title: Principality of Wales

text: The Principality ceased to exist as a legal entity with the passing by English parliament of the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542, without any representation from Wales. The act stated that Wales was already ‘incorporated, annexed, united and subiecte to and under the imperialle Crown of this Realme as a very member…of the same’. The 1536 act, according to Dr John Davies unified the principality of Wales and the March of Wales. The law of England was applied as the only law in Wales. The act also made English the only language of the courts in Wales and those using the Welsh language would not be able to take up office in the territories of the king of England. The implementation of the act was delayed until a more detailed act was used in 1543.


title: Principality of Wales

text: The Encyclopaedia of Wales notes that the Council of Wales and the Marches was created by Edward IV in 1471 as a household institution to manage the Prince of Wales's lands and finances. In 1473 it was enlarged and given the additional duty of maintaining law and order in the Principality and the Marches of Wales. Its meetings appear to have been intermittent, but it was revived by Henry VII for his heir, Prince Arthur. The Council was placed on a statutory basis in 1543 and played a central role in co-ordinating law and administration. It declined in the early 17th century and was abolished by Parliament in 1641. It was revived at the Restoration before being finally abolished in 1689.


title: Principality of Wales

text: From 1689 to 1948 there was no differentiation between the government of England and government in Wales. All laws relating to England included Wales and Wales was considered by the British Government as an indivisible part of England within the United Kingdom. The first piece of legislation to relate specifically to Wales was the Sunday Closing (Wales) Act 1881. A further exception was the Welsh Church Act 1914, which disestablished the Church in Wales (which had formerly been part of the Church of England) in 1920.


title: Principality of Wales

text: In 1948 the practice was established that all laws passed in the Parliament of the United Kingdom were designated as applicable to either "England and Wales" or "Scotland", thus returning a legal identity to Wales which had not existed for hundreds of years following the Act of Union with Scotland in 1707. Also in 1948 a new Council for Wales was established as a parliamentary committee. In 1964 the Welsh Office was established, based in London, to oversee and recommend improvements to the application of laws in Wales. This situation would continue until the devolution of government in Wales and the establishment of the autonomous National Assembly for Wales in 1998.


title: Principality of Wales

text: Although no principality has ever been created that covers Wales as a whole, the term "Principality" has been occasionally used since the sixteenth century as a synonym for Wales. For instance, the first atlas of Wales, by Thomas Taylor in 1718, was titled "The Principality of Wales exactly described ...", and the term is still used by such publications as "Burke's Landed Gentry". Publications such as Lewis's "A Topographical Dictionary of Wales", and Welsh newspapers in the 19th century commonly used the term.


title: Principality of Wales

text: In modern times, however, "The Guardian" style guide advises writers to "avoid the word 'principality in relation to Wales. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) has defined Wales as a "country" rather than a "principality" since 2011, following a recommendation by the British Standards Institute and the Welsh Government.


title: Principality of Wales

text: The use of the term to refer to the territory of Wales should be distinguished from its use to refer to the title of Prince of Wales, which has been traditionally granted (together with the title Duke of Cornwall and various Scottish titles) to the heir apparent of the reigning British monarch. It confers no responsibility for government in Wales, and has no constitutional meaning. Plaid Cymru are in favour of scrapping the title altogether. The Honours of the Principality of Wales are the Crown Jewels used at the investiture of Princes of Wales.


title: Authenticity (philosophy)

text: Authenticity is a concept of personality in the fields of psychology, existential psychotherapy, existentialist philosophy, and aesthetics. In existentialism, authenticity is the degree to which a person's actions are congruent with his or her values and desires, despite external pressures to social conformity. The conscious Self comes to terms with the condition of "Geworfenheit", of having been "thrown" into an absurd world (without values and without meaning) not of his or her own making, thereby encountering external forces and influences different from and other than the Self. In human relations, a person’s lack of authenticity is considered "bad faith" in dealing with other people and with one's self; thus, authenticity is in the instruction of the Oracle of Delphi: “Know thyself.”


title: Authenticity (philosophy)

text: Concerning authenticity in art, the philosophers Jean Paul Sartre and Theodor Adorno held opposing views and opinions about jazz, a genre of American music; Sartre said that jazz is authentic and Adorno said that jazz is inauthentic. The musical subcultures of Punk rock and Heavy metal require artistic authenticity, lest the community consider an artist to be a "poseur" for lacking authenticity (creative, musical, personal); likewise, artistic authenticity is integral to the genres of House music, Grunge, and Garage rock, Hip-hop, Techno, and Show tunes. In every human activity, personal authenticity extends the instruction of the Oracle of Delphi: “Don’t merely know thyself — be thyself.”


title: Authenticity (philosophy)

text: In the 18th century, Romantic philosophers recommended intuition, emotion, and a connection to Nature as the necessary counterbalances to the intellectualism of the Age of Enlightenment. In the 20th century, Anglo–American preoccupations with authenticity centre upon the writings of existentialist philosophers whose native tongue is not English; therefore, the faithful, true, and accurate translation of the term "existentialism" was much debated, to which end the philosopher Walter Kaufmann assembled the canon of existentialist philosophers, which includes the Dane Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855), the German Martin Heidegger (1889–1976), and the Frenchman Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–1980), for whom the conscious Self comes to terms with existence (being and living) in an absurd, materialist world featuring external forces, e.g. "Geworfenheit" (Thrown-ness), and intellectual influences different from and other than the Self. Therefore, personal authenticity is in how a man or a woman acts and changes in response to the influences of the external world upon the Self. Among artists, authenticity in art describes a work of art that is faithful to the values of the artist. In the field of psychology, authenticity identifies a person living life in accordance with their true Self, personal values, rather than according to the external demands of society, such as social conventions, kinship, and duty.


title: Authenticity (philosophy)

text: Intelligible descriptions of the abstract concepts that constitute "authenticity" usually indicate the descriptive limits of language; thus, to describe the "negative space" surrounding the condition of "being inauthentic", examples of inauthentic living illustrate the condition of "being" an authentic person. To that descriptive end, the novels of Jean-Paul Sartre are in language that makes "authenticity" conceptually intelligible through the stories of anti-heroic characters, men and women who base their actions upon external, psychological pressures — such as the social pressure to appear to be a certain kind of person; the pressure to adopt a given way of life; and the pressure to prostitute personal integrity (moral values and aesthetic standards) in exchange for the comfort (physical, mental, and moral) of social conformity. The novelist Sartre explains existential philosophy through the stories of men and women who do not understand their own reasoning for acting as they do, people who ignore crucial facts about their own lives, in order to avoid unpleasant facts about being an "inauthentic" person with an identity defined from outside the self.


title: Authenticity (philosophy)

text: Absolute freedom is the vertiginous experience necessary for being an authentic person, yet such freedom can be so unpleasant as to impel people to choose an inauthentic life. As an aspect of authenticity, absolute freedom determines a person’s "relation" with the real world, a relation not based upon or determined by a system of values or an ideology. In this manner, authenticity is connected with creativity, and the will to act must be born of the person. In that vein, Heidegger speaks of absolute freedom as "modes of living" determined by personal choice. As a philosopher, Sartre identified, described, and explained what is an inauthentic existence in order to not define what is an authentic mode of living.


title: Authenticity (philosophy)

text: Personal authenticity depends upon the person finding an authentic faith, and so be true to himself and to herself. That moral compromises inherent to the ideologies of bourgeois society and Christianity challenge the personal integrity of a person who seeks to live an authentic life, determined by the self. That a mass-culture society diminishes the significance of personal individuality, by way of social “levelling”, which is realised through news media that provide people with beliefs and opinions constructed by someone other than the self. A person can attain authentic faith by facing reality and choosing to live according to the facts of the material world, which is denied by passively accepting religious faith that excludes authentic thought from a person’s world-view. Kierkegaard’s philosophy of existentialism shows that personal authenticity is a personal choice based upon experience of the real world; thus, in "Practice in Christianity" (1850), Kierkegaard said:


title: Authenticity (philosophy)

text: Personal authenticity can be achieved without religion, which requires accepting pre-determined virtues (eternal valuations) as unquestionably true. In living authentically, a person elevates himself or herself above the mass culture in order to transcend the limits of conventional morality, thereby personally determining what is and what is not good and evil, without the pre-determined virtues of conformity “on account of which we hold our grandfathers in esteem”; an authentic life is achieved by avoiding the “herding animal morality.” To “stand alone [is to be] strong and original enough to initiate opposite estimates of value, to transvaluate and invert ‘eternal valuations’.” Common to the existential perspectives of Kierkegaard and Nietzsche are “the responsibilities they place on the individual to take active part in the shaping of one’s beliefs, and then to be willing to act on that belief.”


title: Authenticity (philosophy)

text: The call of personal authenticity — of being true to one’s self — conceals the chasms between the essential self and the existential self, which are psychologically divergent interpretations of the Self. Essentialist authenticity demands that a person find and follow a prescribed system of values in order to reach a pre-ordained destiny. Existentialist authenticity prescribes to the individual man and woman “determine your destiny!”, by being aware of the absolute freedom to choose. The essentialist person searches for signs of self-betrayal; the existentialist person asks: “How am I not myself?” and answers “Only when I act in bad faith”.


title: Authenticity (philosophy)

text: A very different definition of authenticity was proposed by Erich Fromm in the mid-1900s. He considered behavior of any kind, even that wholly in accord with societal mores, to be authentic if it results from personal understanding and approval of its drives and origins, rather than merely from conformity with the received wisdom of the society. Thus a Frommean authentic may behave consistently in a manner that accords with cultural norms, for the reason that those norms appear on consideration to be appropriate, rather than simply in the interest of conforming with current norms. Fromm thus considers authenticity to be a positive outcome of enlightened and informed motivation rather than a negative outcome of rejection of the expectations of others. He described the latter condition – the drive primarily to escape external restraints typified by the "absolute freedom" of Sartre – as "the illusion of individuality", as opposed to the genuine individuality that results from authentic living.


