found that PKA inhibited glycogen synthase, which was the first example of a phosphorylation event that resulted in inhibition. In 1969, Lester Reed discovered that pyruvate dehydrogenase was inactivated by phosphorylation, and this discovery was the first clue that phosphorylation might serve as a means of regulation in other metabolic pathways besides glycogen metabolism. In the same year, Tom Langan discovered that PKA phosphorylates histone H1, which suggested phosphorylation might regulate nonenzymatic proteins. The 1970s included the discovery of calmodulin-dependent protein kinases and the finding that proteins can be phosphorylated on more than one amino acid residue. The 1990s may be described as the "decade of protein kinase cascades". During this time, the MAPK/ERK pathway, the JAK kinases (a family of protein tyrosine kinases), and the PIP3-dependent kinase cascade were discovered.


title: Kinase

text: Kinases are classified into broad groups by the substrate they act upon: protein kinases, lipid kinases, carbohydrate kinases. Kinases can be found in a variety of species, from bacteria to mold to worms to mammals. More than five hundred different kinases have been identified in humans. Their diversity and their role in signaling makes them an interesting object of study. Various other kinases act on small molecules such as lipids, carbohydrates, amino acids, and nucleotides, either for signaling or to prime them for metabolic pathways. Specific kinases are often named after their substrates. Protein kinases often have multiple substrates, and proteins can serve as substrates for more than one specific kinase. For this reason protein kinases are named based on what regulates their activity (i.e. Calmodulin-dependent protein kinases). Sometimes they are further subdivided into categories because there are several isoenzymatic forms. For example, type I and type II cyclic-AMP dependent protein kinases have identical catalytic subunits but different regulatory subunits that bind cyclic AMP.


title: Kinase

text: Protein kinases act on proteins, by phosphorylating them on their serine, threonine, tyrosine, or histidine residues. Phosphorylation can modify the function of a protein in many ways. It can increase or decrease a protein's activity, stabilize it or mark it for destruction, localize it within a specific cellular compartment, and it can initiate or disrupt its interaction with other proteins. The protein kinases make up the majority of all kinases and are widely studied. These kinases, in conjunction with phosphatases, play a major role in protein and enzyme regulation as well as signalling in the cell.


title: Kinase

text: A common point of confusion arises when thinking about the different ways a cell achieves biological regulation. There are countless examples of covalent modifications that cellular proteins can undergo; however, phosphorylation is one of the few reversible covalent modifications. This provided the rationale that phosphorylation of proteins is regulatory. The potential to regulate protein function is enormous given that there are many ways to covalently modify a protein in addition to regulation provided by allosteric control. In his Hopkins Memorial Lecture, Edwin Krebs asserted that allosteric control evolved to respond to signals arising from inside the cell, whereas phosphorylation evolved to respond to signals outside of the cell. This idea is consistent with the fact that phosphorylation of proteins occurs much more frequently in eukaryotic cells in comparison to prokaryotic cells because the more complex cell type evolved to respond to a wider array of signals.


title: Kinase

text: Cyclin dependent kinases (CDKs) are a group of several different kinases involved in regulation of the cell cycle. They phosphorylate other proteins on their serine or threonine residues, but CDKs must first bind to a cyclin protein in order to be active. Different combinations of specific CDKs and cyclins mark different parts of the cell cycle. Additionally, the phosphorylation state of CDKs is also critical to their activity, as they are subject to regulation by other kinases (such as CDK-activating kinase) and phosphatases (such as Cdc25). Once the CDKs are active, they phosphorylate other proteins to change their activity, which leads to events necessary for the next stage of the cell cycle. While they are most known for their function in cell cycle control, CDKs also have roles in transcription, metabolism, and other cellular events.


title: Kinase

text: Because of their key role in the controlling cell division, mutations in CDKs are often found in cancerous cells. These mutations lead to uncontrolled growth of the cells, where they are rapidly going through the whole cell cycle repeatedly. CDK mutations can be found in lymphomas, breast cancer, pancreatic tumors, and lung cancer. Therefore, inhibitors of CDK have been developed as treatments for some types of cancer.


