title: Prayer to Saint Joseph

text: Joseph, the silent man of the Gospels, is in the line of the great men of faith of the Old Testament. He is described as a "just man", a righteous man of integrity. He is in the tradition of Abraham who was called by God to "walk before my face and be upright (Gen: 17.1);and of Moses who was told to be "entirely sincere", "entirely faithful" (Deut: 18.13). For centuries his place in the story of Jesus was comparatively unnoticed. Gradually, in Catholic tradition, he was recognised as patron of fathers of families, of bursars and procurators, of manual workers, especially carpenters, and of all who desire a holy death.


title: Prayer to Saint Joseph

text: The parish in Buenos Aires where Pope Francis grew up is dedicated to San José. Solemnly inaugurated on 19 March 2013, Francis’ pontificate is placed under the protection of Saint Joseph. One of the few things the Pope had sent over from Argentina after his election is a statue he had. It depicts the saint lying down asleep, a reference to the gospel accounts of Saint Joseph receiving the counsel of angels in several dreams. The Pope slips pieces of paper with prayer requests under the pedestal of the statue, which is just outside his room at St. Martha's House.


title: Prayer to Saint Joseph

text: “You know,” said Francis, “you have to be patient with these carpenters: they tell you they’ll have a piece of furniture finished in a couple of weeks and it ends up taking a month even. But they get the job done and they do it well! You just need to be patient…”


title: Prayer to Saint Joseph

text: The purpose of Pope Leo XIII's 1889 encyclical "Quamquam pluries" was to implore divine help by means of prayer, joining to the intercession of Mary that of Saint Joseph. Leo XIII therefore attached to his encyclical a special Prayer to Saint Joseph requesting that it be added to the recitation of the Rosary during the month of October.


title: Prayer to Saint Joseph

text: The encyclical "Quamquam pluries" established the Prayer to Saint Joseph is mandatory to be recited at the end of each holy Rosary recited during the Marian Month of October. The prescription is forever (in Latin: "perpetuo idem servetur") and thus it can't be deleted by any subsequent Vatican document. It causes an indulgence of seven years and seven Lents.


title: Prayer to Saint Joseph

text: Moreover, it is recommended, even if not mandatory, in the three days preceding March 19, the day in which the Solemnity of St Joseph takes place.


title: Prayer to Saint Joseph

text: The Prayer to St Joseph may be said after the customary Salve Regina and concluding prayer. It may also be used to conclude other Marian devotions.


title: Prayer to Saint Joseph

text: The litany of Saint Joseph was sanctioned by Pope Pius X in 1909. After the usual petitions to the Holy Trinity and one to the Blessed Virgin, the litany is composed of twenty-five invocations expressing the virtues and dignities of St Joseph.


title: Prayer to Saint Joseph

text: Furthermore, Saint Pius X composed a Prayer to Saint Joseph the Worker for the sanctification of labor.


title: Prayer to Saint Joseph

text: A very old and beautiful invocation to Saint Joseph is traditionally prayed for nine days before the Feast of Saint Joseph, starting on March 10. It is found in many places, and was released in 1950 with the Imprimatur of the Bishop of Pittsburgh, Hugh C. Boyle. It is used in novenas, according to the text after the prayer, and the prayer text specifically seems to limit it to "spiritual blessings".


title: Prayer to Saint Joseph

text: However, the year 50 A.D. is a very early date for a published prayer, preceding much of the New Testament, which does not mention very much about the father of Jesus. The statements about the year 50 A.D. and regarding the Pope and Emperor are not supported.


title: Prayer to Saint Joseph

text: "Dear Guardian of Mary" is a hymn written in honor of Saint Joseph by Frederick William Faber in 1863.


title: David Byron

text: David Garrick (29 January 1947 – 28 February 1985), better known by his stage name David Byron, was a British singer, who was best known in the early 1970s as the lead vocalist with the rock band Uriah Heep. Byron possessed a powerful operatic voice and a flamboyant stage presence.


title: David Byron

text: David Byron was educated at Forest School, Walthamstow, from 1958–1964, where, as a popular pupil he excelled at sports and was in the school 1st XI football team. From the mid-1960s to early 1970s, he did session work for a company called Avenue Recordings, singing lead and backing vocals (occasionally along with Mick Box on guitar and Paul Newton on bass). These were cover versions of Top 20 hits and were released on EPs and LPs.


title: David Byron

text: His first venture into professional music was with an Epping-based semi-pro band called The Stalkers, which also featured Box. Byron and Box then teamed up to form the band Spice (1967–1969), which also featured Newton on bass and Alex Napier on drums. Before settling on the name Spice other names were considered including 'The Play' and a handful of acetates exist of unreleased tracks recorded at the time and credited to 'The Play'. The band gigged extensively locally under the management of Paul Newton's father and they secured a recording deal with United Artists, which issued the band's only single "What About The Music/In Love"; copies of which now fetch around $50 to $100 on the collectors' market.


title: David Byron

text: Deciding that the Spice sound would require keyboards, they recruited keyboardist/guitarist/singer/songwriter Ken Hensley, who was Newton's bandmate in The Gods. During this time, Byron renamed the band Uriah Heep from the Charles Dickens novel "David Copperfield".


title: David Byron

text: Byron sang on ten Uriah Heep albums: "Very 'eavy Very 'Umble", "Salisbury", "Look at Yourself", "Demons and Wizards", "The Magician's Birthday", "Live", "Sweet Freedom", "Wonderworld", "Return To Fantasy", and "High and Mighty". In 1975, Byron released his first solo album, "Take No Prisoners", which also featured fellow Heep members Box, Hensley and Lee Kerslake. Byron also gained a reputation for hard drinking, which eventually led to him being sacked from Uriah Heep at the end of a Spanish tour in July 1976.


title: David Byron

text: Hensley said at the time, "David was one of those classic people who couldn't face up to the fact that things were wrong and he looked for solace in a bottle." Ahead of his dismissal, Uriah Heep had secured John Lawton as replacement singer. Their manager at the time, Bron said Byron had been released in "the best interest of the group". Bron explained that Byron and the other Uriah Heep members had been in disagreement for some time over fundamental issues of group policy, and that the differences had been finally brought to a head following the band's recent tour of Britain and Europe. "It was felt by the rest of the group that they could no longer reconcile David's attitude with their own," commented Bron.


title: David Byron

text: Byron recorded three solo albums: "Take No Prisoners" in 1975, "Baby Faced Killer" in 1978, and "That Was Only Yesterday", which was recorded in 1984, one year before his death. During this period, Byron teamed up with former Colosseum / Humble Pie guitarist Clem Clempson and former Wings drummer Geoff Britton to form Rough Diamond. They recorded one self-titled LP for Island Records in March 1977. The album sold poorly and Byron quit.


title: David Byron

text: Next, Byron got together with guitarist Robin George to form The Byron Band, which was signed to Creole Records and debuted with the single "Every Inch of the Way/Routine" (CR 8). This was followed by the single "Never Say Die/Tired Eyes", before the release of the 1981 album "On the Rocks" (CRX 2). However, as with his previous band Rough Diamond, neither critical nor commercial acclaim was forthcoming.


title: David Byron

text: Box and Trevor Bolder invited Byron to re-join Uriah Heep in 1981, after Ken Hensley had left, but Byron refused.


title: David Byron

text: "Lost and Found" is a double album that included demos and live recordings by the Byron Band, which spanned from 1980 to 1982. It also includes a Robin George solo track.


title: David Byron

text: Byron died of alcohol-related complications, including liver disease and seizures, at his home in Berkshire on 28 February 1985. He was 38 years old. On BBC Radio's The "Friday Rock Show", Tommy Vance played "July Morning" in tribute.


title: David Byron

text: On the ""Equator"" tour, around the time of Byron's death, Uriah Heep dedicated "The Wizard" to him. There were also tributes to him and deceased bassist Gary Thain on the 1998 album "Sonic Origami".


Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists, also known as GLP-1 receptor agonists (GLP-1-RA) or incretin mimetics, are agonists of the GLP-1 receptor. This class of medications is used for the treatment of type 2 diabetes Some drugs are also approved for obesity. One of their advantages over older insulin secretagogues, such as sulfonylureas or meglitinides, is that they have a lower risk of causing hypoglycemia. GLP-1 has a short duration of action, so to overcome this limitation several modifications in either the drugs or the formulations are being developed.


title: Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist

text: The 2022 ADA standards of medical care in diabetes include GLP-1-RA as a first line pharmacological therapy for type 2 diabetes, specifically in patients with atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease or obesity.


text: A 2021 meta-analysis found a 12% reduction in all-cause mortality when GLP-1 analogs are used in the treatment of type 2 diabetes, as well as significant improvements in cardiovascular and renal outcomes. A "JAMA" article meta-analysis in 2018 (covering studies concerning GLP-1 agonists, DPP-4 inhibitors, and SGLT2 inhibitors) showed GLP-1 agonists were associated with lower stroke risk than controls.


text: Preclinical research has suggested the possibility that the drugs may increase the risk of pancreatitis and pancreatic cancer. Analyses of human trials have not found an increased risk of pancreatitis but are insufficiently powered to rule out an effect on pancreatic cancer.


text: A 2020 Cochrane systematic review did not find enough evidence of reduction of all-cause mortality, serious adverse events, cardiovascular mortality, non-fatal myocardial infarction, non-fatal stroke, end-stage renal disease nor health-related quality of life when comparing metformin monotherapy to Glucagon-like peptide 1 analogues in the treatment of type 2 diabetes.


text: These agents work by activating the GLP-1R, rather than inhibiting the breakdown of GLP-1 as do DPP-4 inhibitors, and are generally considered more potent.


title: Urania

text: Urania ( ; ; modern Greek shortened name "Ránia"; meaning "heavenly" or "of heaven") was, in Greek mythology, the muse of astronomy, and in later times, of Christian poetry. Urania is the goddess of astronomy and stars, her attributes being the globe and compass.


title: Urania

text: The muse "Urania" is sometimes confounded with "Aphrodite Urania" ("heavenly Aphrodite") because of their similar name.


title: Urania

text: Urania was the daughter of Zeus by Mnemosyne and also a great granddaughter of Uranus. Some accounts list her as the mother of the musician Linus by Apollo or Hermes or Amphimarus, son of Poseidon. Hymenaeus is also said to have been a son of Urania.


