title: Plautus

text: Two scholars, V. J. Rosivach and N. E. Andrews, have made interesting observations about stagecraft in Plautus: V. J. Rosivach writes about identifying the side of the stage with both social status and geography. He says that, for example, "the house of the "medicus" lies offstage to the right. It would be in the forum or thereabouts that one would expect to find a "medicus"." Moreover, he says that characters that oppose one another always have to exit in opposite directions. In a slightly different vein, N.E. Andrews discusses the spatial semantics of Plautus; she has observed that even the different spaces of the stage are thematically charged. She states:


title: Plautus

text: male/outside and female/inside, but then inverts them in order to establish an even more complex relationship among genre, gender and dramatic space. In the "Casina", the struggle for control between men and women... is articulated by characters' efforts to control stage movement into and out of the house.


title: Plautus

text: Andrews makes note of the fact that power struggle in the "Casina" is evident in the verbal comings and goings. The words of action and the way that they are said are important to stagecraft. The words denoting direction or action such as "abeo" ("I go off"), "transeo" ("I go over"), "fores crepuerunt" ("the doors creak"), or "intus" ("inside"), which signal any character's departure or entrance, are standard in the dialogue of Plautus' plays. These verbs of motion or phrases can be taken as Plautine stage directions since no overt stage directions are apparent. Often, though, in these interchanges of characters, there occurs the need to move on to the next act. Plautus then might use what is known as a "cover monologue". About this S.M. Goldberg notes that, "it marks the passage of time less by its length than by its direct and immediate address to the audience and by its switch from "senarii" in the dialogue to "iambic septenarii". The resulting shift of mood distracts and distorts our sense of passing time."


title: Plautus

text: The small stages had a significant effect on the stagecraft of ancient Roman theater. Because of this limited space, there was also limited movement. Greek theater allowed for grand gestures and extensive action to reach the audience members who were in the very back of the theater. However the Romans would have had to depend more on their voices than large physicality. There was not an orchestra available as there was for the Greeks and this is reflected in the notable lack of a chorus in Roman drama. The replacement character that acts as the chorus would in Greek drama is often called the "prologue".


title: Plautus

text: Goldberg says that "these changes fostered a different relationship between actors and the space in which they performed and also between them and their audiences". Actors were thrust into much closer audience interaction. Because of this, a certain acting style became required that is more familiar to modern audiences. Because they would have been in such close proximity to the actors, ancient Roman audiences would have wanted attention and direct acknowledgement from the actors.


title: Plautus

text: Because there was no orchestra, there was no space separating the audience from the stage. The audience could stand directly in front of the elevated wooden platform. This gave them the opportunity to look at the actors from a much different perspective. They would have seen every detail of the actor and heard every word he said. The audience member would have wanted that actor to speak directly to them. It was a part of the thrill of the performance, as it is to this day.


title: Plautus

text: Plautus' range of characters was created through his use of various techniques, but probably the most important is his use of stock characters and situations in his various plays. He incorporates the same stock characters constantly, especially when the character type is amusing to the audience. As Walter Juniper wrote, "Everything, including artistic characterization and consistency of characterization, were sacrificed to humor, and character portrayal remained only where it was necessary for the success of the plot and humor to have a "persona" who stayed in character, and where the "persona" by his portrayal contributed to humor."


title: Plautus

text: For example, in " Miles Gloriosus", the titular "braggart soldier" Pyrgopolynices only shows his vain and immodest side in the first act, while the parasite Artotrogus exaggerates Pyrgopolynices' achievements, creating more and more ludicrous claims that Pyrgopolynices agrees to without question. These two are perfect examples of the stock characters of the pompous soldier and the desperate parasite that appeared in Plautine comedies. In disposing of highly complex individuals, Plautus was supplying his audience with what it wanted, since "the audience to whose tastes Plautus catered was not interested in the character play," but instead wanted the broad and accessible humor offered by stock set-ups. The humor Plautus offered, such as "puns, word plays, distortions of meaning, or other forms of verbal humor he usually puts them in the mouths of characters belonging to the lower social ranks, to whose language and position these varieties of humorous technique are most suitable," matched well with the stable of characters.


title: Plautus

text: In his article "The Intriguing Slave in Greek Comedy," Philip Harsh gives evidence to show that the clever slave is not an invention of Plautus. While previous critics such as A. W. Gomme believed that the slave was "[a] truly comic character, the devisor of ingenious schemes, the controller of events, the commanding officer of his young master and friends, is a creation of Latin comedy," and that Greek dramatists such as Menander did not use slaves in such a way that Plautus later did, Harsh refutes these beliefs by giving concrete examples of instances where a clever slave appeared in Greek comedy. For instance, in the works of Athenaeus, Alciphron, and Lucian there are deceptions that involve the aid of a slave, and in Menander's "Dis Exapaton" there was an elaborate deception executed by a clever slave that Plautus mirrors in his "Bacchides". Evidence of clever slaves also appears in Menander's "Thalis", "Hypobolimaios", and from the papyrus fragment of his "Perinthia". Harsh acknowledges that Gomme's statement was probably made before the discovery of many of the papyri that we now have. While it was not necessarily a Roman invention, Plautus did develop his own style of depicting the clever slave. With larger, more active roles, more verbal exaggeration and exuberance, the slave was moved by Plautus further into the front of the action. Because of the inversion of order created by a devious or witty slave, this stock character was perfect for achieving a humorous response and the traits of the character worked well for driving the plot forward.


title: Plautus

text: Another important Plautine stock character, discussed by K.C. Ryder, is the "senex amator". A senex amator is classified as an old man who contracts a passion for a young girl and who, in varying degrees, attempts to satisfy this passion. In Plautus these men are Demaenetus ("Asinaria"), Philoxenus and Nicobulus ("Bacchides"), Demipho ("Cistellaria"), Lysidamus ("Casina"), Demipho ("Mercator"), and Antipho ("Stichus"). Periplectomenos ("Miles Gloriosus") and Daemones ("Rudens") are regarded as "senes lepidi" because they usually keep their feelings within a respectable limit. All of these characters have the same goal, to be with a younger woman, but all go about it in different ways, as Plautus could not be too redundant with his characters despite their already obvious similarities. What they have in common is the ridicule with which their attempts are viewed, the imagery that suggests that they are motivated largely by animal passion, the childish behavior, and the reversion to the love-language of their youth.


title: Plautus

text: In examining the female role designations of Plautus's plays, Z.M. Packman found that they are not as stable as their male counterparts: a "senex" will usually remain a "senex" for the duration of the play but designations like "matrona", "mulier", or "uxor" at times seem interchangeable. Most free adult women, married or widowed, appear in scene headings as "mulier", simply translated as "woman". But in Plautus' "Stichus" the two young women are referred to as "sorores", later "mulieres", and then "matronae", all of which have different meanings and connotations. Although there are these discrepancies, Packman tries to give a pattern to the female role designations of Plautus. "Mulier" is typically given to a woman of citizen class and of marriageable age or who has already been married. Unmarried citizen-class girls, regardless of sexual experience, were designated "virgo". "Ancilla" was the term used for female household slaves, with "Anus" reserved for the elderly household slaves. A young woman who is unwed due to social status is usually referred to as "meretrix" or "courtesan". A "lena", or adoptive mother, may be a woman who owns these girls.


title: Plautus

text: Like Packman, George Duckworth uses the scene headings in the manuscripts to support his theory about unnamed Plautine characters. There are approximately 220 characters in the 20 plays of Plautus. Thirty are unnamed in both the scene headings and the text and there are about nine characters who are named in the ancient text but not in any modern one. This means that about 18% of the total number of characters in Plautus are nameless. Most of the very important characters have names while most of the unnamed characters are of less importance. However, there are some abnormalities—the main character in "Casina" is not mentioned by name anywhere in the text. In other instances, Plautus will give a name to a character that only has a few words or lines. One explanation is that some of the names have been lost over the years; and for the most part, major characters do have names.


title: Plautus

text: Plautus wrote in a colloquial style far from the codified form of Latin that is found in Ovid or Virgil. This colloquial style is the everyday speech that Plautus would have been familiar with, yet that means that most students of Latin are unfamiliar with it. Adding to the unfamiliarity of Plautine language is the inconsistency of the irregularities that occur in the texts. In one of his studies, A.W. Hodgman noted that:


title: Plautus

text: the statements that one meets with, that this or that form is "common," or "regular," in Plautus, are frequently misleading, or even incorrect, and are usually unsatisfying... I have gained an increasing respect for the manuscript tradition, a growing belief that the irregularities are, after all, in a certain sense regular. The whole system of inflexion—and, I suspect, of syntax also and of versification—was less fixed and stable in Plautus' time than it became later.


title: Plautus

text: The diction of Plautus, who used the colloquial speech of his own day, is distinctive and non-standard from the point of view of the later, classical period. M. Hammond, A.H. Mack, and W. Moskalew have noted in the introduction to their edition of the "Miles Gloriosus" that Plautus was "free from convention... [and] sought to reproduce the easy tone of daily speech rather than the formal regularity of oratory or poetry. Hence, many of the irregularities which have troubled scribes and scholars perhaps merely reflect the everyday usages of the careless and untrained tongues which Plautus heard about him." Looking at the overall use of archaic forms in Plautus, one notes that they commonly occur in promises, agreements, threats, prologues, or speeches. Plautus's archaic forms are metrically convenient, but may also have had a stylistic effect on his original audience.


title: Plautus

text: These forms are frequent and of too great a number for a complete list here, but some of the most noteworthy features which from the classical perspective will be considered irregular or obsolete are:


title: Plautus

text: These are the most common linguistic peculiarities (from the later perspective) in the plays of Plautus, some of them being also found in Terence, and noting them helps in the reading of his works and gives insight into early Roman language and interaction.


title: Plautus

text: There are certain ways in which Plautus expressed himself in his plays, and these individual means of expression give a certain flair to his style of writing. The means of expression are not always specific to the writer, i.e., idiosyncratic, yet they are characteristic of the writer. Two examples of these characteristic means of expression are the use of proverbs and the use of Greek language in the plays of Plautus.