title: Kinase

text: MAP kinases (MAPKs) are a family of serine/threonine kinases that respond to a variety of extracellular growth signals. For example, growth hormone, epidermal growth factor, platelet-derived growth factor, and insulin are all considered mitogenic stimuli that can engage the MAPK pathway. Activation of this pathway at the level of the receptor initiates a signaling cascade whereby the Ras GTPase exchanges GDP for GTP. Next, Ras activates Raf kinase (also known as MAPKKK), which activates MEK (MAPKK). MEK activates MAPK (also known as ERK), which can go on to regulate transcription and translation. Whereas RAF and MAPK are both serine/threonine kinases, MAPKK is a tyrosine/threonine kinase.


title: Kinase

text: MAPK can regulate transcription factors directly or indirectly. Its major transcriptional targets include ATF-2, Chop, c-Jun, c-Myc, DPC4, Elk-1, Ets1, Max, MEF2C, NFAT4, Sap1a, STATs, Tal, p53, CREB, and Myc. MAPK can also regulate translation by phosphorylating the S6 kinase in the large ribosomal subunit. It can also phosphorylate components in the upstream portion of the MAPK signalling cascade including Ras, Sos, and the EGF receptor itself.


title: Kinase

text: The carcinogenic potential of the MAPK pathway makes it clinically significant. It is implicated in cell processes that can lead to uncontrolled growth and subsequent tumor formation. Mutations within this pathway alter its regulatory effects on cell differentiation, proliferation, survival, and apoptosis, all of which are implicated in various forms of cancer.


title: Kinase

text: Lipid kinases phosphorylate lipids in the cell, both on the plasma membrane as well as on the membranes of the organelles. The addition of phosphate groups can change the reactivity and localization of the lipid and can be used in signal transmission.


title: Kinase

text: Phosphatidylinositol kinases phosphorylate phosphatidylinositol species, to create species such as phosphatidylinositol 3,4-bisphosphate (PI(3,4)P), phosphatidylinositol 3,4,5-trisphosphate (PIP), and phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate (PI3P). The kinases include phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K), phosphatidylinositol-4-phosphate 3-kinase, and phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate 3-kinase. The phosphorylation state of phosphatidylinositol plays a major role in cellular signalling, such as in the insulin signalling pathway, and also has roles in endocytosis, exocytosis and other trafficking events. Mutations in these kinases, such as PI3K, can lead to cancer or insulin resistance.


title: Kinase

text: The kinase enzymes increase the rate of the reactions by making the inositol hydroxyl group more nucleophilic, often using the side chain of an amino acid residue to act as a general base and deprotonate the hydroxyl, as seen in the mechanism below. Here, a reaction between adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and phosphatidylinositol is coordinated. The end result is a phosphatidylinositol-3-phosphate as well as adenosine diphosphate (ADP). The enzymes can also help to properly orient the ATP molecule, as well as the inositol group, to make the reaction proceed faster. Metal ions are often coordinated for this purpose.


title: Kinase

text: Sphingosine kinase (SK) is a lipid kinase that catalyzes the conversion of sphingosine to sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P). Sphingolipids are ubiquitous membrane lipids. Upon activation, sphingosine kinase migrates from the cytosol to the plasma membrane where it transfers a γ phosphate (which is the last or terminal phosphate) from ATP or GTP to sphingosine. The S1P receptor is a GPCR receptor, so S1P has the ability to regulate G protein signaling. The resulting signal can activate intracellular effectors like ERKs, Rho GTPase, Rac GTPase, PLC, and AKT/PI3K. It can also exert its effect on target molecules inside the cell. S1P has been shown to directly inhibit the histone deacetylase activity of HDACs. In contrast, the dephosphorylated sphingosine promotes cell apoptosis, and it is therefore critical to understand the regulation of SKs because of its role in determining cell fate. Past research shows that SKs may sustain cancer cell growth because they promote cellular-proliferation, and SK1 (a specific type of SK) is present at higher concentrations in certain types of cancers.


title: Kinase

text: There are two kinases present in mammalian cells, SK1 and SK2. SK1 is more specific compared to SK2, and their expression patterns differ as well. SK1 is expressed in lung, spleen, and leukocyte cells, whereas SK2 is expressed in kidney and liver cells. The involvement of these two kinases in cell survival, proliferation, differentiation, and inflammation makes them viable candidates for chemotherapeutic therapies.