title: Urania

text: Urania is often associated with Universal Love. Sometimes identified as the eldest of the divine sisters, Urania inherited Zeus' majesty and power and the beauty and grace of her mother Mnemosyne.


title: Urania

text: Urania dresses in a cloak embroidered with stars and keeps her eyes and attention focused on the Heavens. She is usually represented with a celestial globe to which she points with a little staff, and depicted in modern art with stars above her head. She is able to foretell the future by the arrangement of the stars.


title: Urania

text: Those who are most concerned with philosophy and the heavens are dearest to her. Those who have been instructed by her she raises aloft to heaven, for it is a fact that imagination and the power of thought lift men's souls to heavenly heights."Urania, o'er her star-bespangled lyre,""With touch of majesty diffused her soul;""A thousand tones, that in the breast inspire,""Exalted feelings, o er the wires'gan roll—""How at the call of Jove the mist unfurled,""And o'er the swelling vault—the glowing sky,""The new-born stars hung out their lamps on high,""And rolled their mighty orbs to music's sweetest sound."—From "An Ode To Music" by James G. PercivalDuring the Renaissance, Urania began to be considered the Muse for Christian poets. In the invocation to Book 7 of John Milton's epic poem "Paradise Lost", the poet invokes Urania to aid his narration of the creation of the cosmos, though he cautions that it is "[t]he meaning, not the name I call" (7.5)


title: Montana Story

text: Montana Story is a 2021 American drama film written and directed by Scott McGehee and David Siegel. The film stars Haley Lu Richardson and Owen Teague. Two siblings return to their family's ranch in Montana after their father falls into a coma.


title: Montana Story

text: Estranged, twenty-something, half-siblings Cal and Erin return to the vast Montana ranch they once called home after their father has fallen into a coma and is now on life support. Erin's mother died in childbirth, while Cal's mother died two years ago. The housekeeper and family friend, Valentina, has been holding down the fort. Kenyan immigrant nurse, Ace (a nickname he uses since people in the United States have trouble pronouncing his real name) has been providing life-sustaining care to the siblings' father. Since their father isn't expected to recover, Cal begins selling and donating the ranch's assets. He has conflicted feelings towards his father, due to past abuse. Erin, who remains angry about the abuse, plans to take the family's elderly horse, Mr. T, back to her home in Hudson Valley, New York.


title: Montana Story

text: Cal explains to Ace that, seven years ago, his father was a lawyer who helped cover up a toxic incident at the Copperhead open-pit mine. Erin wrote an article that was published in a local paper, exposing the corruption. Their father violently assaulted her and killed her horse, Pepper. Erin ran away from home that night. Cal tried to track her down, but she actively avoided being found and he eventually stopped looking.


title: Montana Story

text: Cal tries to open up to Erin, telling her about his life in Cheyenne, Wyoming, and his goal to be a civil engineer. However, she remains closed off. She decides to purchase an old truck and horse trailer to transport Mr. T, though Cal worries about the reliability of the truck. The seller, Mukki, tells Erin that he's Mohican and his family fled west over time to avoid violence.


title: Montana Story

text: The truck breaks down on the road, and the siblings wait for Valentina's son, Joey, to arrive with a tow truck. Erin tells Cal that she's a trained cook who now works in a restaurant that uses every part of the animal. The siblings visit the Copperhead Mine, which Erin compares to the seven circles of Hell in Dante's "Inferno". She also meditates on the deceptiveness of the American West's mythology.


title: Montana Story

text: During a thunder storm and power outage, Cal struggles to get a back-up generator working. Since the life support system is down, the siblings' father suffers a heart attack. Ace struggles to keep his patient alive, enlisting Erin to manually pump a bag valve mask to keep her father breathing. After the power returns, Erin is upset that she has saved her father's life. She emotionally confronts Cal about him witnessing their father beating and severely injuring her to the point of hospitalization. She berates him for having not helped her in any way. Cal admits he was afraid to intervene and still feels guilty.


title: Montana Story

text: Later that night, when Cal thinks he's alone, he talks to his father about the older man's lack of happiness in life. Erin watches from the doorway as her father flatlines and dies. It's not shown, but heavily implied that Cal disconnected his father from life support. Ace covers for Cal, saying the death was due to the heart attack that occurred during the power outage.


title: Montana Story

text: As the siblings go their separate ways, Erin asks Cal to keep in touch and he agrees to do so. Instead of taking Mr. T with her, Erin arranges for him to live on Mukki's ranch with a herd of other horses.


title: Montana Story

text: The film was shot in Paradise Valley south of Livingston, Montana during a period of six weeks from November to December 2020 under strict COVID-19 protocols.


title: Montana Story

text: The film premiered in the Platform Prize section at the Toronto International Film Festival on September 12, 2021. In November 2021, Bleecker Street acquired U.S. distribution rights to the film.


title: Montana Story

text: In the United States and Canada, the film earned $17,284 from four theaters in its opening weekend, and $19,882 from 24 theaters in its second weekend. After expanding to 290 theaters, it made $98,762 in its third weekend, and $25,953 in its fourth.


title: Montana Story

text: On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, 87% of 85 reviews are positive, with an average rating of 7.1/10. The website's critical consensus reads, ""Montana Story" takes a gut-wrenching look at family trauma, brought brilliantly to life by Haley Lu Richardson and Owen Teague."


title: Mitch Kupchak

text: Mitchell Kupchak (born May 24, 1954) is an American professional basketball executive and retired player. He is the current president of basketball operations and general manager of the Charlotte Hornets of the National Basketball Association (NBA). As a college player, Kupchak was an All-American at the University of North Carolina and a member of the gold medal-winning 1976 United States Olympic team. As a professional player, he won three NBA titles – one as a member of the Washington Bullets and two with the Los Angeles Lakers.


title: Mitch Kupchak

text: Kupchak played for Brentwood High School in New York. He was an All-American on the North Carolina Tar Heels men's basketball team, and was named Atlantic Coast Conference Player of the Year in his senior season. Kupchak played on the gold medal-winning team at the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal.


title: Mitch Kupchak

text: Kupchak was drafted by the Washington Bullets in 1976 and was named to the NBA All-Rookie Team. He had four productive seasons with Washington and was part of the team that won the NBA championship in 1978. He signed a long term contract with the Lakers in 1981 at the behest of Earvin "Magic" Johnson, who told owner Jerry Buss, "If we could get Mitch Kupchak, I know we could win", after the team's playoff upset. 26 games into the season, Kupchak injured his knee and did not play again until the 1983–84 season.


title: Mitch Kupchak

text: Kupchak played a key role in the Showtime Lakers' 1985 championship team against the Boston Celtics, who had intimidated them in the prior year's Finals. Kupchak retired after the 1985–86 season, having played 510 regular season and 68 playoff games, with regular season averages of 10.2 points per game and 5.4 rebounds per game (7.7 points per game and 4.7 rebounds per game in the playoffs). During his final game, Game 5 of the Western Conference Finals, a brawl broke out between the Lakers and the Houston Rockets, which saw Kupchak and Hakeem Olajuwon ejected.


title: Mitch Kupchak

text: Kupchak planned for his "life after" being an NBA player and pursued a focused program to learn the trade of running NBA team operations. While still under his initial player contract, he worked with the front office, developing strong working relationships with Laker management, beginning to "apprentice" with Jerry West, and starting studies that led to his MBA from the UCLA Anderson School of Management in 1987.


title: Mitch Kupchak

text: Kupchak retired from playing in 1986, and became the Lakers' assistant general manager (under GM and Basketball Hall of Famer Jerry West). He later succeeded West as General Manager, but was not considered to have all of the traditional powers of an NBA GM until 2000 (when West resigned as Vice President of Basketball Operations, for the challenge of trying to replicate the Lakers' level of success as GM of the recently relocated, last-place Memphis Grizzlies).


title: Mitch Kupchak

text: On July 16, 2003, after the Lakers failed to reach the NBA Finals for the first time in three years, Kupchak's first major deal was the off-season acquisitions of superstars Karl Malone and Gary Payton (who had both failed to win an NBA championship despite long, Hall of Fame-caliber careers). After a number of controversial trade transactions over the years, including the trade of Shaquille O'Neal to the Miami Heat for Lamar Odom, Caron Butler, and Brian Grant—as well as the decision to not trade young center Andrew Bynum for point guard Jason Kidd—Kupchak faced severe criticism from Lakers franchise star Kobe Bryant, who urged his firing. However, Kupchak reportedly still had the support of the team's owner.


title: Mitch Kupchak

text: In 2007, Kupchak traded Brian Cook and Maurice Evans for Trevor Ariza, and the Lakers started the season off with the best record in the West. After an injury to Andrew Bynum cast their recent success in doubt, his February 2008 deal to obtain Spanish power forward Pau Gasol from the Memphis Grizzlies for Kwame Brown, Javaris Crittenton, Aaron McKie, and draft picks (one of which was the right to Marc Gasol) earned him praise (and scorn) from league insiders and fans alike. Bryant later conceded, "He goes from a F to an A-plus.", while Gregg Popovich, coach of Western Conference rival San Antonio Spurs, went so far as to argue that "there should be a trade committee that can scratch all trades that make no sense". That year, the Lakers reached the NBA Finals for the 5th time in 9 years, but would eventually lose to the Boston Celtics. The following year, they returned and won in a 4-1 rout over the Orlando Magic.


title: Mitch Kupchak

text: In 2009, Kupchak signed 2004 Defensive Player of the Year Ron Artest, famous for his role in the Pacers-Pistons Brawl, as a free agent. The Lakers made it to their seventh NBA Finals in 11 years, winning in a championship re-match against the Celtics in the 2010 NBA Finals. 2011 saw the retirement of longtime coach Phil Jackson, replacing him with Mike Brown, as well as an attempted three-team trade of Odom and Gasol to the Houston Rockets, in exchange for the New Orleans Hornets' All-Star point guard, Chris Paul Because the Hornets (a financial failure for its previous owners) was still owned by the NBA, Commissioner David Stern vetoed the trade for unspecified "basketball reasons"—leaving the Lakers with a publicly disgruntled Odom, and shocked Gasol (both of whom intended to end their careers as Lakers, and had not known that they were about to be traded).