title: Plautus

text: Plautus employed the use of proverbs in many of his plays. Proverbs would address a certain genre such as law, religion, medicine, trades, crafts, and seafaring. Plautus' proverbs and proverbial expressions number into the hundreds. They sometimes appear alone or interwoven within a speech. The most common appearance of proverbs in Plautus appears to be at the end of a soliloquy. Plautus does this for dramatic effect to emphasize a point.


title: Plautus

text: Further interwoven into the plays of Plautus and just as common as the use of proverbs is the use of Greek within the texts of the plays. J. N. Hough suggests that Plautus's use of Greek is for artistic purposes and not simply because a Latin phrase will not fit the meter. Greek words are used when describing foods, oils, perfumes, etc. This is similar to the use of French terms in the English language such as "garçon" or "rendezvous". These words give the language a French flair just as Greek did to the Latin-speaking Romans. Slaves or characters of low standing speak much of the Greek. One possible explanation for this is that many Roman slaves were foreigners of Greek origin.


title: Plautus

text: Plautus would sometimes incorporate passages in other languages as well in places where it would suit his characters. A noteworthy example is the use of two prayers in Punic in "Poenulus", spoken by the Carthaginian elder Hanno, which are significant to Semitic linguistics because they preserve the Carthaginian pronunciation of the vowels. Unlike Greek, Plautus most probably did not speak Punic himself, nor was the audience likely to understand it. The text of the prayers themselves was probably provided by a Carthaginian informant, and Plautus incorporated it to emphasize the authenticity and foreignness of Hanno's character.


title: Plautus

text: Plautus also used more technical means of expression in his plays. One tool that Plautus used for the expression of his "servus callidus" stock character was alliteration. Alliteration is the repetition of sounds in a sentence or clause; those sounds usually come at the beginning of words. In the "Miles Gloriosus," the "servus callidus" is Palaestrio. As he speaks with the character, Periplectomenus, he uses a significant amount of alliteration in order to assert his cleverness and, therefore, his authority. Plautus uses phrases such as "falsiloquom, falsicum, falsiiurium" ("MG" l. 191). These words express the deep and respectable knowledge that Palaestrio has of the Latin language. Alliteration can also happen at the endings of words as well. For example, Palaestrio says, "linguam, perfidiam, malitiam atque audaciam, confidentiam,


title: Plautus

text: Plautus' comedies abound in puns and word play, which is an important component of his poetry. One well known instance in the "Miles Gloriosus" is Sceledre, "scelus." Some examples stand in the text in order to accentuate and emphasize whatever is being said, and others to elevate the artistry of the language. But a great number are made for jokes, especially riddle jokes, which feature a "knock knock - who's there?" pattern. Plautus is especially fond of making up and changing the meaning of words, as Shakespeare does later.


title: Plautus

text: Further emphasizing and elevating the artistry of the language of the plays of Plautus is the use of meter, which simply put is the rhythm of the play. There seems to be great debate over whether Plautus found favor in strong word accent or verse ictus, stress. Plautus did not follow the meter of the Greek originals that he adapted for the Roman audience. Plautus used a great number of meters, but most frequently he used the iambic senarius and the trochaic septenarius. G.B. Conte has noted that Plautus favors the use of "cantica" instead of Greek meters.


title: Plautus

text: The "servus callidus" functions as the exposition in many of Plautus' plays. According to C. Stace, "slaves in Plautus account for almost twice as much monologue as any other character... [and] this is a significant statistic; most of the monologues being, as they are, for purposes of humor, moralizing, or exposition of some kind, we can now begin to see the true nature of the slave's importance." Because humor, vulgarity, and "incongruity" are so much a part of the Plautine comedies, the slave becomes the essential tool to connect the audience to the "joke" through his monologue and direct connection "to" the audience. He is, then, not only a source for exposition and understanding, but connection—specifically, connection to the humor of the play, the playfulness of the play. The "servus callidus" is a character that, as McCarthy says, "draws the complete attention of the audience, and, according to C. Stace, 'despite his lies and abuse, claims our complete sympathy'". He does this, according to some scholarship, using monologue, the imperative mood and alliteration—all of which are specific and effective linguistic tools in both writing and speaking.


title: Plautus

text: The specific type of monologue (or soliloquy) in which a Plautine slave engages is the "prologue". As opposed to simple exposition, according to N.W. Slater, "these...prologues...have a far more important function than merely to provide information." Another way in which the "servus callidus" asserts his power over the play—specifically the other characters in the play—is through his use of the imperative mood. This type of language is used, according to E. Segal, for "the forceful inversion, the reduction of the master to an abject position of supplication ... the master-as-suppliant is thus an extremely important feature of the Plautine comic finale". The imperative mood is therefore used in the complete role-reversal of the normal relationship between slave and master, and "those who enjoy authority and respect in the ordinary Roman world are unseated, ridiculed, while the lowliest members of society mount to their pedestals...the humble are in face exalted".


title: Plautus

text: Meat is the most commonly mentioned foodstuff in the plays of Plautus, and where a specific meat is mentioned, it is most commonly pork, followed by fish.


title: Plautus

text: Intellectual and academic critics have often judged Plautus's work as crude; yet his influence on later literature is impressive—especially on two literary giants, Shakespeare and Molière.


title: Plautus

text: Playwrights throughout history have looked to Plautus for character, plot, humor, and other elements of comedy. His influence ranges from similarities in idea to full literal translations woven into plays. The playwright's apparent familiarity with the absurdity of humanity and both the comedy and tragedy that stem from this absurdity have inspired succeeding playwrights centuries after his death. The most famous of these successors is Shakespeare—Plautus had a major influence on the Bard's early comedies.


title: Plautus

text: Plautus was apparently read in the 9th century. His form was too complex to be fully understood, however, and, as indicated by the "Terentius et delusor", it was unknown at the time if Plautus was writing in prose or verse.


title: Plautus

text: W. B. Sedgwick has provided a record of the "Amphitruo", perennially one of Plautus' most famous works. It was the most popular Plautine play in the Middle Ages, and publicly performed at the Renaissance; it was the first Plautine play to be translated into English.


title: Plautus

text: The influence of Plautus's plays was felt in the early 16th century. Limited records suggest that the first known university production of Plautus in England was of "Miles Gloriosus" at Oxford in 1522–3. The "magnum jornale" of Queens College contains a reference to a "comoedia Plauti" in either 1522 or 1523. This fits directly with comments made in the poems of Leland about the date of the production. The next production of "Miles Gloriosus" that is known from limited records was given by the Westminster School in 1564. Other records also tell us about performances of the "Menaechmi." From our knowledge, performances were given in the house of Cardinal Wolsey by boys of St. Paul's School as early as 1527.


title: Plautus

text: Shakespeare borrowed from Plautus as Plautus borrowed from his Greek models. C.L. Barber says that "Shakespeare feeds Elizabethan life into the mill of Roman farce, life realized with his distinctively generous creativity, very different from Plautus' tough, narrow, resinous genius."


title: Plautus

text: The Plautine and Shakespearean plays that most parallel each other are, respectively, the "Menaechmi" and "The Comedy of Errors". According to Marples, Shakespeare drew directly from Plautus "parallels in plot, in incident, and in character," and was undeniably influenced by the classical playwright's work. H. A. Watt stresses the importance of recognizing the fact that the "two plays were written under conditions entirely different and served audiences as remote as the poles."


title: Plautus

text: The differences between the "Menaechmi" and "The Comedy of Errors" are clear. In the "Menaechmi", Plautus uses only one set of twins—twin brothers. Shakespeare, on the other hand, uses two sets of twins, which, according to William Connolly, "dilutes the force of [Shakespeare's] situations". One suggestion is that Shakespeare got this idea from Plautus' "Amphitruo", in which both twin masters and twin slaves appear.


title: Plautus

text: It can be noted that the doubling is a stock situation of Elizabethan comedy. On the fusion between Elizabethan and Plautine techniques, T. W. Baldwin writes, "..."Errors" does not have the miniature unity of "Menaechmi," which is characteristic of classic structure for comedy". Baldwin notes that Shakespeare covers a much greater area in the structure of the play than Plautus does. Shakespeare was writing for an audience whose minds weren't restricted to house and home, but looked toward the greater world beyond and the role that they might play in that world.


title: Plautus

text: Another difference between the audiences of Shakespeare and Plautus is that Shakespeare's audience was Christian. At the end of "Errors," the world of the play is returned to normal when a Christian abbess interferes with the feuding. "Menaechmi," on the other hand, "is almost completely lacking in a supernatural dimension". A character in Plautus' play would never blame an inconvenient situation on witchcraft—something that is quite common in Shakespeare.


title: Plautus

text: The relationship between a master and a clever servant is also a common element in Elizabethan comedy. Shakespeare often includes foils for his characters to have one set off the other. In Elizabethan romantic comedy, it is common for the plays to end with multiple marriages and couplings of pairs. This is something that is not seen in Plautine comedy. In the "Comedy of Errors," Aegeon and Aemilia are separated, Antipholus and Adriana are at odds, and Antipholus and Luciana have not yet met. At the end, all the couples are happily together. By writing his comedies in a combination of Elizabethan and Plautine styles, Shakespeare helps to create his own brand of comedy, one that uses both styles.


title: Plautus

text: Also, Shakespeare uses the same kind of opening monologue so common in Plautus's plays. He even uses a "villain" in "The Comedy of Errors" of the same type as the one in "Menaechmi," switching the character from a doctor to a teacher but keeping the character a shrewd, educated man. Watt also notes that some of these elements appear in many of his works, such as "Twelfth Night" or "A Midsummer Night's Dream", and had a deep impact on Shakespeare's writing.


title: Plautus

text: Later playwrights also borrowed Plautus's stock characters. One of the most important echoes of Plautus is the stock character of the parasite. Certainly the best example of this is Falstaff, Shakespeare's portly and cowardly knight. As J. W. Draper notes, the gluttonous Falstaff shares many characteristics with a parasite such as Artotrogus from "Miles Gloriosus." Both characters seem fixated on food and where their next meal is coming from. But they also rely on flattery in order to gain these gifts, and both characters are willing to bury their patrons in empty praise. Of course, Draper notes that Falstaff is also something of a boastful military man, but notes, "Falstaff is so complex a character that he may well be, in effect, a combination of interlocking types."


