title: Wayuu people

text: The Wayúu inhabit the arid Guajira Peninsula straddling the Venezuela-Colombia border, on the Caribbean Sea coast. Two major rivers flow through this mostly harsh environment: the Rancheria River in Colombia and the El Limón River in Venezuela representing the main source of water, along with artificial ponds designed to hold rain water during the rain season.


title: Wayuu people

text: The territory has equatorial weather seasons: a rainy season from September to December, which they call "Juyapu"; a dry season, known by them as "Jemial", from December to April; a second rainy season called "Iwa" from April to May; and a long second dry season from May to September.


title: Wayuu people

text: Although the Wayuu were never subjugated by the Spanish, the two groups were in a more or less permanent state of war. There were rebellions in 1701 (when they destroyed a Capuchin mission), 1727 (when more than 2,000 natives attacked the Spanish), 1741, 1757, 1761 and 1768. In 1718, Governor Soto de Herrera called them "barbarians, horse thieves, worthy of death, without God, without law and without a king". Of all the Indigenous peoples in the territory of Colombia, they were unique in having learned the use of firearms and horses.


title: Wayuu people

text: In 1769, the Spanish captured 22 Wayuus in order to put them to work building the fortifications of Cartagena. The reaction of the natives was unexpected. On May 2, 1769, at El Rincón, near Río de la Hacha, they set their village afire, burning the church and two Spaniards who had taken refuge in it. They also captured the priest. The Spanish immediately dispatched an expedition from El Rincón to capture the Wayuu. This force was led by José Antonio de Sierra, a mestizo who had also headed the party that captured the 22 Guajiro. They recognized him and forced his party to take refuge in the house of the curate, which they then set afire. Sierra and eight of his men were killed.


title: Wayuu people

text: This success was soon known in other Guajiro areas, and more men joined the revolt. According to Messía, at the peak there were 20,000 Wayuu under arms. Many had firearms acquired from English and Dutch smugglers, sometimes even from the Spanish. These enabled the rebels to take nearly all the settlements of the region, which they burned. According to the authorities, more than 100 Spaniards were killed and many others taken prisoner. Many cattle were also taken by the rebels. The Spaniards who could took refuge in Río de la Hacha and sent urgent messages to Maracaibo, Valle de Upar, Santa Marta and Cartagena. Cartagena sent 100 troops. The rebels themselves were not unified. Sierra's relatives among the Wayuu took up arms against the rebels to avenge his death. The two groups of natives fought at La Soledad. That and the arrival of Spanish reinforcements caused the rebellion to fade, but not before the Guajiro had regained much territory.


title: Wayuu people

text: The process of evangelization of the Wayuu people restarted in 1887 with the return of the Capuchin friars under reverend friar José María de Valdeviejas. In 1905, Pope Pius X created the Vicariate of La Guajira with friar Atanasio Vicente Soler y Royo as first Vicar, in an attempt to "civilize" the Wayuu people.


title: Wayuu people

text: The friars then created the orphanages for Wayuu children beginning with the La Sierrita orphanage, built in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta mountains in 1903, followed by the San Antonio orphanage, located by the Calancala River, in 1910, and the Nazareth orphanage in the Serrania de Macuira mountains in 1913, creating a direct influence over the Rancherias of Guarrachal, El Pájaro, Carazúa, Guaraguao, Murumana, Garra patamana and Karraipía, with Nazareth exerting some control over the rancherias of Taroa, Maguaipa, Guaseipá and Alpanapause. The friars constantly visited the settlements inviting the Wayuu to attend mass. Wayuu children in the orphanage were educated with traditional European customs. Conflicts between the Wayuu people and the Colombian government decreased since then. In 1942 Uribia celebrated Christmas and New Year's Eve for the first time.


title: Wayuu people

text: According to a 1997 census in Colombia, the Wayuu population numbered approximately 144,003 – representing 20% of Colombia's total Amerindian population and 48% of the population of the Department of La Guajira. The Wayuu occupy a total area of within approximately ten settlements, eight of which are located south of the Department (including a major one called "Carraipia").


title: Wayuu people

text: In Venezuela, the Wayuu population is estimated at 293,777, according to the 2001 census, with some 60,000 living in the city of Maracaibo. This makes the Wayuu the largest indigenous group in Venezuela, representing 57.5% of the Amerindian population.


title: Wayuu people

text: Wayuu communities are not uniformly distributed within these territories, as their population is concentrated primarily in the outskirts of such settlements as Nazareth and Jala'ala, on the plains of Wopu'muin and Uribia, and within the municipalities of Maicao and Manaure, where population densities are some of the highest in the peninsula. This irregular distribution is intimately related to seasonal changes in weather – during the dry season, a significant proportion of the population crosses the border into Venezuela to work in the city of Maracaibo and its nearby settlements; once the rainy season begins, these Wayuu tend to return to their homes on the Colombian side.


title: Wayuu people

text: The Wayuu people refer to themselves simply as "Wayuu" and do not acknowledge the term "Indian", preferring instead the term "people". They use the terms "Kusina" or "Indian" to refer to other ethnic indigenous groups, while using the term "Alijuna" (essentially meaning "the one who damages") to refer to outsiders or persons of European ancestry.


title: Wayuu people

text: The Wayuu language, called "wayuunaiki", is part of the Arawak language family predominant in different parts of the Caribbean. There are small differences in dialect within the region of La Guajira: the northern, central or southern zones. Most of the younger generation speak Spanish fluently but understand the importance of preserving their traditional language.


title: Wayuu people

text: To promote cultural integration and bilingual education among Wayuus and other Colombians, the "Kamusuchiwo'u" Ethno-educative Center, or "Centro Etnoeducativo Kamusuchiwo'u", started an initiative to create the first illustrated Wayuunaiki-Spanish, Spanish-Wayuunaiki dictionary.


title: Wayuu people

text: The central figure of the Wayuu religion is "Maleiwa" (God) creator of everything, of the Wayuu and the founder of society. "Pulowi" and "Juya", spiritual beings, like demigods, are a married couple associated with procreation and life, where "Pulowi" is the female figure related to the wind and dry seasons, and "Juya" the male, is a nomad and related to hunting who is seen as a powerful killer. "Wanülu" represents the evil spirit being of illness, and death.


title: Wayuu people

text: Children are born at home, assisted by the mother-in-law or the nearest female relative. Priority is placed on the well-being of the child as women prefer to feed children first and follow strict diets when the survival of children is not assured.


title: Wayuu people

text: Puberty is not very important among boys, but girls are exposed to rituals as early as 12 years old or when they start menstruating, requiring them to go through a period of seclusion for anywhere from two months up to two years. Girls are obliged to shave their heads and rest in a chinchorro or large hammock. During this period, Wayuu girls are taught how to be a wife in which a large part consists of cooking and learning the art of crocheting Wayuu bags. She is also fed with a special vegetarian diet called "Jaguapi", and bathes frequently.


title: Wayuu people

text: Women play important roles in the society, but it is not quite a matriarchal one. The Wayuu want their women to be wise and mature. Nearly all marriages are arranged and accompanied by a dowry, which is given to the mother's brothers and uncles. Young girls are promised to men of the clan as young as 11 years old, around the time they are becoming of child-bearing age. The perceived intention is to wed her to a man before risking that pregnancy out of wedlock or arrangement, a cause of great social shame, specifically for the woman's family's honor and credibility. Men may have multiple wives (polygamy).


title: Wayuu people

text: The Wayuu believe that the life cycle does not end with death, but that a relationship with one's bones continues. Burials are very important. The relatives of the dead act in a certain way: first, the body is buried with personal belongings; after five years, the bones are exhumed, put into ceramics or a "chinchorro" (hammock), and reburied in the clan's cemetery.


title: Wayuu people

text: A traditional Wayuu settlement is made up of five or six houses that made up "caseríos' ' or "rancherías". Each "ranchería" is named after a plant, animal or geographic place. A territory that contains many "rancherias" is named after the mother's last name; that is, society is matrilineal. The Wayuu congregated in "rancherias" are usually isolated and far from each other to avoid mixing their goat herds.


title: Wayuu people

text: The typical house is a small structure called a "piichi" or "miichi", generally divided into two rooms with hammocks to sleep in and keep personal belongings such purses or "mochilas" of acrylic fiber and ceramics to keep water.


title: Wayuu people

text: Wayuu culture is known for making Wayuu bags or "mochilas". There are many styles of "mochilas". A "susu" is a backpack typically 20 cm-30 cm wide and 35 cm high, used to store personal and work items. Characteristic for the fabrics are the decorating patterns inspired by nature and what the culture sees around.


title: Wayuu people

text: Living quarters are either rectangular or semi-circular. Close to the main house is a common area called a "luma" or "enramada", similar to a living room but almost in the open. Built of six pillars with a flat roof, it is used for everyday duties and to attend to visitors and business activities. Family members hang their hammocks there for the noon nap.


title: Wayuu people

text: Traditionally, the walls are made of "yotojoro" – a wattle and daub of mud, hay and dried canes, but some Wayuu now use more modern construction with cement and other materials. The preferred material for roofing and "yotojoro" wood is the dagger cactus ("Stenocereus griseus"), which the Wayuu call "yosú". The word "yotojoro" originally referred to the cane-like inner wood of the "yosú" cactus. This plant is used for many other purposes: it is planted to create living fences around pastures; young shoots are fed to goats; the fruit ("iguaraya") is similar to pitahaya and is a popular food among the Wayuu. Because the demand for "yosú" as food and wood is seasonal, at times there is little fruit, building material or even cuttings for fences. It has thus been proposed to develop techniques for the Wayuu to cultivate it. Due to varying supply of "yosú" wood for construction, other plants are also used, including "trupillo" or "turpío" ("Prosopis juliflora"), "jattá" ("Haematoxylum brasiletto"), "kapchip" ("Capparis zeylanica") and "kayush" (Peruvian Apple Cactus, "Cereus repandus").


title: Wayuu people

text: Traditional Wayuu music is closely tied to economy and social life. For example, they sing to their cattle. They also use music for meetings and celebrations, as well as mourning rituals during funerals. La "Yonna" is a traditional dance used to honor guests.


title: Wayuu people

text: Girls are taught a dance that is at the heart of the "Majayura", the ritual passage of the "young Wayuu virgin". She must dance in a courtship dance ("baile de cortejo") with prospective suitors. With her head covered and wearing a fabric shawl and dress, the girl dances forward with small steps and arms outstretched, swooping like a bird, within a circle made up of people from the village. The male dances backward before her, coming close and yielding as they circle around, until he finally falls to the ground. The adult men play traditional drums and musical instruments in their ring around the dancers. If a male is respected in his clan and accepted, he must pay a dowry to the girl's mother and male relatives. This used to be in the form of goats and sheep for the support of the clan.


title: Wayuu people

text: Traditional musical instruments include "kashi", "sawawa" (a type of flute), "ma'asi", "totoy" and the "taliraai" (tubular flute), "wootoroyoi" (a type of clarinet), among others.