title: Mitch Kupchak

text: On July 4, 2012, after two consecutive playoff exits in the Western Conference semi-final round, Kupchak used a traded player exception (gained by trading Odom to the Dallas Mavericks) on two-time, former NBA Most Valuable Player, Steve Nash. The deal to get Nash in a Laker uniform was finalized for a package of future draft picks and cash considerations. That same summer, Kupchak dealt Andrew Bynum, who had just been voted to his first All-Star team, in a four-way trade for his Eastern Conference counterpart, three-time Defensive Player of the Year Dwight Howard. The move was announced August 10, 2012. But the flurry of personnel changes did not stop there: Kupchak had also convinced former All-Star and Sixth Man of the Year winner Antawn Jamison to sign for a veteran-minimum contract. He later, along with owner Jerry Buss and Vice President of Basketball Operations Jim Buss (Jerry's son), also fired defense-minded head coach Mike Brown and replaced him with Nash's former head coach, offense-minded Mike D'Antoni.


title: Mitch Kupchak

text: During the 2013–14 season, Kupchak and the Lakers gave Kobe Bryant a 2-year, $48.5 million extension despite him being out due to an Achilles injury. The deal was reportedly endorsed by team president Jeanie Buss. Mike D'Antoni resigned after the season, leaving Kupchak and Jim Buss the task of hiring a 3rd coach in 4 years. They decided on former Lakers point guard Byron Scott. The Lakers announced in April 2014 that Kupchak's own contract had been extended for multiple years. It was scheduled to expire after the 2014 season. Terms of the contract were not released.


title: Mitch Kupchak

text: On February 21, 2017, Kupchak was fired as general manager of the Lakers. On April 8, 2018, Kupchak was hired as the president of basketball operations and general manager of the Charlotte Hornets. On June 21, 2018, Kupchak made his first draft selection as the general manager of the Charlotte Hornets. He selected Shai Gilgeous-Alexander with the 11th pick, who was subsequently traded to the Los Angeles Clippers for Miles Bridges, who was selected with the 12th pick.


title: Mitch Kupchak

text: Kupchak was inducted into the Suffolk Sports Hall of Fame on Long Island in the Basketball Category with the Class of 1990. In 2002, he was inducted into the National Polish-American Sports Hall of Fame. He is married to Claire, with whom he had two children. His daughter, Alina Claire Kupchak, died on January 5, 2015, after a lengthy illness. His son Maxwell played as a forward for the UC Santa Barbara basketball team.


title: Reforestation

text: Reforestation (occasionally, reafforestation) is the natural or intentional restocking of existing forests and woodlands (forestation) that have been depleted, usually through deforestation, but also after clearcutting.


title: Reforestation

text: A debated issue in managed reforestation is whether or not the succeeding forest will have the same biodiversity as the original forest. If the forest is replaced with only one species of tree and all other vegetation is prevented from growing back, a monoculture forest similar to agricultural crops would be the result. However, most reforestation involves the planting of different selections of seedlings taken from the area, often of multiple species. Another important factor is the natural regeneration of a wide variety of plant and animal species that can occur on a clear cut. In some areas the suppression of forest fires for hundreds of years has resulted in large single aged and single species forest stands. The logging of small clear cuts and/or prescribed burning actually increases the biodiversity in these areas by creating a greater variety of tree stand ages and species.


title: Reforestation

text: Reforestation is not only used for recovery of accidentally destroyed forests. In some countries, such as Finland, many of the forests are "managed" by the wood products and pulp and paper industry. In such an arrangement, like other crops, trees are planted to replace those that have been cut. The Finnish Forest Act from 1996 obliges the forest to be replanted after felling. In such circumstances, the industry can cut the trees in a way to allow easier reforestation. The wood products industry systematically replaces many of the trees it cuts, employing large numbers of summer workers for tree planting work. For example, in 2010, Weyerhaeuser reported planting 50 million seedlings. However replanting an old-growth forest with a plantation is not replacing the old with the same characteristics in the new.


title: Reforestation

text: In just 20 years, a teak plantation in Costa Rica can produce up to about 400 m³ of wood per hectare. As the natural teak forests of Asia become more scarce or difficult to obtain, the prices commanded by plantation-grown teak grows higher every year. Other species, such as mahogany, grow more slowly than teak in Tropical America but are also extremely valuable. Faster growers include pine, eucalyptus, and "Gmelina".


title: Reforestation

text: Reforestation, if several indigenous species are used, can provide other benefits in addition to financial returns, including restoration of the soil, rejuvenation of local flora and fauna, and the capturing and sequestering of 38 tons of carbon dioxide per hectare per year.


title: Reforestation

text: The reestablishment of forests is not just simple tree planting. Forests are made up of a community of species and they build dead organic matter into soils over time. A major tree-planting program could enhance the local climate and reduce the demands of burning large amounts of fossil fuels for cooling in the summer.


title: Reforestation

text: Forests are an important part of the global carbon cycle because trees and plants absorb carbon dioxide through photosynthesis. Therefore, they play an important role in climate change mitigation. By removing the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide from the air, forests function as terrestrial carbon sinks, meaning they store large amounts of carbon. At any time, forests account for as much as double the amount of carbon in the atmosphere. Forests remove around three billion tons of carbon every year. This amounts to about 30% of anthropogenic all carbon dioxide emissions. Therefore, an increase in the overall forest cover around the world would mitigate global warming.


title: Reforestation

text: At the beginning of the 21st century, interest in reforestation grew over its potential to mitigate climate change. Even without displacing agriculture and cities, earth can sustain almost one billion hectares of new forests. This would remove 25% of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and reduce its concentration to levels that existed in the early 20th century. A temperature rise of 1.5 degrees would reduce the area suitable for forests by 20% by the year 2050, because some tropical areas will become too hot. The countries that have the most forest-ready land are: Russia, Canada, Brazil, Australia, the United States and China.


title: Reforestation

text: Implementing the first strategy is supported by many organizations around the world. For example, in China, the Jane Goodall Institute, through their Shanghai Roots & Shoots division, launched the Million Tree Project in Kulun Qi, Inner Mongolia to plant one million trees. China used 24 million hectares of new forest to offset 21% of Chinese fossil fuel emissions in 2000. In Java, Indonesia newlywed couples give whoever is conducting their wedding 5 seedlings. Each divorcing couple gives 25 seedlings to whoever divorces them. Costa Rica doubled its forest cover in 30 years using its system of grants and other payments for environmental services, including compensation for landowners. These payments are funded through international donations and nationwide taxes.


title: Reforestation

text: The second strategy has to do with selecting species for tree-planting. In theory, planting any kind of tree to produce more forest cover would absorb more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. However, a genetically modified variant might grow much faster than unmodified specimens. Some of these cultivars are under development. Such fast-growing trees would be planted for harvest and can absorb carbon dioxide faster than slower-growing trees.


title: Reforestation

text: Impacts on temperature are affected by the location of the forest. For example, reforestation in boreal or subarctic regions has less impact on climate. This is because it substitutes a high-albedo, snow-dominated region with a lower-albedo forest canopy. By contrast, tropical reforestation projects lead to a positive change such as the formation of clouds. These clouds then reflect the sunlight, lowering temperatures.


title: Reforestation

text: Planting trees in tropical climates with wet seasons has another advantage. In such a setting, trees grow more quickly (fixing more carbon) because they can grow year-round. Trees in tropical climates have, on average, larger, brighter, and more abundant leaves than non-tropical climates. A study of the girth of 70,000 trees across Africa has shown that tropical forests fix more carbon dioxide pollution than previously realized. The research suggested almost one fifth of fossil fuel emissions are absorbed by forests across Africa, Amazonia and Asia. Simon Lewis stated, "Tropical forest trees are absorbing about 18% of the carbon dioxide added to the atmosphere each year from burning fossil fuels, substantially buffering the rate of change."


title: Reforestation

text: As of 2008 1.3 billion hectares of tropical regions were deforested every year. Reducing this would reduce the amount of planting needed to achieve a given degree of mitigation.


title: Reforestation

text: A study finds that almost 300 million people live on tropical forest restoration opportunity land in the Global South, constituting a large share of low-income countries' populations, and argues for prioritized inclusion of "local communities" in forest restoration projects.


title: Reforestation

text: Planting new trees often leads to up to 90% of seedlings failing. However, even in deforested areas, existing root systems often exist. Growth can be accelerated by pruning and coppicing where a few branches of new shoots are cut and often used for charcoal, itself a major driver of deforestation. Since new seeds are not planted, it is cheaper. Additionally, they are much more likely to survive as their root systems already exist and can tap into groundwater during harsher seasons with no rain. While this method has existed for centuries, it is now sometimes referred to as farmer-managed natural regeneration.


title: Reforestation

text: Policy that promote reforestation for incentives in return have shown promising results of being an effective and motivative concept to re-plant globally on a mass scale. Some incentives for reforestation can be as simple as a financial compensation. Streck and Scholz (2006) explain how a group of scientists from various institutions have developed a compensated reduction of deforestation approach which would reward developing countries that disrupt any further act of deforestation. Countries that participate and take the option to reduce their emissions from deforestation during a committed period of time would receive financial compensation for the carbon dioxide emissions that they avoided. To raise the payments, the host country would issue government bonds or negotiate some kind of loan with a financial institution that would want to take part in the compensation promised to the other country. The funds received by the country could be invested to help find alternatives to the extensive cutdown of forests. This whole process of cutting emissions would be voluntary, but once the country has agreed to lower their emissions they would be obligated to reduce their emissions. However, if a country was not able to meet their obligation, their target would get added to their next commitment period. The authors of these proposals see this as a solely government-to-government agreement; private entities would not participate in the compensation trades.


title: Reforestation

text: Another emerging revenue source to fund reforestation projects deals with the sale of carbon sequestration credits, which can be sold to companies and individuals looking to compensate their carbon footprint. This approach allows for private landowners and farmers to gain a revenue from the reforestation of their lands, while simultaneously benefiting from improved soil health and increased productivity.


title: Reforestation

text: Alongside past financial incentive strategies, reforestation tax benefits have been another way the government has encouraged companies to promote reforestation tactics through the promises of a tax break.


title: Reforestation

text: As many landholders seek to earn carbon credits through sequestration, their participation also encourages biodiversity and provides ecosystem services for crops and livestock.