title: Plautus

text: As well as appearing in Shakespearean comedy, the Plautine parasite appears in one of the first English comedies. In "Ralph Roister Doister," the character of Matthew Merrygreeke follows in the tradition of both Plautine Parasite and Plautine slave, as he both searches and grovels for food and also attempts to achieve his master's desires. Indeed, the play itself is often seen as borrowing heavily from or even being based on the Plautine comedy "Miles Gloriosus".


title: Plautus

text: H. W. Cole discusses the influence of Plautus and Terence on the Stonyhurst Pageants. The Stonyhurst Pageants are manuscripts of Old Testament plays that were probably composed after 1609 in Lancashire. Cole focuses on Plautus' influence on the particular Pageant of Naaman. The playwright of this pageant breaks away from the traditional style of religious medieval drama and relies heavily on the works of Plautus. Overall, the playwright cross-references eighteen of the twenty surviving plays of Plautus and five of the six extant plays by Terence. It is clear that the author of the Stonyhurst Pageant of Naaman had a great knowledge of Plautus and was significantly influenced by this.


title: Plautus

text: There is evidence of Plautine imitation in Edwardes' "Damon and Pythias" and Heywood's "Silver Age" as well as in Shakespeare's "Errors". Heywood sometimes translated whole passages of Plautus. By being translated as well as imitated, Plautus was a major influence on comedy of the Elizabethan era.


title: Plautus

text: In terms of plot, or perhaps more accurately plot device, Plautus served as a source of inspiration and also provided the possibility of adaptation for later playwrights. The many deceits that Plautus layered his plays with, giving the audience the feeling of a genre bordering on farce, appear in much of the comedy written by Shakespeare and Molière. For instance, the clever slave has important roles in both "L'Avare" and "L'Etourdi", two plays by Molière, and in both drives the plot and creates the ruse just like Palaestrio in "Miles Gloriosus." These similar characters set up the same kind of deceptions in which many of Plautus' plays find their driving force, which is not a simple coincidence.


title: Plautus

text: 20th century musicals based on Plautus include "A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum" (Larry Gelbart and Burt Shevelove, book, Stephen Sondheim, music and lyrics).


title: Plautus

text: "Roman Laughter: The Comedy of Plautus", a 1968 book by Erich Segal, is a scholarly study of Plautus' work.


title: Plautus

text: The British TV sitcom "Up Pompeii" uses situations and stock characters from Plautus's plays. In the first series Willie Rushton plays Plautus who pops up on occasion to provide comic comments on what is going on in the episode.


title: Military helicopter

text: A military helicopter is a helicopter that is either specifically built or converted for use by military forces. A military helicopter's mission is a function of its design or conversion. The most common use of military helicopters is transport of troops, but transport helicopters can be modified or converted to perform other missions such as combat search and rescue (CSAR), medical evacuation (MEDEVAC), airborne command post, or even armed with weapons for attacking ground targets. Specialized military helicopters are intended to conduct specific missions. Examples of specialized military helicopters are attack helicopters, observation helicopters and anti-submarine warfare helicopters.


title: Military helicopter

text: Military helicopters play an integral part in the sea, land and air operations of modern militaries. Generally manufacturers will develop airframes in different weight/size classes which can be adapted to different roles through the installation of mission specific equipment. To minimise development costs the basic airframes can be stretched and shortened, be updated with new engines and electronics and have the entire mechanical and flight systems mated to new fuselages to create new aircraft. For example, the UH-1 has given rise to a number of derivatives through stretching and re-engining, including the AH-1.


title: Military helicopter

text: Modern helicopters have introduced modular systems which allow the same airframe to be configured for different roles, for example the EH-101 in Royal Navy service can be rapidly configured for ASW or transport missions in hours. To at the same time retain flexibility and limit costs, it is possible to fit an airframe for but not with a system, for example in the US Army's AH-64D variants are all fitted to be able to take the Longbow radar system, but not enough sets have been bought to equip the whole force. The systems can be fitted to only those airframes that need it, or when finances allow the purchase of enough units.


title: Military helicopter

text: Most military helicopters are armoured to some extent; however, all equipment is limited to the installed power and lift capability and the limits installed equipment places on useful payload. The most extensive armour is placed around the pilots, engines, transmission, and fuel tanks. Fuel lines, control cables and power to the tail rotor may also be shrouded by Kevlar armour. The most heavily armoured helicopters are attack, assault and special forces helicopters. In transport helicopters the crew compartment may or may not be fully armoured, a compromise being to give the passengers Kevlar lined seats but to leave the compartment for the most part unarmoured. Survivability is enhanced by redundancy and the placement of components to protect each other. For example, the Blackhawk family of helicopters uses two engines and can continue to fly on only one (under certain conditions), the engines are separated by the transmission and placed so that if attacked from any one flank, the engine on that flank acts to protect the transmission and the engine on the other side from damage.


title: Military helicopter

text: Aviation electronics, or avionics, such as communication radios and navigation aids are common on most military helicopters. Specialized avionics, such as electronic countermeasures and identification friend or foe systems, are military specific systems that can also be installed on military helicopters. Other payload or mission systems are installed either permanently or temporarily, based on specific mission requirements; optical and IR cameras for scout helicopters, dunking sonar and search radar for anti-submarine helicopters, extra radio transceivers and computers for helicopters used as airborne command posts.


title: Military helicopter

text: Armour, fire suppression, dynamic and electronics systems enhancements are invisible to casual inspection; as a cost-cutting measure some nations and services have been tempted to use what are essentially commercial helicopters for military purposes. For example, it has been reported that the PRC is carrying out a rapid enlargement of its assault helicopter regiments with the civilian version of the Mil Mi-17. These helicopters without armour and electronic counter measures will function well enough for training exercises and photo opportunities but would be suicidal to deploy in the assault role in actual combat situations. The intention of China appears to be to retrofit these helicopters with locally produced electronics and armour when possible, freeing available funds to allow rapid creation of enough regiments to equip each of its Group Armies, allowing a widespread buildup of experience in helicopter operations.


title: Military helicopter

text: Attack helicopters are helicopters used in the anti-tank and close air support roles. The first of the modern attack helicopters was the Vietnam era AH-1 Cobra, which pioneered the now classic format of pilot and weapons officer seated in tandem in a narrow fuselage, chin mounted guns, and rockets and missiles mounted on stub wings. To enable them to find and identify their targets, some modern attack helicopters are equipped with very capable sensors such as a millimeter wave radar system.


title: Military helicopter

text: Transport helicopters are used for transporting personnel (troops) and cargo in support of military operations. In larger militaries, these helicopters are often purpose-built for military operations, but commercially available aircraft are also used. The benefit of using helicopters for these operations is that personnel and cargo can be moved to and from locations without requiring a runway for takeoffs and landings. Cargo is carried either internally, or externally by slung load where the load is suspended from an attachment point underneath the aircraft. Personnel are primarily loaded and unloaded while the helicopter is on the ground. However, when the terrain restricts even helicopters from landing, personnel may also be picked up and dropped off using specialized devices, such as rescue hoists or special rope lines, while the aircraft hovers overhead.


title: Military helicopter

text: that relies heavily on the use of transport helicopters. An air assault involves a customized assault force that is assembled on the pick-up zone and staged for sequential transport to a landing zone (LZ). The idea is to use the helicopters to transport and land a large number of troops and equipment in a relatively short amount of time, in order to assault and overwhelm an objective near the LZ. The advantage of air assault over an airborne assault is the ability of the helicopters to continually resupply the force during the operation, as well as to transport the personnel and equipment to their previous location, or a follow-on location if the mission dictates.


title: Military helicopter

text: The first reconnaissance and observation aircraft were balloons, followed by light airplanes, such as the Taylorcraft L-2 and Fieseler Fi 156. As the first military helicopters became available, their ability to both maneuver and to remain in one location made them ideal for reconnaissance. Initially observation helicopters were limited to visual observation by the aircrew, and most helicopters featured rounded, well-glazed cockpits for maximum visibility. Over time, the human eye became supplemented by optical sensor systems. Today, these include low light level television and forward looking infrared cameras. Often, these are mounted in a stabilised mount along with multi-function lasers capable of acting as laser rangefinder and targeting designators for weapons systems.


title: Military helicopter

text: By nature of the mission, the observation helicopter's primary weapons are its sensor suite and communications equipment. Early observation helicopters were effective at calling for artillery fire and airstrikes. With modern sensor suites, they are also able to provide terminal guidance to ATGWs, laser-guided bombs and other missiles and munitions fired by other armed aircraft. Observation helicopters may also be armed with combinations of gun and rocket pods and sometimes anti-tank guided missiles or air-to-air missiles, but in smaller quantities than larger attack helicopters. Primarily, these weapons were intended for the counter-reconnaissance fight—to eliminate an enemy's reconnaissance assets—but they can also be used to provide limited direct fire support or close air support.


title: Military helicopter

text: Among the first practical uses of helicopters when the R-4 and R-5 became available to US and UK forces was deployment from navy cruisers and battleships, at first supplementing and later replacing catapult-launched observation aircraft. Another niche within the capability of the early helicopters was as plane guard - tasked with the recovery of pilots who had ditched near an aircraft carrier.


title: Military helicopter

text: As helicopter technology matured with increased payload and endurance, anti-submarine warfare (ASW) was added to the helicopter's repertoire. Initially, helicopters operated as weapons delivery systems, attacking with air-launched torpedoes and depth charges based on information provided by its parent and other warships. In the 1960s, the development of the turboshaft engine and transistor technology changed the face of maritime helicopter aviation. The turboshaft engine allowed smaller helicopters, such as the Westland Wasp, to operate from smaller vessels than their reciprocating engine predecessors. The introduction of transistors allowed helicopters, such as the SH-3 Sea King, to be equipped with integral dunking sonar, radar and magnetic anomaly detection equipment. The result was an aircraft able to more quickly respond to submarine threats to the fleet without waiting for directions from fleet vessels.