title: Authenticity (philosophy)

text: Artistic authenticity is required of the artist who would be a denizen of the subcultures of punk rock and heavy metal, which are societies that criticize and exclude musicians, composers, and bands for being "poseurs" — for being insufficiently authentic or plainly inauthentic as artists. A "poseur" is a man or a woman or a musical band who copies the dress, the style of speech, and the manners of the subculture, yet is excluded for not understanding the artistic philosophy, not understanding the sociology, and not understanding the value system of the subculture; talking the talk, without walking the walk.


title: Authenticity (philosophy)

text: The authenticity of an artist has three bases: (i) long-term dedication to the music scene; (ii) historical knowledge of the subculture; and (iii) the personal integrity (inner voice) for correct artistic choices. At the extreme metal end of the heavy-metal genre, the subgenre of black metal who value artistic authenticity, emotional sincerity, and extreme expression. In light of such systems of moral value in the arts, a working-class band with a formal recording contract might appear to be sell outs to the heavy metal and punk rock communities. The academic Deena Weinstein said that “The code of authenticity, which is central to the heavy metal subculture, is demonstrated in many ways”, such as clothing, an emotional singing voice, and thematic substance to the songs.


title: Authenticity (philosophy)

text: To identify, describe, and define "authenticity", existential philosophers, such as Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855), Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900), and Martin Heidegger (1889 –1976) investigated the existential and ontological significance of the social constructs that are the norms of society. For a journalist, aversion to and turning away from the unquestioning acceptance of social norms contributes to the production of intellectually authentic reportage, achieved by the reporter choosing to be true to his and her professional ethics and personal values. Yet in the praxis of journalism, the reporter’s authenticity (professional and personal) is continually contradicted by the business requirements of corporate publishing.


title: Authenticity (philosophy)

text: The philosopher Jacob Golomb argues that existential authenticity is a way of life incompatible with a system of moral values that comprehends all persons.


title: The Savages (film)

text: The Savages is a 2007 American black comedy-drama film written and directed by Tamara Jenkins. It stars Laura Linney, Philip Seymour Hoffman, and Philip Bosco.


title: The Savages (film)

text: It had its world premiere at the 2007 Sundance Film Festival on January 19, 2007. It was released on November 28, 2007, by Fox Searchlight Pictures. It received critical acclaim. At the 80th Academy Awards, it earned two nominations: Best Actress (for Linney) and Best Original Screenplay (for Jenkins). At the 65th Golden Globe Awards, it was nominated for Best Actor in a Musical or Comedy (for Seymour Hoffman).


title: The Savages (film)

text: After drifting apart emotionally over the years, two single siblings—Jon and Wendy, the younger of the two—band together to care for their estranged, elderly father, Lenny, who is rapidly slipping into dementia. Wendy and Jon first travel to Sun City, Arizona to attend the funeral of their father's girlfriend of 20 years. When they arrive, they are told that their father signed a non-marriage agreement and will not have rights to any of her property. They then move him to a nursing home in Buffalo, where Jon is a theater professor working on a book about Bertolt Brecht. Wendy, who is an aspiring, but unsuccessful, playwright, moves from New York City to help establish their father in Buffalo.


title: The Savages (film)

text: Neither of the siblings is close with Lenny. It is implied that he was a physically and emotionally abusive father when Jon and Wendy were growing up and they cut him out of their lives. They were also abandoned by their mother at a young age. Their dysfunctional family life appears to have left Wendy and Jon emotionally crippled and unable to sustain a relationship. Wendy is sleeping with an unattainable married man 13 years her senior and Jon cannot commit to a Polish woman who must return to Kraków after her visa expires.


title: The Savages (film)

text: Their visits to the nursing home and their father's eventual death allow them to reevaluate their lives and to grow emotionally. In the end, Wendy has broken up with her married lover, but has adopted his dog, which he had planned to put down. She is also seen working on the production of her play about their terrible childhood, while Jon is leaving for a conference in Poland where it is suggested he may reconnect with the woman he had let go. The film closes with Wendy running with her lover's dog alive, running with the aid of a wheeled hip cast, suggesting a mode of flawed yet persevering life for both siblings.


title: The Savages (film)

text: The film received very favorable reviews from critics. As of October 21, 2020, the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reported that 90% of critics gave the film positive reviews, based on 173 reviews, and an average rating of 7.5/10. The site's consensus states: "Thanks to a tender, funny script from director Tamara Jenkins, and fine performances from Philip Seymour Hoffman and Laura Linney, this film delivers a nuanced, beautifully three-dimensional look at the struggles and comforts of family bonds." Metacritic reported the film had an average score of 85 out of 100, based on 35 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim".


title: The Savages (film)

text: "Time" magazine's Richard Schickel named the film #7 of his Top 10 Movies of 2007, and praises both the cast and writer-director:


title: Ectotherm

text: An ectotherm (from the Greek () "outside" and () "heat") is an organism in which internal physiological sources of heat are of relatively small or of quite negligible importance in controlling body temperature. Such organisms (for example frogs) rely on environmental heat sources, which permit them to operate at very economical metabolic rates.


title: Ectotherm

text: Some of these animals live in environments where temperatures are practically constant, as is typical of regions of the abyssal ocean and hence can be regarded as homeothermic ectotherms. In contrast, in places where temperature varies so widely as to limit the physiological activities of other kinds of ectotherms, many species habitually seek out external sources of heat or shelter from heat; for example, many reptiles regulate their body temperature by basking in the sun, or seeking shade when necessary in addition to a whole host of other behavioral thermoregulation mechanisms. For home captivity of pet reptiles, owners can use a UVB/UVA light system to assist the animals' basking behaviour.


title: Ectotherm

text: In contrast to ectotherms, endotherms rely largely, even predominantly, on heat from internal metabolic processes, and mesotherms use an intermediate strategy.


title: Ectotherm

text: In ectotherms, fluctuating ambient temperatures may affect the body temperature. Such variation in body temperature is called poikilothermy, though the concept is not widely satisfactory and the use of the term is declining. In small aquatic creatures such as Rotifera, the poikilothermy is practically absolute, but other creatures (like crabs) have wider physiological options at their disposal, and they can move to preferred temperatures, avoid ambient temperature changes, or moderate their effects. Ectotherms can also display the features of homeothermy, especially within aquatic organisms. Normally their range of ambient environmental temperatures is relatively constant, and there are few in number that attempt to maintain a higher internal temperature due to the high associated costs.


title: Ectotherm

text: Various patterns of behavior enable certain ectotherms to regulate body temperature to a useful extent. To warm up, reptiles and many insects find sunny places and adopt positions that maximise their exposure; at harmfully high temperatures they seek shade or cooler water. In cold weather, honey bees huddle together to retain heat. Butterflies and moths may orient their wings to maximize exposure to solar radiation in order to build up heat before take-off. Gregarious caterpillars, such as the forest tent caterpillar and fall webworm, benefit from basking in large groups for thermoregulation. Many flying insects, such as honey bees and bumble bees, also raise their internal temperatures endothermally prior to flight, by vibrating their flight muscles without violent movement of the wings (see insect thermoregulation). Such endothermal activity is an example of the difficulty of consistent application of terms such as poikilothermy and homiothermy.


title: Ectotherm

text: In addition to behavioral adaptations, physiological adaptations help ectotherms regulate temperature. Diving reptiles conserve heat by heat exchange mechanisms, whereby cold blood from the skin picks up heat from blood moving outward from the body core, re-using and thereby conserving some of the heat that otherwise would have been wasted. The skin of bullfrogs secretes more mucus when it is hot, allowing more cooling by evaporation.


title: Ectotherm

text: During periods of cold, some ectotherms enter a state of torpor, in which their metabolism slows or, in some cases, such as the wood frog, effectively stops. The torpor might last overnight or last for a season, or even for years, depending on the species and circumstances.


title: Ectotherm

text: Ectotherms rely largely on external heat sources such as sunlight to achieve their optimal body temperature for various bodily activities. Accordingly, they depend on ambient conditions to reach operational body temperatures. In contrast, endothermic animals maintain nearly constant high operational body temperatures largely by reliance on internal heat produced by metabolically active organs (liver, kidney, heart, brain, muscle) or even by specialized heat producing organs like brown adipose tissue (BAT). Ectotherms typically have lower metabolic rates than endotherms at a given body mass. As a consequence, endotherms generally rely on higher food consumption, and commonly on food of higher energy content. Such requirements may limit the carrying capacity of a given environment for endotherms as compared to its carrying capacity for ectotherms.


title: Ectotherm

text: Because ectotherms depend on environmental conditions for body temperature regulation, as a rule, they are more sluggish at night and in early mornings. When they emerge from shelter, many diurnal ectotherms need to heat up in the early sunlight before they can begin their daily activities. In cool weather the foraging activity of such species is therefore restricted to the day time in most vertebrate ectotherms, and in cold climates most cannot survive at all. In lizards, for instance, most nocturnal species are geckos specialising in "sit and wait" foraging strategies (see ambush predator). Such strategies do not require as much energy as active foraging and do not require hunting activity of the same intensity. From another point of view, sit-and-wait predation may require very long periods of unproductive waiting. Endotherms cannot, in general, afford such long periods without food, but suitably adapted ectotherms can wait without expending much energy. Endothermic vertebrate species are therefore less dependent on the environmental conditions and have developed a higher variability (both within and between species) in their daily patterns of activity.


title: Kevin Mbabu

text: Melingo Kevin Mbabu (born 19 April 1995) is a Swiss professional footballer who plays as a defender for Premier League club Fulham and the Switzerland national team.


title: Kevin Mbabu

text: Born in Chêne-Bougeries, Switzerland, Mbabu started his career at Servette and progressed through the youth team.


title: Kevin Mbabu

text: At the start of the 2012–13 season, he was promoted to the first team and appeared in number of matches for the side. He made his professional debut as a 66th-minute substitute for Servette in a Swiss Super League match against Lausanne-Sport on 26 September 2012, which turned out to be his only appearance for the club.


title: Kevin Mbabu

text: After a successful trial at the age of 17, Mbabu signed a three-and-a-half-year contract with Newcastle United, moving for an undisclosed fee on 31 January 2013. Upon joining the club, he was immediately assigned to the development squad.


title: Kevin Mbabu

text: In the second half of the 2012–13 season, Mbabu made his home debut for the development squad on 1 April 2013, in a 2–1 win over Stoke City Development Squad. For the rest of the second half of the 2012–13 season, he quickly impressed for the side and made seven appearances for the development side. The 2013–14 season saw Mbabu appeared in the development squad despite suffering from injuries as the season progressed.