title: Wayuu people

text: Wayuu women learn how to weave at a very early age. The Wayuu are descendants of the Caribs and Arawak peoples, largely known for their strong weaving tradition. The Wayuu carry on this traditional weaving.


title: Wayuu people

text: It is said the Wayuu learned to weave thanks to a mythical spider called Walekeru. This spider would create magical pieces using thread from her mouth. She is the one that taught all Wayuu women to crochet, crocheting hammocks to sleep in, belts for men, shoes, bracelets and Wayuu bags of all different sizes and crochet methods to be used for different purposes. Today, the skill of crocheting has become the main source of income for the Wayuu community.


title: Wayuu people

text: Traditionally, Wayuu bags were not as bright and colorful as they are now. Cotton used to be able to grow in the region of La Guajira thus Wayuu bags were made of natural fibers. They were dyed using plants and elements of the natural surrounding, thus took on shades of brown, red and other natural hues.


title: Wayuu people

text: Today, there is a common misconception that Wayuu bags are made of cotton. But all crochet pieces from the Wayuu community are made of acrylic threads from companies like Miratex, providing bright hues that will not wash out easily with time as opposed to natural fibers.


title: Wayuu people

text: Weaving and crocheting make up a large part of their daily life, especially for women. Most of the women presently weave or will do it at some point through their lives. The men participate in the industry as well; they make the straps, provide the materials, and transport the goods to the city centers. The tribe produces millions of high-quality artisan products every year. This artisan weaving industry plays a vital role in the local economy, and the people are known most for the mochila Wayuu or Wayuu Bag.


title: Wayuu people

text: The Wayuu have resented the way that foreigners have profited more from their work than do the artisans.


title: UFC on ESPN: Kattar vs. Chikadze

text: UFC on ESPN: Kattar vs. Chikadze (also known as UFC on ESPN 32 and UFC Vegas 46) was a mixed martial arts event produced by the Ultimate Fighting Championship that took place on January 15, 2022 at the UFC Apex facility in Enterprise, Nevada, part of the Las Vegas Metropolitan Area, United States.


title: UFC on ESPN: Kattar vs. Chikadze

text: A women's flyweight bout between Kay Hansen and Jasmine Jasudavicius was scheduled for the event. However, the pairing was moved to UFC 270 due to undisclosed reasons.


title: UFC on ESPN: Kattar vs. Chikadze

text: Ashley Yoder was expected to face Vanessa Demopoulos in a women's strawweight bout at the event. Yoder eventually withdrew due to undisclosed reasons and was replaced by Silvana Gomez Juarez. The bout was pushed back to UFC 270 a few days before the event.


title: UFC on ESPN: Kattar vs. Chikadze

text: A middleweight bout between Joaquin Buckley and Abdul Razak Alhassan was scheduled for the event. However, the pairing was cancelled after Alhassan withdrew for undisclosed reasons. The duo was rescheduled for UFC Fight Night 201 a month later.


title: UFC on ESPN: Kattar vs. Chikadze

text: A flyweight between Kleydson Rodrigues and Zarrukh Adashev was scheduled for the event. However, in early January 2022, it was reported that the bout was canceled as Rodrigues has tested positive for influenza (H3N2) and Adashev has suffered an injury.


title: UFC on ESPN: Kattar vs. Chikadze

text: A welterweight bout between Muslim Salikhov and Michel Pereira was scheduled for the event. However, Salikhov withdrew from the bout for undisclosed reasons and the bout was cancelled. Pereira was rescheduled against André Fialho for UFC 270.


title: UFC on ESPN: Kattar vs. Chikadze

text: A featherweight bout between T.J. Brown and Gabriel Benitez was scheduled for the event. Three days before the event, Benitez was forced to pull out and Charles Rosa replaced him, therefore changing the contest to the lightweight division.


title: UFC on ESPN: Kattar vs. Chikadze

text: Saidyokub Kakhramonov was scheduled to meet Brian Kelleher in a bantamweight bout. However, Kakhramonov withdrew from the bout due to undisclosed reasons and was replaced by Kevin Croom, shifting the contest to the featherweight division.


title: Olive pomace oil

text: Olive pomace oil is olive oil that is extracted from olive pulp after the first press. Once the mechanical oil extraction of olive oil is complete, approximately 5–8% of the oil remains in the pulp, which then needs to be extracted with the help of solvents, an industrial technique used in the production of most other edible oils including canola, peanut, and sunflower. Although the oil extracted in this manner is still olive oil, at retail it may not simply be called "olive oil". This is because the International Olive Council defines olive oil as "the oil obtained solely from the fruit of the olive tree, to the exclusion of oils obtained using solvents or re-esterification processes".


title: Olive pomace oil

text: Olive-pomace oil whose characteristics are those laid down for this category. It is intended for refining for use for human consumption, or it is intended for technical use.


title: Olive pomace oil

text: Oil obtained by refining crude olive-pomace oil. It has a free acidity, expressed as oleic acid, of not more than 0.3 grams per 100 grams and its other characteristics correspond to those laid down for this category.


title: Olive pomace oil

text: Oil consisting of a blend of refined olive-pomace oil and virgin olive oils fit for consumption as they are. It has a


title: Olive pomace oil

text: Warnings about possible carcinogenic properties of olive-pomace oil have been issued by the British Food Standards Agency as well as others. Quoting: "Olive-Pomace oil is made from the residue left after producing virgin olive oil. It is the lowest grade of oil and it represents only a tiny amount of the UK vegetable oil market, around 0.25% of the one million tonnes consumed each year."


title: Olive pomace oil

text: The Spanish government reported that high levels of contaminants called polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), some of which can cause cancer, were found in some olive-pomace oil products. The contamination is believed to result from the process used to produce this oil. The Spanish government introduced a temporary ban on olive-pomace oil in response to these findings. It has now set legal limits for the maximum amount of PAHs in olive oil.


title: Mount Kisco, New York

text: Mount Kisco is a village and town in Westchester County, New York, United States. The town of Mount Kisco is coterminous with the village. The population was 10,959 at the 2020 United States census over 10,877 at the 2010 census.


title: Mount Kisco, New York

text: The name "Kisco" may be connected to the Munsee word "asiiskuw" ("mud"), and the name of the settlement "first appeared in colonial records as Cisqua, the name of a meadow and river mentioned in the September 6, 1700 Indian deed to land in the area." The spelling "Mount Kisko" was used by the local postmaster when a post office was opened in the village sometime after 1850. The current spelling of the name was adopted in 1875, with the settlement's incorporation as a village. The town shares its name with the Kisco River, which traverses the town and goes into the Croton Reservoir.


title: Mount Kisco, New York

text: As a village, Mount Kisco originally was half in the town of Bedford and half in the town of New Castle. Mount Kisco became a town in its own right in 1978.


title: Mount Kisco, New York

text: The Mount Kisco Municipal Complex was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1997. Merestead, St. Mark's Episcopal Church, St. Mark's Cemetery, and the United Methodist Church and Parsonage are also listed.


title: Mount Kisco, New York

text: According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of 3.1 square miles (8.1 km), all land.


title: Mount Kisco, New York

text: Mount Kisco lies within the humid continental climate zone, experiencing four distinct seasons. Winter is cold, summer is warm and humid, and spring and fall are chilly to mild.


title: Mount Kisco, New York

text: As of the 2013 United States Census there were 11,067 people, 4,128 households, and 2,447 families residing in the village. The population density was 3,194.0 people per square mile (1,231.5/km). There were 4,103 housing units at an average density of 1,312.7 per square mile (506.1/km). The large number of small businesses, retail stores, and financial and medical offices swells the daytime population to more than 20,000. The racial makeup of the village was 77.79% White, 5.99% African American, 0.28% Native American, 4.24% Asian, 9.03% from other races, and 2.67% from two or more races. Of the population 24.54% were Hispanic or Latino of any race.


title: Mount Kisco, New York

text: There were 3,993 households, out of which 30.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 45.3% were married couples living together, 11.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 38.7% were non-families. Of all households 31.7% were made up of individuals, and 10.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.49 and the average family size was 3.09.


title: Mount Kisco, New York

text: In the village, the population was spread out, with 22.1% under the age of 18, 7.3% from 18 to 24, 37.0% from 25 to 44, 21.6% from 45 to 64, and 11.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 98.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.7 males.


title: Mount Kisco, New York

text: The median income for a household in the village was $62,699, and the median income for a family was $68,219. Males had a median income of $45,428 versus $40,040 for females. The per capita income for the village was $32,424. About 7.4% of families and 10.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 11.0% of those under age 18 and 13.8% of those age 65 or over.


title: Mount Kisco, New York

text: Mount Kisco is socioeconomically diverse. Though most residents are middle to upper middle class professionals, Mount Kisco is home to a sizable number of working class Hispanic immigrants who primarily reside in the downtown core. In contrast, sprawling estates and equestrian farms are to be found farther away from the center of town. Worth millions of dollars, these properties are occasionally of a historic nature, many dating back to the late 19th and early 20th centuries. These bucolic country roads, meadows, and rolling hills are often technically within neighboring Bedford, though they share Mount Kisco's ZIP Code and post office. Residents in this overlapping zone may use either a Bedford Corners or Mount Kisco mailing address.


title: Mount Kisco, New York

text: Housing in Mount Kisco is tremendously varied, consisting of apartment buildings, co-ops, condominiums, townhomes, single-family homes, historic Colonials and Victorians, and multimillion-dollar estates.


title: Fourth Anglo-Mysore War

text: The Fourth Anglo-Mysore War was a conflict in South India between the Kingdom of Mysore against the British East India Company and the Hyderabad Deccan in 1798–99.


title: Fourth Anglo-Mysore War

text: This was the final conflict of the four Anglo-Mysore Wars. The British captured the capital of Mysore. The ruler Tipu Sultan was killed in the battle. Britain took indirect control of Mysore, restoring the Wadiyar dynasty to the Mysore throne (with a British commissioner to advise him on all issues). Tipu Sultan's young heir, Fateh Ali, was sent into exile. The Kingdom of Mysore became a princely state in a subsidiary alliance with British India covering parts of present Kerala–Karnataka and ceded Coimbatore, Dakshina Kannada and Uttara Kannada to the British.


title: Fourth Anglo-Mysore War

text: Napoleon Bonaparte's landing in Ottoman Egypt in 1798 was intended to further the capture of the British possessions in India, and the Kingdom of Mysore was a key to that next step, as the ruler of Mysore, Tipu Sultan, sought France as an ally and his letter to Napoleon resulted in the following reply, "You have already been informed of my arrival on the borders of the Red Sea, with an innumerable and invincible army, full of the desire of releasing and relieving you from the iron yoke of England." Additionally, General Malartic, French Governor of Mauritius, issued the Malartic Proclamation seeking volunteers to assist Tipu. Horatio Nelson ended any possibility of help from Napoleon after the Battle of the Nile. However, Lord Wellesley had already set in motion a response to prevent any alliance between Tipu Sultan and France.