title: Reforestation

text: The 2020 World Economic Forum, held in Davos, announced the creation of the Trillion Tree Campaign, which is an initiative aiming to plant 1 trillion trees across the globe. The implementation can have big environmental and societal benefits but needs to be tailored to local conditions.


title: Reforestation

text: One plan in this region involves planting a nine-mile width of trees on the Southern Border of the Sahara Desert for stopping its expansion to the south. The Great Green Wall initiative is a pan-African proposal to "green" the continent from west to east in order to battle desertification. It aims at tackling poverty (through employment of workers required for the project) and the degradation of soils in the Sahel-Saharan region, focusing on a strip of land that is 15 km (9 mi) wide and 7,500 km (4,750 mi) long from Dakar to Djibouti. As of May 2020, 21 countries joined the project, many of them are directly affected by the expansion of the Sahara desert. It should create 10 millions green jobs by 2030.


title: Reforestation

text: In 2019, Ethiopia begun a massive tree planting campaign "Green Legacy" with a target to plant 4 billion trees in one year. In one day only, over 350 million trees were planted.


title: Reforestation

text: The Armenia Tree Project was founded in 1994 to address environmental and economic concerns related to Armenia's dwindling forests. Since its founding, the organization has planted more than 6.5 million trees in communities throughout Armenia.


title: Reforestation

text: Through reforestation and environmental conservation, Costa Rica doubled its forest cover in 30 years.


title: Reforestation

text: Costa Rica has a long-standing commitment to the environment. The country is now one of the leaders of sustainability, biodiversity, and other protections. It wants to be completely fossil fuel free by 2050. The country has generated all of its electric power from renewable sources for three years as of 2019. It has committed to be carbon-free and plastic-free by 2021.


title: Reforestation

text: As of 2019, half of the country's land surface is covered with forests. They absorb a huge amount of carbon dioxide, combating climate change.


title: Reforestation

text: In the 1940s, more than 75% of the country was covered in mostly tropical rainforests and other indigenous woodlands. Between the 1940s and 1980s, extensive, uncontrolled logging led to severe deforestation. By 1983, only 26% of the country had forest cover. Realizing the devastation, policymakers took a stand. Through a continued environmental focus they were able to turn things around to the point that today forest cover has increased to 52%, two times more than 1983 levels.


title: Reforestation

text: An honorable world leader for ecotourism and conservation, Costa Rica has pioneered the development of payments for environmental services. Costa Rica's extensive system of environmental protection has been encouraging conservation and reforestation of the land by providing grants for environmental services. The system is not just advanced for its time but is also unparalleled in the world. It received great international attention.


title: Reforestation

text: The country has established programs to compensate landowners for reforestation. One of the main programs established in Costa Rica was the Forest Promotion Certificate in 1979 and is funded by international donations and nationwide taxes. The initiative is helping to protect the forests in the country, and is now helped pass both the Forest Law in 1986 and FONAFIFO in 1990 which insures the continuity of the conservation programs.


title: Reforestation

text: Natural Resources Canada (The Department of Natural Resources) states that the national forest cover was decreased by 0.34% from 1990 to 2015, and Canada has the lowest deforestation rate in the world. The forest industry is one of the main industries in Canada, which contributes about 7% of Canadian economy, and about 9% of the forests on earth are in Canada. Therefore, Canada has many policies and laws to commit to sustainable forest management. For example, 94% of Canadian forests are public land, and the government obligates planting trees after harvesting to public forests.


title: Reforestation

text: Approximately 59% of Peru is covered by forest. A history of political turmoil and the government's inability to enforce environmental regulations has led to the degradation of the forest and environment in Peru. A military coup in 1968 caused a loss of economic mobility in the Talara region and sparked a boom in illegal logging due to the lack of alternative economic opportunities. Illegal mining and logging operations are responsible for a great deal of Peru's deforestation and environmental damage. The Peruvian government has not been able to enforce an environmentally conscious mining formalization plan to protect the Amazon forest in the Madre de Dios region. The 1980s were known in Peru as the “lost decade” due to a nationwide internal conflict and severe economic crisis almost destroying the country and resulting in the state losing control over several regions. Many areas in Peru, including Madre de Dios, had no state presence until the government initiated a movement to ‘conquer and populate the Amazon,’ with the hopes of minimizing illegal and informal mining operations that had expanded in the region and were polluting the Amazonian rivers and the destroying of its forests.


title: Reforestation

text: Reforestation initiatives have expanded in the country since. In Peru, reforestation is essential to preserving the livelihoods of rural communities because much of the population relies on the forest in some way. Deforestation also disproportionally affects indigenous communities in Peru, which is why reforestation efforts are essential for the protection of many communities' livelihoods.


title: Reforestation

text: In China, extensive replanting programs have existed since the 1970s, which have had overall success. The forest cover has increased from 12% of China's land area to 16%. However, specific programs have had limited success. The "Green Wall of China", an attempt to limit the expansion of the Gobi Desert, is planned to be 2,800 miles (4,500 km) long and to be completed in 2050. China plans to plant 26 billion trees in the next decade; that is, two trees for every Chinese citizen per year. China requires that students older than 11 years old plant one tree a year until their high school graduation.


title: Reforestation

text: Between 2013 and 2018, China planted 338,000 square kilometres of forests, at a cost of $82.88 billion. By 2018, 21.7% of China's territory was covered by forests, a figure the government wants to increase to 26% by 2035. The total area of China is 9,596,961 square kilometres (see China), so 412,669 square kilometres more needs to be planted. According to the government's plan, by 2050, 30% of China’s territory should be covered by forests.


title: Reforestation

text: In 2017, the Saihanba Afforestation Community won the UN Champions of the Earth Award in the Inspiration and Action category for their successful reforestation efforts, which began upon discovering the survival of a single tree.


title: Reforestation

text: From 2016 to 2021, 3976 square kilometers of forests were planted in the Tibet Autonomous Region, with plans for 20 million trees to be planted before 2023.


title: Reforestation

text: In the years 2012-2022 China restored more than 70 million hectares (700,000 km) of forests. China committed to plant and conserve 70 billion trees by the year 2030 as part of the Trillion Tree Campaign.


title: Reforestation

text: Launched in 1978 and scheduled to last until 2050, the Three Northern Protected Forest Development Program - informally known as the "Great Green Wall" - aims to eventually plant nearly 90 million acres of new forest in a 2,800-mile stretch of northern China.


title: Reforestation

text: By the 14th century, forests in heavily populated areas had been devastated by industry, many of which required wood for their activities. Peter Stromer (1310-1388), lord of the Stromer trading and commercial company, was spurred by this shortage to "conduct forest culture experiments". In 1368 he successfully sowed fir and pine seeds in the Nuremberg Reichswald, which over time ended the wood shortage and established the "triumph of the pine in the Nuremberg Reichswald" (at the expense of other deciduous trees). The "doctrine of coniferous sowing" spread widely through forestry regulations and other writing at the time.


title: Reforestation

text: Reforestation is required as part of the federal forest law. 31% of Germany is forested, according to the second forest inventory of 2001–2003. The size of the forest area in Germany increased between the first and the second forest inventory due to forestation of degenerated bogs and agricultural areas.


title: Reforestation

text: Jadav Payeng had received national awards for reforestation efforts, known as the "Molai forest". He planted 1400 hectares of forest on the bank of river Brahmaputra alone. There are active reforestation efforts throughout the country. In 2016, India had more than 50 million trees planted in Uttar Pradesh and in 2017, more than 66 million trees planted in Madhya Pradesh. In addition to this and individual efforts, there are startup companies, such as Afforest, that are being created over the country working on reforestation.


title: Reforestation

text: Lots of plantation are being carried out in the Indian continent but the survivability is very poor especially for massive plantations, with less than 20% survivability rate. To improve the forest cover and to achieve the national mission of forest cover of 33%, there is a need to improve the methods of plantation. Rather than mass planting, there is a need to work on performance measurement & tracking of trees growth. Taking this into consideration, a non-profit organisation Ek Kadam Sansthan in Jaipur is leading the development of a module of mass tracking for plantations. The pilot has been done successfully and the organisation is hoping to implement nationwide by the end of 2021.


title: Reforestation

text: In 2019 the government of Ireland decided to plant 440 million trees by 2040. The decision is part of the government's plan to make Ireland carbon neutral by 2050 with renewable energy, land use change and carbon tax.


title: Reforestation

text: Ireland is also driven to increase sustainable timber consumption while also adding more eco friendly work positions. They also have taken efforts to limit the use of methane emissions by signing a pledge to draw back methane use by 30%.


title: Reforestation

text: Since 1948, large reforestation and afforestation projects were accomplished in Israel. 240 million trees have been planted. The carbon sequestration rate in these forests is similar to the European temperate forests.


title: Reforestation

text: Israel and only one other country was documented to have a net increase of forestation in the 2000's. This type of progress could be attributed to the social practices that Israel incorporates into their society.


title: Reforestation

text: The Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fishery explain that about two-thirds of Japanese land is covered with forests, and it was almost unchanged from 1966 to 2012. Japan needs to reduce 26% of green house gas emission from 2013 by 2030 to accomplish Paris Agreement and is trying to reduce 2% of them by forestry.


title: Reforestation

text: Mass environmental and human-body pollution along with relating deforestation, water pollution, smoke damage, and loss of soils caused by mining operations in Ashio, Tochigi became the first environmental social issue in Japan, efforts by Shōzō Tanaka had grown to large campaigns against copper operation. This led to the creation of 'Watarase Yusuichi Pond', to settle the pollution which is a Ramsar site today. Reforestation was conducted as a part of afforestation due to inabilities of self-recovering by the natural land itself due to serious soil pollution and loss of woods consequence in loss of soils for plants to grow, thus needing artificial efforts involving introducing of healthy soils from outside. Starting from around 1897, about 50% of once bald mountains are now back to green.


title: Reforestation

text: For thousands of years, Lebanon was covered by forests, one particular species of interest, "Cedrus libani" was exceptionally valuable and was almost eliminated due to lumbering operations. Virtually every ancient culture that shared the Mediterranean Sea harvested these trees from the Phoenicians who used cedar, pine and juniper to build their famous boats to the Romans, who cut them down for lime-burning kilns, to early in the 20th century when the Ottomans used much of the remaining cedar forests of Lebanon as fuel in steam trains. Despite two millennia of deforestation, forests in Lebanon still cover 13.6% of the country, and other wooded lands represent 11%.