title: Kevin Mbabu

text: However, in the 2014–15 season, Mbabu was plagued by injuries and affected the first half of the season. On 2 February 2015, Mbabu signed for Scottish Championship club Rangers on loan until the end of the 2014–15 season but he did not play in any games or even make it onto the bench once.


title: Kevin Mbabu

text: At the start of the 2015–16 season, Mbabu recovered from injury and continued to feature in the development squad. With lack of first team opportunities at the club, he was expected to be loaned out. But he called up to the first team by Manager Steve McClaren following an injuries of defenders and made his Newcastle United debut against Sheffield Wednesday in the League Cup, coming on as a substitute for Daryl Janmaat on 23 September 2015. Three days later, on 26 September 2015, Mbabu made his full Newcastle debut against Chelsea starting at left-back and the game finished 2–2. His performance against Chelsea was praised by pundits. He then made another start in the league on 3 October 2015, in a 6–1 loss against Manchester City. However, he suffered a hamstring injury shortly after that kept him out throughout October. It wasn't until on 7 November 2015 when he returned as a late substitute, in a 1–0 win against Bournemouth. Two months later, on 9 January 2016, Mbabu returned to the first team in the third round of FA Cup against Watford, where he started and played 52 minutes before being substituted, in a 1–0 loss. Following this, he missed the rest of the season after suffering injuries on two occasions. However, Mbabu went on to make 5 appearances in all competitions, as Newcastle United were relegated from the Premier League after six seasons there. At the end of the 2015–16 season, Mbabu signed a two–year contract with the club. Two years after his departure, Mbabu reflected on his time at Newcastle United.


title: Kevin Mbabu

text: However, Mbabu's start of his Young Boys saw him appear on the substitute bench in the first two months there. It wasn't until on 2 October 2016 when he made his Young Boys debut, coming on as a late substitute, in a 2–2 draw against FC St. Gallen. Several weeks later, on 23 October 2016, Mbabu made his first start and played the whole game, in a 4–0 win over Grasshopper. Three days later, on 26 October 2016, Mbabu scored his first goal for the club in the last 16 of Swiss Cup, in a 5–0 win over Grasshoppers. After missing one match in late–October, he was sent–off in a follow–up match on 3 November 2016, in a 1–0 loss against APOEL in the Group Stage of the UEFA Europa League. Mbabu then scored his first league goal for the club a month later on 3 December 2016, in a 3–1 win over FC Basel. Following this, Mbabu continued to establish himself in the starting eleven, playing in the right–back position for the number of matches. Despite being suspended on three occasions later in the season, Mbabu went on to make 24 appearances and scoring 2 times in all competitions. At the end of the 2016–17 season, Mbabu signed a permanent contract with the club. It was reported that he signed a three–year contract with the club, as Newcastle United agreed to sell him.


title: Kevin Mbabu

text: In the 2017–18 season, Mbabu started the season well when he started the match and helped the side beat regaining Champions side FC Basel 2–0 in the opening game of the season. He then helped the side keep three more clean sheets in the next two matches against Grasshoppers, Dynamo Kyiv and Lausanne-Sport. He continued to establish himself in the starting eleven for the side, playing in the right–back position. His performance became recognised that there were calls for him to be called up by the national team squad. He then scored his first goal of the season on 1 October 2017, as well as, setting up one of the goals, in a 6–1 win over FC St. Gallen. Between the three matches on 29 October 2017 and 19 November 2017, Mbabu set up three goals in three separate matches against FC Sion, Basel and FC Zürich. After missing one game through suspension, Mbabu scored on his return on 10 December 2017, in a 1–1 draw against Grasshoppers. By the conclusion of the first half of the season, the club became a title contender, having been at the top of the table. At the SFL Award Night 2017, Mbabu were among several players to be named Team of the Year. From 17 December 2017 and 17 March 2018, he was involved in the team that saw the side go eight matches winning streak in the league. During the streak, Mbabu was later chosen Player of the Month for this display. Despite suffering two injuries later in the season, Mbabu, nevertheless, was part of the Young Boys squad that won the 2017–18 Swiss Super League, their first league title for 32 years.


title: Kevin Mbabu

text: On 25 April 2019, Mbabu signed a four-year contract with VfL Wolfsburg, with the player joining the club in July ahead of the 2019–20 season. Mbabu opted to wear the No.19 shirt for Wolfsburg in honour of Junior Malanda who died following a car accident in northern Germany on 10 January 2015.


title: Kevin Mbabu

text: On , during the coronavirus pandemic, it was reported that a COVID-19 test Mbabu had taken on had returned positive. Mbabu was placed in quarantine at home, and would likely miss a scheduled game on in Kyiv that had been postponed due to the pandemic. As a precaution, testing was carried out on the athletes before they resumed training, and all other tests carried out on and had returned negative.


title: Kevin Mbabu

text: On 27 July 2022, Mbabu joined newly promoted Premier League club Fulham for an reported fee of €5.5 million with and additional €2 million in add-ons, on a three-year deal, with the option to extend for a further twelve months. "Kevin is a player whom we’ve pursued for several years. He brings great physical tools to our Club in addition to his vast experience," said club owner Tony Khan.


title: Kevin Mbabu

text: Due to his mixed descent, Mbabu was eligible to play for Switzerland, DR Congo and France. He was a youth international for Switzerland, from the under–16 to under–21 side.


title: Kevin Mbabu

text: In May 2018, Mbabu was named in the Switzerland's preliminary squad for the 2018 FIFA World Cup in Russia. However, he was cut from the squad after Switzerland's preliminary squad was cut to 26. He made his debut on 8 September 2018, in the starting lineup against the 2018–19 UEFA Nations League match against Iceland.


title: Kevin Mbabu

text: Born in Chêne-Bougeries, Switzerland, to a Congolese mother and a French father, Mbabu has two sisters (one of which is his step–sister) and one brother. However, Mbabu revealed that he never met his biological father and when his mother was remarried, his Austrian step–father raised him and played a role of introducing him to football. As he was introduced to football, he played in the forward position before switching to the defender position.


title: Kevin Mbabu

text: Alongside his native French, Mbabu reportedly speaks English and German (though he acknowledged the difficulty of the language).


title: Tabitha Soren

text: Tabitha Soren (born August 19, 1967) is an American fine art photographer and former reporter for MTV News, ABC News and NBC News.


title: Tabitha Soren

text: As a 19-year-old college student at NYU, Soren appeared in the 1987 music video for "(You Gotta) Fight for Your Right (to Party)" by the Beastie Boys. At the age of 23, she was the face of MTV's "Choose or Lose" campaign, which focused on encouraging young adults to vote. The campaign received a Peabody Award in May, 1992. She interviewed Hillary Clinton, Anita Hill and Yasser Arafat, among others. She had cameo roles in the films "The Cable Guy" and "Contact" as herself. Clips of her interviews with Tupac Shakur were included in the 2003 documentary film "".


title: Tabitha Soren

text: After working in television news, Soren spent a year studying art and photography at Stanford University.


title: Tabitha Soren

text: Soren's projects have been published in "The New York Times Magazine", "Canteen", "Vanity Fair", "McSweeney's", "Sports Illustrated", and "New York", among others. Public collections include the Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Oakland Museum of California, the New Orleans Museum of Art, [ier 24 Photography, Transformer Station in Ohio, and the Ogden Museum of Southern Art in Louisiana.


title: Tabitha Soren

text: In 2012, her show "Running" appeared at the Indianapolis Museum of Contemporary Art. A three-year-long project shot in 15 states, as well as in Mexico and Canada, "Running" featured dramatically lit, isolated individuals running in everyday settings.


title: Tabitha Soren

text: In 2015, Soren's exhibition "Fantasy Life" debuted at the Kopeikin Gallery in Los Angeles and traveled to the San Francisco Bay Area. The exhibition showcased images of 21 baseball players selected for the Oakland A's 2002 draft class, whom Soren followed for thirteen years until they were out of baseball. Later that same year, Soren exhibited "Panic Beach", a photographic series of rugged, powerful waves along coastlines all over the world.


title: Tabitha Soren

text: In 2017, the Aperture Foundation published a selection of Soren's "Fantasy Life" photographs, with text by Dave Eggers. The book was released just prior to a major exhibition at San Francisco City Hall also titled "Fantasy Life", which displayed over 180 of Soren's images. Also in summer of 2017, EUQINOMprojects in San Francisco exhibited work from the "Surface Tension" series, in which all images were photographed using 8 x 10 sheets of film. The gallery also showcases photographs from her project, "As Far As You Know".


title: Tabitha Soren

text: On May 25, 2021, Soren’s daughter Dixie was involved in a head-on collision with a semi truck near Truckee, California. Dixie was pronounced dead at the scene.


title: Robert Elswit

text: Robert Christopher Elswit, (born April 22, 1950) is an American cinematographer. He has collaborated with Paul Thomas Anderson on six of his films and won the Academy Award for Best Cinematography for "There Will Be Blood". Elswit has also collaborated with directors and screenwriters Tony and Dan Gilroy on all of the six films that either brother directed.


title: Robert Elswit

text: Elswit was born in Los Angeles. An early short film he worked on was the 1982 television adaptation for Ray Bradbury's short story "All Summer in a Day". Elswit worked as a visual effects camera operator at John Dykstra's Apogee Productions Inc. on each films, including "", "The Empire Strikes Back" and "E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial", before shooting made-for-television films and shows. Elswit has been a fierce defender of shooting on film, and whenever possible avoids using digital cameras. Images shot digitally, he said, have "no texture, no grain." He started shooting digitally, starting with "Nightcrawler". Elswit has worked with George Clooney several times. He shot his black and white, multiple-Oscar nominated film "Good Night, and Good Luck". Elswit shot the film in color, and converted the film into black and white in post production. According to Elswit, the technique preserved the subtlety of the colors (as complex shades of blacks and greys) and made the overall look much richer in the final film. Elswit was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Cinematography for "Good Night, and Good Luck", but lost to Dion Beebe for "Memoirs of a Geisha". Elswit won the award for "There Will Be Blood" in 2008. Elswit has cited early independent filmmaker John Cassavetes as a major influence. Elswit is a graduate of the University of Southern California School of Cinematic Arts and worked there as a teaching assistant. Elswit is godfather to the actor Jake Gyllenhaal.