title: Fourth Anglo-Mysore War

text: Three armies, one from Bombay and two British (one of which contained a division that was commanded by Colonel Arthur Wellesley, the future 1st Duke of Wellington), marched into Mysore in 1799 and besieged the capital, Srirangapatnam, after some engagements with Tipu. On 8 March, a forward force managed to hold off an advance by Tipu at the Battle of Seedaseer.


title: Fourth Anglo-Mysore War

text: One notable military advance championed by Tipu Sultan was the use of mass attacks with iron-cased rocket brigades in the army. The effect of the Mysorean rockets on the British during the Third and Fourth Mysore Wars was sufficiently impressive to inspire William Congreve to develop the Congreve rockets for Napoleonic Wars.


title: Fourth Anglo-Mysore War

text: During the war, rockets were used on several occasions. One of these involved Colonel Arthur Wellesley. Wellesley was defeated by Tipu's Diwan, Purnaiah, at the Battle of Sultanpet Tope. Quoting Forrest,


title: Fourth Anglo-Mysore War

text: At this point (near the village of Sultanpet, Figure 5) there was a large tope, or grove, which gave shelter to Tipu's rocketmen and had obviously to be cleaned out before the siege could be pressed closer to Srirangapattana island. The commander chosen for this operation was Col. Wellesley, but advancing towards the tope after dark on the 5 April 1799, he was set upon with rockets and musket-fires, lost his way and, as Beatson politely puts it, had to "postpone the attack" until a more favourable opportunity should offer.


title: Fourth Anglo-Mysore War

text: The following day, Wellesley launched a fresh attack with a larger force, and took the whole position without losing a single man. On 22 April 1799, twelve days before the main battle, rocketeers worked their way around to the rear of the British encampment, then "threw a great number of rockets at the same instant" to signal the beginning of an assault by 6,000 Indian infantry and a corps of Frenchmen, all directed by Mir Golam Hussain and Mohomed Hulleen Mir Miran. The rockets had a range of about 1,000 yards. Some burst in the air like shells. Others, called ground rockets, would rise again on striking the ground and bound along in a serpentine motion until their force was spent. According to one British observer, a young English officer named Bayly: "So pestered were we with the rocket boys that there was no moving without danger from the destructive missiles ...". He continued:


title: Fourth Anglo-Mysore War

text: The rockets and musketry from 20,000 of the enemy were incessant. No hail could be thicker. Every illumination of blue lights was accompanied by a shower of rockets, some of which entered the head of the column, passing through to the rear, causing death, wounds, and dreadful lacerations from the long bamboos of twenty or thirty feet which are invariably attached to them.


title: Fourth Anglo-Mysore War

text: During the decisive British attack on Seringapatam on 2 May 1799, with the help of Marathas and Nizam, a British shot struck a magazine of rockets within Tipu Sultan's fort, causing it to explode and send a towering cloud of black smoke with cascades of exploding white light rising up from the battlements. On the afternoon of 4 May, when the final attack on the fort was led by Baird, he was met by "furious musket and rocket fire", but this did not help much; in about an hour's time the fort was taken; perhaps within another hour Tipu had been shot (the precise time of his death is not known), and the war was effectively over. The death of Tipu Sultan led British General George Harris to exclaim "now India is ours".


title: Fourth Anglo-Mysore War

text: The victors, rather than partitioning the country, forced Tipu's family into exile and restored control of Mysore to the Wadiyars.


title: Fourth Anglo-Mysore War

text: Many members of the East India Company believed that Umdat ul-Umara, the Nawab of Carnatic, secretly provided assistance to Tipu Sultan during the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War; and they immediately sought his deposition after the end of the conflict.


title: Fourth Anglo-Mysore War

text: The spot where Tipu's body was discovered under the eastern gate has been fenced off by the Archaeological Survey of India, and a plaque erected. The gate was later demolished during the 19th century to lay a wide road.


title: Fourth Anglo-Mysore War

text: The war, specifically the Battle of Mallavelly and the siege of Seringapatam, with many of the key protagonists, is covered in the historical novel "Sharpe's Tiger" by Bernard Cornwell.


title: Gu (poison)

text: Gu () or jincan () was a venom-based poison associated with cultures of south China, particularly Nanyue. The traditional preparation of "gu" poison involved sealing several venomous creatures (e.g., centipede, snake, scorpion) inside a closed container, where they devoured one another and allegedly concentrated their toxins into a single survivor, whose body would be fed upon by larvae until consumed. The last surviving larva held the complex poison. "Gu" was used in black magic practices such as manipulating sexual partners, creating malignant diseases, and causing death. According to Chinese folklore, a "gu" spirit could transform into various animals, typically a worm, caterpillar, snake, frog, dog, or pig.


title: Gu (poison)

text: Circa 14th-century BCE Shang Dynasty oracle inscriptions recorded the name "gu", while 7th-century CE Tang Dynasty texts first used "jincan" "gold silkworm".


title: Gu (poison)

text: The term "gu" , says Loewe, "can be traced from the oracle bones until modern times, and has acquired a large number of meanings or connotations". Before discussing "gu", it is necessary to introduce the related word "chong" "wug".


title: Gu (poison)

text: "Chong" or (originally a "snake; worm" pictogram) "insect; bug; pest; worm; spider; amphibian; reptile; dragon; etc." denotes a Chinese folk taxonomy lacking an adequate English translation equivalent. Carr proposes translating "chong" as ""wug"" – Brown's portmanteau word (from "worm" + "bug") bridging the lexical gap for the linguistically widespread "class of miscellaneous animals including insects, spiders, and small reptiles and amphibians". Contrast the Wug test for investigating language acquisition of plurals in English morphology. Note that "wug" will translate "chong" below.


title: Gu (poison)

text: The Traditional Chinese character and the Simplified for "gu" "demonic poison" are "wugs inside a container" ideograms that combine "chong" or "wug" and "min" "jar; cup; dish; utensil". Early written forms of "gu" range from (c. 14th–11th centuries BCE) Oracle bone script to (c. 3rd century BCE) Seal script characters. The Oracle characters had two or one "wug" elements inside a container, while the Seal characters had three. Shima's concordance of oracle bone inscriptions lists 23 occurrences of "gu" written with two wugs and 4 with one; many contexts are divinations about sickness. Marshall concludes, "The oracle-bone character of "gu" is used to refer to the evil power of the ancestors to cause illness in the living."


title: Gu (poison)

text: "Jincan" "gold silkworm/caterpillar" is a "gu" synonym first recorded in the Tang Dynasty. Li Xian's (7th century) commentary to the "Hou Han Shu" uses "jincan" as the name of a funerary decoration cast from gold, and the (9th century) author Su E describes it as a legendary golden-color caterpillar from Kashmir.


title: Gu (poison)

text: Eberhard (cf. 153) connects "gu", "jincan", and other love charms with the Duanwu Festival that occurs on the fifth day of the fifth month in the Chinese calendar, which is "the theoretical apogee of summer heat".


title: Gu (poison)

text: Among the Miao on the fifth of the fifth month poisonous animals were put into a pot and allowed to devour each other, and they were called 'gold-silkworms'. The more people were killed by the "ku", the richer the "ku"s owner became. In our time the normal term for "ku" has been 'gold-silkworm'. These animals can make gold. It was typical for the gold-silkworm that people continued to feed this animal in the pot, that humans had to be sacrificed to it, that the animal kept the house clean and worked for its master like a brownie, but that it caused harm to its master if he did not provide proper sacrifices.


title: Gu (poison)

text: "For centuries, the Miao, particularly Miao women," writes Schein, "have been feared for their mastery of the so-called "gu" poison, which is said to inflict death from a distance with excruciating slowness."


title: Gu (poison)

text: a gold caterpillar is a caterpillar with a gold colour, which is fed with silk from Shuh (Szĕ-ch‘wen). Its ordure, put in food or drink, poisons those who take it, causing certain death. It can draw towards a man the possessions of such victims, and thus make him enormously rich. It is extremely difficult to get rid of it, for even water, fire, weapons or swords can do it no harm. Usually the owner for this purpose puts some gold or silver into a basket, places the caterpillar also therein, and throws the basket away in a corner of the street, where someone may pick it up and take it with him. He is then said to have given his gold caterpillar in marriage.


title: Gu (poison)

text: The "Bencao Gangmu" quotes Cai Dao 's (12th century) "Tieweishan congtan" that "gold caterpillars first existed" in the Shu region (present-day Sichuan), and "only in recent times did they find their way into" Hubei, Hunan, Fujian, Guangdong, and Guanxi, Hsinchu. Groot also quotes the Tang Dynasty pharmacologist Chen Cangqi (713–741 CE) that:


title: Gu (poison)

text: ashes of old flowered silk are a cure for poison of "ku" of insects or reptiles which eat such silk. His commentator adds, that those insects are coiled up like a finger-ring, and eat old red silk and flowered silk, just as caterpillars eat leaves; hence, considered in the light of the present day, those insects are gold caterpillars.


title: Gu (poison)

text: The "Hanyu Da Zidian" dictionary defines 9 "gu" meanings, plus the rare reading "ye" "bewitchingly pretty; seductive; coquettish" [].


title: Gu (poison)

text: The (early 4th century BCE) "Zuozhuan" commentary to the (c. 6th–5th centuries BCE) "Chunqiu" history provides an ancient example of 's polysemy. It records four "gu" meanings – 2.5 "grain which (molders and) flies away", 2.6 "insanity", 2.7 "delusion and disorder", and 2.9 "same [hexagram] name" – in a 541 BCE story () about a physician named He "Harmony" from Qin explaining "gu" to the ruler of Jin.


title: Gu (poison)

text: The marquis of [Jin] asked the help of a physician from [Qin], and the earl sent one [He] to see him, who said, "The disease cannot be cured, according to the saying that when women are approached, the chamber disease becomes like insanity. It is not caused by Spirits nor by food; it is that delusion which has destroyed the mind. Your good minister will [also] die; it is not the will of Heaven to preserve him." The marquis said, "May women (then) not be approached?" The physician replied, "Intercourse with them must be regulated." ... [Zhao Meng] (further) asked what he meant by 'insanity'; and (the physician) replied, "I mean that which is produced by the delusion and disorder of excessive sensual indulgence. Look at the character; – it is formed by the characters for a vessel and for insects ( = and ). It is also used of grain which (molders and) flies away. In the ["Yijing"], (the symbols of) a woman deluding a young man, (of) wind throwing down (the trees of) a mountain, go by the same name (; ☶ under ☴): all these point to the same signification." [Zhao Meng] pronounced him a good physician, gave him large gifts, and sent him back to [Qin].