title: Military helicopter

text: Today, maritime helicopters such as the SH-60 Seahawk and the Westland Lynx are designed to be operated from frigates, destroyers and similar size vessels. The desire to carry and operate two helicopters from frigate- and destroyer-sized vessels has affected the maximum size of the helicopters and the minimum size of the ships. Increasing miniaturisation of electronics, better engines and modern weapons now allow even the modern, destroyer-based, multi-role helicopter to operate nearly autonomously in the ASW, anti-shipping, transport, SAR and reconnaissance roles.


title: Military helicopter

text: Medium- and large-sized helicopters are operated from carriers and land bases. In the British, Spanish, and Italian navies, the larger helicopters form the main anti-submarine strength of carrier air wings. When operating from shore bases, the helicopters are used as anti-submarine pickets to protect against hostile submarines loitering outside military ports and harbours; their endurance and payload providing advantages over smaller helicopters.


title: Military helicopter

text: Soviet maritime helicopters, operating from its cruisers, had the additional role of guidance of the cruisers' long range anti-shipping missiles.


title: Military helicopter

text: Maritime helicopters are navalised aircraft for operation from ships, this includes enhanced protection against salt water corrosion, protection against ingestion of water and provision for forced ditching at sea.


title: Military helicopter

text: As helicopters came into military service, they were quickly pressed into service for search and rescue and medical evacuation. During World War II, Flettner Fl 282s were used in Germany for reconnaissance, and Sikorsky R-4s were used by the United States to rescue downed aircrews and injured personnel in remote areas of the China Burma India Theater, from April 1944 until the war's end. The use of helicopters for rescue during combat increased during the Korean War and the Algerian War. In the Vietnam War the USAF acquired Sikorsky S-61R (Jolly Green Giant) and CH-53 Sea Stallion (Super Jolly Green Giant) helicopters for the Combat search and rescue (CSAR) mission.


title: Military helicopter

text: Some services use a version of their operational helicopters, usually in the light class, for pilot training. For example, the British have used the Aérospatiale Gazelle both in operations and as a trainer. Some services also have an Ab initio phase in training that uses very basic helicopters. The Mexican Navy has acquired a number of the commercially available Robinson R22 and R44 helicopters for this purpose.


title: Military helicopter

text: A utility helicopter is a multi-purpose helicopter. A utility military helicopter can fill roles such as ground attack, air assault, military logistics, medical evacuation, command and control, and troop transport.


title: Military helicopter

text: While not essential to combat operations, helicopters give a substantial advantage to their operators by being a force multiplier. To maximise their impact, helicopters are utilised in a combined arms approach.


title: Military helicopter

text: High-intensity warfare is characterized by large arrays of conventional armed forces, including mass formations of tanks, with significant air defenses. Helicopter armament and tactics were changed to account for a less-permissive flight environment. Anti-tank missiles, such as the SS.11 and the Aérospatiale SS.12/AS.12 were developed and mounted on French military helicopters. In turn, the United States adapted its BGM-71 TOW for firing from helicopters and eventually developed the AGM-114 Hellfire. Meanwhile, the Soviet Union adapted the 3M11 Falanga missile for firing from the Mil Mi-24.


title: Military helicopter

text: In the air, attack helicopters armed with anti-tank missiles, and one or more unarmed, or lightly armed scout helicopters operate in concert. The scout helicopter, flying at low level in a nap-of-the-earth approach, attempts to both locate the enemy armoured columns and to map out approaches and ambush positions for the attack helicopters. Late-model scout helicopters include laser designators to guide missiles fired from the attack helicopters. After finding a target, the scout helicopter can locate it and then direct the attack helicopter's missile where to fire. The attack helicopters have only to rise from cover briefly to fire their missiles before returning to a concealed location. Late-development of attack helicopters, such as the Mil Mi-28N, the Kamov Ka-52, and the AH-64D Longbow, incorporate sensors and command and control systems to relieve the requirement for scout helicopters.


title: Military helicopter

text: To enhance the combat endurance of these missile-armed helicopters, transport helicopters were used to carry technicians, reloads and fuel to forward locations. Establishing these forward arming and refuel points (FARP) at pre-arranged locations and times allowed armed or attack helicopters to re-arm and refuel, often with their engines running and the rotors still turning, and to quickly return to the front lines.


title: Military helicopter

text: In counter-insurgency (COIN) warfare, the government force establishes its presence in permanent or temporary military bases from which to mount patrols and convoys. The government forces seek to deter the insurgent forces from operating, and to capture or kill those that do. The operation of forces from fixed bases linked by a fixed network of roads becomes a weakness. Emplaced insurgents and local sympathisers may observe such facilities covertly and gather intelligence on the schedules and routes of patrols and convoys. With this intelligence the insurgents can time their operations to avoid the COIN forces or plan ambushes to engage them, depending on their own tactical situation.


title: Military helicopter

text: Helicopters return a measure of surprise and tactical flexibility to the COIN commander. Patrols need not start and end in the same place (the main entrance of the local compound), nor do supply convoys need follow the same roads and highways. During the Rhodesian Bush War, the Rhodesian military developed and refined "Fireforce" tactics, using small flights of light helicopters, the helicopters would be equipped as gunships to directly attack insurgents with aerial gunfire and also as either an airborne command/observation post or troop transport. Once contact had been established against enemy guerillas paratroopers would be dropped by a Dakota and act as "beaters" to drive the guerillas into stop groups landed by the helicopters.


title: Military helicopter

text: During the Troubles, the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) became adept at avoiding conventional, fixed roadblocks and patrols. To prevent predictable patterns, the patrols were deployed by helicopter, known as Eagle Patrols, and were then able to disrupt the IRA's ability to move personnel and arms. In the aftermath of the American invasion of Iraq helicopters have been used as aerial supply trucks and troop transports to prevent exposure to ambushes set by the Iraqi insurgency.


title: Military helicopter

text: Due to the cost and complexity of training and support requirements, insurgent forces rarely have access to helicopters.


title: Military helicopter

text: The major Western European helicopter manufacturers are now AgustaWestland and Eurocopter Group. In America, the three large remaining companies are Boeing (Boeing Vertol and McDonnell Douglas), Bell Helicopter and Sikorsky Aircraft.


title: Military helicopter

text: In Japan the three main manufacturers of helicopters are the aviation arms of the Japanese conglomerates Mitsubishi, Kawasaki and Fuji Heavy Industries. These companies initially followed a business model based on forming strategic partnerships with foreign, usually American, companies with the licensed production of those companies products, whilst building up their own ability to design and manufacture helicopters through a process of workshare and technology transfer.


title: Military helicopter

text: In South Asia, Indian Hindustan Aeronautics Limited is the main helicopter manufacturer for the Indian Armed Forces.


title: Military helicopter

text: In the Soviet-planned economic system, the Mil and Kamov OKBs were responsible only for the design of helicopters. A re-organisation of the helicopter industry in Russia created Russian Helicopters, a holding company to bring together Mil, Kamov and helicopter manufacturing and maintenance plants.


title: Nemanja Gudelj

text: Nemanja "Neno" Gudelj (; born 16 November 1991) is a Serbian professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for La Liga side Sevilla and the Serbia national team. He is the son of former player Nebojša Gudelj and the older brother of Dragiša Gudelj.


title: Nemanja Gudelj

text: Gudelj signed his first professional contract with NAC Breda in July 2009 but failed to make an official appearance in his debut season despite being named on the bench several times.


title: Nemanja Gudelj

text: In the summer of 2013 Gudelj transferred to AZ Alkmaar for a fee of around €3 million, sold by his father who was manager at NAC, signing a four-year contract.


title: Nemanja Gudelj

text: On 6 May 2015, it was announced that Gudelj would join AFC Ajax starting from the 2015–16 season. Along with him, his younger brother Dragiša would move to Ajax youth team and his father Nebojša would become a scout for the club focusing primarily on scouting players from the Balkans and Serbia. On 5 November 2016, Gudelj was removed from the first team selection after stating he couldn't be motivated when not starting.


title: Nemanja Gudelj

text: On 5 January 2017, Ajax announced Gudelj would transfer to Tianjin TEDA on 25 January 2017 for a sum rumoured to be around €5.5 million.


title: Nemanja Gudelj

text: On 28 January 2018, Guangzhou Evergrande Taobao announced that Gudelj was transferred from Tianjin TEDA and signed a 2-year contract. The transfer fee was not announced. He made his debut for Guangzhou on 21 February 2018 in a 0–0 away draw against Cerezo Osaka in the second group stage match of 2018 AFC Champions League. On 14 March, he scored his first goal for the club in the fourth group stage match of the AFC Champions League against Jeju United, which ensured Guangzhou Evergrande's 2–0 away win. Gudelj was excluded from first team squad in July 2018 due to the limitation of the number of foreign players.


title: Nemanja Gudelj

text: The contract at will extend for four years as a Sporting CP player. The actual loan contract expires in the end of the season so he would move as a free player .


title: Nemanja Gudelj

text: On 23 July 2019, Gudelj signed with Spanish side Sevilla FC. In July 2020 he tested positive for COVID-19.


title: Nemanja Gudelj

text: After being capped at the U19 and U21 levels, Gudelj earned his first cap for Serbia on 5 March 2014, in a 2–1 away win over Ireland in a friendly match after coming on as a last minute substitute for Antonio Rukavina. In 2014, Gudelj played for the national team a further four times, playing against Jamaica twice, Panama and Brazil.


title: Nemanja Gudelj

text: In July 2014 his former coach at AZ, Dick Advocaat, was named as Serbia's national team manager for the Euro 2016 campaign. He scored his first goal on 18 November 2014 in a 2–0 away friendly win against Greece.


title: Nemanja Gudelj

text: In November 2022, he was selected in Serbia's squad for the 2022 FIFA World Cup in Qatar. He played in group stage matches against Brazil and Switzerland. Serbia finished fourth in the group.