title: Mother of vinegar

text: Mother of vinegar is a biofilm composed of a form of cellulose, yeast and bacteria that sometimes develops on fermenting alcoholic liquids during the process that turns alcohol into acetic acid with the help of oxygen from the air and acetic acid bacteria. It is similar to the SCOBY mostly known from production of komboucha, but develops to a much lesser extent due to lesser availability of yeast (which is often no longer present in wine/cider at this stage) and a different population of bacteria. Mother of vinegar is often added to wine, cider, or other alcoholic liquids to produce vinegar at home, although only the bacteria is required, but historically has also been used in large scale production.


title: Mother of vinegar

text: Mother of vinegar is also known as Mycoderma aceti, a New Latin expression, from the Greek μύκης ("fungus") plus δέρμα ("skin"), and the Latin "aceti" ("of the acid").


title: Mother of vinegar

text: Mother of vinegar can also form in store-bought vinegar if there is some residual sugar, leftover yeast and bacteria and/or alcohol contained in the vinegar. This is more common in unpasteurized vinegar, since the pasteurization might not stabilize the process completely. While not necessarily appetizing in appearance, mother of vinegar is completely harmless and the surrounding vinegar does not have to be discarded because of it. It can be filtered out using a coffee filter, used to start a bottle of vinegar, or simply ignored.


title: Reef

text: A reef is a ridge or shoal of rock, coral or similar relatively stable material, lying beneath the surface of a natural body of water. Many reefs result from natural, abiotic processes—deposition of sand, wave erosion planing down rock outcrops, etc.—but there are also reefs such as the coral reefs of tropical waters formed by biotic processes dominated by corals and coralline algae, and artificial reefs such as shipwrecks and other anthropogenic underwater structures may occur intentionally or as the result of an accident, and sometimes have a designed role in enhancing the physical complexity of featureless sand bottoms, to attract a more diverse assemblage of organisms. Reefs are often quite near to the surface, but not all definitions require this.


title: Reef

text: There is a variety of biotic reef types, including oyster reefs and sponge reefs, but the most massive and widely distributed are tropical coral reefs. Although corals are major contributors to the framework and bulk material comprising a coral reef; the organisms most responsible for reef growth against the constant assault from ocean waves are calcareous algae, especially, although not entirely, coralline algae.


title: Reef

text: The preferred substrate for oyster larvae is the shells of oysters so they tend to settle on adult oysters and thereby develop layers building upwards, eventually forming a fairly massive hard stony calcium carbonate structure on which other reef organisms like sponges and seaweeds can grow, and provide a habitat for mobile benthic organisms.


title: Reef

text: These biotic reef types take on additional names depending upon how the reef lies in relation to the land, if any. Reef types include fringing reefs, barrier reefs, and atolls. A fringing reef is a reef that is attached to an island. A barrier reef forms a calcareous barrier around an island, resulting in a lagoon between the shore and the reef. An atoll is a ring reef with no land present. The reef front (ocean side) is a high energy locale, whereas the internal lagoon will be at a lower energy with fine grained sediments.


title: Reef

text: One definition distinguishes reefs from mounds as follows: both are considered to be varieties of organosedimentary buildups – sedimentary features, built by the interaction of organisms and their environment, that have synoptic relief and whose biotic composition differs from that found on and beneath the surrounding sea floor. Reefs are held up by a macroscopic skeletal framework. Coral reefs are an example of this kind. Corals and calcareous algae grow on top of one another and form a three-dimensional framework that is modified in various ways by other organisms and inorganic processes. By contrast, mounds lack a macroscopic skeletal framework. Mounds are built by microorganisms or by organisms that don't grow a skeletal framework. A microbial mound might be built exclusively or primarily by cyanobacteria. Examples of biostromes formed by cyanobacteria occur in the Great Salt Lake in Utah, United States, and in Shark Bay on the coast of Western Australia.


title: Reef

text: Cyanobacteria do not have skeletons, and individuals are microscopic. Cyanobacteria can encourage the precipitation or accumulation of calcium carbonate to produce distinct sediment bodies in composition that have relief on the seafloor. Cyanobacterial mounds were most abundant before the evolution of shelly macroscopic organisms, but they still exist today; stromatolites are microbial mounds with a laminated internal structure. Bryozoans and crinoids, common contributors to marine sediments during the Mississippian, for instance, produced a very different kind of mound. Bryozoans are small and the skeletons of crinoids disintegrate. However, bryozoan and crinoid meadows can persist over time and produce compositionally distinct bodies of sediment with depositional relief.


title: Reef

text: The Proterozoic Belt Supergroup contains evidence of possible microbial mat and dome structures similar to stromatolite and chicken reef complexes.


title: Reef

text: Rocky reefs are underwater outcrops of rock projecting above the adjacent unconsolidated surface with varying relief. They can be found in depth ranges from intertidal to deep water, and provide a substrate for a large range of sessile benthic organisms, and shelter for a large range of mobile organisms.


title: Reef

text: Ancient reefs buried within stratigraphic sections are of considerable interest to geologists because they provide paleo-environmental information about the location in Earth's history. In addition, reef structures within a sequence of sedimentary rocks provide a discontinuity which may serve as a trap or conduit for fossil fuels or mineralizing fluids to form petroleum or ore deposits.


title: Reef

text: Corals, including some major extinct groups Rugosa and Tabulata, have been important reef builders through much of the Phanerozoic since the Ordovician Period. However, other organism groups, such as calcifying algae, especially members of the red algae (Rhodophyta), and molluscs (especially the rudist bivalves during the Cretaceous Period) have created massive structures at various times. During the Cambrian Period, the conical or tubular skeletons of Archaeocyatha, an extinct group of uncertain affinities (possibly sponges), built reefs. Other groups, such as the Bryozoa, have been important interstitial organisms, living between the framework builders. The corals which build reefs today, the Scleractinia, arose after the Permian–Triassic extinction event that wiped out the earlier rugose corals (as well as many other groups), and became increasingly important reef builders throughout the Mesozoic Era. They may have arisen from a rugose coral ancestor. Rugose corals built their skeletons of calcite and have a different symmetry from that of the scleractinian corals, whose skeletons are aragonite. However, there are some unusual examples of well-preserved aragonitic rugose corals in the Late Permian. In addition, calcite has been reported in the initial post-larval calcification in a few scleractinian corals. Nevertheless, scleractinian corals (which arose in the middle Triassic) may have arisen from a non-calcifying ancestor independent of the rugosan corals (which disappeared in the late Permian).


title: Reef

text: An artificial reef is a human-created underwater structure, typically built to promote marine life in areas with a generally featureless bottom, to control erosion, block ship passage, block the use of trawling nets, or improve surfing.


title: Reef

text: Many reefs are built using objects that were built for other purposes, for example by sinking oil rigs (through the Rigs-to-Reefs program), scuttling ships, or by deploying rubble or construction debris. Other artificial reefs are purpose built (e.g. the reef balls) from PVC or concrete. Shipwrecks become artificial reefs on the seafloor. Regardless of construction method, artificial reefs generally provide stable hard surfaces where algae and invertebrates such as barnacles, corals, and oysters attach; the accumulation of attached marine life in turn provides intricate structure and food for assemblages of fish.


title: Women Airforce Service Pilots

text: The Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASP) (also Women's Army Service Pilots or Women's Auxiliary Service Pilots) was a civilian women pilots' organization, whose members were United States federal civil service employees. Members of WASP became trained pilots who tested aircraft, ferried aircraft, and trained other pilots. Their purpose was to free male pilots for combat roles during World War II. Despite various members of the armed forces being involved in the creation of the program, the WASP and its members had no military standing.


title: Women Airforce Service Pilots

text: WASP was preceded by the Women's Flying Training Detachment (WFTD) and the Women's Auxiliary Ferrying Squadron (WAFS). Both were organized separately in September 1942. They were pioneering organizations of civilian women pilots, who were attached to the United States Army Air Forces to fly military aircraft during World War II. On August 5, 1943, the WFTD and WAFS merged to create the WASP organization.


title: Women Airforce Service Pilots

text: The WASP arrangement with the US Army Air Forces ended on December 20, 1944. During its period of operation, each member's service had freed a male pilot for military combat or other duties. They flew over 60 million miles; transported every type of military aircraft; towed targets for live anti-aircraft gun practice; simulated strafing missions and transported cargo. Thirty-eight WASP members lost their lives and one, Gertrude Tompkins, disappeared while on a ferry mission, her fate still unknown. In 1977, for their World War II service, the members were granted veteran status, and in 2009 awarded the Congressional Gold Medal.


title: Women Airforce Service Pilots

text: WASP started out as two separate organizations. Pilot Jacqueline "Jackie" Cochran wrote to the First Lady, Eleanor Roosevelt, in 1939 to suggest the idea of using women pilots in non-combat missions. Cochran was introduced by Roosevelt to General Henry H. Arnold, chief of the Army Air Force, and to General Robert Olds, who became the head of the Air Transport Command (ATC). Arnold asked her to ferry a bomber to Great Britain in order to generate publicity for the idea of women piloting military aircraft. Cochran did go to England, where she volunteered for the Air Transport Auxiliary (ATA) and recruited American women pilots to help fly planes in Europe. Twenty-five women volunteered for the ATA with Cochran. The American women who flew in the ATA were the first American women to fly military aircraft. While in England, Cochran studied the organization of both the ATA and the Royal Air Force (RAF).


title: Women Airforce Service Pilots

text: In the summer of 1941, Cochran and test-pilot Nancy Harkness Love independently submitted proposals to the U.S. Army Air Forces to allow women pilots in non-combat missions after the outbreak of World War II in Europe. The plan was to free male pilots for combat roles by using qualified female pilots to ferry aircraft from the factories to military bases, and also to tow drones and aerial targets. The U.S. was building its air power and military presence in anticipation of direct involvement in the conflict, and had belatedly begun to drastically expand its men in uniform. This period led to the dramatic increase in activity for the U.S. Army Air Forces, because of obvious gaps in "manpower" that could be filled by women. To compensate for the manpower demands of the military after the attack on Pearl Harbor, the government encouraged women to enter the workforce to fill both industrial and service jobs supporting the war effort.