title: Gu (poison)

text: The "poisoning from abdominal wugs" or "abdominal parasites" meaning 2.1 first appears in the (121 CE) "Shuowen Jiezi" dictionary, cf. 2.3 below. It defines "gu" as , literally "stomach middle wug" "insects within the stomach". However, Duan Yucai's (1815 CE) commentary construes this definition as "afflicted by abdominal wugs"; and explains that instead of the usual readings "zhōng" "middle; center; interior" and "chóng" "wug", both terms should be read in entering tone, namely "zhòng" 中 "hit (a target); be hit by" and "zhòng" "wug bites".


title: Gu (poison)

text: The second "gu" meaning "anciently recorded type of artificially cultured poisonous wug" names the survivor of several venomous creatures enclosed in a container, and transformed into a type of demon or spirit.


title: Gu (poison)

text: The "Zhouli" ritual text () describes a Shushi official who, "was charged with the duty of exterminating poisonous "ku", attacking this with spells and thus exorcising it, as also with the duty of attacking it with efficacious herbs; all persons able to fight "ku" he was to employ according to their capacities." Zheng Xuan's commentary explains "dugu" "poisonous "gu"" as "wugs that cause sickness in people".


title: Gu (poison)

text: "Gu" meaning 2.3 "ghost of a person whose severed head was impaled on a stake" refers to the severe Han Dynasty "dismemberment (as tortuous capital punishment)" for criminals convicted of practicing "gu"-sorcery (see 2.6). Groot "Plate VI, Punishment of Cutting Asunder" provides a gruesome illustration. The "Zhouli" commentary of Zheng Xuan (cf. 2.2) notes, "Those who dare to poison people with "ku" or teach others to do it will be publicly executed".


title: Gu (poison)

text: Eberhard says "gu", "was also the soul of a dead person whose head had been pitted on a pole. This, too, fits later reports, in so far as the souls of "ku" victims often are mentioned as servants of the master of "ku", if not "ku" itself served the master."


title: Gu (poison)

text: The "Shuowen Jiezi" (cf. 2.1 above) also defines "gu" as "the spirits of convicted criminals whose heads had been exposed on stakes." This specialized torture term "niejie" combines "nie" "target" (which pictures a person's "nose" on a "tree; wooden stand") and "jie" "dismemberment". Compare the character for "xian" "county; district" that originated as a "place where dismembered criminals were publicly displayed" pictograph of an upside-down "head" hanging on a "rope" tied to a "tree".


title: Gu (poison)

text: Groot suggests this meaning of "gu", "seems to reveal to us a belief that such a soul, roaming restlessly about because of its corpse being mutilated, must be avenging itself on the living by settling in their intestines in the shape of the same maggots and grubs which gnaw away its decaying head."


title: Gu (poison)

text: As the legal measures of individual dynasties demonstrate, administrative officials viewed ku as a reality, as late as the nineteenth century. The primary host was considered a criminal; a person guilty of the despicable act of preparing and administering ku poison was executed, occasionally with his entire family, in a gruesome manner. In addition to the obvious desire to punish severely criminal practices that could result in the death of the victim, it is possible that Confucian distaste for the accumulation of material goods, and above all for the resulting social mobility, contributed to this attitude. Indeed, the penalties of the use of ku poison appear to have been more severe than those for other forms of murder.


title: Gu (poison)

text: The fourth meaning of "evil heat and noxious "qi" that harms humans" refers to allegedly sickness-causing emanations of tropical miasma. "There was also an ancient belief that "ku" diseases were induced by some sort of noxious mist or exhalation", writes Schafer, "just as it was also believed that certain airs and winds could generate worms".


title: Gu (poison)

text: The "Shiji" () records that in 675 BCE, Duke De of Qin "suppressed "ku" at the commencement of the hottest summer-period by means of dogs. According to commentators, these animals were for the purpose butchered and affixed to the four gates of the capital." The Tang Dynasty commentary of Zhang Shoujie explains "gu" as "hot, poisonous, evil, noxious "qi" that harms people". Displaying "gu" dogs at city gates reflects meaning 2.3 above.


title: Gu (poison)

text: Besides shapeshifting "gu" spirits usually appearing as wugs, classical texts record other animal forms. The (c. 350 CE) "Soushenji" "In Search of the Supernatural" Groot says,


title: Gu (poison)

text: In P'o-yang (in the north of the present Kiangsi pr.) one Chao Shen kept canine "ku". Once, when he was called on by Ch'en Ch'en, six or seven big yellow dogs rushed out at this man, all at once barking at him. And when my paternal uncle, on coming home, had a meal with Chao Sheu's wife, he spit blood, and was saved from death in the nick of time by a drink prepared from minced stalks of an orange-tree. "Ku" contains spectral beings or spectres, which change their spectral shapes into those of beings of various kinds, such as dogs or swine, insects or snakes, their victims thus never being able to know what are their real forms. When they are put into operation against people, those whom they hit or touch all perish. Tsiang Shi, the husband of my wife's sister, had a hired work-man in employ, who fell sick and passed blood. The physician opined that he was stricken by "ku", and secretly, without informing him of it, strewed some "jang-ho" root under his sleeping-mat. The patient then madly exclaimed: "The ku which devours me is ceasing to spread"; and then he cried: "It vanishes little by little." The present generations often make use of "jang-ho" root to conquer "ku", and now and then it has a good effect. Some think it is 'the efficacious herb', mentioned in the "Cheu li".


title: Gu (poison)

text: The "Shanhaijing" () says the meat of a mythical creature on Mount Greenmound prevents miasmic "gu" poisoning, "There is an animal on this mountain that looks like a fox, but has nine tails. It makes a noise like a baby. It can devour humans. Whoever eats it will not be affected by malign forces." The commentary of Guo Pu notes this creature's meat will make a person immune to the effects of supernatural "qi".


title: Gu (poison)

text: The majority are diseased, and "ku" forms in their bloated bellies. There is a vulgar tradition of making "ku" from a concentration of the hundred kinds of crawling creatures, for the purpose of poisoning men. But probably it is the poisonous crawlers of that hot and humid land which produce it – not just the cruel and baleful nature of the householders beyond the mountain passes.


title: Gu (poison)

text: The "wug pest that eats grain" or "grain that transforms into wugs" meaning 2.5 is seen above in the "Zuozhuan" explanation of "gu" as "grain which (molders and) flies away". The (c. 3rd century BCE) "Erya" dictionary (6/21) defines "gu" as pests in "kang" "chaff", written with the phonetic loan character "kang" "healthy". The (c. 543 CE) "Yupian" dictionary defines "gu" as "longstanding grain that transforms into flying insects".


title: Gu (poison)

text: Thus the term "ku" also included the use of philtre-maggots by women desirous of exciting the lusts of men and attracting them into debauchery. And, evidently, "ku" was also used to destroy crops or food-stores, or, as the learned physician expressed it, to make the corn fly away, perhaps in the form of winged insects born therein; indeed, the character for "ku" is regularly used in literature to denote devastating grubs and insects, including internal parasites of the human body, which exercise a destructive influence like poison.


title: Gu (poison)

text: "Gu" meaning 2.6 "sorcery that harms humans" or "cast damaging spells" is exemplified in the Modern Standard Chinese words "wugu" (with "shaman") "sorcery; art of casting spells" and "gudu" (with "poison") "a venomous poison (used in Traditional Chinese medicine); enchant and injure; cast a harmful spell over".


title: Gu (poison)

text: "Gu"-sorcery allegedly resulted in a debilitating psychological condition, often involving hallucinations. The "Zuozhuan" () records that in 601 BCE, Xu Ke of Jin was discharged from office because he had "gu", "an illness which unsettled his mind". The Qing Dynasty philologist Yu Yue etymologically connects this meaning of "gu" with "gu" "chronic, protracted (illness)". "Guji" "insanity; derangement; condition caused by excessive sexual activities" is a comparable word.


title: Gu (poison)

text: The "Hanshu" provides details of "wugu"-sorcery scandals and dynastic rivalries in the court of Emperor Wu (r. 141–87 BCE), which Schafer calls "notorious dramas of love and death".


title: Gu (poison)

text: This early Chinese history records that in 130 BCE, a daughter of Empress Chen Jiao (who was unable to bear a son) was accused of practicing "wugu" and "maigu" "bury a witchcraft charm [under a victim's path or dwelling]" (cf. voodoo doll). The "empress was dismissed from her position and a total of 300 persons who were involved in the case were executed"; specifically "their heads were all exposed on stakes" (cf. 2.3). This history claims "wu" "shamans" from Yue conducted the "gu" magic, which Eberhard notes, "seems to have consisted, at least in part, of magic human figures buried under the road which the emperor, the intended victim, was supposed to take".


title: Gu (poison)

text: Accusations of practicing "wugu"-magic were central to the 91 BCE ("Wugu zhi huo" ) attempted coup against crown prince Liu Ju by Jiang Chong and Su Wen . The "Hanshu" claims that, "no less than nine long months of bloody terrorism, ending in a tremendous slaughter, cost some tens of thousands their lives!"


title: Gu (poison)

text: Traditional Chinese law strictly prohibited practicing "gu"-sorcery. For instance, during the reign of Tang Empress Wu Zetian, Schafer says,


title: Gu (poison)

text: the possession of "ku" poison, like the casting of horoscopes, was cause for official suspicion and action: At that time many tyrannical office holders would orders robbers to bury "ku" or to leave prophecies in a man's household by night. Then, after the passage of a month, they would secretly confiscate it.


title: Gu (poison)

text: This "gu" meaning 2.7 of "seduce; bewitch; attract; confuse; mislead; bewilder" is evident in the Standard Chinese words "yaogu" "bewitch by seductive charms", "gumei" "bewitch/charm by sensual appeal", and "guhuo" "confuse by magic; enchant; seduce into wrongdoing". ""Ku"-poisoning was also associated with demoniac sexual appetite – an idea traceable back to Chou times", says Schafer, "This notion evidently had its origins in stories of ambiguous love potions prepared by the aboriginal women of the south".


title: Gu (poison)

text: The "Zuozhuan" () uses "gu" in a story that in the 7th century BCE, Ziyuan , the chief minister of Chu, "wished to seduce the widow" of his brother King Wen of Zhou. The "Mozi" () uses "gu" to criticize Confucius, who "dresses elaborately and puts on adornments to mislead the people." The "Erya" (1B/49, cf. 2.5 above) defines "gu" , "chan" "doubt; flatter", and "er" "double-hearted; doubtful" as "yi" "doubt; suspect; fear; hesitate". Guo Pu's commentary suggests this refers to "gu" meaning "deceive; seduce".


title: Gu (poison)

text: We know that among many aborigines of the south women know how to prepare love charms which were effective even at a distance. In these reports it was almost invariably stated that the love charm had a fatal effect if the man, to whom the charm was directed, did not return to the woman at a specified time.


title: Gu (poison)

text: The least-attested "gu" meaning 2.8 of "affair; event" first appears in the (3rd century CE) "Guangya" dictionary, which defines "gu" as "shi" "assignment; affair; event; thing; matter; trouble".