title: Reforestation

text: Law No. 558, which was ratified by the Lebanese Parliament on April 19, 1996, aims to protect and expand existing forests, classifying all forests of cedar, fir, high juniper (juniperus excelsa), evergreen cypress (cupressus sempervirens) and other trees, whether diverse or homogeneous, whether state-owned or not as conserved forests.


title: Reforestation

text: Since 2011, more than 600,000 trees, including cedars and other native species, have been planted throughout Lebanon as part of the Lebanon Reforestation Initiative, which aims to restore Lebanon's native forests. Projects financed locally and by international charity are performing extensive reforestation of cedar being carried out in the Mediterranean region, particularly in Lebanon and Turkey, where over 50 million young cedars are being planted annually.


title: Reforestation

text: The Lebanon Reforestation Initiative has been working since 2012 with tree nurseries throughout Lebanon to help grow stronger tree seedlings that are better suited to survive once planted.


title: Reforestation

text: The Billion Tree Tsunami was launched in 2014 by planting 10 billion trees, by the provincial government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KPK) and Imran Khan, as a response to the challenge of global warming. Pakistan's Billion Tree Tsunami restored 350,000 hectares of forests and degraded land to surpass its Bonn Challenge commitment.


title: Reforestation

text: In 2018, Pakistan's prime minister Imran Khan declared that the country will plant 10 billion trees in the next five years.


title: Reforestation

text: In 2020, the Pakistani government launched an initiative to hire 63,600 laborers to plant trees in the northern Punjab region, with indigenous species such as acacia, mulberry and moringa. This initiative was meant to alleviate unemployment caused by lockdowns to mitigate the spread of COVID-19.


title: Reforestation

text: In 2011, the Philippines established the National Greening Program as a priority program to help reduce poverty, promote food security, environmental stability, and biodiversity conservation, as well as enhance climate change mitigation and adaptation in the country. The program paved the way for the planting of almost 1.4 billion seedlings in about 1.66 million hectares nationwide during the 2011-2016 period. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations ranked the Philippines fifth among countries reporting the greatest annual forest area gain, which reached 240,000 hectares during the 2010–2015 period.


title: Reforestation

text: Of the country's 78 million hectares of land in total the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry aims to increase to 30% by 2023.


title: Reforestation

text: 4000 years ago Anatolia was 60% to 70% forested. Although the flora of Turkey remains more biodiverse than many European countries deforestation occurred during both prehistoric and historic times, including the Roman and Ottoman periods.


title: Reforestation

text: Since the first forest code of 1937 the official government definition of 'forest' has varied. According to the current definition 21 million hectares are forested, an increase of about 1 million hectares over the past 30 years, but only about half is 'productive'. However, according to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization definition of forest about 12 million hectares was forested in 2015, about 15% of the land surface.


title: Reforestation

text: The amount of greenhouse gas emissions by Turkey removed by forests is very uncertain. however a new assessment is being made with the help of satellites and new soil measurements and better information should be available by 2020.


title: Reforestation

text: According to the World Resources Institute "Atlas of Forest Landscape Restoration Opportunities" 50 million hectares are potential forest land, a similar area to the ancient Anatolian forest mentioned above. This could help limit climate change in Turkey. To help preserve the biodiversity of Turkey more sustainable forestry has been suggested. Improved rangeland management is also needed.


title: Reforestation

text: National Forestation Day is on 11 November but, according to the agriculture and forestry trade union although volunteers planted a record number of trees in 2019, most had died by 2020 in part due to lack of rainfall.


title: Reforestation

text: It is the stated goal of the US Forest Service (USFS) to manage forest resources sustainably. This includes reforestation after timber harvest, among other programs.


title: Reforestation

text: United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) data shows that forest occupied about 46% of total U.S. land in 1630 (when European settlers began to arrive in large numbers), but had decreased to 34% by 1910. After 1910, forest area has remained almost constant although U.S. population has increased substantially. In the late 19th century the U.S. Forest Service was established in part to address the concern of natural disasters due to deforestation, and new reforestation programs and federal laws such as the Knutson-Vandenberg Act (1930) were implemented. The U.S. Forest Service states that human-directed reforestation is required to support natural regeneration and the agency engages in ongoing research into effective ways to restore forests.


title: Reforestation

text: As for the year 2020, United States of America planted 2.5 billion trees per year. At the beginning of the year 2020, a bill that will increase the number to 3.3 billion, was proposed by the Republican Party, after President Donald Trump joined the Trillion Tree Campaign.


title: Reforestation

text: Ecosia is a non-profit organisation based in Berlin, Germany, that has planted over 100 million trees worldwide as of July 2020.


title: Reforestation

text: Trees for the Future has assisted more than 170,000 families, in 6,800 villages of Asia, Africa and the Americas, to plant over 35 million trees.


title: Reforestation

text: Ecologi is an organisation that offers its members ways to support climate change solutions. This includes offsetting their carbon emissions and tree planting. So far over 50 million trees have been planted through Ecologi, as well a more than 2.2 million tonnes of CO2e reduced.


title: Reforestation

text: Wangari Maathai, 2004 Nobel Peace Prize recipient, founded the Green Belt Movement which planted over 47 million trees to restore the Kenyan environment.


title: Reforestation

text: Shanghai Roots & Shoots, a division of the Jane Goodall Institute, launched The Million Tree Project in Kulun Qi, Inner Mongolia to plant one million trees to stop desertification and alleviate global warming.


title: Reforestation

text: Team Trees was a 2019 fundraiser with an initiative to plant 20 million trees. The initiative was started by American YouTubers MrBeast and Mark Rober, and was mostly supported by YouTubers. The Arbor Day Foundation will work with its local partners around the world to plant one tree for each dollar they raise.


title: Reforestation

text: Trees For Life (Brooklyn Park) is a state based organisation, which was established back in 1981 and delivers conservation, revegetation and community training programs. It now has thousands of active supporters and energizes activity within communities.


title: Reforestation

text: Many companies are trying to achieve carbon offsets by nature-based solutions like reforestation, including mangrove forests and soil restoration. Among them are Microsoft and Eni. Increasing the forest cover of Earth by 25% will offset the human emissions in the last 20 years. In any case it will be necessary to pull from the atmosphere the that already have been emitted. However, this can work only if the companies will stop new emissions and stop deforestation.


title: Reforestation

text: A similar concept, afforestation, refers to the process of restoring and recreating areas of woodlands or forests that may have existed long ago but were deforested or otherwise removed at some point in the past or lacked it naturally (e.g., natural grasslands). Sometimes the term "re-afforestation" is used to distinguish between the original forest cover and the later re-growth of forest to an area. Special tools, e.g. tree planting bars, are used to make planting of trees easier and faster.


title: Reforestation

text: Another alternative strategy, proforestation, is similar as it can be used to counteract the negative environmental and ecological effects of deforestation through growing an existing forest intact to its full ecological potential.


title: Reforestation

text: Reforestation competes with other land uses, such as food production, livestock grazing, and living space, for further economic growth. Reforestation can divert large amounts of water from other activities. A map created by the World Resources Institute in collaboration with the IUCN identifies 2 billion hectares for potential forest restoration. It is criticised for including 900 million hectares of grasslands.


title: Reforestation

text: Reforestation often has the tendency to create large fuel loads, resulting in significantly hotter combustion than fires involving low brush or grasses. Reduced harvesting rates and fire suppression have caused an increase in the forest biomass in the western United States over the past century. This causes an increase of about a factor of four in the frequency of fires due to longer and hotter dry seasons.


title: Reforestation

text: Reforesting sometimes results in extensive canopy creation that prevents growth of diverse vegetation in the shadowed areas and generating soil conditions that hamper other types of vegetation. Trees used in some reforesting efforts (e.g., "Eucalyptus globulus") tend to extract large amounts of moisture from the soil, preventing the growth of other plants. The European Commission found that, in terms of environmental services, it is better to avoid deforestation than to allow for deforestation to subsequently reforest, as the former leads to irreversible effects in terms of biodiversity loss and soil degradation.


title: Reforestation

text: The effects reforestation has on biodiversity is not limited to just other forms of vegetation, it can affect all forms of living organisms all contained in the present ecosystem. Due to the major role trees have on ecosystems it is important to better understand components like the ecosystem, waterways, and species present in areas that are being re-planted. Prior research helps limit the depletion of biodiversity which can hinder medicinal discoveries, and alter gene flow in organisms.


title: Reforestation

text: There is also the risk that, through a forest fire or insect outbreak, much of the stored carbon in a reforested area could make its way back to the atmosphere. Furthermore, the probability that legacy carbon will be released from soil is higher in younger boreal forest. An example of this can be seen in the peatlands in Central Africa, which house an abundance of carbon in the mud called peat. Much like the forest fire or insect outbreak which can harm tropical rainforests, money can also be seen an incentive to harm forests and be paid off to protect it. The mudGlobal greenhouse gas emissions caused by damage to tropical rainforests may be underestimated by a factor of six. Additionally the effects of af- or reforestation will be farther in the future than those of proforestation. It takes much longer − several decades − for the benefits for global warming to manifest to the same carbon sequestration benefits from mature trees in tropical forests and hence from limiting deforestation. Some researchers note that instead of planting entirely new areas, reconnecting forested areas and restoring the edges of forest, to protect their mature core and make them more resilient and longer-lasting, should be prioritized.


title: My War

text: My War is the second studio album by American band Black Flag. It was the first of three full-length albums released by the band in 1984. It polarized fans due to the LP's B-side, on which the band slowed down to a heavy, Black Sabbath-esque trudge, despite the reputation the band had earned as leaders in fast hardcore punk on its first album, "Damaged" (1981).


title: My War

text: After a period of legal troubles which prohibited the band from using its own name on recordings, Black Flag returned to the studio with a new approach to its music that incorporated a greater variety of styles, resulting in a sound orthodox punks found difficult to accept. The line-up had shrunk from five members to three: vocalist Henry Rollins, drummer Bill Stevenson, and co-founding guitarist Greg Ginn. Ginn doubled on bass guitar under the name "Dale Nixon" for the recording as bassist Chuck Dukowski left the band shortly before recording; the album includes two tracks Dukowski wrote.