title: VRV (streaming service)

text: VRV (officially pronounced "verve", though it is also referred to by its letters) was an over-the-top streaming service launched in November 2016. Owned by Crunchyroll, LLC, run by Sony through a joint venture between Sony Pictures and Sony Music Entertainment Japan's Aniplex, the service bundles together anime, speculative fiction and gaming related channels and the service targets these large fandoms.


title: VRV (streaming service)

text: Some of VRV's content could be streamed for free, while other content required a subscription. The subscriptions to its channels could be purchased individually, or in a premium bundle. VRV was available only in the United States, despite some of its partnered content being available for viewing worldwide outside the platform.


title: VRV (streaming service)

text: Ellation, owners of Crunchyroll, formally announced the launch of VRV on June 14, 2016. Its initial partners included Rooster Teeth, Seeso, Nerdist, Geek & Sundry, and Frederator's Cartoon Hangover.


title: VRV (streaming service)

text: On September 29, 2016, Funimation, Adam Savage's Tested, RiffTrax, CollegeHumor, Machinima.com, Ginx TV, Shudder, and Mondo Media were announced as new partners. VRV would officially launch on November 14, 2016.


title: VRV (streaming service)

text: On August 9, 2017, the VRV Select channel was launched, featuring content from other sources. It was also announced that Machinima, Ginx, and Rifftrax were being dropped from the service. On the same day as VRV Select's announcement, Seeso announced via its Facebook page that it would be shutting down by the end of 2017. Though RiffTrax, Machinima and Seeso's channels were dropped, some of their content, including Seeso's "The Cyanide & Happiness Show", "HarmonQuest", "Hidden America with Jonah Ray", and "My Brother, My Brother and Me" would migrate to VRV Select.


title: VRV (streaming service)

text: On May 3, 2018, it was announced that Tested was being dropped, with its content moving to VRV Select.


title: VRV (streaming service)

text: On August 28, 2018, VRV launched NickSplat, named after the TeenNick programming block, featuring classic Nickelodeon series from the 1990s and early 2000s.


title: VRV (streaming service)

text: On October 12, 2018, Shout! Factory's content, such as "Mystery Science Theater 3000" and "ReBoot", were made available to watch on VRV Select.


title: VRV (streaming service)

text: On October 18, 2018, Funimation announced that they would be leaving VRV, as their partnership with Crunchyroll ended, and all of their titles would disappear on November 9, 2018. On that same day, VRV announced that HIDIVE would be joining the service to replace Funimation.


title: VRV (streaming service)

text: On November 1, 2018, HIDIVE was launched on VRV and it was announced that Boomerang would be joining the service on November 13, 2018.


title: VRV (streaming service)

text: On November 8, 2018, Otter Media announced "Mike Tyson Mysteries" and "Jabberjaw" as upcoming programs for VRV that would be added sometime later in 2018. However, both series never actually came to the service. "Mike Tyson Mysteries" was eventually added to Hulu in 2020 and Tubi in 2022, while "Jabberjaw" has yet to appear on a streaming service.


title: VRV (streaming service)

text: On August 9, 2021, Crunchyroll was acquired by Sony-owned Funimation, making Sony the new owner of VRV.


title: VRV (streaming service)

text: On November 18, 2021, it was announced via email to subscribers that Rooster Teeth would be leaving VRV on December 13, 2021. Cartoon Hangover was also removed at the same time.


title: VRV (streaming service)

text: On March 1, 2022, it was announced that VRV would be merged into Crunchyroll itself, alongside Funimation and Wakanim.


title: VRV (streaming service)

text: VRV can be accessed through its website, as well as apps for iOS (on iPhone and iPad), Android, Android TV, tvOS on Apple TV (on 4th generation and 4K), Chromecast, Fire TV, Fire HD, newer Roku streaming devices, Xbox One, and Xbox Series X/S.


title: Split infinitive

text: A split infinitive is a grammatical construction in which an adverb or adverbial phrase separates the "to" and "infinitive" constituents of what was traditionally called the full infinitive, but is more commonly known in modern linguistics as the to-infinitive (e.g. "to go"). In the history of English language aesthetics,


title: Split infinitive

text: the split infinitive was often deprecated, despite its prevalence in colloquial speech. The opening sequence of the "Star Trek" television series contains a well-known example, "to "boldly" go where no man has gone before", wherein the adverb "boldly" was said to split the full infinitive, "to go".


title: Split infinitive

text: Multiple words may split a to-infinitive, such as: "The population is expected to "more than" double in the next ten years."


title: Split infinitive

text: In the 19th century, some linguistic prescriptivists sought to introduce a rule proscribing the split infinitive, and the resulting conflict had considerable cultural importance. The construction still renders disagreement, but modern English usage guides have largely dropped the objection to it.


title: Split infinitive

text: The "split infinitive" terminology is not widely used in modern linguistics. Some linguists question whether a to-infinitive phrase can meaningfully be called a "full infinitive" and, consequently, whether an infinitive can be "split" at all.


title: Split infinitive

text: In Old English, infinitives were single words ending in "-n" or "-an" (comparable to modern Dutch and German "-n", "-en"). Gerunds were formed using "to" followed by a verbal noun in the dative case, which ended in "-anne" or "-enne" (e.g., "tō cumenne" = "coming, to come"). In Middle English, the bare infinitive and the gerund coalesced into the same form ending in "-(e)n" (e.g., "comen" "come"; "to comen" "to come"). The "to" infinitive was not split in Old or Early Middle English.


title: Split infinitive

text: The first known example of a split infinitive in English, in which a pronoun rather than an adverb splits the infinitive, is in Layamon's "Brut" (early 13th century):


title: Split infinitive

text: This may be a poetic inversion for the sake of meter, and therefore says little about whether Layamon would have felt the construction to be syntactically natural. However, no such reservation applies to the following prose example from John Wycliffe (14th century), who often split infinitives:


title: Split infinitive

text: After its rise in Middle English, the construction became rare in the 15th and 16th centuries. William Shakespeare used it once, or perhaps twice. The uncontroversial example appears to be a syntactical inversion for the sake of meter:


title: Split infinitive

text: Edmund Spenser, John Dryden, Alexander Pope, and the King James Version of the Bible used none, and they are very rare in the writing of Samuel Johnson. John Donne used them several times, though, and Samuel Pepys also used at least one. No reason for the near disappearance of the split infinitive is known; in particular, no prohibition is recorded.


title: Split infinitive

text: Daniel Defoe, Benjamin Franklin, William Wordsworth, Abraham Lincoln, George Eliot, Henry James, and Willa Cather are among the writers who used them. Examples in the poems of Robert Burns attest its presence also in 18th-century Scots:


title: Split infinitive

text: In colloquial speech, the construction came to enjoy widespread use. Today, according to the "American Heritage Book of English Usage", "people split infinitives all the time without giving it a thought." In corpora of contemporary spoken English, some adverbs such as "always" and "completely" appear more often in the split position than the unsplit.


title: Split infinitive

text: Although it is difficult to say why the construction developed in Middle English, or why it revived so powerfully in Modern English, a number of theories have been postulated.


title: Split infinitive

text: Traditional grammarians have suggested that the construction appeared because people frequently place adverbs before finite verbs. George Curme writes: "If the adverb should immediately precede the finite verb, we feel that it should immediately precede also the infinitive…" Thus, if one says:


title: Split infinitive

text: This is supported by the fact that split infinitives are often used as echoes, as in the following exchange, in which the riposte parodies the slightly odd collocation in the original sentence:


title: Split infinitive

text: This is an example of an adverb being transferred into split infinitive position from a parallel position in a different construction.


title: Split infinitive

text: In the modern language, splitting usually involves a single adverb coming between the verb and its marker. Very frequently, this is an emphatic adverb, for example:


title: Split infinitive

text: However, in modern colloquial English, almost any adverb may be found in this syntactic position, especially when the adverb and the verb form a close syntactic unit (really-pull, not-split).


title: Split infinitive

text: Compound split infinitives, i.e., infinitives split by more than one word, usually involve a pair of adverbs or a multi-word adverbial:


title: Split infinitive

text: Examples of non-adverbial elements participating in the split-infinitive construction seem rarer in Modern English than in Middle English. The pronoun "all" commonly appears in this position:


title: Split infinitive

text: However an object pronoun, as in the Layamon example above, would be unusual in modern English, perhaps because this might cause a listener to misunderstand the "to" as a preposition:


title: Split infinitive

text: While, structurally, acceptable as poetic formulation, this would result in a garden path sentence  particularly evident if the indirect object is omitted:


title: Split infinitive

text: Other parts of speech would be very unusual in this position. However, in verse, poetic inversion for the sake of meter or of bringing a rhyme word to the end of a line often results in abnormal syntax, as with Shakespeare's split infinitive ("to pitied be", cited above), in fact an inverted passive construction in which the infinitive is split by a past participle. Presumably, this would not have occurred in a prose text by the same author.


title: Split infinitive

text: Finally, there is a construction with a word or words between "to" and an infinitive that nevertheless is not considered a split infinitive, namely, infinitives joined by a conjunction. This is not objected to even when an adverb precedes the second infinitive. Examples include "We pray you "to" proceed/ And "justly and religiously unfold"..." (Shakespeare, "Henry V", Act II, scene 9) and "...she is determined "to" be independent, and "not live" with aunt Pullet" (George Eliot, "The Mill on the Floss", volume VI, chapter I).


title: Split infinitive

text: It was not until the very end of the 19th century that terminology emerged to describe the construction. The earliest use of the term "split infinitive" on record dates from 1890. The now rare "cleft infinitive" is almost as old, attested from 1893; in the 1890s it was briefly the more common term but almost disappeared after 1905. "Splitting the infinitive" is slightly older, going back to 1887. According to the main etymological dictionaries, "infinitive-splitting" and "infinitive-splitter" followed in 1926 and 1927, respectively. The term "compound split infinitive", referring to a split infinitive with more than one word between the particle and the infinitive, is not found in these dictionaries and appears to be very recent.