title: Gu (poison)

text: The "Yijing" Gu hexagram (see 2.9) "Line Variations" repeatedly refer to parental "gu" with the enigmatic phrases ""gan"-father's "gu"" and ""gan"-mother's "gu"". Wang Niansun quotes an "Yijing" commentary that "gu" means "shi", and proposes "gu" is a phonetic loan character for "gu" "reason; cause; event; incident". Commentarial tradition takes "gan" "trunk; framework; do; work" to mean "chi" "put in order", and Richard Wilhelm translates "Setting right what has been spoiled by the father" and "Setting right what has been spoiled by the mother". Arthur Waley follows an ancient interpretation that "gan" is a variant Chinese character for "gan" "stem; Celestial stem; day of the (10-day) week; involve", translating "stem-father's maggots" and "stem-mother's maggots", explaining


title: Gu (poison)

text: it is surely obvious that the maggots referred to are those which appeared in the flesh of animals sacrificed to the spirits of dead parents, who after their death were, for reasons of taboo, only known by the name of the day upon which they were born, being merely a fuller way of writing 'stem', 'day of the week'.


title: Gu (poison)

text: "Gu" names the "Yì-Jīng" Hexagram 18, which is translated as "Destruction" (Z.D. Sung 1935), "Work on What Has Been Spoiled [Decay]", "Decay" (John Blofeld 1965), "Degeneration" (Thomas Cleary 1986), "Poison, Destruction" (Wu Jing-Nuan 1991), and "Ills to Be Cured" (Richard John Lynn 1994). Wilhelm explains translating "decay" for .


title: Gu (poison)

text: The Chinese character "ku" represents a bowl in whose contents worms are breeding. This means decay. It has come about because the gentle indifference in the lower trigram has come together with the rigid inertia of the upper, and the result is stagnation. Since this implies guilt, the conditions embody a demand for removal of the cause. Hence the meaning of the hexagram is not simply "what has been spoiled" but "work on what has been spoiled."


title: Gu (poison)

text: "The Judgment": "WORK ON WHAT HAS BEEN SPOILED Has supreme success. It furthers one to cross the great water. Before the starting point, three days. After the starting point, three days." "The Image" reads: "The wind blows low on the mountain: The image of DECAY. Thus the superior man stirs up the people, And strengthens their spirit."


title: Gu (poison)

text: In the "Zuozhuan" (), divination of this Gu hexagram foretells Qin conquering Jin, "A lucky response; cross the Ho; the prince's chariots are defeated."


title: Gu (poison)

text: According to ancient "gu" traditions, explain Joseph Needham and Wang Ling, "the poison was prepared by placing many toxic insects in a closed vessel and allowing them to remain there until one had eaten all the rest – the toxin was then extracted from the survivor." They note, "It is strange to think that this same method has been successfully employed in our own times for the isolation of strains of soil bacteria capable of attacking the tuberculosis bacillus".


title: Gu (poison)

text: At present, "ku" is used primarily as a means of acquiring wealth; secondarily as a means of revenge. The method is to place poisonous snakes and insects together in a vessel until there is but one survivor, which is called the "ku". The poison secured from this "ku" is administered to the victim, who becomes sick and dies. The ideas associated with "ku" vary, but the "ku" is generally regarded as a spirit, which secures the wealth of the victim for the sorcerer.


title: Gu (poison)

text: The essence of "ku", then, was the magic charm that could be prepared out of the surviving animal in the pot. It could be used as a love charm with the object of forcing the loved male to come back to the woman. The "ku" could be used also as an evil magic with the object of obtaining subservient spirits. This was done by feeding it to unrelated persons who would either spit blood or whose stomachs would swell because of the food they had taken would become alive in their insides, and who would die as a result; similar to the gold-silkworms, their souls had to be servants of the owner of the "ku".


title: Gu (poison)

text: The 4th-century "Soushenji" (cf. 2.4) records that "gu" breeding was a profitable but dangerous profession in the Henan region.


title: Gu (poison)

text: In the province of Yung-yang, there was a family by the name of Liao. For several generations they manufactured "ku", becoming rich from it. Later one of the family married, but they kept the secret from the bride. On one occasion, everyone went out except the bride, who was left in charge of the house. Suddenly she noticed a large cauldron in the house, and on opening it, perceived a big snake inside. She poured boiling water into the cauldron and killed the snake. When the rest of the family returned she told them what she had done, to their great alarm. Not long after, the entire family died of the plague.


title: Gu (poison)

text: Feng and Shryock describe how 20th-century Zhuang women in Guangxi elaborately produced "gu" during the Duanwu Festival (see "jincan" above).


title: Gu (poison)

text: "Ku" poison is not found generally among the people (i.e., the Chinese), but is used by the T'ung women. It is said that on the fifth day of the fifth month, they go to a mountain stream and spread new clothes and headgear on the ground, with a bowl of water beside them. The women dance and sing naked, inviting a visit from the King of Medicine (a tutelary spirit). They wait until snakes, lizards, and poisonous insects come to bathe in the bowl. They pour the water out in a shadowy, dark place. Then they gather the fungus which grows there, which they make into a paste. They put this into goose-feather tubes and hide them in their hair. The heat of their bodies causes worms to generate, which resemble newly-hatched silk-worms. Thus "ku" is produced. It is often concealed in a warm, dark place in the kitchen. The newly made "ku" is not yet poisonous. It is used as a love potion, administered in food and drink and called "love-medicine." Gradually the "ku" becomes poisonous. As the poison develops, the woman's body itches until she has poisoned someone. If there is no other opportunity, she will poison even her husband or her sons. But she possesses antidotes. It is believed that those who produce "ku" themselves become "ku" after death. The ghosts of those who have died from the poison become their servants.


title: Gu (poison)

text: Groot and Eberhard detail numerous Chinese antidotes and cures for "gu" poison-magic. For instance (see 2.4), the "Shanhaijing" claimed eating a legendary creature's meat would prevent "gu" and the "Soushenji" prescribed "ranghe" "myoga ginger". Unschuld says


title: Gu (poison)

text: Prescription literature was filled with antidotes. All known Chinese conceptual systems of healing dealt with the ku phenomenon and developed therapeutic strategies that were in accord with their basic principles. The Buddhists recommended prayers and conjurations, thus utilizing the same methods as practitioners of demonic medicine. In pharmaceutical literature, drugs of a plant, animal, or mineral origin were described as effective against ku poisoning. Adherents of homeopathic magic recommended the taking of centipedes, since it was known that centipedes consume worms.


title: Gu (poison)

text: The "Zhou houbei jifang" , which is attributed to Ge Hong, describes "gu" diagnosis and cure with "ranghe":


title: Gu (poison)

text: A patient hurt by "ku" gets cutting pains at his heart and belly as if some living thing is gnawing there; sometimes he has a discharge of blood through the mouth or the anus. If he is not forthwith medically treated, it devours his five viscera, which entails his death. To discover whether it is "ku" or not, let the patient spit into water; if the spittle sinks, it is "ku"; if it floats, it is not. The recipe for discovering the name of the owner of the "ku" poison is as follows: take the skin of a drum, burn it, a small piece at a time, pulverize the ashes, and let the patient drink them with water; he will then forthwith mention the name; then bid this owner forthwith to remove the "ku", and the patient will recover immediately. Again place some "jang-ho" leaves secretly under the mattress of the patient; he will then of his own accord immediately mention the name of the owner of the "ku"


title: Gu (poison)

text: Many "gu"-poison antidotes are homeopathic, in Western terms. The 8th-century pharmacologist Chen Cangqi explains using venomous creatures both to produce and cure "gu"-poison.


title: Gu (poison)

text: In general reptiles and insects, which are used to make "ku", are cures for "ku"; therefore, if we know what "ku" is at work, we may remedy its effects. Against "ku" of snakes that of centipedes should be used, against "ku" of centipedes that of frogs, against "ku" of frogs that of snakes, and so on. Those varieties of "ku", having the power of subduing each other, may also have a curative effect .


title: Gu (poison)

text: Needham and Wang say prescribing "gu" poison as a cure or preventive suggests "that someone had stumbled on an immunisation process", and suggest scorpion-venom and centipede-venom as possible toxins.


title: Gu (poison)

text: … can conceal its form, and seem to be a ghost or spirit, and make misfortune for men. But after all it is only a reptile ghost. If one of them has bitten a person to death, it will sometimes emerge from one of that man's apertures. Watch and wait to catch it and dry it in the warmth of the sun; then, when someone is afflicted by the "ku", burn it to ashes and give him a dose of it. Being akin, to it, the one quite naturally subdues the other.


title: Gu (poison)

text: give "ku" derived from particularly venomous creatures to overcome that taken from less lethal creatures. Thus centipede "ku" could be overcome by frog "ku"; serpent "ku" would prevail over frog "ku", and so on. There were also soberer, though almost as powerful remedies: asafetida, python bile, civet, and a white substance taken from cock's dung were all used. It is not certain what real maladies these repellent drugs, cured, or seemed to cure. Probably they ranged from the psychosomatic to the virus-born. Many oedematous conditions were called "ku", and it has been plausibly suggested that some cases were caused by intestinal parasites (hence the constant worm motif). Others are attributable to fish poisons and arrow poisons concocted by the forest dwellers.


title: Gu (poison)

text: Chinese folklore claims the definitive cure for "gu"-magic is passing it on to a greedy person. Eberhard says,


title: Gu (poison)

text: The most common way to get rid of the "ku" (just as of brownies and the golden-silkworm) was to give it away as a present. The actions of a man in Chang-chou (Fukien) are rather uncommon. He found on the ground a package containing three large silver bars wrapped in silk and in addition a "ku" which looked like a frog ("ha-ma"); in spite of the danger he took it; at night two large frogs appeared which he cooked and ate; on the next night more than ten smaller frogs appeared which he also ate up; and he continued consuming all frogs that kept appearing until the magic was cast off; in this fashion the man suffered no ill effects from the "ku" poison.


title: Gu (poison)

text: From descriptions of "gu" poisoning such involving "swollen abdomen, emaciation, and the presence of worms in the body orifices of the dead or living", Unschuld reasons, "Such symptoms allow a great number of possible explanations and interpretations". He suggests attitudes toward "gu" were based upon fear of others, envy, and greed. "But the concept of ku is unknown outside of China. Instead, one finds what may be its conceptual equivalent, the 'evil eye', present in all 'envy societies'." Its Mythical folktale.


title: Asian Canadians

text: Asian Canadians are Canadians who were either born in or can trace their ancestry to the continent of Asia. Canadians with Asian ancestry comprise both the largest and fastest growing group in Canada, after European Canadians, with roughly 19.3% of the Canadian population as of 2021. Most Asian Canadians are concentrated in the urban areas of Southern Ontario, Southwestern British Columbia, Central Alberta, and other large Canadian cities.


title: Asian Canadians

text: Asian Canadians are considered visible minorities and may be classified as East Asian Canadians, Southeast Asian Canadians, South Asian Canadians, and West & Central Asian Canadians.