title: My War

text: The A-side of the LP is composed of six generally high-paced, thrashy hardcore tracks, featuring guitar solos unusual in punk music. On the B-side are three tracks in a sludge metal style, each breaching six-minutes with ponderously slow tempos and dark, unrelenting lyrics of self-hatred. The band members had grown their hair long when they toured the album in 1984, further alienating their hardcore skinhead fanbase. Despite mixed reception at the time of the album's release, "My War" is now regarded as one of Black Flag's seminal releases and had a major influence on the development of sludge metal, grunge, and math rock.


title: My War

text: In 1978, Black Flag guitarist and cofounder Greg Ginn converted his ham radio business Solid State Transmitters to SST Records to release the band's first EP "Nervous Breakdown". Soon SST was releasing recordings by other bands as well, beginning with Minutemen's "Paranoid Time" in 1980.


title: My War

text: Black Flag recorded its first album "Damaged" in 1981 at Unicorn Studios and arranged a deal with the studio's record label Unicorn Records, which had distribution with MCA Records. MCA label president Al Bergamo halted the release after hearing the record, calling it "anti-parent"—though SST co-owner Joe Carducci asserts this was a pretense for MCA to sever relations with the financially troubled Unicorn. The band obtained and distributed the already-pressed copies of "Damaged" and adorned it with a label displaying Bergamo's "anti-parent" quote. Legal troubles erupted when SST claimed unpaid royalties from Unicorn and Unicorn successfully counter-sued, resulting in five days in jail for Ginn and co-founding bassist Chuck Dukowski and an injunction prohibiting the band from releasing material under its own name. The double album "Everything Went Black"—a compilation of earlier, unreleased material—appeared from SST in 1982 without the band's name on it. Unicorn's bankruptcy in 1983 freed the band from the injunction.


title: My War

text: Following the release of "Damaged", Black Flag absorbed a wider range of influences from the more experimental hardcore of Flipper, Void, and Fang. Music journalist Andrew Earles believes that the band was influenced by the tiny but growing doom metal scene led by Saint Vitus (who released via SST), while music journalist Steve Chick records that the band members listened to Black Sabbath, Deep Purple, and Uriah Heep when they were younger. Ginn jealously guarded the new material, fearing other bands would capitalize on the new approach.


title: My War

text: The band toured extensively in North America and Europe to often hostile, violent hardcore punk crowds. The disciplined group rehearsed obsessively, but there was little friendship between members: vocalist Henry Rollins was introverted and Ginn cold and demanding. Dukowski felt that Rollins' vocal approach was better suited than that of the band's earlier three singers to the new material he was writing such as "I Love You" and "My War". Dukowski, who also wrote poetry and fiction, encouraged Rollins to write as well, and Rollins found inspiration in Dukowksi's bleak lyrical style.


title: My War

text: The band recorded a set of ten demo tracks at Total Access studios in 1982 for a planned follow-up to "Damaged" on which Chuck Biscuits replaced "Damaged" drummer Robo. The rest of the lineup consisted of Ginn and former vocalist Dez Cadena on guitars, Rollins on vocals, and Dukowski on bass. The band explored new sounds on these tracks, which tended to feature a riff-heavy heavy-metal edge and noisy, energetic free guitar soloing from Ginn. The album never materialized, and the heavily bootlegged demos have never been officially released; re-recordings of several of the tracks from the session were to feature on "My War" and other later albums. The line-up did not last long—frustrated with the band's legal troubles, Biscuits left in December 1982, replaced by Bill Stevenson, and in 1983 Cadena left to form DC3. Ginn had been frustrated with Dukowski's sense of rhythm, and in Germany during a European tour in 1983 gave Dukowski an ultimatum to quit, or Ginn himself would leave. Dukowski left the band, but stayed on to co-run SST.


title: My War

text: With Unicorn's demise in 1983, Black Flag was able to release the material they had written since 1981. Eager to get back in the studio but still without a bassist, Ginn took on bass duties under the pseudonym "Dale Nixon" and practiced the new material with Stevenson up to eight hours a day, teaching the drummer to slow down and let the rhythm "ooze out" at a pace Stevenson was unused to; the band called this approach the "socialist groove", as all beats were equally spaced. With Spot as producer and $200,000 in debt, Ginn, Rollins, and Stevenson headed to the studio to record "My War".


title: My War

text: The sides on the original LP divide the tracks into stylistic halves. The first half features five tracks that are in the same style that the band originated on their previous album "Damaged" and closes with a noisy freak-out, "The Swinging Man". Dukowski penned the opening title track. Ginn's "Can't Decide" follows, a gloomy ode to frustration: "I conceal my feelings / So I don't have to explain / What I can't explain anyway". "Beat My Head Against the Wall" rails at conformity and the band's experience with a major label: "Swimming in the mainstream / Is such a lame, lame dream". Dukowski's "I Love You" parodies pop ballads with lyrics of violence and dysfunction in a relationship gone wrong. Ginn and Rollins share credit on the metallic "Forever Time" and the noisy "Swinging Man".


title: My War

text: The second half is three tracks that each clock at over six minutes in length. Each is described as an early cross-pollination between punk and metal, a plodding Black Sabbath-esque sludge metal, or proto-noise rock style, depending on how it is viewed. On "Three Nights", Rollins compares himself to feces stuck to his shoe: "And I've been grinding that stink into the dirt / For a long time now". Against a slow, heavy, start-and-stop bass riff and a constant drum thudding, Rollins closes "Scream" with a bellow after delivering the Ginn-penned lines: "I may be a big baby / But I'll scream in your ear / 'Til I find out / Just what it is I am doing here".


title: My War

text: "My War" was the first of four Black Flag releases in 1984, a year that also saw "Family Man", "Slip It In", and "Live '84" appear from SST. It is considered to be one of the first post-hardcore albums along with Hüsker Dü's "Zen Arcade" and Minutemen's "Double Nickels on the Dime" in the same year.


title: My War

text: Black Flag toured the "My War" material from March 1984, with the Nig-Heist and Meat Puppets as opening acts. It had been a year since the band had toured, and Rollins, Ginn, and Stevenson had grown out their hair; punks associated long hair with the hippies they loathed and found it dissonant with Rollins' accepted image as a hardcore skinhead. "My War" polarized Black Flag fans; it alienated those who wanted the band to stay true to its simple hardcore roots and who were put off by the length of the songs, the riff-heaviness, and the solos—elements widely thought of as un-punk. Tim Yo disparaged the album in "Maximumrocknroll", saying "it sounds like Black Flag doing an imitation of Iron Maiden imitating Black Flag on a bad day", and called the B-side "sheer torture". Howard Hampton at the Boston "Phoenix" called "My War" "unbearably boring ... resorting to standard machinations".


title: My War

text: The muffled sound of the album's production has attracted criticism; Stevie Chick disparaged the lack of character in Ginn's bass-playing on "My War" when compared to the 1982 demo of the same song with Dukowski on bass. Michael Azerrad praised the strength of the material while denigrating the "frustrating lack of ensemble feel" as the album was recorded without a full lineup. Critic Clay Jarvis commended the album, emphasizing the risks taken on it and its influence, calling it "more a test than an album", and saying, "independent music is stronger because Black Flag formulated it". John Dougan at AllMusic called the A-side of the album "quite good", but described the B-side as "self-indulgence masquerading as inspiration and about as much fun as wading through a tar pit". Robert Christgau considered the B-side a "waste".


title: My War

text: The album had a large influence on the hardcore-meets-Sabbath sounds of the Melvins, Mudhoney, and Nirvana. Mark Arm of Mudhoney related he was moved to tears at a Black Flag concert in 1983 when he was first exposed to "Nothing Left Inside", and the experience inspired him to seek out bands like Black Sabbath. The first punk concert Nirvana frontman Kurt Cobain attended was a Black Flag show during the My War tour, and he listed "My War" on his list of top fifty albums.


title: A Countess from Hong Kong

text: A Countess from Hong Kong is a 1967 British romantic comedy film scored, written, and directed by Charlie Chaplin, and the final film directed, written, produced and scored by him. Based on the life of a former Russian aristocrat as he calls her in his 1922 book "My Trip Abroad". She was a Russian singer and dancer who "was a stateless person marooned in France without a passport"., the film starred Marlon Brando and Sophia Loren, and revolved around an American diplomat who falls in love with a stowaway on a cruise. Sydney Chaplin (Chaplin's son), Tippi Hedren, Patrick Cargill and Margaret Rutherford co-star in major supporting roles; Chaplin also made a cameo, marking his final screen appearance.


title: A Countess from Hong Kong

text: The story is based loosely on Russian singer and dancer Moussia "Skaya" Sodskaya, whom Chaplin met in France in 1921. The film had been in development since the 1930s under the title "Stowaway", as a vehicle for Paulette Goddard. However, following their divorce and subsequent events in his life, Chaplin continued working on it until it was ready for production in the mid-1960s. It was ultimately his only film in colour, and one of two films Chaplin directed in which he did not play a major role (the other being 1923's "A Woman of Paris").


title: A Countess from Hong Kong

text: The film premiered in London on 5 January 1967, receiving negative reviews from critics. Although a major success in Europe and Japan, it still underperformed at the box office, though the success of the music score was able to cover the budget. The film's theme song, "This Is My Song", written by Chaplin and performed by Petula Clark, became a worldwide success, topping the charts in the United Kingdom, Ireland, Australia, the Netherlands and Belgium, while reaching number three in the United States and number four in Canada. Since its release, the film has been reevaluated and received more positive reviews.


title: A Countess from Hong Kong

text: Ambassador-designate to Saudi Arabia Ogden Mears sails back to America after touring the world. At a layover in Hong Kong, Ogden meets Nataschaa Russian countess whose Shanghai Russian parents died after the family was expelled following the Russian Revolutionwho then sneaks into his cabin in evening dress to escape her life as a prostitute at a sailors' dance hall. A refugee, she has no passport, and she is forced to hide in his cabin during the voyage.


title: A Countess from Hong Kong

text: Ogden dislikes the situation, being a married man although seeking a divorce, and he worries how it might affect his career if she is found. But he reluctantly agrees to let her stay. They must then figure out how to get her off the ship, and it is arranged that she marry Hudson, his middle-aged valet.


title: A Countess from Hong Kong

text: Although it is only a formality, Hudson wishes to consummate the relationship, a wish she does not share. She avoids him until they dock in Honolulu, then jumps off the ship and swims ashore.