title: Kinase

text: For many mammals, carbohydrates provide a large portion of the daily caloric requirement. To harvest energy from oligosaccharides, they must first be broken down into monosaccharides so they can enter metabolism. Kinases play an important role in almost all metabolic pathways. The figure on the left shows the second phase of glycolysis, which contains two important reactions catalyzed by kinases. The anhydride linkage in 1,3 bisphosphoglycerate is unstable and has a high energy. 1,3-bisphosphogylcerate kinase requires ADP to carry out its reaction yielding 3-phosphoglycerate and ATP. In the final step of glycolysis, pyruvate kinase transfers a phosphoryl group from phosphoenolpyruvate to ADP, generating ATP and pyruvate.


title: Kinase

text: Hexokinase is the most common enzyme that makes use of glucose when it first enters the cell. It converts D-glucose to glucose-6-phosphate by transferring the gamma phosphate of an ATP to the C6 position. This is an important step in glycolysis because it traps glucose inside the cell due to the negative charge. In its dephosphorylated form, glucose can move back and forth across the membrane very easily. Mutations in the hexokinase gene can lead to a hexokinase deficiency which can cause nonspherocytic hemolytic anemia.


title: Kinase

text: Phosphofructokinase, or PFK, catalyzes the conversion of fructose-6-phosphate to fructose-1,6-bisphosphate and is an important point in the regulation of glycolysis. High levels of ATP, H, and citrate inhibit PFK. If citrate levels are high, it means that glycolysis is functioning at an optimal rate. High levels of AMP stimulate PFK. Tarui's disease, a glycogen storage disease that leads to exercise intolerance, is due to a mutation in the PFK gene that reduces its activity.


title: Kinase

text: Kinases act upon many other molecules besides proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates. There are many that act on nucleotides (DNA and RNA) including those involved in nucleotide interconverstion, such as nucleoside-phosphate kinases and nucleoside-diphosphate kinases. Other small molecules that are substrates of kinases include creatine, phosphoglycerate, riboflavin, dihydroxyacetone, shikimate, and many others.


title: Kinase

text: Riboflavin kinase catalyzes the phosphorylation of riboflavin to create flavin mononucleotide(FMN). It has an ordered binding mechanism where riboflavin must bind to the kinase before it binds to the ATP molecule. Divalent cations help coordinate the nucleotide. The general mechanism is shown in the figure below.


title: Kinase

text: Riboflavin kinase plays an important role in cells, as FMN is an important cofactor. FMN also is a precursor to flavin adenine dinucleotide(FAD), a redox cofactor used by many enzymes, including many in metabolism. In fact, there are some enzymes that are capable of carrying out both the phosphorylation of riboflavin to FMN, as well as the FMN to FAD reaction. Riboflavin kinase may help prevent stroke, and could possibly be used as a treatment in the future. It is also implicated in infection, when studied in mice.


title: Kinase

text: Thymidine kinase is one of the many nucleoside kinases that are responsible for nucleoside phosphorylation. It phosphorylates thymidine to create thymidine monophosphate (dTMP). This kinase uses an ATP molecule to supply the phosphate to thymidine, as shown below. This transfer of a phosphate from one nucleotide to another by thymidine kinase, as well as other nucleoside and nucleotide kinases, functions to help control the level of each of the different nucleotides.


title: Kinase

text: After creation of the dTMP molecule, another kinase, thymidylate kinase, can act upon dTMP to create the diphosphate form, dTDP. Nucleoside diphosphate kinase catalyzes production of thymidine triphosphate, dTTP, which is used in DNA synthesis. Because of this, thymidine kinase activity is closely correlated with the cell cycle and used as a tumor marker in clinical chemistry. Therefore, it can sometime be used to predict patient prognosis. Patients with mutations in the thymidine kinase gene may have a certain type of mitochondrial DNA depletion syndrome, a disease that leads to death in early childhood.


title: Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean

text: At the time of first contact between Europe and the Americas, the indigenous peoples of the Caribbean included the Taíno of the northern Lesser Antilles, most of the Greater Antilles and the Bahamas, the Kalinago of the Lesser Antilles, the Ciguayo and Macorix of parts of Hispaniola, and the Guanahatabey of western Cuba. The Kalinago have maintained an identity as an indigenous people, with a reserved territory in Dominica.