title: Asian Canadians

text: As of the 2016 Canadian census, the pan-ethnic breakdown of major Asian-origin Canadian groups includes East Asian Canadians (2,148,230 people or 35.2%), South Asian Canadians (1,963,330 people or 32.2%), Southeast Asian Canadians (1,214,835 people or 19.9%), and West & Central Asian Canadians (1,011,150 people or 16.6%). In further detail, the largest self-reported Asian origin groups in Canada are Chinese Canadians, Indo-Canadians, Filipino Canadians, Vietnamese Canadians, and Lebanese Canadians.


title: Asian Canadians

text: In the Canadian Census, people with origins or ancestry in East Asia (e.g. Chinese Canadians, Korean Canadians, Japanese Canadians, Tibetan Canadians), South Asia (e.g. Bangladeshi Canadians, Indian Canadians, Pakistani Canadians, Sri Lankan Canadians), Southeast Asia (e.g. Laotian Canadians, Cambodian Canadians, Filipino Canadians, Vietnamese Canadians), West Asia (e.g. Iranian Canadians, Iraqi Canadians, Israeli Canadians, Lebanese Canadians, Turkish Canadians), or Central Asia (e.g. Afghan Canadians, Uzbek Canadians, Kazakh Canadians) are all classified as part of the Asian race.


title: Asian Canadians

text: The first record of Asians in what is known as Canada today can be dated back to the late 18th century. In 1788, renegade British Captain John Meares hired a group of Chinese carpenters from Macau and employed them to build a ship at Nootka Sound, Vancouver Island, British Columbia. After the outpost was seized by Spanish forces, the eventual whereabouts of the carpenters was largely unknown.


title: Asian Canadians

text: By late 1700s, Filipinos, then-known as "Manila men" were recruited in naval operations, aboard the ship "San Carlos el Filipino" sent to support the short-lived Spanish settlement of Santa Cruz de Nuca and Fort San Miguel, Nootka Island, off the coast of Vancouver.


title: Asian Canadians

text: During the mid 19th century, many Chinese arrived to take part in the British Columbia gold rushes. Beginning in 1858, early settlers formed Victoria's Chinatown and other Chinese communities in New Westminster, Yale and Lillooet. Estimates indicate that about 1/3 of the non-native population of the Fraser goldfields was Chinese. Later, the construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway prompted another wave of immigration from the East Asian country. Mainly hailing from Guangdong Province, the Chinese helped build the Canadian Pacific Railway through the Fraser Canyon.


title: Asian Canadians

text: Many Japanese people also arrived in Canada during the mid to late 19th century and became fishermen and merchants in British Columbia. Early immigrants from the East Asian island nation most notably worked in canneries such as Steveston along the pacific coast.


title: Asian Canadians

text: Similarly in the late 19th century, many Indians hailing from Punjab Province settled in British Columbia and worked in the forestry industry. Most early immigrants hailing from South Asia first settled around sawmill towns along the Fraser River in southwestern British Columbia such as Kitsilano, Fraser Mills and Queensborough. Later, many Indian immigrants also settled on Vancouver Island, working on local sawmills in Victoria, Coombs, Duncan, Ocean Falls and Paldi.


title: Asian Canadians

text: Early West Asian Canadian history featured Lebanese and Syrians first immigrating in Canada during the late 19th century; as both countries were under Ottoman dominion at the time they were originally known as Turks or Syrian−Lebanese on census reports. Settling in the Montreal area of southern Quebec, they became the first West Asian group to immigrate to Canada. The first Lebanese immigrant to Canada was Abraham Bounadere (Ibrahim Abu Nadir) from Zahlé in Lebanon who settled in Montreal in 1882. Because of situations within Lebanon and restrictive Canadian laws these immigrants were 90% Christian. These immigrants were mostly economic migrants seeking greater prosperity in the New World.


title: Asian Canadians

text: Similar to late 19th century through early 20th century Lebanese immigration and settler patterns, while the vast majority of Syrians migrated to South America, a small percentage made their way to America, and an even smaller percentage settled in Canada. Once again, in a similar demographic to early Lebanese settlers to Canada, the overwhelming majority of Syrians who settled in Canada from the 1880s-1960s were of the Christian faith. The so-called shepherd of the lost flock, Saint Raphael Hawaweeny of Brooklyn, New York, came to Montreal in 1896 to help establish a Christian association called the "Syrian Benevolent Society" and then later on an Orthodox church in Montreal for the newly arrived Syrian faithful.


title: Asian Canadians

text: West Asian settlement into Canada was also bolstered by early Armenian immigration during the late 19th century. The first Armenians migrated to Canada in the 1880s. The first recorded Armenian to settle in Canada was a man named Garabed Nergarian, who came to Port Hope, Ontario in 1887. Some 37 Armenians settled in Canada in 1892 and 100 in 1895. Most early Armenian migrants to Canada were men who were seeking employment. After the Hamidian massacres of mid-1890s Armenian families from the Ottoman Empire began settling in Canada.


title: Asian Canadians

text: Additionally, Canada's earliest documented Filipinos coincided with North America's first wave of Asian immigration in the 1800s. At least nine male Filipino sailors, aged twenty-four to forty-two, appeared on the 1881 Census of British Columbia. Living on a vessel in New Westminster, they were recorded ethno-racially as "Malay" [a loose term to describe Austronesian people] and listed as "Mahomitan" [an archaic term for Muslim]. In the ensuing decades, several Filipino settlers resided along the B.C. coast, particularly on Bowen Island, in the 1880s.


title: Asian Canadians

text: Early Filipino settlers along the B.C coast engaged in both fishing and farming. It included Fernando Toreenya, a fisherman who came to Canada from the Philippines in 1886 at the age of 20 years old with his First Nations partner Mary/Marie Adams. They lived in Snug Cove and had three other Filipino boarders living with them, William Matilda, Antoni Bentorre and Ricardo Castro. Others included Ben Flores, who were "beachcombers and fishermen" and were settled on a barge in Snug Cove; Basinto Pasento, who called his home Pasento Ranch and died in February 1904, John Delmond, and Jose Garcia. Several others worked as loggers, millhand, mine laborers, and longshoremen intermarrying with Indigenous peoples and other Pacific Islanders.


title: Asian Canadians

text: By 1884 Nanaimo, New Westminster, Yale and Victoria had the largest Chinese populations in the province. Other settlements such as Quesnelle Forks were majority Chinese and many early immigrants from the East Asian country settled on Vancouver Island, most notably in Cumberland. In addition to work on the railway, most Chinese in the late 19th century British Columbia lived among other Chinese and worked in market gardens, coal mines, sawmills, and salmon canneries.


title: Asian Canadians

text: In 1885, soon after the construction on the railway was completed, the federal government passed the Chinese Immigration Act, whereby the government began to charge a substantial head tax for each Chinese person trying to immigrate to Canada. A decade later, the fear of the "Yellow Peril" prompted the government of Mackenzie Bowell to pass an act forbidding any East Asian Canadian from voting or holding office.


title: Asian Canadians

text: Many Chinese workers settled in Canada after the railway was constructed, however most could not bring the rest of their families, including immediate relatives, due to government restrictions and enormous processing fees. They established Chinatowns and societies in undesirable sections of the cities, such as East Pender Street in Vancouver, which had been the focus of the early city's red-light district until Chinese merchants took over the area from the 1890s onwards.


title: Asian Canadians

text: Immigration restrictions stemming from anti-Asian sentiment in Canada continued during the early 20th century. Parliament voted to increase the Chinese head tax to $500 dollars in 1902; this temporarily caused Chinese immigration to Canada to stop. However, in following years, Chinese immigration to Canada recommenced as many saved up money to pay the head tax. Due to the decrease in Chinese immigration, Steamship lines began recruiting Indians to make up for the loss of business; the Fraser River Canners' Association and the Kootchang Fruit Growers' Association asked the Canadian government to abolish immigration restrictions. Letters from persons settling in Canada gave persons still in India encouragement to move to Canada, and there was an advertising campaign to promote British Columbia as an immigration destination. Around that time, in 1902, a notable moment of Asian Canadian history occurred when Punjabi Sikh settlers first arrived in Golden, British Columbia to work at the Columbia River Lumber Company.


title: Asian Canadians

text: In 1901, Canada had between 300–400 Muslim residents, equally divided between Turks and Syrian Arabs. Furthermore, the turn of the 20th century featured a small wave of Syrian−Lebanese settlement into the southern prairies including Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba. Contemporarily in Lebanon, many families were from what was western Syria at the time in particular settled in southern Saskatchewan. A majority of the Syrian−Lebanese families settling in the prairies were of the Christian faith, with a minority adhering to Islam, mirroring earlier settler demographics in Nova Scotia, Quebec and Ontario. Prominent settlement occurred in communities such as Swift Current, Saskatchewan, and Lac La Biche, Alberta.Few reached the Northwest Territories, the best known being Peter Baker, author of the book "An Arctic Arab", and later elected as a member of the legislative assembly of the Northwest Territories.


title: Asian Canadians

text: The early Punjabi Sikh settlers in Golden built the first Gurdwara (Sikh Temple) in Canada and North America in 1905, which would later be destroyed by fire in 1926. The second Gurdwara to be built in Canada was in 1908 in Kitsilano (Vancouver), aimed at serving a growing number of Punjabi Sikh settlers who worked at nearby sawmills along False Creek at the time. The Gurdwara would later close and be demolished in 1970, with the temple society relocating to the newly built Gurdwara on Ross Street, in South Vancouver. As a result, the oldest existing Gurdwara in Canada today is the Gur Sikh Temple, located in Abbotsford, British Columbia. Built in 1911, the temple was designated as a national historic site of Canada in 2002 and is the third-oldest Gurdwara in the country. Soon later, the fourth Gurdwara to be built Canada was established at the Fraser Mills (Coquitlam) settlement in 1913 followed by the fifth at the Queensborough (New Westminster) settlement in 1919, and the sixth at the Paldi (Vancouver Island) settlement, also in 1919.


title: Asian Canadians

text: Heightened anti-Asian sentiment resulted in the infamous anti-Asian pogrom in Vancouver in 1907. Spurred by similar riots in Bellingham targeting Punjabi Sikh South Asian settlers, The Asiatic Exclusion League organized attacks against homes and businesses owned by East Asian immigrants under the slogan "White Canada Forever!"; though no one was killed, much property damage was done and numerous East Asian Canadians were beaten up.


title: Asian Canadians

text: In 1908, the British Columbia government passed a law preventing South Asian Canadians from voting. Because eligibility for federal elections originated from provincial voting lists, Indians were also unable to vote in federal elections. Later, the Canadian government enacted a $200 head tax and passed the continuous journey regulation which indirectly halted Indian immigration to Canada, thus restricting all immigration from South Asia.