title: A Countess from Hong Kong

text: Ogden's wife Martha arrives in Honolulu to join the cruise, under advice from Washington that they avoid the impropriety of a divorce. Ogden's lawyer friend Harvey, who helped arrange the marriage, meets Natascha ashore and tells her that the immigration officers have accepted her as Hudson's wife, and she will remain in Honolulu. Martha confronts Ogden about Natascha, speaking rather roughly about her and her past lifestyle as a prostitute and the mistress of a gangster, having learned her past from a passenger who was Natascha's customer in Hong Kong. Ogden responds by asking if his wife would have done as well under such circumstances.


title: A Countess from Hong Kong

text: The ship sets sail for the U.S. mainland, but Ogden surprises Natascha in the hotel's cabaret where they begin dancing as he has left the ship and his wife.


title: A Countess from Hong Kong

text: In addition, Charlie Chaplin briefly appears as an Old Steward, while his daughters Geraldine, Josephine and Victoria make brief appearances as Girl at Dance (on the ship) and as Two Young Girls (entering the Waikiki Hotel), respectively.


title: A Countess from Hong Kong

text: The idea, according to a press release written by Chaplin, "resulted from a visit I made to Shanghai in 1931 where I came across a number of titled aristocrats who had escaped the Russian Revolution. They were destitute and without a country; their status was of the lowest grade. The men ran rickshaws and the women worked in ten-cent dance halls. When the Second World War broke out many of the old aristocrats had died and the younger generation migrated to Hong Kong where their plight was even worse, for Hong Kong was overcrowded with refugees." Chaplin had written a draft of the script in the 1930s under the working title "The Stowaway", as a starring vehicle for his then-wife Paulette Goddard. However, amidst work for "The Great Dictator", Goddard signed a contract with Paramount Pictures, and left Chaplin the following year. Although Chaplin and Goddard agreed to make one more film together in their divorce settlement, the idea never materialized. In the years after, Chaplin worked on the script in increments, "adding a bit here, cutting a bit there."


title: A Countess from Hong Kong

text: In 1963, a friend of Chaplin suggested to him Sophia Loren for the lead role of Natascha, the Russian princess. For the character of Ogden, he originally wanted Rex Harrison or Cary Grant to play the role, but eventually Marlon Brando was cast. By 1965, both Brando and Sophia Loren committed to the film without reading a script. Tippi Hedren, who broke with Alfred Hitchcock, also signed on for the film without reading the script, and was disappointed to learn the insignificance of her role. Although Chaplin tried to accommodate her, he could not, as the story mostly takes place on a ship that Hedren's character boards near the end of the film. In the end, she remained in the film and later said that it was a pleasure working for him. Chaplin cast his son Sydney in a supporting role, as well as his three eldest daughters in cameo appearances: Geraldine (at minutes 46 and 65), Josephine and Victoria Chaplin (at minute 92).


title: A Countess from Hong Kong

text: Production began on 25 January 1966 at Pinewood Studios in Buckinghamshire, just outside London. The film was the second of Universal's European unit, following "Fahrenheit 451". Production was frequently interrupted by Brando arriving late and then being hospitalized with appendicitis; Chaplin and Brando having the flu; and Loren marrying Carlo Ponti.


title: A Countess from Hong Kong

text: Hedren described Chaplin's directorial technique in the following way: "Chaplin’s method was to act out all our different roles, which was brilliant to watch. Instead of directing, he’d get out there on set and say: 'OK, do this,' and show us how. He’d become Sophia Loren. He’d become me and Marlon. It was really unusual and I’d never seen it happen before." Although many members of the cast appreciated Chaplin's approach, Marlon Brando felt insulted and wanted to quit before Chaplin was able to persuade him to finish the picture. Brando came to consider Chaplin a "fearsomely cruel man", claiming that Chaplin: "was an egotistical tyrant and a penny-pincher. He harassed people when they were late, and scolded them unmercifully to work faster." Brando was particularly angered by what he regarded as the cruel way that Chaplin treated his son Sydney, who had a supporting role in the picture: "Chaplin was probably the most sadistic man I’d ever met."


title: A Countess from Hong Kong

text: The film was released on VHS in 1996, as part of the "Universal Cinema Classics" series. In 2003 it was released on DVD in widescreen format, and later re-released as part of the DVD set "Marlon Brando: The Franchise Collection". It is now on Blu-ray.


title: A Countess from Hong Kong

text: Critics such as Tim Hunter and Andrew Sarris, as well as poet John Betjeman and director François Truffaut, viewed the film as being among Chaplin's best works. Actor Jack Nicholson is also reportedly a big fan of the film.


title: Fred Kerley

text: Fredrick Lee Kerley (born May 7, 1995) is an American track and field sprinter known primarily for competing in the 400 meters distance but more recently the 100 meters and 200 meters. He has earned several medals at the World Championships in the 400 m and 4 × 400 m relay including an individual bronze and a relay gold at the 2019 edition. Kerley claimed 100m gold in the 2022 edition.


title: Fred Kerley

text: Kerley's personal best time of 43.64 seconds makes him the eighth fastest man in history over 400 m. During the pandemic, Kerley chose to focus on the 100 meters during the Olympic cycle to improve his basic speed for future attempts at a sub-43 400 m. The decision to move down paid off as he won the silver medal in the 100 m at the 2020 Tokyo Olympics with a 9.84 performance; His personal best time of 9.76 makes him the sixth fastest man in history over the straightaway sprint.


title: Fred Kerley

text: Kerley is one of only 3 men along with Michael Norman and Wayde van Niekerk to go sub 10 seconds in 100m, sub 20 seconds in 200m and sub 44 seconds in 400m.


title: Fred Kerley

text: Kerley attended Taylor High School and his youth team was the College Station Sprinters in College Station, Texas. Afterwards he attended South Plains College from 2013 to 2015 before transferring to Texas A&M.


title: Fred Kerley

text: In 2016, Fred Kerley tried out for the Olympic team at the USA Olympic Trials. He did not qualify out of his heat, but he went on to represent the United States at the NACAC Under-23 Championships where he anchored the 4 × 100 meters relay team to gold.


title: Fred Kerley

text: In March 2017, he won the 400 m at the NCAA Division I Championships in a world leading time of 44.85 s, one of the top ten fastest indoor times ever. He joined his younger brother Mylik Kerley as he anchored the Aggies to a come from behind victory in the relay. The two first place finishes contributed 20 points to the team, helping bring Texas A&M to their first ever team victory at the NCAA Track and Field Championships, run on their home track. In May, Kerley ran 44.09 s, just 0.09 s off the NCAA record, while easing to the finish line at the Southeastern Conference (SEC) Championships in Columbia, South Carolina. A few weeks later Kerley set the NCAA record in the men's 400 m at the 2017 NCAA West Preliminary with a time of 43.70 s, taking three-tenths of a second off the 44.00 record by Olympic champion Quincy Watts, set almost 25 years earlier. Kerley had met Watts just before the race. He concluded his amateur career to win the 400 m and relay at the 2017 NCAA Division I Championships in June.


title: Fred Kerley

text: A few weeks later in June 2017, Kerley won the 400 m at the USATF Championships in 44.03 seconds, qualifying to represent the United States in both the 400 m and the relay at the World Championships in Athletics. After winning his heat he finished third in his semi, but qualified for the final on time. In the final he was unable to replicate his form from earlier in the season, finishing seventh in a time of 45.23 s. He came back a day later to help the US qualify for the finals in the relay, and then a few days later earned a silver medal behind Trinidad and Tobago.


title: Fred Kerley

text: After Kerley turned professional in 2017 he joined club ALTIS in Phoenix, Arizona, and trained there under the guidance of Kevin Tyler for the 2018 season. However, in 2019 he returned to Texas A&M to train under his former coach Alleyne Francique, stating to Track & Field News "I believe in him so much that I had to come back to train with him."


title: Fred Kerley

text: Kerley made his 2021 outdoor debut March 20 at the Tropical Park Elite Sprints Meet in Tropical Park, Florida with a pair of personal bests in the 100 m, 10.15 s in the heats and 10.11 s in the final, and then improved that time twice again at the Pure Athletics Spring Invitational in Clermont, Florida on April 4 with times of 10.06 in the heats and 10.03 to win the final.


title: Fred Kerley

text: Kerley achieved his first sub-10 in the 100 m at the TRUfit Classic in Miami on April 24, winning in 9.91 s with a maximum allowable wind velocity for record purposes (+2.0 m/s). On May 19 he won the men's 100 m in 9.96 s at the Golden Spike in Ostrava, finishing ahead of former Olympic and World champion Justin Gatlin who settled for second in 10.08 s. Kerley also ran in the 200 m where he placed second with a time of 20.27 s, trailing Kenny Bednarek from the start who won in 19.93 s. According to "Reuters," Kerley was satisfied with his performances, but thought there was more work to do in his 200 m and his focus for the Olympic Trials would be 400 m.


title: Fred Kerley

text: On June 27, 2021, during the 2021 US Olympic Trials 200m final, Kerley ran a 19.90 his first sub-20 in the 200m. With this performance, Fred Kerley becomes the 3rd athlete to join the "Sub 10s, 20s, 44s club for the 100m, 200m & 400m sprints". The other 2 being the 400m World Record holder Wayde van Niekerk & Michael Norman.


title: Fred Kerley

text: While competing in the 2022 World Athletics Championships, Kerley won his maiden individual World Championship gold medal in the 100m. Kerley registered his third consecutive sub-9.8 second performance in the heats, running a time of 9.79 seconds. In the final, Kerley pipped compatriot Marvin Bracy on the line with a time of 9.86 seconds winning the world title in the process. Fellow American Trayvon Bromell finished third, completing a clean sweep.


title: Dying-and-rising deity

text: A dying-and-rising, death-rebirth, or resurrection deity is a religious motif in which a god or goddess dies and is resurrected. Examples of gods who die and later return to life are most often cited from the religions of the ancient Near East, and traditions influenced by them include Greco-Roman mythology.


title: Dying-and-rising deity

text: The concept of a dying-and-rising god was first proposed in comparative mythology by James Frazer's seminal "The Golden Bough" (1890). Frazer associated the motif with fertility rites surrounding the yearly cycle of vegetation. Frazer cited the examples of Osiris, Tammuz, Adonis and Attis, Zagreus, Dionysus, and Jesus.