title: Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean

text: Some scholars consider it important to distinguish the Taíno from the neo-Taíno nations of Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Hispaniola, and the Lucayan of the Bahamas and Jamaica. Linguistically or culturally these differences extended from various cognates or types of canoe: canoa, piragua, cayuco to distinct languages. Languages diverged even over short distances. Previously these groups often had distinctly non-Taíno deities such as the goddess Jagua, strangely enough the god Teju Jagua is a major demon of indigenous Paraguayan mythology. Still these groups plus the high Taíno are considered Island Arawak, part of a widely diffused assimilating culture, a circumstance witnessed even today by names of places in the New World; for example localities or rivers called Guamá are found in Cuba, Venezuela and Brazil. Guamá was the name of famous Taíno who fought the Spanish.


title: Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean

text: Thus, since the neo-Taíno had far more diverse cultural input and a greater societal and ethnic heterogeneity than the true high Taíno (Rouse, 1992) of Boriquen (Puerto Rico) a separate section is presented here. A broader language group is Arawakan languages. The term Arawak (Aruaco) is said to be derived from an insulting term meaning "eaters of meal" given to them by mainland Caribs. In turn the Arawak legend explains the origin of the Caribs as offspring of a putrid serpent.


title: Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean

text: The social classes of the neo-Taíno, generalized from Bartolomé de las Casas, appeared to have been loosely feudal with the following Taíno classes: naboría (common people), nitaíno' (sub-chiefs, or nobles), bohique, (shamans priests/healers), and the cacique (chieftains, or princes). However, the neo-Taíno seem to have been more relaxed in this respect.


title: Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean

text: The Spanish found that most Cuban peoples for the part living peacefully in tidy towns and villages grouped into numerous principalities called "cacicazgos" or principalities with an almost feudal social structure. They were ruled by leaders or princes, called Caciques. Cuba was then divided into Guanahatabey, Ciboney, and Classical Taíno. Then some of Western Cuba was Guanahatabey. and some Ciboney. Taíno-like cultures controlled most of Cuba dividing it into the cacicazgos. Granberry and Vescelius (2004) and other contemporary authors only consider the cazicazgo of Baracoa as classical or high Taíno. Cuban cacicazgos including Bayaquitiri, Macaca, Bayamo, Camagüey, Jagua, Habana y Haniguanica are treated here as "neo-Taíno". Hispaniolan principalities at about 1500 included Maguá (Cacique Guarionex); Xaraguá (Behecchio); Maguana (Caonabo); Higüey also called Iguayagua (Higüayo); Cigüayo (Mayobanex), and unnamed region under Cacique Guanacagarí (Wilson, 1990). These principalities are considered to have various affinities to the contemporary Taíno and neo-Taíno cultures from what is now known as Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic and Haiti, but are generally believed somewhat different.


title: Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean

text: The adroit farming and fishing skills of the neo-Taíno nations should not be underestimated; the names of fauna and flora that survive today are testimony of their continued use. Neo-Taíno fishing technologies were most inventive, including harpoons and fishnets and traps. Neo-Taíno common names of fish are still used today (DeSola, 1932 ; Erdman, 1983; Florida Fish and Wild Life Commission (Division of Marine Fisheries) 2002; Puerto Rico, Commonwealth, 1998). Agriculture included a wide variety of germplasm, including maize, peanuts, tomato, squash, and beans plus a vast array of tree fruits. Tubers in most frequent use were yuca ("Manihot esculenta") a crop with perhaps 10,000 years of development in the Americas; boniato (the "sweet potato" — Ipomoea batatas), and malanga (Xanthosoma sp.)


title: Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean

text: As with all Arawak (Schultes, Raffault. 1990) and similar cultures there was considerable use of natural pharmacopoeia (Robineau, 1991).


title: Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean

text: Taíno studies are in a state of both vigorous revival and conflict (Haslip-Viera, 2001). In this conflict deeply embedded cultural mores, senses of nationality and ethnicity struggle with each other. The Syboneistas undertook studies and wrote of neo-Taínos as part and cover for independence struggles against Spain (Fajardo, 1829 - circa 1862; Gautier Benítez, 1873).


title: Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean

text: Taíno and related art has been celebrated in several significant exhibitions (Alegria, and Arrom 1998; Bercht, et al. 1997; Bullen, Dacal et al.; Kerchache, 1994, most notably in Paris.


title: Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean

text: Neo-Taíno music (areíto) survives as echoes in the rich traditions of the popular music of the Caribbean, but is believed to continue to exist in its purest form and associated spirituality among the Waroa of Venezuela.