title: Women Airforce Service Pilots

text: Nancy Harkness Love's husband, Robert Love, was part of the Army Air Corps Reserve and worked for Colonel William H. Tunner. When Robert Love mentioned that his wife was a pilot, Tunner became interested in whether she knew other women who were pilots. Tunner and Nancy Love met and began to plan an aviation ferrying program involving women pilots. More formally, on June 11, 1942, Colonel Tunner suggested putting women pilots into the Women's Army Auxiliary Corps (WAAC). However, there were technical problems with this suggestion, so it was decided to pursue hiring civilian pilots for the ATC instead. By June 18, Love had drafted a plan to send to General Harold L. George who sent the proposal onto General Henry H. Arnold. Eleanor Roosevelt wrote about women working as pilots during the war in her September 1 "My Day" newspaper column, supporting the idea. General George again broached the idea with General Arnold, who finally, on September 5, directed that "immediate action be taken and the recruiting of women pilots begin within twenty-four hours." Nancy Harkness Love was to be the director of the group and she sent out 83 telegrams to prospective women pilots that same day.


title: Women Airforce Service Pilots

text: The Women's Auxiliary Ferrying Squadron (WAFS) went into operation publicly on September 10, 1942. Soon, the Air Transport Command began using women to ferry planes from factory to airfields. Love started with 28 women pilots, but they grew in number during the war until there were several squadrons. Requirements for recruits were that they had to be between ages 21 and 35, have a high school diploma, a commercial flying license, 200 horsepower engine rating, 500 hours of flight time and experience in flying across the country.


title: Women Airforce Service Pilots

text: Uniforms for the WAFS were designed by Love and consisted of a gray gabardine jacket with brass buttons and square shoulders. The uniform could be worn with gored skirts or slacks also made of gabardine. Because they had to pay for their own uniforms, only 40 women ever wore the WAFS uniform. All WAFS were issued a flight uniform of khaki flight coveralls, a parachute, goggles, a flying scarf and leather flying jacket sporting the ATC patch.


title: Women Airforce Service Pilots

text: Headquarters for WAFS was established at the new (May 1943) New Castle Army Air Base (the former Wilmington Airport). Tunner ensured that there were quarters for the women to live in at the base.


title: Women Airforce Service Pilots

text: WAFS worked under a 90 day, renewable contract. WAFS earned $250 a month and had to provide and pay for their own room and board.


title: Women Airforce Service Pilots

text: The first group of WAFS recruits were known as the Originals. Betty Gillies was the first woman to show up for training. On October 6, Gillies was made an executive officer and second-in-command of the WAFS. Gillies was familiar with drill and command techniques which she had learned at finishing school. The first WAFS assignment was run by Gillies on October 22, 1942. Six WAFS would ferry six L-4B Cubs from the factory to Mitchel Field. The original squadron of 28 was reduced to 27 when Pat Rhonie left on December 31 after disagreeing with Colonel Baker.


title: Women Airforce Service Pilots

text: The WAFS each had an average of about 1,400 flying hours and a commercial pilot rating. They received 30 days of orientation to learn Army paperwork and to fly by military regulations. Afterward, they were assigned to various ferrying commands. At the beginning of 1943, three new squadrons were formed. The 4th Ferrying Group was in Romulus and commanded by Del Scharr. The 5th Ferrying Group was stationed at Love Field and was under the command of Florene Miller. The 6th Ferrying Group was stationed at Long Beach and commanded by Barbara Jane Erickson.


title: Women Airforce Service Pilots

text: Cochran returned from England and arrived in the US the day before the announcement of the WAFS. Cochran was angry that Love's proposal had been accepted, while her own had seemingly been ignored. The next day, Cochran flew to Washington, D.C. and confronted General Arnold about her earlier proposal. The WAFS had been formed while General Arnold was out on prolonged medical leave. On September 13, Arnold sent a memo to General George E. Stratemeyer that designated Cochran as the director of "Women's Flying Training." On September 15, 1942, Cochran's training proposal was also adopted, forming the 319th Women's Flying Training Detachment (WFTD). WFTD would be working with the Flight Training Command (FTC). WFTD was conceived of a program to train more women to ferry aircraft. On October 7, General Arnold proposed the goal of training 500 women pilots. By November 3, General Arnold was proposing a "maximum effort to train women pilots."


title: Women Airforce Service Pilots

text: The Aviation Enterprises at Howard R. Hughes Field became the base of the WFTD. The first trainees recruited for WFTD, class 43-1, started on November 16, 1942. Cochran made Dedie Deaton her staff executive and in charge of finding housing for class 43-1- also known as the "Guinea Pigs". Women trained on old planes, many of which bore "visible and invisible scars".


title: Women Airforce Service Pilots

text: WFTD pilots were issued large khaki coveralls (which the trainees called "zoot suits"), were ordered to wear any shoes they had, and a hairnet on the flight line. The WFTD women were housed in various locations and had to find their own transportation to training. The first deaths occurred when Margaret Oldenburg and her instructor were practicing spins on March 7, 1943. Oldenburg had put her plane, a PT-19 open cockpit, into a spin that she could not recover from and the crash killed her and her instructor. Because the WFTD were civilians, there was no money to cover the funeral costs. Cochran paid for the expense out of her own pocket and Deaton escorted Oldenburg's body home. Another crash took place on March 21, 1943, when Cornelia Fort, a former flight instructor who had been the first to encounter Japanese aircraft at Pearl Harbor, was ferrying a BT-13 with a group of male pilots. One of the pilots, while showing off, flew too close to Fort's plane and his landing gear collided with the wing of her plane, breaking part of it off. The plane went into a nose-dive, killing her.


title: Women Airforce Service Pilots

text: Cochran pushed aggressively for a single entity to control the activity of all women pilots. Tunner, in particular, objected on the basis of differing qualification standards, and the absolute necessity of the ATC being able to control its own pilots. But Cochran's preeminence with Arnold prevailed, and in July 1943 he ordered the programs merged, with Cochran as director. The WAFS and the WFTD were combined to form the Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASP). Love continued with the program as executive in charge of WASP ferrying operations. The formal announcement combining WAFS and WFTD took place on August 20, 1943.


title: Women Airforce Service Pilots

text: WASP adopted a patch in 1943 that featured the female gremlin Fifinella. Fifinella was conceived by Roald Dahl and drawn by Walt Disney, and became the official WASP mascot.


title: Women Airforce Service Pilots

text: WASP adopted many of WAFS requirements, but added one other. Recruits still had to be between 21 and 35 years old, in good health, in possession of a pilot's license and 35 hours of flight time. Additionally, women were also required to be at least five feet and two inches tall. Over 25,000 women made application to join the WASP; 1,830 were accepted but only 1,074 completed the training. The applicants all had prior experience and airman certificates. Several WASPs had been trained previously in the Civilian Pilot Training Program (CPTP). Many of the women came from wealthy backgrounds that had afforded pilot training earlier in life, or had husbands who helped pay for their expensive training. All WASP recruits were interested in serving their country.


title: Women Airforce Service Pilots

text: Although the majority of WASPs pilots were white, they were not exclusively so. Two Chinese Americans, Hazel Ying Lee and Maggie Gee, two women of Hispanic descent, Verneda Rodriguez and Frances Dias, and one known Native American woman, Ola Mildred Rexroat completed the training. Rexroat was a member of the Oglala Sioux tribe from the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation in South Dakota. While the total number of black women applicants for WASP training is unknown, several African American pilots made it to the final interview stage, where they were all rejected. Mildred Hemmans Carter, another African American applicant, was asked to withdraw her application because of her race. In 1940, at age 19, Carter had earned a Bachelor of Arts degree from the Tuskegee Institute. The following year, she received her aviation certification. However, because of her sex, Carter was also rejected from flying with the Tuskegee Airmen. Seventy years later, she was recognized retroactively as a WASP, and Carter took her final flight at age 90. Another African American applicant, Janet Harmon Bragg, was told by Cochran in her interview that "it was difficult enough fighting prejudice aimed at females without additionally battling race discrimination."


title: Women Airforce Service Pilots

text: The WASP training spanned 18 groups of women. The first group was the Originals, who were the first group of the Women's Auxiliary Ferrying Squadron (WAFS), led by Nancy Love.


title: Women Airforce Service Pilots

text: The second group was The Guinea Pigs which were Jacqueline Cochran's first class of women pilots for the Women's Flying Training Detachment (WFTD). The Guinea Pigs started training at the Houston Municipal Airport (now William P. Hobby Airport) on November 16, 1942, as part of the 319th Army Air Force Women's Flying Training Detachment (AAFWFTD). This was just after the WAFS had started their orientation in Wilmington, Delaware. Unlike the WAFS, the women that reported to Houston did not have uniforms and had to find their own lodging. The "Woofteddies" (WFTD) also had minimal medical care, no life insurance, crash truck, or fire truck, and the ambulance was loaned from the Ellington Army Airfield, along with insufficient administrative staff, and a hodgepodge of aircraft—23 types—for training. As late as January 1943, when the third class was about to start their training, the three classes were described by Byrd Granger in "On Final Approach", as "a raggle-taggle crowd in a rainbow of rumpled clothing", while they gathered for morning and evening colors. There was also a lack of equipment, such as a Link trainer, that was necessary for training.


title: Women Airforce Service Pilots

text: The first Houston class started with 38 women with a minimum of 200 hours. Twenty-three graduated on April 24, 1943, at the only Houston WASP graduation at Ellington Army Air Field. The second Houston class, started in December 1942 with a minimum of 100 hours, but finished their training just in time to move to Sweetwater, Texas and become the first graduating class from Avenger Field on May 28, 1943. The third class completed their advanced training at Avenger Field and graduated July 3, 1943. Half of the fourth class of 76 women started their primary training in Houston on February 15, 1943, and then transferred to Sweetwater. Later in the summer of 1943, both the WAFS and WFTD were combined into the WASP. The first group to train as WASP started in Sweetwater in September 1943 and were designated as Class 44-W-2.