title: Asian Canadians

text: A direct result of the continuous journey regulation was the "Komagata Maru Incident" in Vancouver. In May 1914, hundreds of South Asians hailing from Punjab were denied entry into the country, eventually forced to depart for India. By 1916, despite a declining population due to immigration restrictions, many Indian settlers established the Paldi mill colony on Vancouver Island.


title: Asian Canadians

text: During the pre-World War I period, Turks were to be found in mining and logging camps across Canada. However, due to bad relations between the Ottoman Empire and Allied Powers of WWI, further migration was made difficult for the Turks and the Canadian government discouraged "Asian" immigration. With the Canadian Immigration Act of 1910, Turkish immigration to Canada was banned. With the onset of the first world war, Turkish Canadians were placed in “enemy alien" internment camps.Five days after the first world war began, on November 10, 1914, 98 Turks were deported and settled in Kingston and then in Kapuskasing. Their number increased over time. They weren’t the only “enemy aliens” subjected to internment. More than 8,500 people were placed in 24 camps during the war. Of them 205 were Turks.


title: Asian Canadians

text: Before the Armenian genocide of 1915 some 1,800 Armenians already lived in Canada. They were overwhelmingly from the Armenian provinces of the Ottoman Empire and usually lived in industrial urban areas. The influx of Armenians to Canada was limited in the post-World War I era because Armenians were classified as Asians. Nevertheless, some 1,500 genocide survivors—mostly women and children—came to Canada as refugees. In 1923–24 some 100 Armenians orphans aged 8–12, later known as The Georgetown Boys, were brought to Canada from Corfu, Greece by the Armenian Canadian Relief Fund to Georgetown, Ontario. Dubbed "The Noble Experiment", it was Canada's first humanitarian act on an international scale. The Georgetown Farmhouse (now the Cedarvale Community Centre) was designated historic and protected municipal site in 2010. Overall, between 1900 and 1930 some 3,100 Armenians entered Canada, with 75% settling in Ontario and 20% in Quebec. Some later moved to the United States; 1,577 Armenians entered the U.S. from Canada between 1899 and 1917.


title: Asian Canadians

text: In 1923, the federal government passed the Chinese Immigration Act of 1923, which banned all Chinese immigration, and led to immigration restrictions for all East Asians. In 1947, the act was repealed.


title: Asian Canadians

text: The second world war prompted the federal government used the War Measures Act to brand Japanese Canadians enemy aliens and categorized them as security threats in 1942. Tens of thousands of Japanese Canadians were placed in internment camps in British Columbia; prison of war camps in Ontario; and families were also sent as forced labourers to farms throughout the prairies. By 1943, all properties owned by Japanese Canadians in British Columbia were seized and sold without consent.


title: Asian Canadians

text: In 1950, 10 Filipinos were recorded in Manitoba. The first-generation Filipino-Canadians were mainly women who worked as nurses and teachers and in the health sector. These first Filipinos came from the United States to renew their visas after they had expired in the hope of returning to the US. Most of them returned, but some stayed in Canada. From 1946 to 1964, the total number of Filipinos in Canada was 770. In the 1960s, Canada recruited more professionals, mostly from the United States, with some coming directly from the Philippines. Most of the nurses, technicians, office workers and doctors arrived in Winnipeg, Manitoba. In the late 1960s, more Filipinos came to Winnipeg to work in the garment industry.


title: Asian Canadians

text: Pakistanis began migrating to Canada in small numbers in the late 1950s and early 1960s. Immigration regulations gave preference to those with advanced education and professional skills, and the Pakistanis who came during this period, and throughout the 1960s, generally had excellent credentials. Many of them considered themselves to be sojourners, who had come to earn but not to settle or were students who intended to return home when their degree programs were completed. While some went back, others remained to become the founding members of the Pakistani-Canadian community. Pakistani nationals were registered in undergraduate and graduate programs at McGill University in Montreal as early as 1949, and at the University of Toronto from 1958 on. By the mid-1950s, there were five or six Pakistani families living in Montreal in addition to the students. This was probably the then largest concentration of Pakistanis in the country. Throughout the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s most who arrived were young men pursuing graduate or professional studies.


title: Asian Canadians

text: Unlike Korean Americans who have relatively much longer history settling in the United States, very few settled in Canada; as late as 1965, the total permanent Korean population of Canada was estimated at only 70. However, with the 1966 reform of Canadian immigration laws, South Korean immigration to Canada began to grow. By 1969, there were an estimated 2000 Koreans in Canada.


title: Asian Canadians

text: The Iranian revolution of 1979 resulted in a spike of immigration to Canada from the West Asian country. In the aftermath, many Iranian-Canadians began to categorize themselves as "Persian" rather than "Iranian", mainly to dissociate themselves from the Islamic regime of Iran and the negativity associated with it, and also to distinguish themselves as being of Persian ethnicity.


title: Asian Canadians

text: During and after the Vietnam War, a large wave of Vietnamese refugees began arriving in Canada. Large-scale Vietnamese immigration to Canada began during the mid-1970s and early 1980s as refugees or boat people following the end of the Vietnam War in 1975, though a couple thousand were already living in Quebec before then, most of whom were students. After the fall of Saigon, there were two waves of Vietnamese immigrants to Canada. The first wave consisted mostly of middle-class immigrants. Many of these immigrants were able to speak French and or English and were welcomed into Canada for their professional skills. The second wave consisted of Southern Vietnamese refugees who were escaping the harsh regime that had taken over the former South Vietnam. Many of them (10%) were of Chinese descent and were escaping ethnic persecution resulting from the Sino-Vietnamese War. These south Vietnamese refugees were known globally as the "boat people". In the years 1979–80, Canada accepted 60,000 Vietnamese refugees.


title: Asian Canadians

text: Many new Vietnamese arrivees were sponsored by groups of individuals, temples, and churches and settled in areas around Southern Ontario, Vancouver, British Columbia, and Montreal, Quebec. Between 1975 and 1985, 110,000 resettled in Canada (23,000 in Ontario; 13,000 in Quebec; 8,000 in Alberta; 7,000 British Columbia; 5,000 in Manitoba; 3,000 in Saskatchewan; and 2,000 in the Maritime provinces). This was followed by another large wave of Vietnamese immigration to Canada during the late 1980s and 1990s as both refugees and immigrant classes of post-war Vietnam entered Canada. These groups settled in urban areas, in particular Toronto, Vancouver, Montreal, and Calgary. In Metro Vancouver, they have settled mainly in East Vancouver, Richmond, and Surrey. In the Montreal area, they settle in Montreal's downtown, South Shore, and the suburb of Laval. In Toronto, they have settled in the city's Chinatown area near Spadina Avenue and Dundas Street West and in the inner suburbs of North York, York, Scarborough, and Etobicoke.


title: Asian Canadians

text: The Canadian Parliament created the Asia Pacific Foundation of Canada in 1985 to better address issues surrounding Asia–Canada relations, including trade, citizenship and immigration.


title: Asian Canadians

text: In the late 1990s, South Korea became the fifth-largest source of immigrants to Canada. Toronto has the country's largest absolute number of Koreans, but Vancouver is experiencing the highest rate of growth in its Korean population, with a 69% increase since 1996. Montreal was the third most popular destination for Korean migrants during this period.The 1990s growth in South Korean migration to Canada occurred at a time when Canadian unemployment was high and income growth was low relative to the United States. One pair of researchers demonstrated that numbers of migrants were correlated with the exchange rate; the weakness of the Canadian dollar relative to the United States dollar meant that South Korean migrants bringing savings to Canada for investment would be relatively richer than those going to the United States. Other factors suggested as drivers behind the growth of South Korean immigration to Canada included domestic anti-Americanism and the large presence of Canadian English teachers in local "hagwon".


title: Asian Canadians

text: In 2016, the Canadian government issued a full apology in Parliament for the "Komagata Maru Incident".


title: Asian Canadians

text: According to Statistics Canada, in 2016, 48.1% of the immigrant population in Canada was born in Asia. Furthermore, Asian countries accounted for seven of the top ten countries of birth for recent immigrants, including the Philippines, India, China, Iran, Pakistan, Syria and South Korea.


title: Asian Canadians

text: In recent decades, a large number of people have come to Canada from India and other South Asian countries. As of 2016, South Asians make up nearly 17 percent of the Greater Toronto Area's population, and are projected to make up 24 percent of the region's population by 2031.


title: Asian Canadians

text: In the contemporary era, Asians form a significant minority within the national population, with over 7 million Canadians being of Asian geographical descent as of 2021.


title: Asian Canadians

text: Asian Canadian students, in particular those of East Asian or South Asian background, make up the vast majority of students at several Canadian universities.


title: Asian Canadians

text: While the Asian Canadian population is diverse, many have ancestry from a few select countries in the continent. As of the 2016 Canadian census, nearly four million or 66% of Asian Canadians can trace their roots to just three countries; China, India and the Philippines.


title: Asian Canadians

text: Many Asian Canadians speak Canadian English or Canadian French as a first language, as many multi-generational individuals do not speak Asian languages as a mother tongue, but instead may speak one or multiple as a second or third language.


title: Asian Canadians

text: As of 2016, 6,044,885 or 17.5 percent of Canadians speak an Asian language. Of this, the top five Asian tongues spoken include Mandarin (13.5%), Cantonese (11.6%), Punjabi (11.1%), Arabic (10.4%) and Tagalog (10.1%).


title: Asian Canadians

text: As of 2016, 4,217,365 or 12.2 percent of Canadians speak an Asian language as a mother tongue. Of this, the top five Asian tongues spoken include Mandarin (14.0%), Cantonese (13.4%), Punjabi (11.9%), Tagalog (10.2%) and Arabic (10.0%).


title: Asian Canadians

text: The Canadian population who reported full or partial Asian ethnic origin, according to the 1951 Canadian census, 1961 Canadian census, 2001 Canadian census, 2006 Canadian census, 2011 Canadian census, and 2016 Canadian census.


title: Pauly Shore Is Dead

text: Pauly Shore Is Dead is a 2003 American mockumentary comedy film directed, produced, co-written by, and starring Pauly Shore. The film is a fake documentary that begins as a semi-autobiographical retelling of Shore's early success and dwindling popularity in the late 1990s, after which it documents Shore's (fictional) attempt to fake his own death in order to drum up popularity for his films. It features many cameos.


title: Pauly Shore Is Dead

text: The film begins as an autobiographical look at Shore's early professional successes on MTV and as the star of a series of '90s comedies. Shore's film career leads to his taking a starring role in a vehicle on the Fox Network, in which he plays the slacker son of a millionaire. The pilot of the series turns out to be a commercial and critical failure, and Shore becomes a pariah virtually overnight, with his friends distancing themselves from him for fear that it will tarnish their own careers. Shore is ultimately reduced to living in his mother's attic and watching "BackDoor Sluts 9" starring his ex-girlfriend, who will no longer see him. He spends his last $84 on a hooker—who does almost nothing for him and his life simply gets worse and worse.