title: Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean

text: The art of the neo-Taínos demonstrates that these nations had metallurgical skills, and it has been postulated by some e.g. Paul Sidney Martin, that the inhabitants of these islands mined and exported metals such as copper (Martin et al. 1947). The Cuban town of (San Ramón de) Guaninao means the place of copper and is surmised to have been a site of pre-Columbian mining.


title: Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean

text: DNA studies changed some of the traditional beliefs about pre-Columbian indigenous history. According to National Geographic, "studies confirm that a wave of pottery-making farmers—known as Ceramic Age people—set out in canoes from the northeastern coast of South America starting some 2,500 years ago and island-hopped across the Caribbean. They were not, however, the first colonizers. On many islands they encountered a foraging people who arrived some 6,000 or 7,000 years ago...The ceramicists, who are related to today’s Arawak-speaking peoples, supplanted the earlier foraging inhabitants—presumably through disease or violence—as they settled new islands."


title: Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean

text: The Taíno, an Arawak people, were the major population group throughout most of the Caribbean. Their culture was divided into three main groups, the Western Taíno, the Classic Taíno, and the Eastern Taíno, with other variations within the islands.


title: Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean

text: The Classic Taíno lived in eastern Cuba, Hispaniola, and Puerto Rico. They spoke a dialect called Classic Taíno. Compared to their neighbors, the Classic Taíno had substantially developed agricultural societies. Puerto Rico was divided into twenty chiefdoms which were organized into one united kingdom or confederation, Borinquen. Hispaniola was divided into roughly 45 chiefdoms, which were organized into five kingdoms under the leadership of the chief of each area's premier chiefdom. Beginning around 1450, Classic Taíno from Hispaniola began migrating to eastern Cuba; they are conventionally known as the Cuban Taíno. The Cuban Taíno gained power over some of Cuba's earlier Western Taíno inhabitants, the Ciboney, but no regional or island-wide political structure had developed on the island at the time of Spanish colonization of the Americas.


title: Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean

text: The Eastern Taíno inhabited the Leeward Islands of the Lesser Antilles, from the Virgin Islands to Montserrat. They had less sophisticated societies than the Classic Taíno.


title: Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean

text: The Western Taíno lived in the Bahamas, central Cuba, westernmost Hispaniola, and Jamaica. They spoke a dialect known as Ciboney Taíno or Western Taíno. The Western Taíno of the Bahamas were known as the Lucayans, they were wiped out by Spanish slave raids by 1520. Western Taíno living in Cuba were known as the Ciboney. They had no chiefdoms or organized political structure beyond individual villages, but by the time of Spanish conquest many were under the control of the Cuban Taíno in eastern Cuba.


title: Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean

text: According to oral history, the Igneri were the original Arawak inhabitants of the Windward Islands in the Lesser Antilles before being conquered by the Caribs who are thought to have arrived from South America. Contemporary sources like to suggest that the Caribs took Igneri women as their wives while killing the men, resulting in the two sexes speaking different languages. This is not proven, and there appears to be a confusion of the reality: despite the name, the Island Carib language was Arawakan, not Cariban. Irving Rouse suggests that small numbers of Caribs may have conquered the Igneri without displacing them, and could have gradually adopted their language while retaining the Carib identity, but there is no evidence to prove this. Though they were Arawaks, the Igneri language appears to be as distinct from the Taíno language as it was from the mainland Arawak language of South America.


title: Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean

text: By the contact period, the Kalinago, also known as Island Caribs, inhabited the Windward Islands of the Lesser Antilles. "Caribbean" derives from the name "Carib", by which the Kalinago were formerly known. They self-identified with the Kalina or mainland Carib people of South America. Contemporary accounts asserted that the Island Caribs had conquered the Windward Islands from their previous inhabitants, the Igneri. However, the Kalinago language was Arawakan, not Cariban. Irving Rouse suggests that small numbers of South American Caribs invaded the Windwards and conquered the Igneri without displacing them; they gradually adopted the local language while maintaining the Carib identity. The Kalinago outlasted their Taíno neighbors, and continue to live in the Lesser Antilles in the Caribbean. Noteworthy Kalinago descendants live on within the Garifuna people, known as the Black Caribs who descend from St. Vincent in the Lesser Antilles.


title: Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean

text: A separate ethnic identity from far western Cuba. They were an archaic hunter-gatherer people who spoke a language distinct from Taíno, and appear to have predated the agricultural, Taíno-speaking Ciboney.