title: Women Airforce Service Pilots

text: Each WASP had a pilot's license, but was retrained to fly the Army way by the U.S. Army Air Forces at Avenger Field in Sweetwater, Texas. More than 25,000 women applied for the WASP, but only 1,830 were accepted into the program. During the course of their training, it was reported that 552 women were released for lack of flying proficiency, 152 resigned, 27 were discharged for medical reasons, and 14 were dismissed for disciplinary reasons. After completing four months of military flight training, 1,074 of them earned their wings and became the first women to fly American military aircraft. While the WASP were not trained for combat, their course of instruction was essentially the same as male aviation cadets. They received no gunnery training and very little formation and aerobatic flying, but went through the maneuvers necessary to be able to recover from any position. The percentage of those eliminated compared favorably with the elimination rate for male cadets' in the Central Flying Training Command.


title: Women Airforce Service Pilots

text: WASP recruits were required to complete the same primary, basic, and advanced training courses as male Army Air Corps pilots and many of them went on to specialized flight training. They spent around 12 hours a day at the airfield with half the day spent practicing actual flight and the other half studying. By graduation, WASP recruits had 560 hours of ground school and 210 hours of flight training. They knew Morse code, meteorology, military law, physics, aircraft mechanics, navigation and other subjects.


title: Women Airforce Service Pilots

text: After their training, the WASP were stationed at 122 air bases across the U.S., where they assumed numerous flight-related missions, and relieved male pilots for combat duty. Ferrying planes from factory to airbases made up the first duties of the WASP. During World War II, women pilots flew 80 percent of all ferrying missions. They delivered over 12,000 aircraft. WASP freed around 900 male pilots for combat duty during World War II.


title: Women Airforce Service Pilots

text: The original WAFS were organized specifically to ferry airplanes and free male pilots for combat roles. When a ferrying mission came in, the WASP would go to the factory, fly the plane in a test flight and then deliver the plane. Between September 1942 and December 1944, the WASP delivered 12,652 aircraft of 78 different types. In order to set an example, Nancy Love who was in charge of training, made sure she was trained and qualified on as many different types of planes as was possible.


title: Women Airforce Service Pilots

text: They also towed targets for live anti-aircraft artillery practice, simulated strafing missions, and transported cargo. The live-target practice was announced by Jackie Cochran on July 19, 1943, to 25 recent WASP graduates at Avenger Field. Cochran told the group that she had a "top secret assignment" and that any WASP could opt out if they wished: none did. This group would be sent to Camp Davis to tow flying shooting targets for men on the ground to practice shooting airborne targets. Many of the planes were shot during this training and several WASP were shot in the feet. Sometimes the planes were shot on purpose, when service men mistakenly believed they were supposed to shoot the plane, not the target the WASP was towing. One of the planes used during target towing, an A-24 that, like many had not been adequately maintained by the Army Air Corps (AAC), killed WASP Mabel Virginia Rawlinson. Rawlinson was practicing night flying with a trainer when her A-24 began to experience technical issues. The instructor asked her to return to the airfield, but on the final approach, Rawlinson's plane connected with the top of a pine tree and the plane nosed down and crashed. The instructor was thrown free, but Rawlinson was stuck in the front seat as the plane went up in flames, unable to open the plane's broken canopy lock. The investigation into the crash and her death found that the towing planes were not maintained properly and the AAC was using the wrong octane fuel for the planes.


title: Women Airforce Service Pilots

text: The women flew almost every type of aircraft flown by the USAAF during World War II. In addition, a few exceptionally qualified women were allowed to test rocket-propelled planes, to pilot jet-propelled planes, and to work with radar-controlled targets. When men were less willing to fly certain difficult planes, such as the YP-59 and B-29 Super Fortress, General Arnold recruited two WASPs to fly these aircraft. Arnold believed that if men saw women fly these planes successfully, they would be "embarrassed" into taking these missions willingly. Two WASPs, Dorthea Johnson and Dora Dougherty Strother, were chosen to fly the B-29. They flew to Alamogordo in the B-29s where there was a crowd waiting to see them land. General Arnold's plan worked, "From that day on, there was no more grumbling from male pilots assigned to train on and fly the B-29 Super Fortress." Women would also test-fly the planes that had been repaired.


title: Women Airforce Service Pilots

text: Thirty-eight members lost their lives in accidents: eleven during training, and twenty-seven on missions. Because they were not considered part of the military by the guidelines, a fallen WASP was sent home at family expense. Traditional military honors or note of heroism, such as allowing the U.S. flag to be placed on the coffin or displaying a service flag in a window, were not allowed.


title: Women Airforce Service Pilots

text: The WASP members were U.S. federal civil service employees, and did not qualify for military benefits. Each member paid for her own transportation costs to training sites, for her dress uniforms and room and board. Although attached to the U.S. Army Air Forces, the members could resign at any time after completion of their training. On September 30, 1943, the first of the WASP militarization bills was introduced in the United States House of Representatives by Representative John Costello. Both Cochran and Arnold desired a separate corps headed by a woman colonel (similar to the WAC, WAVES, SPARS, and the Marine Corps Women's Reserve heads). The War Department, however, consistently opposed the move, because there was no separate corps for male pilots as distinguished from unrated AAF officers. In January 1944, Costello introduced a bill, HR 4219, to authorize women's commissions in the Army Air Forces. General Arnold felt that there was room for women and men to work as pilots in the Army Air Forces. He testified in front of the House military committee that the WASP were all "good fliers and that he plans to send all the male pilots to fight."


title: Women Airforce Service Pilots

text: However, some in the media disagreed with General Arnold and began to write opinion pieces in some of the most important media of the day. "TIME", The "New York Daily News" and the "Washington Post" all urged women to step down and give the jobs back to men. A journalist, Drew Pearson, questioned the legality of funding the WASP program, and even accused General Arnold of being manipulated by Jackie Cochran's "feminine wiles" in a "Washington Times Herald" column. The column caused male civilian pilots to increase their efforts to write letters against the program.


title: Women Airforce Service Pilots

text: On June 21, 1944, the U.S. House bill to provide the WASP with military status, HR 4219, was narrowly defeated 188 against to 169 for. The civilian male pilots lobbied against the bill: reacting to closure of some civilian flight training schools, and the termination of two male pilot training commissioning programs. The House Committee on the Civil Service (Ramspeck Committee) reported on June 5, 1944, that it considered the WASP unnecessary, unjustifiably expensive, and recommended that the recruiting and training of inexperienced women pilots be halted. The committee had found that the program had cost $50 million in government funds. Because of the cost, the program needed to request funding through legislation.


title: Women Airforce Service Pilots

text: Cochran had been pushing for a resolution of the question: in effect, delivering an ultimatum to either commission the women or disband the program. The AAF had developed an excess of pilots and pilot candidates. As a result, Arnold (who had been a proponent of militarization) ordered that the WASP be disbanded by December 20, 1944. Arnold is quoted from a speech he delivered at Avenger Field in Sweetwater, Texas on December 7, 1944:


title: Women Airforce Service Pilots

text: On December 7, 1944, the final class of WASP pilots, 71 women in total, graduated from their training regardless of the plan to disband the WASP program within the following two weeks. Following the announcement approximately 20 WASP members offered to continue ferrying aircraft for the compensation of a year apiece but this offer was rejected. Before the WASP were disbanded, General Arnold ordered all commanding officers at bases where WASPs served, that the "women pilots be issued a certificate similar to an honorable discharge."


title: Women Airforce Service Pilots

text: Following the group's disbandment some WASP members were allowed to fly on board government aircraft from their former bases to the vicinity of their homes as long as room was available and no additional expenses were incurred. Others had to arrange and pay for their own transportation home. At the conclusion of the WASP program, 915 women pilots were on duty with the AAF: 620 assigned to the Training Command, 141 to the Air Transport Command, 133 to the numbered air forces in the continental United States, 11 to the Weather Wing, 9 to the technical commands and one to the Troop Carrier Command. The WASP members ferried fifty percent of the combat aircraft during the war to 126 bases across the United States. Because of the pioneering and the expertise they demonstrated in successfully flying military aircraft the WASP records showed that women pilots, when given the same training as men pilots, were as capable as men in non-combat flying.


title: Women Airforce Service Pilots

text: During November 1944 WASP members at Maxwell Air Field founded the Order of Fifinella organization. The organization's initial goals were to help the former WASP members find employment and maintain contact between themselves. Through the years the Order of Fifinella issued newsletters, helped influence legislation and organized reunions. The group held its final meeting in 2008 and was disbanded in 2009.


title: Women Airforce Service Pilots

text: Many WASPs wanted to continue flying after they were disbanded. Commercial airlines turned women pilots away, "saying public opinion wouldn't stand for it." WASP Teresa James wrote to congress requesting veteran's status. In order to keep flying, some women wrote Madame Chiang Kai-shek and volunteered for the Chinese Air Force, who were still fighting against Japan. The United States Air Force offered commissions to former WASP in 1949, though all 121 who accepted the commissions were given support and administrative duties and did not fly.


title: Women Airforce Service Pilots

text: The records of the WASP program, like nearly all wartime files, were classified and sealed for 35 years making their contributions to the war effort little known and inaccessible to historians. However, there were unofficial historians, like WASP, Marty Wyall, who collected scrapbooks and newspaper clipping about what the WASP members had done and what they had gone on to do. Wyall also suggested in 1964, at a Ninety-Nines convention, that the remaining WASP members should meet up with one another every other year.


title: Women Airforce Service Pilots

text: Early efforts to gain recognition for the WASP continued in the early 1970s. There was support from the office of Senator Barry Goldwater, who had flown with WASP during WWII. Goldwater's efforts to get the WASP veteran's status was met with shocking prejudice in Congress. According to Goldwater's legislative assistant, Terry Emerson, "Women were treated as non-persons." In the House, Representative Patsy Mink introduced a bill on May 17, 1972, to give the WASP veterans status. Another representative in the House, Lindy Boggs, introduced a bill around 1977 to give the WASP military status.