title: Split infinitive

text: This terminology implies analysing the full infinitive as a two-word infinitive, which not all grammarians accept. As one who used "infinitive" to mean the single-word verb, Otto Jespersen challenged the epithet: "'To' is no more an essential part of an infinitive than the definite article is an essential part of a nominative, and no one would think of calling 'the good man' a split nominative." However, no alternative terminology has been proposed.


title: Split infinitive

text: Although it is sometimes reported that a prohibition on split infinitives goes back to Renaissance times, and frequently the 18th century scholar Robert Lowth is cited as the originator of the prescriptive rule, such a rule is not to be found in Lowth's writing, and is not known to appear in any text before the 19th century.


title: Split infinitive

text: An adverb should not be placed between the verb of the infinitive mood and the preposition "to", which governs it; as "Patiently" to wait—not To "patiently" wait.


title: Split infinitive

text: The practice of separating the prefix of the infinitive mode from the verb, by the intervention of an adverb, is not unfrequent among uneducated persons … I am not conscious, that any rule has been heretofore given in relation to this point … The practice, however, of not separating the particle from its verb, is so general and uniform among good authors, and the exceptions are so rare, that the rule which I am about to propose will, I believe, prove to be as accurate as most rules, and may be found beneficial to inexperienced writers. It is this :—"The particle, "TO", which comes before the verb in the infinitive mode, must not be separated from it by the intervention of an adverb or any other word or phrase; but the adverb should immediately precede the particle, or immediately follow the verb."


title: Split infinitive

text: In 1840, Richard Taylor also condemned split infinitives as a "disagreeable affectation," and in 1859, Solomon Barrett, Jr., called them "a common fault." However, the issue seems not to have attracted wider public attention until Henry Alford addressed it in his "Plea for the Queen's English" in 1864:


title: Split infinitive

text: A correspondent states as his own usage, and defends, the insertion of an adverb between the sign of the infinitive mood and the verb. He gives as an instance, ""to scientifically illustrate."" But surely this is a practice entirely unknown to English speakers and writers. It seems to me, that we ever regard the "to" of the infinitive as inseparable from its verb. And, when we have already a choice between two forms of expression, "scientifically to illustrate" and "to illustrate scientifically," there seems no good reason for flying in the face of common usage.


title: Split infinitive

text: Others followed, among them Bache, 1869 ("The "to" of the infinitive mood is inseparable from the verb"); William B. Hodgson, 1889; and Raub, 1897 ("The sign "to" must not be separated from the remaining part of the infinitive by an intervening word").


title: Split infinitive

text: Even as these authorities were condemning the split infinitive, others were endorsing it: Brown, 1851 (saying some grammarians had criticized it and it was less elegant than other adverb placements but sometimes clearer); Hall, 1882; Onions, 1904; Jespersen, 1905; and Fowler and Fowler, 1906. Despite the defence by some grammarians, by the beginning of the 20th century the prohibition was firmly established in the press. In the 1907 edition of "The King's English", the Fowler brothers wrote:


title: Split infinitive

text: The 'split' infinitive has taken such hold upon the consciences of journalists that, instead of warning the novice against splitting his infinitives, we must warn him against the curious superstition that the splitting or not splitting makes the difference between a good and a bad writer.


title: Split infinitive

text: In large parts of the school system, the construction was opposed with ruthless vigour. A correspondent to the BBC on a programme about English grammar in 1983 remarked:


title: Split infinitive

text: One reason why the older generation feel so strongly about English grammar is that we were severely punished if we didn't obey the rules! One split infinitive, one whack; two split infinitives, two whacks; and so on.


title: Split infinitive

text: As a result, the debate took on a degree of passion that the bare facts of the matter never warranted. There was frequent skirmishing between the splitters and anti-splitters until the 1960s. George Bernard Shaw wrote letters to newspapers supporting writers who used the split infinitive and Raymond Chandler complained to the editor of "The Atlantic" about a proofreader who interfered with Chandler's split infinitives:


title: Split infinitive

text: By the way, would you convey my compliments to the purist who reads your proofs and tell him or her that I write in a sort of broken-down patois which is something like the way a Swiss-waiter talks, and that when I split an infinitive, God damn it, I split it so it will remain split, and when I interrupt the velvety smoothness of my more or less literate syntax with a few sudden words of barroom vernacular, this is done with the eyes wide open and the mind relaxed and attentive. The method may not be perfect, but it is all I have.


title: Split infinitive

text: Post-1960 authorities show a strong tendency to accept the split infinitive. Follett, in "Modern American Usage" (1966) writes: "The split infinitive has its place in good composition. It should be used when it is expressive and well led up to." Fowler (Gowers' revised second edition, 1965) offers the following example of the consequences of refusal to split infinitives: "The greatest difficulty about assessing the economic achievements of the Soviet Union is that its spokesmen try "absurdly to exaggerate" them; in consequence the visitor may tend "badly to underrate" them" (italics added). This question results: "Has dread of the split infinitive led the writer to attach the adverbs ['absurdly' and 'badly'] to the wrong verbs, and would he not have done better "to boldly split" both infinitives, since he cannot put the adverbs after them without spoiling his rhythm" (italics added)? Bernstein (1985) argues that, although infinitives should not always be split, they should be split where doing so improves the sentence: "The natural position for a modifier is before the word it modifies. Thus the natural position for an adverb modifying an infinitive should be just … "after" the to" (italics added). Bernstein continues: "Curme's contention that the split infinitive is often an improvement … cannot be disputed." Heffernan and Lincoln, in their modern English composition textbook, agree with the above authors. Some sentences, they write, "are weakened by … cumbersome splitting," but in other sentences "an infinitive may be split by a one-word modifier that would be awkward in any other position."


title: Split infinitive

text: Objections to the split infinitive fall into three categories, of which only the first is accorded any credence by linguists.


title: Split infinitive

text: One of the earliest arguments against the split infinitive, expressed by an anonymous contributor to the "New-England Magazine" in 1834, was based on the impression that it was not an observable feature of English as used by "good authors."


title: Split infinitive

text: Henry Alford, in his "Plea for the Queen's English" in 1864 went further, stating that use of the "split infinitive" was "a practice entirely unknown to English speakers and writers."


title: Split infinitive

text: In principle there is a consensus that language teachers should advise on usage on the basis of what is observed to be current practice in the language. If the early critics of the construction did not observe it to be usual in (the prestige variety of) English as they knew it, their advice was legitimate. However it would be difficult to argue that way today, as the split infinitive has become very common.


title: Split infinitive

text: A second argument is summed up by Alford's statement "It seems to me that we ever regard the "to" of the infinitive as inseparable from its verb."


title: Split infinitive

text: The "to" in the infinitive construction, which is found throughout the Germanic languages, is originally a preposition before the dative of a verbal noun, but in the modern languages it is widely regarded as a particle that serves as a marker of the infinitive. In German and Dutch, this marker ("zu" and "te" respectively) sometimes precedes the infinitive, but is not regarded as part of it. In English, on the other hand, it is traditional to speak of the "bare infinitive" without "to" and the "full infinitive" with it, and to conceive of "to" as part of the full infinitive. (In the sentence "I had my daughter clean her room," "clean" is a bare infinitive; in "I told my daughter to clean her room," "to clean" is a full infinitive.) Possibly this is because the absence of an "inflected" infinitive form made it useful to include the particle in the citation form of the verb, and in some nominal constructions in which other Germanic languages would omit it (e.g., "to know her is to love her"). The concept of a two-word infinitive can reinforce an intuitive sense that the two words belong together. For instance, the rhetorician John Duncan Quackenbos said, ""To have" is as much one thing, and as inseparable by modifiers, as the original form "habban", or the Latin "habere"." The usage writer John Opdycke based a similar argument on the closest French, German, and Latin translations.


title: Split infinitive

text: However, the two-part infinitive is disputed, and some linguists argue that the infinitive in English is a single-word verb form, which may or may not be preceded by the particle "to". Some modern generative analysts classify "to" as a "peculiar" auxiliary verb; other analysts, as the infinitival subordinator.


title: Split infinitive

text: Besides, even if the concept of the full infinitive is accepted, it does not necessarily follow that any two words that belong together grammatically need be adjacent to each other. They usually are, but counter-examples are easily found, such as an adverb splitting a two-word finite verb ("will not do", "has not done").


title: Split infinitive

text: A frequent argument of those who tolerate split infinitives is that the split-infinitive prohibition is based solely on a misguided comparison with Latin. However, the argument from the classical languages may be a straw man argument, as the most important critics of the split infinitive never used it. Although many writers who support the split infinitive suggest that this argument motivated the early opponents of the construction, there is little primary source evidence for this; indeed, Richard Bailey has noted that, despite the lack of evidence, this theory has simply become "part of the folklore of linguistics".


title: Split infinitive

text: An infinitive in Latin or Greek is never used with a marker equivalent to English "to", and a Latin infinitive cannot be split. The argument would be that the construction should be avoided because it is not found in the classics. The claim that those who dislike split infinitives are applying rules of Latin grammar to English is asserted by many authorities who accept the split infinitive. One example is in the "American Heritage Book of English Usage": "The only rationale for condemning the construction is based on a false analogy with Latin." The assertion is also made in the "Oxford Guide to Plain English", "Compact Oxford English Dictionary", and Steven Pinker's "The Language Instinct", among others.


title: Split infinitive

text: The argument implies an adherence to the humanist idea of the greater purity of the classics, which, particularly in Renaissance times, led people to regard as inferior aspects of English that differed from Latin. Today no linguist would accept an argument that judges the usage of one language by the grammar of another. Besides, if Latin has no equivalent of the marker "to", it provides no model for the question of where to put it, and therefore supports neither splitting nor not-splitting. As Richard Lederer puts it: "there is no precedent in these languages for condemning the split infinitive because in Greek and Latin (and all the other romance languages) the infinitive is a single word that is impossible to sever."