title: Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean

text: A separate ethnic people that inhabited the Peninsula of Samaná and part of the northern coast toward Nagua in what today is the Dominican Republic, and, by most contemporary accounts, differed in language and customs from the classical or high Taíno who lived on the eastern part of the island of Hispaniola then known. According to Eustaquio Fernandez de Navarrete, they were “warriors and spirited people,” (“gente animosa y guerrera”). The Cronista de Indias, Pedro Martir accused them of cannibalism: “when they descend from the mountains to wage war on their neighbors, they kill and eat some of them” (“trae[n] origen de los caníbales, pues cuando de las montañas bajan a lo llano para hacer guerra á sus vecinos, si matan á algunos se los comen”). Fray Ramón Pané, often dubbed as the first anthropologist of the Caribbean, distinguished the Ciguayo language from the rest of those spoken on Hispaniola. Bartolomé de las Casas, who studied them and was one of the few who read Ramón Pané’s original work in Spanish, provided most of the documentation about this group. Linguists Granberry and Gary Vescelius believe that the Cigüayos emigrated from Central America. Wilson (1990) states that circa 1500 this was the kingdom Cacicazgo of Cacique Guacangarí.


title: Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean

text: Another separate ethnic group that lived on the eastern side of the island of Hispaniola. Their region today is in the Dominican Republic. According to las Casas, their language was unintelligible for the Taínos, but may have been similar to the Ciguayo language.(Wilson, 1990)


title: Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean

text: Recent studies show that the Macorix people coexisted with the Tainos on Hispaniola. The names San Francisco de Macorix and San Pedro de Macorix in the Dominican Republic are indirect references to the political divisions of the cacicazgo. The Spaniards wrongly assumed that the names given to the different territories were a reference "to what they called a Cacicazgo:


title: Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean

text: The Tequesta of the southeast coast of the Florida peninsula were once considered to be related to the Taíno, but most anthropologists now doubt this. The Tequesta had been present in the area for at least 2,000 years at the time of first European contact, and are believed to have built the Miami Stone Circle. Carl O. Sauer called the Florida Straits "one of the most strongly marked cultural boundaries in the New World", noting that the Straits were also a boundary between agricultural systems, with Florida Indians growing seed crops that originated in Mexico, while the Lucayans of the Bahamas grew root crops that originated in South America.


title: Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean

text: It is possible that a few Lucayas reached Florida shortly before the first European contacts in the area, but the northwestern Bahamas had remained uninhabited until approximately 1200, and the long established presence of the existing tribes in Florida would have likely prevented any pioneering settlements by people who had only just reached the neighboring islands. Analysis of ocean currents and weather patterns indicates that people traveling by canoe from the Bahamas to Florida were likely to land in northern Florida rather than closer to the Bahamas. A single 'Antillean axe head' found near Gainesville, Florida may support some limited contacts. Due to the same ocean currents, direct travel in canoes from southern Florida to the Bahamas was unlikely.


title: Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean

text: Ciboney (also Siboney) is a term preferred in Cuban historic contexts for the neo-Taíno nations of Cuba.


title: Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean

text: Our knowledge of the Cuban indigenous cultures which are often, but less precisely, lumped into a category called Taíno (Caribbean Island Arawak) comes from early Spanish sources, oral traditions and considerable archeological evidence. The Spanish found that most Cuban peoples were, for the most part, living peacefully in tidy towns and villages grouped into numerous principalities called Cacicazgos with an almost feudal social structure (see Bartolomé de las Casas). They were ruled by leaders called Caciques. Cuba was divided into Guanahatabey, Ciboney-Taíno (here neo-Taíno), and Classical (High) Taíno. Some of western Cuba was Guanahatabey and some Siboney (see below).


title: Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean

text: Taíno-like cultures controlled most of Cuba, dividing it into cacicazgos or principalities. Granberry, Vescelius (2004), and other contemporary authors only consider the cacicazgo of Baracoa as Classical or High Taíno. Cuban cacicazgos including Bayaquitiri, Macaca, Bayamo, Camagüey, Jagua, Habana y Haniguanica are considered neo-Taíno. These principalities are considered to have various affinities to contemporary Taíno and neo-Taíno cultures from Puerto Rico and Hispaniola, but are generally believed to have been somewhat different.