title: Women Airforce Service Pilots

text: In 1975 under the leadership of Col. Bruce Arnold, the son of General Hap Arnold, along with the surviving WASP members organized as a group again and began what they called the "Battle of Congress". Their goal was to gain public support and have the WASP officially recognized as veterans of World War II. In 1976, there was a bill in the Senate Veteran's Affairs Committee to give the WASPs military status. The bill would allow WASP pilots to use veteran's services. In 1977, WASP records were unsealed after an Air Force press release erroneously stated the Air Force was training the first women to fly military aircraft for the U.S. Documents were compiled that showed during their service WASP members were subject to military discipline, assigned top secret missions and many members were awarded service ribbons after their units were disbanded. It was also shown that WASP member Helen Porter had been issued an Honorable Discharge certificate by her commanding officer following her service. This time, the WASPs lobbied Congress with the important support of Goldwater, who himself had been a World War II ferry pilot in the 27th Ferrying Squadron. During hearings on the legislation opposition to the WASP members being given military recognition was voiced by the Veterans Administration (VA), the American Legion and the Veterans of Foreign Wars (VFW). The VA, led by Dorothy L. Starbuck, argued that WASP should not be given military recognition because the women were never subject to court martial. The VFW felt that giving WASP military recognition would "destroy the special status of veterans and do irreparable damage to veterans benefits."


title: Women Airforce Service Pilots

text: President Jimmy Carter signed legislation, P.L.95–202, Section 401, The G.I. Bill Improvement Act of 1977, providing that service as a WASP would be considered "active duty" for the purposes of programs administered by the Veterans Administration. Honorable Discharge certificates were issued to the former WASP members in 1979. In 1984, each WASP was awarded the World War II Victory Medal. Those who served for more than one year were also awarded American Theater Ribbon/American Campaign Medal for their service during the war. Many of the medals were accepted by the recipients' sons and daughters on their behalf.


title: Women Airforce Service Pilots

text: The 1977 legislation, either despite or because of its language, did not expressly allow WASPs to be buried in Arlington National Cemetery. That was because Arlington National Cemetery, unlike most other national cemeteries, is administered by the Department of the Army, not the Department of Veterans Affairs, and thus the Secretary of the Army determines eligibility for Arlington burial. The reason for the position taken by the Army on this issue may have been the rapidly diminishing space at Arlington. But in 2002, the Army re-considered and decided that deceased WASPs were able to be buried in Arlington National Cemetery. In 2015, however, the Army re-interpreted the law and its own regulations against the backdrop of thirteen years of war, which once again threatened to deplete the cemetery of land. The Army ruled that the 1977 statute did not mandate the burial of deceased WASPs at Arlington. When WASP, Elaine Harmon, died on April 21, 2015, her request to have her ashes interred at Arlington was denied. Another WASP, Florence Shutsy-Reynolds, began a social media campaign to advocate for Harmon and other WASP members who wished to be interred at Arlington. Legislation in 2016 seemingly overruled the Army's interpretation and it was widely reported that WASPs could "again" be buried at Arlington. The 2016 law revived the long-held concern about limited space at the cemetery. Thus, the legislation in the 114th Congress (S.2437 by Sen. Barbara Mikulski (D-Maryland) and H.R. 4336 by Rep. Martha McSally (R-Arizona), a retired Air Force fighter pilot), provides only for interment of cremated remains and not ground burial.


title: Women Airforce Service Pilots

text: In 2002 WASP member Deanie Bishop Parrish with her daughter began plans for a museum dedicated to telling the WASPs story. The hangar building used for the museum, Hangar One, was originally built in 1929 and was part of the Sweetwater Municipal Airport facilities which became Avenger Field. In 2005 the National WASP WWII Museum's grand opening was planned for May 28, 2005, which was the 62 anniversary of the first WASP graduating class. Along with the displays of uniforms, vehicles and other artifacts are several aircraft. These include a Boeing-Stearman Model 75 biplane, a Fairchild PT-19 trainer, a UC-78 Bamboo Bomber and a Vultee BT-13 Valiant trainer that was donated in September 2017.


title: Women Airforce Service Pilots

text: In 2009, the WASPs were inducted into the International Air & Space Hall of Fame at the San Diego Air & Space Museum.


title: Women Airforce Service Pilots

text: On July 1, 2009, President Barack Obama and the United States Congress awarded the WASP the Congressional Gold Medal. Three of the roughly 300 surviving WASPs were on hand to witness the event. During the ceremony President Obama said, "The Women Airforce Service Pilots courageously answered their country's call in a time of need while blazing a trail for the brave women who have given and continue to give so much in service to this nation since. Every American should be grateful for their service, and I am honored to sign this bill to finally give them some of the hard-earned recognition they deserve." On March 10, 2010, the 300 surviving WASPs came to the US Capitol to accept the Congressional Gold Medal from House Speaker Nancy Pelosi and other Congressional leaders. On New Year's Day in 2014 the Rose Parade featured a float with eight WASP members riding on it. It was designed by sculptor Don Everhart II. The medal is on display at the Boeing Aviation Hangar at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center in Chantilly, Virginia.


title: Women Airforce Service Pilots

text: Other aspects of the WASP legacy include the designs and symbols of the WASP organization. Shutsy-Reynolds took over WASP merchandising in 1988 and designed the scarf that many WASP members wore. She also created unique jewelry based on the WASP wings symbols.


title: Women Airforce Service Pilots

text: The WASP actively inspired successive generations of women, including aviator Jerrie Cobb, Desert Storm pilot Kelly Hamilton, astronaut Eileen Collins, Navy pilot Rosemary Mariner, and Terry London Rinehart, who was one of the first 10 women to be hired as a commercial airline pilot in 1976. Colonel Kimberly Olsen "credited the WASP for her opportunity to serve her country."


title: Women Airforce Service Pilots

text: WASP members faced discrimination because of their sex during their work numerous times. Some male pilots and commanders were unhappy to have a women's presence in the traditionally male setting of the military. One WASP, Lorraine Rodgers, later recalled that some men "refused to acknowledge their ability," or that the men didn't trust the smaller women to be able to handle the planes. Some commanders would give out "undesirable" planes to the WASP to fly. One commander at Love Field was eventually formally admonished for treating the women unfairly. WASP Teresa James believed that the women pilots were disliked because they "flew longer than the men (service pilots). We flew our tails off." However, James also reported that she was sometimes "treated like a celebrity" when she stopped at Army bases for refueling. She said, "They had never seen a woman pilot in an Air Force airplane."


title: Women Airforce Service Pilots

text: Camp Davis at North Carolina had the most prejudice and discrimination against the WASP. The base commander, Major Stephenson, told the women that "both they and the planes were expendable." Women at Camp Davis were unfairly evaluated in their flying, according to WASP Alia Corbett. Women were not given practice time, unlike the men. Sabotage was suspected in some incidents at the camp and Cochran found traces of sugar in the engine at one WASP crash site. Two WASP women died in the line of duty at Camp Davis. There were fourteen accidents involving improperly maintained towing planes at Camp Davis and planes at Camp Davis were found to be using the wrong octane fuel.


title: Women Airforce Service Pilots

text: While the women were doing the same job as men who were also civilian ferry pilots, the WASP were paid at two-thirds the rate of their male counterparts.


title: Women Airforce Service Pilots

text: The initial force of the Women's Army Ferrying Service (WAFS) put the cap on the age of recruits at 35 in order "to avoid the irrationality of women when they enter and go through menopause." At the time, the military had determined that age 40 was the time when menopause began, so if the war lasted more than 5 years, most recruits would just be entering the time of "debilitating irrationality." The WASP were even grounded for a time during their menstrual cycles by male commanders because they believed they were "less efficient during menses." This was stopped when flight records showed that this thinking was false. Some WASP were allowed to choose not to fly during menstruation and the pilots' periods were seen as a form of medical disability by military doctors.


title: Women Airforce Service Pilots

text: On the military planes, there weren't facilities for the women to use the bathroom. When women were ferrying the planes, they had to touch down occasionally and women were not allowed to eat in some restaurants because they were wearing pants.


title: Chrysler Slant-6 engine

text: The Slant-Six is the popular name for a Chrysler inline-6 internal combustion engine with an overhead valve reverse-flow cylinder head and cylinder bank inclined at a 30-degree angle from vertical. Introduced in 1959, it was known within Chrysler as the G-engine. It was a clean-sheet design that began production in 1959 at and ended in 2000 at . It was a direct replacement for the flathead Chrysler straight six that the company started business with in 1925 until the old design was discontinued in the 1960s.


title: Chrysler Slant-6 engine

text: The Chrysler Slant Six engine was a clean-sheet design, led by Willem Weertman, later Chrysler's chief engine designer. Its characteristic 30° inclination of cylinder block gives it a lower height overall engine package. This 30° inclination had already been used by Mercedes-Benz in their 300SL sports car with the M186 engine since 1952. This enabled vehicle stylists to lower hoodlines, and also made room for the water pump to be mounted with a lateral offset, significantly shortening the engine's overall length. The slanted cylinder block also provides space in the vehicle's engine bay for intake and exhaust manifolds with runners of longer and more nearly equal length compared to the rake- or log-style manifolds typical of other inline engines. The No. 1 and No. 6 intake runners are of approximately equal length, the No. 2 and No. 5 equal but shorter, and the No. 3 and No. 4 equal and shortest. This has the effect of broadening the torque curve for better performance. The Slant Six manifold configuration gives relatively even distribution of fuel mixture to all cylinders, and presents less flow restriction. This, in turn, provides for relatively good airflow through the engine despite the intake and exhaust ports being on the same side of the head rather than in a crossflow arrangement.


title: Chrysler Slant-6 engine

text: It was introduced in two piston displacement sizes in 1960: The "LG" (low-G, referring to the relatively short engine block casting and crankshaft stroke) in the Valiant, and the "RG" (raised-G, referring to the relatively tall engine block casting and crankshaft stroke) in full-size Plymouth and Dodge Dart models. In 1960, the engine was called the "30-D Economy Six" engine by Plymouth marketers, referring to the 30° cylinder block angle.


title: Chrysler Slant-6 engine

text: The G-engine was offered in various configurations in the North American market until 1983 in cars, 1987 in trucks, and 1991 for marine, agricultural, and industrial use. Replacement engines were built in Mexico through 2000. The G-engine was used by Chrysler's international operations in locally produced vehicles. It was also purchased by other original equipment manufacturers for installation in commercial vehicles, agricultural and industrial equipment, and boats.