title: Split infinitive

text: Present style and usage manuals deem simple split infinitives unobjectionable. For example, Curme's "Grammar of the English Language" (1931) says that not only is the split infinitive correct, but it "should be furthered rather than censured, for it makes for clearer expression." "The Columbia Guide to Standard American English" notes that the split infinitive "eliminates all possibility of ambiguity," in contrast to the "potential for confusion" in an unsplit construction. "Merriam–Webster's Dictionary of English Usage" says: "the objection to the split infinitive has never had a rational basis." According to Mignon Fogarty, "today almost everyone agrees that it is OK to split infinitives."


title: Split infinitive

text: Nevertheless, many teachers of English still admonish students against using split infinitives in writing. Because the prohibition has become so widely known, the "Columbia Guide" recommends that writers "follow the conservative path [of avoiding split infinitives when they are not necessary], especially when you're uncertain of your readers' expectations and sensitivities in this matter." Likewise, the Oxford dictionaries do not regard the split infinitive as ungrammatical, but on balance consider it likely to produce a weak style and advise against its use for formal correspondence. R. W. Burchfield's revision of Fowler's "Modern English Usage" goes farther (quoting Burchfield's own 1981 book "The Spoken Word"): "Avoid splitting infinitives whenever possible, but do not suffer undue remorse if a split infinitive is unavoidable for the completion of a sentence already begun." Still more strongly, older editions of "The Economist" Style Guide said, "Happy the man who has never been told that it is wrong to split an infinitive: the ban is pointless. Unfortunately, to see it broken is so annoying to so many people that you should observe it" (but added "To never split an infinitive is quite easy."). This recommendation, however, is weakened in the 12th edition. After stating that the ban is pointless, "The Economist Style Guide" now says "To see a split infinitive nevertheless annoys some readers, so try to avoid placing a modifier between "to" and the verb in an infinitive. But if moving the modifier would ruin the rhythm, change the meaning or even just put the emphasis in the wrong place, splitting the infinitive is the best option."


title: Split infinitive

text: As well as varying according to register, tolerance of split infinitives varies according to type. While most authorities accept split infinitives in general, it is not hard to construct an example that any native speaker would reject. Wycliff's Middle English compound split would, if transferred to modern English, be regarded by most people as un-English:


title: Split infinitive

text: Attempts to define the boundaries of normality are controversial. In 1996, the usage panel of "The American Heritage Book" was evenly divided for and against such sentences as,


title: Split infinitive

text: Here the problem appears to be the breaking up of the verbal phrase "to be seeking a plan to relieve": a segment of the head verbal phrase is so far removed from the remainder that the listener or reader must expend greater effort to understand the sentence. By contrast, 87 percent of the panel deemed acceptable the multi-word adverbial in


title: Split infinitive

text: not surprisingly perhaps, because here there is no other place to put the words "more than" without substantially recasting the sentence.


title: Split infinitive

text: Here traditional idiom, placing the negation before the marker ("I soon learned not to provoke her") or with verbs of desire, negating the finite verb ("I don't want to see you anymore") remains easy and natural, and is still overwhelmingly the more common construction. Some argue that the two forms have different meanings, while others see a grammatical difference, but most speakers do not make such a distinction.


title: Split infinitive

text: In an example drawn from 3121 sampled usages by the British National Corpus, the use of "to not be" (versus "not to be") is only 0.35%.


title: Split infinitive

text: Writers who avoid splitting infinitives either place the splitting element elsewhere in the sentence or reformulate the sentence, perhaps rephrasing it without an infinitive and thus avoiding the issue. However, a sentence such as "to more than double" must be completely rewritten to avoid the split infinitive; it is ungrammatical to put the words "more than" anywhere else in the sentence. While split infinitives can be avoided, a writer must be careful not to produce an awkward or ambiguous sentence. Fowler (1926) stressed that, if a sentence is to be rewritten to remove a split infinitive, this must be done without compromising the language:


title: Split infinitive

text: It is of no avail merely to fling oneself desperately out of temptation; one must so do it that no traces of the struggle remain; that is, sentences must be thoroughly remodeled instead of having a word lifted from its original place & dumped elsewhere …


title: Split infinitive

text: In some cases, moving the adverbial creates an ungrammatical sentence or changes the meaning. R. L. Trask uses this example:


title: Split infinitive

text: The sentence can be rewritten to maintain its meaning, however, by using a noun or a different grammatical aspect of the verb, or by avoiding the informal "get rid":


title: Split infinitive

text: Fowler notes that the option of rewriting is always available but questions whether it is always worth the trouble.


title: Aaron Yoo

text: Aaron Yoo (born May 12, 1979) is an American actor. He is best known for appearing in the films "Disturbia" (2007), "21" (2008), and "Friday the 13th" (2009), as well as playing Russell Kwon in the sci-fi series "The Tomorrow People" (2013–14).


title: Aaron Yoo

text: He starred in "Disturbia", "Rocket Science", and "American Pastime" (all 2007); "21", "Nick and Norah's Infinite Playlist", and "The Wackness" (all 2008); and "Labor Pains" and the "Friday the 13th" reboot (both 2009).


title: Aaron Yoo

text: Shortly before filming of "Friday the 13th" began, Yoo had his appendix removed; as a result, he could not film his scenes right away. As soon as he was ready for filming, director Marcus Nispel immediately hung him upside down from some rafters, exposing the staples over his surgical wound, for the character's post-death shot.


title: Aaron Yoo

text: His stage credits include a 2002 revival of Lope de Vega's "Fuente Ovejuna", Mac Wellman's "Cellophane" (2003), and the premiere of Christopher Shinn's "Where Do We Live" and the anthology production "Savage Acts" (both 2004).


title: Aaron Yoo

text: Aaron Yoo was born in Dallas, Texas, to Korean parents. When he was 8, his family moved from Edison to East Brunswick, New Jersey. He has an older sister. He attended East Brunswick High School, where he played cello in the orchestra and ran track; he graduated in 1997. Afterwards, he studied at the University of Pennsylvania, where he was a member of the Sigma Nu fraternity. He graduated in 2001 with a degree in theatre, and worked for Siemens corporate from 2001 to 2003.


title: Aaron Yoo

text: He is married to Fara Homidi, who works in the fashion industry as a make-up artist. In his spare time, he practices DJing, pole vaulting, and playing the cello. He is fully bilingual in Korean and English.


title: Prohibition Party

text: The Prohibition Party (PRO) is a political party in the United States known for its historic opposition to the sale or consumption of alcoholic beverages and as an integral part of the temperance movement. It is the oldest existing third party in the United States and the third-longest active party.


title: Prohibition Party

text: Although it was never one of the leading parties in the United States, it was once an important force in the Third Party System during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The organization declined following the enactment of Prohibition in the United States but saw a rise in vote totals following the repeal of the Eighteenth Amendment in 1933. However, following World War II it declined with 1948 being the last time its presidential candidate received over 100,000 votes and 1976 being the last time it received over 10,000 votes.


title: Prohibition Party

text: The party's platform has changed over its existence. Its platforms throughout the 19th century supported progressive and populist positions including women's suffrage, equal racial and gender rights, bimetallism, equal pay, and an income tax. The platform of the party today is liberal on economic issues in that it supports Social Security, animal rights, and free education, but is conservative on social issues, such as supporting temperance, school prayer, and a consistent life ethic, thus making it communitarian.


title: Prohibition Party

text: In 1868 and 1869, branches of the International Organisation of Good Templars, a global temperance organization, passed resolutions supporting the creation of a political party in favor of alcoholic prohibition. From July 29 to July 30, 1868, the sixth National Temperance Convention was held in Cleveland, Ohio, and passed a resolution supporting temperance advocates to enter politics. On May 25, 1869, the Good Templars branch in Oswego, New York, called a meeting to prepare for the creation of a political party in favor of prohibition. Jonathan H. Orne was chosen as chairman and Julius A. Spencer as secretary of the meeting and a committee consisting of John Russell, Daniel Wilkins, Julius A. Spencer, John N. Stearns, and James Black was created to organize a national party.


title: Prohibition Party

text: On September 1, 1869, almost five hundred delegates from twenty states and Washington, D.C., met at Farwell Hall in Chicago and John Russell was selected to serve as the temporary chairman and James Black as president of the convention. The party was the first to accept women as members and gave those who attended full delegate rights. Former anti-slavery activist Gerrit Smith, who had served in the House of Representatives from 1853 to 1854 and had run for president in 1848, 1856, and 1860 with the Liberty Party nomination, served as a delegate from New York and gave a speech at the convention. The organization was referred to as either the National Prohibition Party or the Prohibition Reform Party.


title: Prohibition Party

text: On December 9, 1871, a national convention was called for February 22, 1872, to nominate a presidential and vice presidential candidate. Chairman Simeon B. Chase, Chief Justice Salmon P. Chase, Gerrit Smith, former Portland Mayor Neal Dow, and John Russell were proposed as presidential nominees and Henry Fish, James Black, John Blackman, Secretary Gideon T. Stewart, Julius A. Spencer, and Stephen B. Ransom were proposed for the vice presidential nomination. Black and Russell were given the presidential and vice presidential nominations. The first platform of the organization included support for alcoholic prohibition, the direct election of Senators, bimetallic currency, low tariffs, universal suffrage for both men and women of all races, and increased foreign immigration.


title: Prohibition Party

text: In 1876, the organization's name was changed to the National Prohibition Reform Party. However, in 1881, Frances Willard, R. W. Nelson, A. J. Jutkins, and George W. Bain formed the Home Protection Party, which was more pro-women's suffrage than the Prohibition Party, but later rejoined the party at the 1882 convention and the organization was renamed to the Prohibition Home Protection Party. However, at the 1884 national convention the organization was renamed to the National Prohibition Party.


title: Prohibition Party

text: In 1879, Frances Willard became the president of the Woman's Christian Temperance Union and although it had remained non-partisan in the 1876 and 1880 presidential elections, Willard advocated for a resolution under which the organization would pledge its support to whichever party would support alcoholic prohibition. Willard's attempts in 1882 and 1883 were unsuccessful, but she was successful in 1884 after her opponents left to join Judith Foster's rival Non-Partisan WCTU. During the 1884 presidential election the organization sent its resolution to the Republican, Democratic, Greenback, and Prohibition parties and only the Prohibition Party accepted. At the Woman's Christian Temperance Union's 1884 national convention in St. Louis the organization voted 195 to 48 in favor of supporting the Prohibition Party and would continue to support the Prohibition Party until Willard's death in 1898.