title: Pauly Shore Is Dead

text: One night, Shore is visited by the ghost of his mentor, comic Sam Kinison, who encourages Shore to fake his own death as a means of revitalizing popularity in Pauly Shore films and merchandise. Shore decides to go through with the plan, which initially works: Once word of his "death" breaks, celebrities eager for the residual publicity begin appearing on television in large numbers to declare Shore a comic genius and lament his early death. Shore, eager to bask in the publicity, begins appearing in public wearing a disguise; he is quickly outed, arrested, and sent to prison.


title: Pauly Shore Is Dead

text: In prison, Shore is attacked by one of his former fans, "Bucky from Kentucky," a redneck whose world view was shattered when he learned that Shore had willingly put his own fans through the ordeal of thinking he was dead. Shore survives the attack, which causes him to realize that even though he was no longer as famous as he once was, he still had fans who loved him. Shore and Bucky have a heart-to-heart about the nature of celebrity, and Shore decides to start his career over.


title: Pauly Shore Is Dead

text: After getting out of prison, Shore sets about making "Pauly Shore Is Dead" to chronicle his own rise and fall, using information he has gathered from years in Hollywood to blackmail various B-list celebrities into appearing in cameos; he reserves the information he has on A-list celebrities for the planned sequel.


title: Pauly Shore Is Dead

text: "Pauly Shore Is Dead" received mixed reviews, with a 57% rating on Rotten Tomatoes, a notably higher rating than his oft-panned '90s films. It was a box office bomb, however, earning just $11,000 after a very limited release to theaters in Sacramento, California. It won the Audience Choice Award from the Slamdunk Film Festival (for Shore's direction).


title: Alessandro Cagliostro

text: Count Alessandro di Cagliostro (, ; 2 June 1743 – 26 August 1795) was the alias of the Italian occultist Giuseppe Balsamo (; in French usually referred to as Joseph Balsamo).


title: Alessandro Cagliostro

text: Cagliostro was an Italian adventurer and self-styled magician. He became a glamorous figure associated with the royal courts of Europe where he pursued various occult arts, including psychic healing, alchemy and scrying. His reputation lingered for many decades after his death, but continued to deteriorate, as he came to be regarded as a charlatan and impostor, this view fortified by the savage attack of Thomas Carlyle (1795–1881) in 1833, who pronounced him the "Quack of Quacks". Later works—such as that of W.R.H. Trowbridge (1866–1938) in his "Cagliostro: the Splendour and Misery of a Master of Magic" (1910), attempted a rehabilitation.


title: Alessandro Cagliostro

text: The history of Cagliostro is shrouded in rumour, propaganda, and mysticism. Some effort was expended to ascertain his true identity when he was arrested because of possible participation in the Affair of the Diamond Necklace.


title: Alessandro Cagliostro

text: Johann Wolfgang von Goethe relates in his "Italian Journey" that the identification of Cagliostro with Giuseppe Balsamo was ascertained by a lawyer from Palermo who, upon official request, had sent a dossier with copies of the pertinent documents to France. Goethe met the lawyer in April 1787 and saw the documents and Balsamo's pedigree: Balsamo's great-grandfather Matteo Martello had two daughters: Maria, who married Giuseppe Bracconeri; and Vincenza, who married Giuseppe Cagliostro. Maria and Giuseppe Bracconeri had three children: Matteo; Antonia; and Felicità, who married Pietro Balsamo (the son of a bookseller, Antonino Balsamo, who had declared bankruptcy before dying at age 44). The son of Felicità and Pietro Balsamo was Giuseppe, who was christened with the name of his great-uncle and eventually adopted his surname, too. Felicità Balsamo was still alive in Palermo at the time of Goethe's travels in Italy, and he visited her and her daughter. Goethe wrote that Cagliostro was of Jewish origin, and it may be that the name "Balsamo" comes from the hebrew Baal Shem (Cagliostro himself publicly ascertained that he was a disciple of Haĩm Falk, the Baal Shem of London).


title: Alessandro Cagliostro

text: Cagliostro himself stated during the trial following the Affair of the Diamond Necklace that he had been born of Christians of noble birth but abandoned as an orphan upon the island of Malta. He claimed to have travelled as a child to Medina, Mecca, and Cairo and upon return to Malta to have been admitted to the Sovereign Military Order of Malta, with whom he studied alchemy, the Kabbalah, and magic.


title: Alessandro Cagliostro

text: Giuseppe Balsamo was born to a poor family in Albergheria, which was once the old Jewish Quarter of Palermo, Sicily. Despite his family's precarious financial situation, his grandfather and uncles made sure the young Giuseppe received a solid education: he was taught by a tutor and later became a novice in the Catholic Order of St. John of God, from which he was eventually expelled.


title: Alessandro Cagliostro

text: During his period as a novice in the order, Balsamo learned chemistry as well as a series of spiritual rites. In 1764, when he was twenty one, he convinced Vincenzo Marano—a wealthy goldsmith—of the existence of a hidden treasure buried several hundred years previously at Mount Pellegrino. The young man's knowledge of the occult, Marano reasoned, would be valuable in preventing the duo from being attacked by magical creatures guarding the treasure. In preparation for the expedition to Mount Pellegrino, however, Balsamo requested seventy pieces of silver from Marano.


title: Alessandro Cagliostro

text: When the time came for the two to dig up the supposed treasure, Balsamo attacked Marano, who was left bleeding and wondering what had happened to the boy—in his mind, the beating he had been subjected to had been the work of djinns.


title: Alessandro Cagliostro

text: The next day, Marano paid a visit to Balsamo's house in via Perciata (since then renamed via Conte di Cagliostro), where he learned the young man had left the city. Balsamo (accompanied by two accomplices) had fled to the city of Messina. By 1765–66, Balsamo found himself on the island of Malta, where he became an auxiliary ("donato") for the Sovereign Military Order of Malta and a skilled pharmacist.


title: Alessandro Cagliostro

text: In early 1768 Balsamo left for Rome, where he managed to land himself a job as a secretary to Cardinal Orsini. The job proved boring to Balsamo and he soon started leading a double life, selling magical "Egyptian" amulets and engravings pasted on boards and painted over to look like paintings. Of the many Sicilian expatriates and ex-convicts he met during this period, one introduced him to a seventeen-year-old girl named Lorenza Seraphina Feliciani (ca. 8 April 1751 – 1794), known as "Serafina", whom he married 1768.


title: Alessandro Cagliostro

text: The couple moved in with Lorenza's parents and her brother in the vicolo delle Cripte, adjacent to the strada dei Pellegrini. Balsamo's coarse language and the way he incited Lorenza to display her body contrasted deeply with her parents' deep-rooted religious beliefs. After a heated discussion, the young couple left.


title: Alessandro Cagliostro

text: At this point Balsamo befriended Agliata, a forger and swindler, who proposed to teach Balsamo how to forge letters, diplomas and myriad other official documents. In return, though, Agliata sought sexual intercourse with Balsamo's young wife, a request to which Balsamo acquiesced.


title: Alessandro Cagliostro

text: The couple traveled together to London, where Balsamo, now styling himself with one of several pseudonyms and self-conferred titles before settling on "Count Alessandro di Cagliostro", allegedly met the Comte de Saint-Germain. Cagliostro traveled throughout Europe, especially to Courland, Russia, Poland, Germany, and later France. His fame grew to the point that he was even recommended as a physician to Benjamin Franklin during a stay in Paris.


title: Alessandro Cagliostro

text: On 12 April 1777 "Joseph Cagliostro" was admitted as a Freemason of the Espérance Lodge No. 289 in Gerrard Street, Soho, London. In December 1777 Cagliostro and Serafina left London for the mainland, after which they travelled through various German states, visiting lodges of the Rite of Strict Observance looking for converts to Cagliostro's "Egyptian Freemasonry". In February 1779 Cagliostro traveled to Mitau, (nowadays Latvia), where he met the poetess Elisa von der Recke. In September 1780, after failing in Saint Petersburg to win the patronage of Russian Tsaritsa Catherine the Great, the Cagliostros made their way to Strasbourg, at that time in France. In October 1784, the Cagliostros travelled to Lyon. On 24 December 1784 they founded the co-Masonic mother lodge "La Sagesse Triomphante" of his rite of Egyptian Freemasonry at Lyon. In January 1785 Cagliostro and his wife went to Paris in response to the entreaties of Cardinal Rohan.


title: Alessandro Cagliostro

text: Cagliostro was prosecuted in the Affair of the Diamond Necklace which involved Marie Antoinette and Prince Louis de Rohan, and was held in the Bastille for nine months but finally acquitted, when no evidence could be found connecting him to the affair. Nonetheless, he was banished from France by order of Louis XVI, and departed for England. There he was accused by French expatriate Theveneau de Morande of being Giuseppe Balsamo, which he denied in his published "Open Letter to the English People", forcing a retraction and apology from Morande.


title: Alessandro Cagliostro

text: Cagliostro left England to visit Rome, where he met two people who proved to be spies of the Inquisition. Some accounts hold that his wife was the one who initially betrayed him to the Inquisition. On 27 December 1789 he was arrested for attempting to found a Masonic lodge in Rome and imprisoned in the Castel Sant'Angelo. He was tried and originally sentenced to death, but the sentence was later commuted to life imprisonment at the Forte di San Leo, where he would die on 26 August 1795.


title: Alessandro Cagliostro

text: Portuguese author Camilo Castelo Branco credits to Balsamo the creation of the Egyptian Rite of the Freemasons and intensive work in the diffusion of Freemasonry, by opening lodges all over Europe and by introducing the acceptance of women into the community. The idea of an "Egyptian freemasonry" was maintained in Italy by the Rite of Misraim, founded in 1813 by the three Jewish Bédarride brothers and in France, the Rite of Memphis founded in 1838 by Jacques Etienne Marconis de Nègre; these unified under Giuseppe Garibaldi as the Ancient and Primitive Rite of Memphis-Misraïm in 1881.


title: Alessandro Cagliostro

text: Cagliostro was an extraordinary forger. Giacomo Casanova, in his autobiography, narrated an encounter in which Cagliostro was able to forge a letter by Casanova, despite being unable to understand it.


title: Alessandro Cagliostro

text: Occult historian Lewis Spence comments in his entry on Cagliostro that the swindler put his finagled wealth to good use by starting and funding a chain of maternity hospitals and orphanages around the continent.


title: Alessandro Cagliostro

text: He carried an alchemistic manuscript "The Most Holy Trinosophia" amongst others with him on his ill-fated journey to Rome, and it is alleged that he wrote it.


title: Oxyhydrogen

text: Oxyhydrogen is a mixture of hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) gases. This gaseous mixture is used for torches to process refractory materials and was the first


title: Oxyhydrogen

text: gaseous mixture used for welding. Theoretically, a ratio of 2:1 hydrogen:oxygen is enough to achieve maximum efficiency; in practice a ratio 4:1 or 5:1 is needed to avoid an oxidizing flame.