title: Dying-and-rising deity

text: Frazer's interpretation of the category has been critically discussed in 20th-century scholarship, to the conclusion that many examples from the world's mythologies included under "dying and rising" should only be considered "dying" but not "rising", and that the genuine dying-and-rising god is a characteristic feature of ancient Near Eastern mythologies and the derived mystery cults of Late Antiquity. "Death or departure of the gods" is motif A192 in Stith Thompson's "Motif-Index of Folk-Literature" (1932), while "resurrection of gods" is motif A193.


title: Dying-and-rising deity

text: The motif of a dying deity appears within the mythology of diverse cultures – perhaps because attributes of deities were derived from everyday experiences, and the ensuing conflicts often included death.


title: Dying-and-rising deity

text: The methods of death vary, e.g., in the myth of Baldr (whose account was likely first written down in the 12th century), he is inadvertently killed by his blind brother Höðr who is tricked into shooting a mistletoe-tipped arrow at him, and his body is then set aflame on a ship as it sails out to sea. Baldr does not come back to life because not all living creatures shed tears for him, and his death then leads to the "doom of the gods".


title: Dying-and-rising deity

text: In contrast, in most variations of his story, Quetzalcoatl (whose account was first written down in the 16th century) is tricked by Tezcatlipoca to over-drink and then burns himself to death out of remorse for his own shameful deeds. Quetzalcoatl does not resurrect and come back to life as himself, but some versions of his story have a flock of birds flying away from his ashes, and in some variants, Quetzalcoatl sails away on the ocean never to return.


title: Dying-and-rising deity

text: Hawaiian deities can die and depart the world in a number of ways; e.g., some gods who were killed on Lanai by Lanikuala departed for the skies. In contrast, Kaili leaves the world by a canoe which is never seen again. The Japanese god Izanami dies giving birth to the child Kagu-tsuchi (incarnation of fire) or Ho-Musubi (causer of fire) and Izanagi goes to Yomi, the land of gloom, to retrieve her, but she has already changed to a deteriorated state and Izanagi will not bring her back, and she pursues Izanagi, but he manages to escape.


title: Dying-and-rising deity

text: often associated with the vegetation cycle, or a staple food, in effect taking the form of a vegetation deity. Examples include Ishtar and Persephone, who die every year. The yearly death of Ishtar when she goes underground represents the lack of growth, while her return represents the rebirth of the farming cycle. Most scholars hold that although the gods suggested in this motif die, they do not generally return in terms of rising as the same deity, although scholars such as Mettinger contend that in some cases they do.


title: Dying-and-rising deity

text: The term "dying god" is associated with the works of James Frazer, Jane Ellen Harrison, and their fellow Cambridge Ritualists. At the end of the 19th century, in their "The Golden Bough" and "Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion", Frazer and Harrison argued that all myths are echoes of rituals, and that all rituals have as their primordial purpose the manipulation of natural phenomena.


title: Dying-and-rising deity

text: Early in the 20th century, Gerald Massey argued that there are similarities between the Egyptian dying-and-rising god myths and Jesus, but Massey's factual errors often render his works nonsensical. For example, Massey stated that the biblical references to Herod the Great were based on the myth of "Herrut" the evil hydra serpent. However, the existence of Herod the Great is well established independently of Christian sources. Massey's scholarship has been widely rejected by mainstream academics, including, among many others, Christian Evangelical writers such as Stanley E. Porter.


title: Dying-and-rising deity

text: The Swiss psychoanalyst Carl Jung argued that archetypal processes such as death and resurrection were part of the "trans-personal symbolism" of the collective unconscious, and could be utilized in the task of psychological integration. He also proposed that the myths of the pagan gods who symbolically died and resurrected foreshadowed Christ's literal/physical death and resurrection. The overall view of Jung regarding religious themes and stories is that they are expressions of events occurring in the unconscious of the individuals – regardless of their historicity. From the symbolic perspective, Jung sees dying and rising gods as an archetypal process resonating with the collective unconscious through which the rising god becomes the greater personality in the Jungian self. In Jung's view, a biblical story such as the resurrection of Jesus (which he saw as a case of dying and rising) may be true or not, but that has no relevance to the psychological analysis of the process, and its impact.


title: Dying-and-rising deity

text: The analysis of Osiris permeates the later religious psychology of Carl Jung more than any other element. In 1950 Jung wrote that those who partake in the Osiris myth festival and follow the ritual of his death and the scattering of his body to restart the vegetation cycle as a rebirth "experience the permanence and continuity of life which outlasts all changes of form". Jung wrote that Osiris provided the key example of the rebirth process in that initially only the Pharaohs "had an Osiris" but later other Egyptians nobles acquired it and eventually it led in the concept of soul for all individuals in Christianity. Jung believed that Christianity itself derived its significance from the archetypal relationship between Osiris and Horus versus God the Father and Jesus, his son. However, Jung also postulated that the rebirth applied to Osiris (the father), and not Horus, the son.


title: Dying-and-rising deity

text: The general applicability of the death and resurrection of Osiris to the dying-and-rising-god analogy has been criticized, on the grounds that it derived from the harvesting rituals that related the rising and receding waters of the Nile river and the farming cycle. The cutting down of barley and wheat was related to the death of Osiris, while the sprouting of shoots was thought to be based on the power of Osiris to resurrect the farmland. In general rebirth analogies based on the vegetation cycle are viewed as the weakest elements in the death-rebirth analogies.


title: Dying-and-rising deity

text: In Greek mythology, Dionysus, the son of Zeus, was a horned child who was torn to pieces by Titans who lured him with toys, then boiled and ate him. Zeus then destroyed the Titans by thunderbolt as a result of their action against Dionysus and from the ashes humans were formed. However, Dionysus' grandmother Rhea managed to put some of his pieces back together (principally from his heart that was spared) and brought him back to life. In other Orphic tales, Zagreus is depicted as the son of Hades and Persephone, and is the god of rebirth. Scholars such as Barry Powell have suggested Dionysus as an example of resurrection.


title: Dying-and-rising deity

text: The oldest known example of the "dying god rising myth" is the Sumerian myth of Inanna's Descent to the Underworld . The Sumerian goddess Inanna travels to the Underworld to see her sister Ereshkigal. While there, she is "struck down" and turns into a corpse. For three days and three nights, Inanna is dead, until she is resurrected with the help of her father, Enki, who sends the two galla to bring her back. The galla serve Inanna food and water and bring her back to life.


title: Dying-and-rising deity

text: The category "dying-and-rising-god" was debated throughout the 20th century, most modern scholars questioning its ubiquity in the world's mythologies.


title: Dying-and-rising deity

text: By the end of the 20th century the overall scholarly consensus had emerged against the category, given its limited applicability outside of ancient Near Eastern religions and derived traditions. Kurt Rudolph in 1986 argued that the oft-made connection between the mystery religions and the idea of dying and rising divinities is defective. Gerald O'Collins states that surface-level application of analogous symbolism is a case of parallelomania which exaggerates the importance of trifling resemblances, long abandoned by mainstream scholars. Against this view, Mettinger (2001) affirms that many of the gods of the mystery religions do indeed die, descend to the underworld, are lamented and retrieved by a woman and restored to life. However, Mettinger also disincludes Christianity from this influence.


title: Dying-and-rising deity

text: While the concept of a "dying-and-rising god" has a longer history, it was significantly advocated by Frazer's "Golden Bough" (1906–1914). At first received very favourably, the idea was attacked by Roland de Vaux in 1933, and was the subject of controversial debate over the following decades.


title: Dying-and-rising deity

text: One of the leading scholars in the deconstruction of Frazer's "dying-and-rising god" category was Jonathan Z. Smith, whose 1969 dissertation discusses Frazer's "Golden Bough", and who in Mircea Eliade's 1987 "Encyclopedia of religion" wrote the "Dying and rising gods" entry, where he dismisses the category as "largely a misnomer based on imaginative reconstructions and exceedingly late or highly ambiguous texts", suggesting a more detailed categorisation into "dying gods" and "disappearing gods", arguing that before Christianity, the two categories were distinct and gods who "died" did not return, and those who returned never truly "died".


title: Dying-and-rising deity

text: Smith gave a more detailed account of his views specifically on the question of parallels to Christianity in "Drudgery Divine" (1990).


title: Dying-and-rising deity

text: Smith's 1987 article was widely received, and during the 1990s, scholarly consensus seemed to shift towards his rejection of the concept as oversimplified, although it continued to be invoked by scholars writing about ancient Near Eastern mythology. Since the 1990s, Smith's scholarly rejection of the category has been widely embraced by Christian apologists wishing to defend the historicity of Jesus, while scholarly defenses of the concept (or its applicability to mystery religion) have been embraced by the new atheism movement wishing to argue the Christ myth theory.


title: Dying-and-rising deity

text: Beginning with an overview of the Athenian ritual of growing and withering herb gardens at the Adonis festival, in his book "The Gardens of Adonis" Marcel Detienne suggests that rather than being a stand-in for crops in general (and therefore the cycle of death and rebirth), these herbs (and Adonis) were part of a complex of associations in the Greek mind that centered on spices. These associations included seduction, trickery, gourmandizing, and the anxieties of childbirth. From his point of view, Adonis's death is only one datum among the many that must be used to analyze the festival, the myth, and the god.


title: Dying-and-rising deity

text: A main criticism charges the group of analogies with reductionism, insofar as it subsumes a range of disparate myths under a single category and ignores important distinctions. Detienne argues that it risks making Christianity the standard by which all religion is judged, since death and resurrection are more central to Christianity than many other faiths. Dag Øistein Endsjø, a scholar of religion, points out how a number of those often defined as dying-and-rising-deities, such as a number of figures in ancient Greek religion, actually died as ordinary mortals, only to become gods of various stature after they were resurrected from the dead. Not dying as gods, they thus defy the definition of "dying-and-rising-gods".


title: Dying-and-rising deity

text: Tryggve Mettinger, who supports the category of dying and rising gods, stated in 2001 that there was a scholarly consensus that the category is inappropriate from a historical perspective. As of 2009, the "Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion" summarizes the current scholarly consensus as ambiguous, with some scholars rejecting Frazer's "broad universalist category" preferring to emphasize the differences between the various traditions, while others continue to view the category as applicable.