title: Prohibition Party

text: During 1884 election the party nominated John St. John, the former Republican governor of Kansas, who, with the support from Willard and the WTCU, saw the party poll 147,482 votes for 1.50% of the popular vote. However, the party was accused of spoiling the election due to Grover Cleveland's margin of victory over James G. Blaine in New York being less than John's vote total there. In 1888, the party's presidential nominee, Clinton B. Fisk, was accused of being a possible spoiler candidate that would prevent Benjamin Harrison from winning, but Harrison won the election even though he lost the national popular vote.


title: Prohibition Party

text: From January to February, 1892, Willard met with representatives from the Farmers' Alliance, People's Party, National Reform Party, and the remainder of the Greenback Party in Chicago and St. Louis in an attempt to create a fusion presidential ticket, but the organizations were unable to agree to a platform. The People's Party would later fuse with the Democratic Party in the 1896 presidential election.


title: Prohibition Party

text: The party suffered a schism at the 1896 Prohibition convention between the "narrow gauger" faction which only supported having an alcoholic prohibition plank in the party's platform and the "broad gauger" faction which supported the addition of free silver and women's suffrage planks. After the narrow gaugers successfully chose the presidential ticket and the party platform, the broad gaugers, led by former presidential nominee John St. John, Nebraska state chairman Charles Eugene Bentley, and suffragette Helen M. Gougar, walked out and create and created the breakaway National Party, nominating a rival ticket with Bentley as president and James H. Southgate as vice president. The Prohibition party ticket of Joshua Levering and Hale Johnson had the worst popular vote performance since Neal Dow's 10,364 votes in 1880, but still outperformed the National Party's 13,968 votes. Following the 1896 election most of the members of the National Party became disillusioned with that party and returned to the Prohibition Party, but those who remained reformed into the Union Reform Party and supported Seth H. Ellis and Samuel Nicholson during the 1900 presidential election.


title: Prohibition Party

text: At the same time, the Prohibition Party's ideology broadened to include aspects of progressivism. The party contributed to the third-party discussions of the 1910s and sent Charles H. Randall to the 64th, 65th, and 66th Congresses as the representative of California's 9th congressional district. Democrat Sidney J. Catts of Florida, after losing a close Democratic primary, used the Prohibition line to win election as Governor of Florida in 1916; he remained a Democrat.


title: Prohibition Party

text: During the 1916 presidential election the party attempted to give its presidential nomination to former Democratic presidential candidate William Jennings Bryan, but he declined the offer via telegram. At the national convention the presidential nomination was given to former Indiana Governor Frank Hanly, but an attempt to make his nomination unanimous was defeated by Eugene W. Chafin, who had served as the presidential nominee in 1908 and 1912, and had supported giving the nomination to former New York Governor William Sulzer. Virgil G. Hinshaw wrote to John M. Parker in an attempt to fuse the Prohibition and Progressive parties, but it failed; the Progressives did not nominate a presidential candidate and later disbanded.


title: Prohibition Party

text: On February 4, 1918, the Prohibition affiliate in California voted in favor of merging with the National Party, which was created by pro-war defectors from the Socialist Party of America in 1917.


title: Prohibition Party

text: On January 16, 1919, the Eighteenth Amendment, which prohibited "intoxicating liquors" in the United States, was ratified by the requisite number of states. Although it was suggested that the organization should be disbanded due to national alcoholic prohibition being achieved, the committee leaders changed the focus of the organization to support the enforcement of prohibition. In 1921, the organization petitioned for any non-citizens who violated the Eighteenth Amendment to be deported and for citizen violators to lose their right to vote. At the 1924 national convention the party approved a platform with only two planks, namely, supporting religion in public schools and the assimilation of immigrants.


title: Prohibition Party

text: During the 1928 presidential election some members of the party, including Chairman D. Leigh Colvin and former presidential nominee Herman P. Faris, considered endorsing Republican Herbert Hoover rather than running a Prohibition candidate and risk allowing Al Smith, who supported ending prohibition, to be elected. However, the party chose to nominate William F. Varney due to its feeling that Hoover was not strict enough on prohibition, although the affiliate in California gave Hoover an additional ballot line and in Pennsylvania the affiliate did not file presidential electors. However, the party became critical of Hoover after he was elected president and during the 1932 presidential election D. Leigh Colvin stated that "The Republican wet plank, supporting the repeal of Prohibition, means that Mr. Hoover is the most conspicuous turncoat since Benedict Arnold." Hoover lost the election, but national prohibition was repealed in 1933, with the 21st Amendment during the Roosevelt administration.


title: Prohibition Party

text: In 1950, when the party was $5,000 in debt, Gerald Overholt was selected to be the party's chairman. During the 1952 presidential election, Overholt and Stuart Hamblen, the presidential nominee, spent $70,000 and the party's debt was increased to $20,000. During the 1954 elections, the affiliates in Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, Indiana, and Michigan lost their ballot access although the party remained successful in Kansas, where the Prohibition sheriff of Jewell County was reelected, and in California, where the attorney general nominee received over 200,000 votes.


title: Prohibition Party

text: In 1977, the party changed its name to the National Statesman Party, but Time magazine suggested that it was "doubtful" that the name change would "hoist the party out of the category of political oddity" and it changed its name back to the Prohibition Party in 1980.


title: Prohibition Party

text: The Prohibition Party experienced a schism in 2003, as the party's prior presidential candidate, Earl Dodge, incorporated a rival party called the National Prohibition Party in Colorado. An opposing faction nominated Gene C. Amondson for president and filed under the Prohibition banner in Louisiana. Dodge ran under the name of the historic Prohibition Party in Colorado, while the Concerns of People Party allowed Amondson to run on its line against Dodge. Amondson received 1,944 votes, nationwide, while Dodge garnered 140.


title: Prohibition Party

text: One key area of disagreement between the factions was over who should control payments from a trust fund dedicated to the Prohibition Party by George Pennock in 1930. The fund pays approximately $8,000 per year, and during the schism these funds were divided between the factions. Dodge died in 2007, allowing the dispute over the Pennock funds to finally be resolved in 2014. The party is reported as having only "three dozen fee-paying members".


title: Prohibition Party

text: In 2015, the party rejoined the board of the Coalition for Free and Open Elections and became a qualified political party in Mississippi. In the 2016 election, the party nominated James Hedges and qualified for the ballot in three states, Arkansas, Colorado, and Mississippi, and earned 5,514 votes becoming the most successful Prohibition presidential candidate since 1988.


title: Prohibition Party

text: The party met via telephone conference in November, 2018 to nominate its 2020 presidential ticket. Bill Bayes of Mississippi, the vice presidential nominee during the 2016 presidential election, was given the nomination on the first ballot over Adam Seaman and Phil Collins. C.L. Gammon of Tennessee was given the vice presidential nomination without opposition. Bayes resigned as the nominee, accusing some party activists of sabotaging his run because they opposed his views. Another telephone conference call was held, during which Gammon was given the presidential nomination and Collins was given the vice presidential nomination. However, Gammon withdrew from the nomination in August 2019 due to health problems, and another telephone conference was held that selected Collins for the presidential nomination and Billy Joe Parker for the vice presidential nomination.


title: Prohibition Party

text: The Prohibition Party has nominated a candidate for president in every election since 1872 and is thus the longest-lived American political party after the Democrats and Republicans.


title: Prohibition Party

text: The Prohibition Party platform, as listed on the party's web site in 2018, includes the following points:


title: Prohibition Party

text: In 1867, John Russell became the first chairman of the Prohibition party, with Earl Dodge serving the longest for twenty four years and Gregory Seltzer serving the shortest for one year.


title: Sikorsky Raider X

text: The Sikorsky Raider X (stylized in all-caps as RAIDER X) is a compound helicopter concept with two coaxial rotors and a single pusher propeller, designed by the Sikorsky Aircraft division of Lockheed Martin for the United States Army Future Attack Reconnaissance Aircraft (FARA) program. The Raider X concept was announced in October 2019. In March 2020, the Army selected the Raider X and the Bell 360 Invictus from a field of five design concept candidates. The Raider X and 360 Invictus concepts will be built as flying prototypes for a competition scheduled for 2023.


title: Sikorsky Raider X

text: Contracts were awarded in April 2019 to develop concept design candidates for FARA; five different teams were selected, including Sikorsky.


title: Sikorsky Raider X

text: Sikorsky presented the Raider X concept candidate at the annual meeting of the Association of the United States Army on October 14, 2019. The Raider X concept was derived from the earlier Sikorsky S-97 Raider, which had been developed for the Army's Armed Aerial Scout program; the S-97 was in turn developed from the Sikorsky X2 prototype compound coaxial helicopter. A larger Sikorsky–Boeing SB-1 Defiant was also developed from the X2 under the Army's Future Vertical Lift program to create a joint multi-role rotorcraft; the SB-1 was a candidate for the Future Long Range Assault Aircraft program. The Sikorsky compound helicopter designs all use coaxial rigid rotors and a pusher propeller, which Sikorsky has collectively named "X2 Technology".


title: Sikorsky Raider X

text: On March 25, 2020, the Army selected the Raider X and Bell 360 Invictus concept design candidates to proceed to an eventual flight competition; flying prototypes of each candidate design will be constructed, followed by test flights in 2022 leading up to a competitive flying demonstration no later than fall 2023. Sikorsky had already begun construction of its Raider X prototype by February 2020.


title: Sikorsky Raider X

text: The Raider X, as required by FARA program specifications, is designed to use a single General Electric T901 engine. The GE T901 was developed under the Army's Improved Turbine Engine Program as the new engine for existing and future Army rotorcraft. Based on S-97 and X2 performance, Raider X is expected to have a maximum speed exceeding with a service ceiling greater than . Sikorsky considers the S-97 to be an 80% scale model of Raider X; Raider X is expected to weigh . Swift Engineering will design and build the fuselage.