title: Chrysler Slant-6 engine

text: The G-engine gained a reputation for reliability and durability. The basic design is rigid and sturdy, in part because the engine was designed to be made of either iron or aluminum. An aluminum block was produced in 1961–1963, but most blocks were made of iron. The block is of a deep-skirt design, with the crankshaft axis well above the oil pan rails for structural rigidity. Although only four main bearings are used, they are of the same dimensions as those in the 2G (1964–1971) Hemi, and fewer mains results in a crankshaft better able to withstand the effects of torque. Efficient cooling and lubrication systems, a favorable ratio of connecting rod length to stroke, and a forged steel crankshaft (on engines made through mid-1976) all contributed to the engine's strength and durability.


title: Chrysler Slant-6 engine

text: The G-engine gave better performance than its competitors at its 1960 introduction, and generally kept up through the 1960s and early-1970s, though engines like the Pontiac OHC Six, a brief GM outlier, bested the performance of most versions of the Slant-6. After an early factory racing program was discontinued by 1962, the Slant Six did not receive much performance development. Most Slant Sixes were equipped with a single 1-barrel carburetor. Starting in the early 1970s, primitive emission controls adversely affected driveability and power, though a version of the 2-barrel carburetor package first released for marine and export markets in 1967 was offered in North America from 1977 to 1983 under the "Super Six" name. Performance figures were only slightly higher, but driveability was substantially improved.


title: Chrysler Slant-6 engine

text: Other Chrysler engines were released with more advanced combustion chambers, electronic fuel injection, and other modern improvements, but the length of the Slant Six precluded its use in Chrysler's front-wheel-drive cars. A new V6 engine was created for the 1987 Dodge Dakota compact pickup truck by removing two cylinders from the corporate LA V8 engine. It replaced the Slant-6 in the rest of the Dodge truck line at the end of the 1987 model year.


title: Chrysler Slant-6 engine

text: The 170 engine was offered in model years 1960 through 1969 in North America, and through 1971 for export markets. The first vehicle to offer the 170 slant-6 was the 1960 Valiant. The engine has a bore of and a stroke of for an actual displacement of . Connecting rod length is . The "LG" low-deck block was unique to the 170 engine.


title: Chrysler Slant-6 engine

text: The 198 was introduced in the North American market for model year 1970 as a more powerful base-model engine than the previous 170 engine. The increased displacement gave improved vehicle performance and lower manufacturing cost, for it was achieved with the tall RG block also used with the 225 engine by installing a crankshaft with stroke and connecting rods long, for an actual displacement of . Manufacturing costs were reduced by eliminating using two different blocks for the two different available sizes of slant-6 engine. The 198 engine was available through the 1974 model year.


title: Chrysler Slant-6 engine

text: The 225 used the RG (tall) block with a bore, a stroke and connecting rods, for an actual displacement of . This undersquare geometry was a departure from the emerging trend towards oversquare engines. It provided strong low-rpm torque characteristics for automobiles and trucks, as well as other commercial and marine applications. The 225 was originally designed and introduced in 1960 for use in full-size models, and it eventually became the best known of the Slant Six engines. The original Chrysler 225 Slant Six produced around at 4,000 rpm and of torque at 2,800 rpm.


title: Chrysler Slant-6 engine

text: In 1982, Chrysler signed an agreement with Perkins Engines to build a dieselized version of the 3.7, with seven main bearings and turbocharged as well as naturally aspirated (and also of the 2.2-liter inline-four) in Windsor, Ontario. Design work had started in 1975, but with the collapse of the diesel market in North America, these plans were cancelled in 1983.


title: Chrysler Slant-6 engine

text: Between late model year 1961 and early model year 1963, approximately 52,000 die-cast aluminum RG blocks were produced and installed in passenger cars. These open-deck blocks used integrally cast high-nickel iron cylinder liners, and bolt-in iron upper and lower main bearing caps. Internal components (crank, rods, pistons, etc.) were the same as used in the iron engine, and an iron cylinder head was used with a special copper-asbestos gasket. The aluminum block weighs about less than the iron RG block.


title: Chrysler Slant-6 engine

text: Although serviceable examples can still be found, the aluminum RG tended to undergo delamination between the iron cylinder liner and the surrounding aluminum. Severe corrosion within the block is also commonly found because of the general tendency in the 1960s and 1970s to fill cooling systems in summer with plain water without corrosion inhibitors. Moreover, the open-deck design and primitive head gasket technology are not sufficiently robust to withstand the increased seal demands of increased compression or forced induction.


title: Chrysler Slant-6 engine

text: Most G-engines were equipped with small-capacity carburetors (such as the ubiquitous Holley 1920) and exhaust systems adequate for standard passenger car usage at low altitudes, but which tended to hamper maximum available performance at high altitudes, in heavy or race-purpose vehicles and/or where quicker acceleration was desired. To meet the demand for improved responsiveness, modified engine configurations were made available in various markets over the years.


title: Chrysler Slant-6 engine

text: The Hyper Pak was a parts package made available from 1960 through 1962 at Chrysler Corporation dealer parts counters. The parts were made available to comply with the regulations of sanctioning bodies for racing events in which Valiants had been entered by factory-backed teams: All parts used had to be "stock" parts, the definition of which meant that they were available through normal factory parts channels. The Hyper Pak consisted of a very-long-ram intake manifold meant to accept an AFB 4-barrel Carter Carburetor, the AFB carburetor itself and an appropriate air cleaner, dual (front-3 and rear-3) cast-iron exhaust headers, a large-diameter exhaust Y-pipe to connect to these dual cast-iron headers, a larger muffler, a 276°-duration camshaft with appropriate valve springs and pushrods, a heavier-duty clutch, a manual choke control, a starter motor modification template and, in the full-race version of the package, high-compression pistons designed to increase the engine's compression ratio to 10.5 from the stock 8.5. The Hyper Pak was recommended for installation only on vehicles equipped with manual transmissions, for the camshaft was of such characteristics that a high idle speed was required to prevent engine stall-out. The Hyper Pak was primarily intended for competition driving, its road manners involving rough idling and poor cold-engine driveability, a high power band and poor fuel economy. In competition events it proved unbeatable. Seven factory-backed Valiants entered the 1960 NASCAR compact car race at Daytona Beach, and humbled the competition. The Valiants came in first through seventh. A high-fidelity reproduction of the Hyper Pak intake manifold was created by Slant-6 builder Doug Dutra in the late 1990s. Subsequently the tooling was sold to a marketer of performance equipment (Clifford Research, 6=8) for inline six-cylinder engines.


title: Chrysler Slant-6 engine

text: For the 1965–1968 model years, Chrysler Argentina equipped Valiant GT models with a system of dual 1-barrel Holley RX 7000 A carburetors and other engine specification changes. Claimed output was , compared to the single-carburetor version of the engine producing


title: Chrysler Slant-6 engine

text: For the 1967 model year, a 2-barrel carburetor setup was released for export production. This configuration, similar to that found on marine G-engines beginning in 1965, consisted of an iron intake manifold with open-plenum 2-barrel carburetor mounting pad, a Carter BBD carburetor, and associated air cleaner, linkage and plumbing changes. Also installed on these export 2-barrel engines was a slightly hotter camshaft (244° duration rather than 240°), and a distributor with modified advance curves. This engine, rated at , was popular in Central and South America, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand. Driveability characteristics were generally superior to those of the 1-barrel engine, but to avoid cutting into sales of the more expensive V8 engine, this 2-barrel setup was not offered in the North American market. Of particular note is the automatic choke design found in this export 2-barrel setup. Most Chrysler products used remote automatic chokes, with a bimetal coil spring mounted on the exhaust manifold, exposed to exhaust heat and operating a pushrod which rotated the choke lever on the carburetor. The export 2-barrel setup used an integral heat-tube style automatic choke: Air heated by the exhaust manifold was routed to a round bakelite housing on the carburetor air horn, which contained a bimetal spring acting directly on the choke lever.


title: Chrysler Slant-6 engine

text: By the mid-1970s in the North American market, emission control regulations were reducing engine performance at the same time as safety regulations were making cars heavier. An increase in performance was required for the G-engine, so a 2-barrel setup was released for the 1976 model year. This was not the same as the export 2-barrel package; the intake manifold used a throttle-bored plenum rather than an open one, and had provisions for an EGR valve. The carburetor, a Carter BBD similar but not identical to the one used on Chrysler's V8 engine, used a standard Chrysler-style remote automatic choke. A exhaust headpipe was also provided, as well as 2-barrel-specific advance curves in the ignition distributor. This package, called "Super Six" by the marketing division, brought rated horsepower from and torque from , while improving throttle response and driveability while maintaining compliance with emission laws.


title: Mutatis mutandis

text: Mutatis mutandis is a Medieval Latin phrase meaning "with things changed that should be changed" or "once the necessary changes have been made". It remains unnaturalized in English and is therefore usually italicized in writing. It is used in many countries to acknowledge that a comparison being made requires certain obvious alterations, which are left unstated. It is not to be confused with the similar "ceteris paribus", which excludes any changes other than those explicitly mentioned. "Mutatis mutandis" is still used in law, economics, mathematics, linguistics and philosophy. In particular, in logic, it is encountered when discussing counterfactuals, as a shorthand for all the initial and derived changes which have been previously discussed.


title: Mutatis mutandis

text: The phrase '—now sometimes written ' to show vowel length—does not appear in surviving classical literature. It is Medieval Latin in origin and the Feet of fines, kept at The National Archives (United Kingdom), contains its first use in England on January 20, 1270, at Pedes Finium, 54 Hen. III, Salop.


title: Mutatis mutandis

text: Both words are participles of the Latin verb ' ('to move; to change; to exchange'). ' is its perfect passive participle ('changed; having been changed'). "" is its gerundive, which functions both as a future passive participle ('to be changed; going to be changed') and as a verbal adjective or noun expressing necessity ('needing to be changed; things needing to be changed'). The phrase is an ablative absolute, using the ablative case to show that the clause is grammatically independent ('absolute' literally meaning 'dissolved' or 'separated') from the rest of the sentence.